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diff --git a/26492.txt b/26492.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b02d38d --- /dev/null +++ b/26492.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13358 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Studies of American Fungi. Mushrooms, Edible, +Poisonous, etc., by George Francis Atkinson, et al, Illustrated by F. R. +Rathbun + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Studies of American Fungi. Mushrooms, Edible, Poisonous, etc. + + +Author: George Francis Atkinson + + + +Release Date: August 30, 2008 [eBook #26492] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI. +MUSHROOMS, EDIBLE, POISONOUS, ETC.*** + + +E-text prepared by Peter Vachuska, Chuck Greif, Leonard Johnson, and the +Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team +(https://www.pgdp.net) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 26492-h.htm or 26492-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/6/4/9/26492/26492-h/26492-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/6/4/9/26492/26492-h.zip) + + +Transcriber's note: + + Text enclosed between equal signs was in bold face in the + original (=bold=). + + An em-dash or double hyphen (--) is used in this e-text to + indicate ranges. + + In chemical formulas, a subscriped number is preceded by + and underscore (H_2O). + + A detailed transcriber's note is at the end of the text. + + + + + +STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI + +MUSHROOMS, EDIBLE, POISONOUS, ETC. + +by + +GEORGE FRANCIS ATKINSON + +Professor of Botany in Cornell University, and Botanist of the +Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station + +Recipes for Cooking Mushrooms, by Mrs. Sarah Tyson Rorer + +Chemistry and Toxicology of Mushrooms, by J. F. Clark + +With 230 Illustrations from Photographs by the +Author, and Colored Plates by F. R. Rathbun + +SECOND EDITION + + + + + + + +[Illustration: PLATE 1. + + FIG. 1.--Amanita muscaria. + FIG. 2.--A. frostiana. + Copyright 1900.] + + + +[Illustration: Printer's logo.] + + +New York +Henry Holt and Company +1903 + + +Copyright, 1900, 1901, +by +Geo. F. Atkinson. + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +Since the issue of my "Studies and Illustrations of Mushrooms," as +Bulletins 138 and 168 of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment +Station, there have been so many inquiries for them and for literature +dealing with a larger number of species, it seemed desirable to publish +in book form a selection from the number of illustrations of these +plants which I have accumulated during the past six or seven years. The +selection has been made of those species representing the more important +genera, and also for the purpose of illustrating, as far as possible, +all the genera of agarics found in the United States. This has been +accomplished except in a few cases of the more unimportant ones. There +have been added, also, illustrative genera and species of all the other +orders of the higher fungi, in which are included many of the edible +forms. + +The photographs have been made with great care after considerable +experience in determining the best means for reproducing individual, +specific, and generic characters, so important and difficult to preserve +in these plants, and so impossible in many cases to accurately portray +by former methods of illustration. + +One is often asked the question: "How do you tell the mushrooms from the +toadstools?" This implies that mushrooms are edible and that toadstools +are poisonous, and this belief is very widespread in the public mind. +The fact is that many of the toadstools are edible, the common belief +that all of them are poisonous being due to unfamiliarity with the +plants or their characteristics. + +Some apply the term mushroom to a single species, the one in +cultivation, and which grows also in fields (_Agaricus campestris_), and +call all others toadstools. It is becoming customary with some students +to apply the term mushroom to the entire group of higher fungi to which +the mushroom belongs (_Basidiomycetes_), and toadstool is regarded as a +synonymous term, since there is, strictly speaking, no distinction +between a mushroom and a toadstool. There are, then, edible and +poisonous mushrooms, or edible and poisonous toadstools, as one chooses +to employ the word. + +A more pertinent question to ask is how to distinguish the edible from +the poisonous mushrooms. There is no single test or criterion, like the +"silver spoon" test, or the criterion of a scaly cap, or the presence of +a "poison cup" or "death cup," which will serve in all cases to +distinguish the edible from the poisonous. Two plants may possess +identical characters in this respect, i. e., each may have the "death +cup," and one is edible while the other is poisonous, as in _Amanita +caesarea_, edible, and _A. phalloides_, poisonous. There are additional +characters, however, in these two plants which show that the two differ, +and we recognize them as two different species. + +To know several different kinds of edible mushrooms, which occur in +greater or less quantity through the different seasons, would enable +those interested in these plants to provide a palatable food at the +expense only of the time required to collect them. To know several of +the poisonous ones also is important, in order certainly to avoid them. + +The purpose of this book is to present the important characters which it +is necessary to observe, in an interesting and intelligible way, to +present life-size photographic reproductions accompanied with plain and +accurate descriptions. By careful observation of the plant, and +comparison with the illustrations and text, one will be able to add many +species to the list of edible ones, where now perhaps is collected "only +the one which is pink underneath." The chapters 17 to 21 should also be +carefully read. + +The number of people in America who interest themselves in the +collection of mushrooms for the table is small compared to those in some +European countries. The number, however, is increasing, and if a little +more attention were given to the observation of these plants and the +discrimination of the more common kinds, many persons could add greatly +to the variety of their foods and relishes with comparatively no cost. +The quest for these plants in the fields and woods would also afford a +most delightful and needed recreation to many, and there is no subject +in nature more fascinating to engage one's interest and powers of +observation. + +There are also many important problems for the student in this group of +plants. Many of our species and the names of the plants are still in +great confusion, owing to the very careless way in which these plants +have usually been preserved, and the meagerness of recorded observations +on the characters of the fresh plants, or of the different stages of +development. The study has also an important relation to agriculture and +forestry, for there are numerous species which cause decay of valuable +timber, or by causing "heart rot" entail immense losses through the +annual decretion occurring in standing timber. + +If this book contributes to the general interest in these plants as +objects of nature worthy of observation, if it succeeds in aiding those +who are seeking information of the edible kinds, and stimulates some +students to undertake the advancement of our knowledge of this group, it +will serve the purpose the author had in mind in its preparation. + +I wish here to express my sincere thanks to Mrs. Sarah Tyson Rorer for +her kindness in writing a chapter on recipes for cooking mushrooms, +especially for this book; to Professor I. P. Roberts, Director of the +Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, for permission to +use certain of the illustrations (Figs. 1--7, 12--14, 31--43) from +Bulletins 138 and 168, Studies and Illustrations of Mushrooms; to Mr. F. +R. Rathbun, for the charts from which the colored plates were made; to +Mr. J. F. Clark and Mr. H. Hasselbring, for the Chapters on Chemistry +and Toxicology of Mushrooms, and Characters of Mushrooms, to which their +names are appended, and also to Dr. Chas. Peck, of Albany, N. Y., and +Dr. G. Bresadola, of Austria-Hungary, to whom some of the specimens have +been submitted. + + GEO. F. ATKINSON, + Ithaca, N. Y., October, 1900. + Cornell University. + + +SECOND EDITION. + +In this edition have been added 10 plates of mushrooms of which I did +not have photographs when the first edition was printed. It was possible +to accomplish this without changing the paging of any of the descriptive +part, so that references to all of the plants in either edition will be +the same. + +There are also added a chapter on the "Uses of Mushrooms," and an +extended chapter on the "Cultivation of Mushrooms." This subject I have +been giving some attention to for several years, and in view of the call +for information since the appearance of the first edition, it seemed +well to add this chapter, illustrated by several flashlight photographs. + + G. F. A. + September, 1901. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + + PAGE + Chapter I. Form and Characters of the Mushrooms, 1 + Chapter II. Development of the Mushroom, 5 + Chapter III. Gill Bearing Fungi; Agaricaceae, 17 + Chapter IV. The Purple-Brown-Spored Agarics, 18 + Chapter V. The Black-Spored Agarics, 32 + Chapter VI. The White-Spored Agarics, 52 + Chapter VII. The Rosy-Spored Agarics, 138 + Chapter VIII. The Ochre-Spored Agarics, 150 + Chapter IX. The Tube Bearing Fungi; Polyporaceae, 171 + Chapter X. Hedgehog Fungi; Hydnaceae, 195 + Chapter XI. Coral Fungi; Clavariaceae, 200 + Chapter XII. The Trembling Fungi; Tremellineae, 204 + Chapter XIII. Thelephoraceae, 208 + Chapter XIV. Puff-Balls; Lycoperdaceae, 209 + Chapter XV. Stinkhorn Fungi; Phalloideae, 213 + Chapter XVI. Morels, Cup-Fungi, Helvellas, etc., + Discomycetes, 216 + Chapter XVII. Collection and Preservation of the Fleshy + Fungi, 222 + Chapter XVIII. Selection and Preparation of Mushrooms for + the Table, 229 + Chapter XIX. Uses of Mushrooms, 231 + Fungi in the Arts, 234 + Chapter XX. Cultivation of Mushrooms, 237 + The Cave Culture of Mushrooms in America, 239 + The House Culture of Mushrooms, 241 + Curing the Manure, 247 + Making up the Beds, 250 + What Spawn Is, 255 + Spawning the Beds, 263 + Chapter XXI. Recipes for Cooking Mushrooms (Mrs. Sarah + Tyson Rorer), 277 + Chapter XXII. Chemistry and Toxicology of the Fungi (J. F. 288 + Clark), + Chapter XXIII. Description of Terms applied to Certain + Structural Characters of Mushrooms (H. + Hasselbring), 298 + APPENDIX. Analytical Keys (The Author), 307 + Glossary of Technical Terms (The Author), 313 + Index to Genera and Illustrations, 315 + Index to Species, 321 + + +CORRECTIONS. + +Page 33, 10th line, for [Greek: _kornos_] read [Greek: _kopros_]. + +Page 220, lines 6 and 9, for _Gyromytra_ read Gyromitra. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +FORM AND CHARACTERS OF THE MUSHROOM. + + +=Value of Form and Characters.=--The different kinds of mushrooms vary +in form. Some are quite strikingly different from others, so that no one +would have difficulty in recognizing the difference in shape. For +example, an umbrella-shaped mushroom like the one shown in Fig. 1 or 81 +is easily distinguished from a shelving one like that in Fig. 9 or 188. +But in many cases different species vary only slightly in form, so that +it becomes a more or less difficult matter to distinguish them. + +In those plants (for the mushroom is a plant) where the different kinds +are nearly alike in form, there are other characters than mere general +form which enable one to tell them apart. These, it is true, require +close observation on our part, as well as some experience in judging of +the value of such characters; the same habit of observation and +discrimination we apply to everyday affairs and to all departments of +knowledge. But so few people give their attention to the discrimination +of these plants that few know the value of their characters, or can even +recognize them. + +It is by a study of these especial characters of form peculiar to the +mushrooms that one acquires the power of discrimination among the +different kinds. For this reason one should become familiar with the +parts of the mushroom, as well as those characters and markings peculiar +to them which have been found to stamp them specifically. + +=Parts of the Mushroom.=--To serve as a means of comparison, the common +pasture mushroom, or cultivated form (_Agaricus campestris_), is first +described. Figure 1 illustrates well the principal parts of the plant; +the cap, the radiating plates or gills on the under side, the stem, and +the collar or ring around its upper end. + +=The Cap.=--The cap (technically the _pileus_) is the expanded part of +the mushroom. It is quite thick, and fleshy in consistency, more or less +rounded or convex on the upper side, and usually white in color. It is +from 1--2 cm. thick at the center and 5--10 cm. in diameter. The surface +is generally smooth, but sometimes it is torn up more or less into +triangular scales. When these scales are prominent they are often of a +dark color. This gives quite a different aspect to the plant, and has +led to the enumeration of several varieties, or may be species, among +forms accredited by some to the one species. + +=The Gills.=--On the under side of the pileus are radiating plates, the +gills, or _lamellae_ (sing. _lamella_). These in shape resemble somewhat +a knife blade. They are very thin and delicate. When young they are pink +in color, but in age change to a dark purple brown, or nearly black +color, due to the immense number of spores that are borne on their +surfaces. The gills do not quite reach the stem, but are rounded at this +end and so curve up to the cap. The triangular spaces between the longer +ones are occupied by successively shorter gills, so that the combined +surface of all the gills is very great. + +[Illustration: FIGURE. 1.--Agaricus campestris. View of under side +showing stem, annulus, gills, and margin of pileus. (Natural size.)] + +=The Stem or Stipe.=--The stem in this plant, as in many other kinds, is +attached to the pileus in the center. The purpose of the stem seems +quite surely to be that of lifting the cap and the gills up above the +ground, so that the spores can float in the currents of air and be +readily scattered. The stem varies in length from 2--10 cm. and is about +1--1-1/2 cm. in diameter. It is cylindrical in form, and even, quite +firm and compact, though sometimes there is a central core where the +threads are looser. The stem is also white and fleshy, and is usually +smooth. + +=The Ring.=--There is usually present in the mature plant of _Agaricus +campestris_ a thin collar (_annulus_) or ring around the upper end of +the stem. It is not a movable ring, but is joined to the stem. It is +very delicate, easily rubbed off, or may be even washed off during +rains. + +=Parts Present in Other Mushrooms--The Volva.=--Some other mushrooms, +like the _deadly Amanita_ (_Amanita phalloides_) and other species of +the genus _Amanita_, have, in addition to the cap, gills, stem, and +ring, a more or less well formed cup-like structure attached to the +lower end of the stem, and from which the stem appears to spring. (Figs. +55, 72, etc.) This is the _volva_, sometimes popularly called the "death +cup," or "poison cup." This structure is a very important one to +observe, though its presence by no means indicates in all cases that the +plant is poisonous. It will be described more in detail in treating of +the genus _Amanita_, where the illustrations should also be consulted. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 2.--Agaricus campestris. "Buttons" just appearing +through the sod. Some spawn at the left lower corner. Soil removed from +the front. (Natural size.)] + +=Presence or Absence of Ring or Volva.=--Of the mushrooms which have +stems there are four types with respect to the presence or absence of +the ring and volva. In the first type both the ring and volva are +absent, as in the common fairy ring mushroom, _Marasmius oreades_; in +the genus _Lactarius_, _Russula_, _Tricholoma_, _Clitocybe_, and others. +In the second type the ring is present while the volva is absent, as in +the common mushroom, _Agaricus campestris_, and its close allies; in the +genus _Lepiota_, _Armillaria_, and others. In the third type the volva +is present, but the ring is absent, as in the genus _Volvaria_, or +_Amanitopsis_. In the fourth type both the ring and volva are present, +as in the genus _Amanita_. + +=The Stem is Absent in Some Mushrooms.=--There are also quite a large +number of mushrooms which lack a stem. These usually grow on stumps, +logs, or tree trunks, etc., and one side of the cap is attached directly +to the wood on which the fungus is growing. The pileus in such cases is +lateral and shelving, that is, it stands out more or less like a shelf +from the trunk or log, or in other cases is spread out flat on the +surface of the wood. The shelving form is well shown in the beautiful +_Claudopus nidulans_, sometimes called _Pleurotus nidulans_, and in +other species of the genus _Pleurotus_, _Crepidotus_, etc. These plants +will be described later, and no further description of the peculiarities +in form of the mushrooms will be now attempted, since these will be best +dealt with when discussing species fully under their appropriate genus. +But the brief general description of form given above will be found +useful merely as an introduction to the more detailed treatment. Chapter +XXI should also be studied. For those who wish the use of a glossary, +one is appended at the close of the book, dealing only with the more +technical terms employed here. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 3.--Agaricus campestris. Soil washed from the +"spawn" and "buttons," showing the young "buttons" attached to the +strands of mycelium. (1-1/4 natural size.)] + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUSHROOM. + + +When the stems of the mushrooms are pulled or dug from the ground, white +strands are often clinging to the lower end. These strands are often +seen by removing some of the earth from the young plant, as shown in +Fig. 2. This is known among gardeners as "spawn." It is through the +growth and increase of this spawn that gardeners propagate the +cultivated mushroom. Fine specimens of the spawn of the cultivated +mushroom can be seen by digging up from a bed a group of very young +plants, such a group as is shown in Fig. 3. Here the white strands are +more numerous than can readily be found in the lawns and pastures where +the plant grows in the feral state. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 4.--Agaricus campestris. Sections of "buttons" at +different stages, showing formation of gills and veil covering them. +(Natural size.)] + +=Nature of Mushroom Spawn.=--This spawn, it should be clearly +understood, is not spawn in the sense in which that word is used in fish +culture; though it may be employed so readily in propagation of +mushrooms. The spawn is nothing more than the vegetative portion of the +plant. It is made up of countless numbers of delicate, tiny, white, +jointed threads, the _mycelium_. + +=Mycelium of a Mold.=--A good example of mycelium which is familiar to +nearly every one occurs in the form of a white mold on bread or on +vegetables. One of the molds, so common on bread, forms at first a white +cottony mass of loosely interwoven threads. Later the mold becomes black +in color because of numerous small fruit cases containing dark spores. +This last stage is the fruiting stage of the mold. The earlier stage is +the growing, or vegetative, stage. The white mycelium threads grow in +the bread and absorb food substances for the mold. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 5.--Agaricus campestris. Nearly mature plants, +showing veil stretched across gill cavity. (Natural size.)] + +=Mushroom Spawn is in the Form of Strands of Mycelium.=--Now in the +mushrooms the threads of mycelium are usually interlaced into definite +strands or cords, especially when the mycelium is well developed. In +some species these strands become very long, and are dark brown in +color. Each thread of mycelium grows, or increases in length, at the +end. Each one of the threads grows independently, though all are +intertwined in the strand. In this way the strand of mycelium increases +in length. It even branches as it extends itself through the soil. + +=The Button Stage of the Mushroom.=--The "spawn" stage, or strands of +mycelium, is the vegetative or growing stage of the mushroom. These +strands grow through the substance on which the fungus feeds. When the +fruiting stage, or the mushroom, begins there appear small knobs or +enlargements on these strands, and these are the beginnings of the +button stage, as it is properly called. These knobs or young buttons are +well shown in Fig. 3. They begin by the threads of mycelium growing in +great numbers out from the side of the cords. These enlarge and elongate +and make their way toward the surface of the ground. They are at first +very minute and grow from the size of a pinhead to that of a pea, and +larger. Now they begin to elongate somewhat and the end enlarges as +shown in the larger button in the figure. Here the two main parts of the +mushroom are outlined, the stem and the cap. At this stage also the +other parts of the mushroom begin to be outlined. The gills appear on +the under side of this enlargement at the end of the button, next the +stem. They form by the growth of fungus threads downward in radiating +lines which correspond in position to the position of the gills. At the +same time a veil is formed over the gills by threads which grow from the +stem upward to the side of the button, and from the side of the button +down toward the stem to meet them. This covers the gills up at an early +period. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 6.--Agaricus campestris. Under view of two plants +just after rupture of the veil, fragments of the latter clinging both to +margin of the pileus and to stem. (Natural size.)] + +=From the Button Stage to the Mushroom.=--If we split several of the +buttons of different sizes down through the middle, we shall be able to +see the position of the gills covered by the veil during their +formation. These stages are illustrated in Fig. 4. + +As the cap grows in size the gills elongate, and the veil becomes +broader. But when the plant is nearly grown the veil ceases to grow, and +then the expanding cap pulls so strongly on it that it is torn. Figure 5 +shows the veil in a stretched condition just before it is ruptured, and +in Fig. 6 the veil has just been torn apart. The veil of the common +mushroom is very delicate and fragile, as the illustration shows, and +when it is ruptured it often breaks irregularly, sometimes portions of +it clinging to the margin of the cap and portions clinging to the stem, +or all of it may cling to the cap at times; but usually most of it +remains clinging for a short while on the stem. Here it forms the +annulus or ring. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 7.--Agaricus campestris. Plant in natural position +just after rupture of veil, showing tendency to double annulus on the +stem. Portions of the veil also dripping from margin of pileus. (Natural +size.)] + +=The Color of the Gills.=--The color of the gills of the common mushroom +varies in different stages of development. When very young the gills are +white. But very soon the gills become pink in color, and during the +button stage if the veil is broken this pink color is usually present +unless the button is very small. The pink color soon changes to dark +brown after the veil becomes ruptured, and when the plants are quite old +they are nearly black. This dark color of the gills is due to the dark +color of the spores, which are formed in such great numbers on the +surface of the gills. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 8.--Agaricus campestris. Section of gill showing +_tr_==trama; _sh_==sub-hymenium; _b_==basidium, the basidia make up the +hymenium; _st_==sterigma; _g_==spore. (Magnified.)] + +=Structure of a Gill.=--In Fig. 8 is shown a portion of a section across +one of the gills, and it is easy to see in what manner the spores are +borne. The gill is made up, as the illustration shows, of mycelium +threads. The center of the gill is called the _trama_. The trama in the +case of this plant is made up of threads with rather long cells. Toward +the outside of the trama the cells branch into short cells, which make a +thin layer. This forms the _sub-hymenium_. The sub-hymenium in turn +gives rise to long club-shaped cells which stand parallel to each other +at right angles to the surface of the gill. The entire surface of the +gill is covered with these club-shaped cells called _basidia_ (sing. +_basidium_). Each of these club-shaped cells bears either two or four +spinous processes called _sterigmata_ (sing. _sterigma_), and these in +turn each bear a spore. All these points are well shown in Fig. 8. The +basidia together make up the _hymenium_. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 9.--Polyporus borealis, showing wound at base of +hemlock spruce caused by falling tree. Bracket fruit form of Polyporus +borealis growing from wound. (1/15 natural size.)] + +=Wood Destroying Fungi.=--Many of the mushrooms, and their kind, grow on +wood. A visit to the damp forest during the summer months, or during the +autumn, will reveal large numbers of these plants growing on logs, +stumps, from buried roots or rotten wood, on standing dead trunks, or +even on living trees. In the latter case the mushroom usually grows from +some knothole or wound in the tree (Fig. 9). Many of the forms which +appear on the trunks of dead or living trees are plants of tough or +woody consistency. They are known as shelving or bracket fungi, or +popularly as "fungoids" or "fungos." Both these latter words are very +unfortunate and inappropriate. Many of these shelving or bracket fungi +are perennial and live from year to year. They may therefore be found +during the winter as well as in the summer. The writer has found +specimens over eighty years old. The shelves or brackets are the fruit +bodies, and consist of the pileus with the fruiting surface below. The +fruiting surface is either in the form of gills like _Agaricus_, or it +is honey-combed, or spinous, or entirely smooth. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 10.--Polyporus borealis. Strands of mycelium +extending radially in the wood of the same living hemlock spruce shown +in Fig. 9. (Natural size.)] + +=Mycelium of the Wood Destroying Fungi.=--While the fruit bodies are on +the outside of the trunk, the mycelium, or vegetative part of the +fungus, is within the wood or bark. By stripping off the bark from +decaying logs where these fungi are growing, the mycelium is often found +in great abundance. By tearing open the rotting wood it can be traced +all through the decaying parts. In fact, the mycelium is largely if not +wholly responsible for the rapid disintegration of the wood. In living +trees the mycelium of certain bracket fungi enters through a wound and +grows into the heart wood. Now the heart wood is dead and cannot long +resist the entrance and destructive action of the mycelium. The mycelium +spreads through the heart of the tree, causing it to rot (Fig. 10). When +it has spread over a large feeding area it can then grow out through a +wound or old knothole and form the bracket fruit body, in case the +knothole or wound has not completely healed over so as to imprison the +fungus mycelium. + +[Illustration: PLATE 2, FIGURE 11.--Mycelium of Agaricus melleus on +large door in passage coal mine, Wilkesbarre, Pa. (1/20 natural size.)] + +=Fungi in Abandoned Coal Mines.=--Mushrooms and bracket fungi grow in +great profusion on the wood props or doors in abandoned coal mines, +cement mines, etc. There is here an abundance of moisture, and the +temperature conditions are more equable the year around. The conditions +of environment then are very favorable for the rapid growth of these +plants. They develop in midwinter as well as in summer. + +=Mycelium of Coal Mine Fungi.=--The mycelium of the mushrooms and +bracket fungi grows in wonderful profusion in these abandoned coal +mines. So far down in the moist earth the air in the tunnels or passages +where the coal or rock has been removed is at all times nearly saturated +with moisture. This abundance of moisture, with the favorable +temperature, permits the mycelium to grow on the surface of the wood +structures as readily as within the wood. + +In the forest, while the air is damp at times, it soon dries out to such +a degree that the mycelium can not exist to any great extent on the +outer surface of the trunks and stumps, for it needs a great percentage +of moisture for growth. The moisture, however, is abundant within the +stumps or tree trunks, and the mycelium develops abundantly there. + +So one can understand how it is that deep down in these abandoned mines +the mycelium grows profusely on the surface of doors and wood props. +Figure 11 is from a flashlight photograph, taken by the writer, of a +beautiful growth on the surface of one of the doors in an abandoned coal +mine at Wilkesbarre, Pa., during September, 1896. The specimen covered +an area eight by ten feet on the surface of the door. The illustration +shows very well the habit of growth of the mycelium. At the right is the +advancing zone of growth, marked by several fan-shaped areas. At the +extreme edge of growth the mycelium presents a delicate fringe of the +growing ends where the threads are interlaced uniformly over the entire +area. But a little distance back from the edge, where the mycelium is +older, the threads are growing in a different way. They are now uniting +into definite strands. Still further back and covering the larger part +of the sheet of mycelium lying on the surface of the door, are numerous +long, delicate tassels hanging downward. These were formed by the +attempt on the part of the mycelium at numerous places to develop +strands at right angles to the surface of the door. There being nothing +to support them in their attempted aerial flight, they dangle downward +in exquisite fashion. The mycelium in this condition is very soft and +perishable. It disappears almost at touch. + +On the posts or wood props used to support the rock roof above, the +mycelium grows in great profusion also, often covering them with a thick +white mantle, or draping them with a fabric of elegant texture. From the +upper ends of the props it spreads out over the rock roof above for +several feet in circumference, and beautiful white pendulous tassels +remind one of stalactites. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 12.--Agaricus campestris. Spore print. (Natural +size.)] + +=Direction in Growth of Mushrooms.=--The direction of growth which these +fungi take forms an interesting question for study. The common mushroom, +the _Agaricus_, the amanitas, and other central stemmed species grow +usually in an upright fashion; that is, the stem is erect. The cap then, +when it expands, stands so that it is parallel with the surface of the +earth. Where the cap does not fully expand, as in the campanulate forms, +the pileus is still oriented horizontally, that is, with the gills +downward. Even in such species, where the stems are ascending, the upper +end of the stem curves so that the cap occupies the usual position with +reference to the surface of the earth. This is beautifully shown in the +case of those plants which grow on the side of trunks or stumps, where +the stems could not well grow directly upward without hugging close to +the side of the trunk, and then there would not be room for the +expansion of the cap. This is well shown in a number of species of +_Mycena_. + +In those species where the stem is sub-central, i. e., set toward one +side of the pileus, or where it is definitely lateral, the pileus is +also expanded in a horizontal direction. From these lateral stemmed +species there is an easy transition to the stemless forms which are +sessile, that is, the shelving forms where the pileus is itself attached +to the trunk, or other object of support on which it grows. + +Where there is such uniformity in the position of a member or part of a +plant under a variety of conditions, it is an indication that there is +some underlying cause, and also, what is more important, that this +position serves some useful purpose in the life and well being of the +plant. We may cut the stem of a mushroom, say of the _Agaricus +campestris_, close to the cap, and place the latter, gills downward, on +a piece of white paper. It should now be covered securely with a small +bell jar, or other vessel, so that no currents of air can get +underneath. In the course of a few hours myriads of the brown spores +will have fallen from the surface of the gills, where they are borne. +They will pile up in long lines along on either side of all the gills +and so give us an impression, or spore print, of the arrangement of the +gills on the under side of the cap as shown in Fig. 12. A white spore +print from the smooth lepiota (_L. naucina_) is shown in Fig. 13. This +horizontal position of the cap then favors the falling of the spores, so +that currents of air can scatter them and aid in the distribution of the +fungus. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 13.--Lepiota naucina. Spore print. (Natural +size.)] + +But some may enquire how we know that there is any design in the +horizontal position of the cap, and that there is some cause which +brings about this uniformity of position with such entire harmony among +such dissimilar forms. When a mushroom with a comparatively long stem, +not quite fully matured or expanded, is pulled and laid on its side, or +held in a horizontal position for a time, the upper part of the stem +where growth is still taking place will curve upward so that the pileus +is again brought more or less in a horizontal position. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 14.--Amanita phalloides. Plant turned to one side +by directive force of gravity, after having been placed in a horizontal +position. (Natural size.)] + +In collecting these plants they are often placed on their side in the +collecting basket, or on a table when in the study. In a few hours the +younger, long stemmed ones have turned upward again. The plant shown in +Fig. 14 (_Amanita phalloides_) was placed on its side in a basket for +about an hour. At the end of the hour it had not turned. It was then +stood upright in a glass, and in the course of a few hours had turned +nearly at right angles. The stimulus it received while lying in a +horizontal position for only an hour was sufficient to produce the +change in direction of growth even after the upright position had been +restored. This is often the case. Some of the more sensitive of the +slender species are disturbed if they lie for only ten or fifteen +minutes on the side. It is necessary, therefore, when collecting, if one +wishes to keep the plants in the natural position for photographing, to +support them in an upright position when they are being carried home +from the woods. + +The cause of this turning of the stem from the horizontal position, so +that the pileus will be brought parallel with the surface of the earth, +is the stimulus from the force of gravity, which has been well +demonstrated in the case of the higher plants. That is, the force which +causes the stems of the higher plants to grow upward also regulates the +position of the cap of the pileated fungi. The reason for this is to be +seen in the perfection with which the spores are shed from the surfaces +of the gills by falling downward and out from the crevices between. The +same is true with the shelving fungi on trees, etc., where the spores +readily fall out from the pores of the honey-combed surface or from +between the teeth of those sorts with a spiny under surface. If the caps +were so arranged that the fruiting surface came to be on the upper side, +the larger number of the spores would lodge in the crevices between the +extensions of the fruiting surface. Singularly, this position of the +fruiting surface does occur in the case of one genus with a few small +species. + +Interesting examples of the operation of this law are sometimes met with +in abandoned coal mines, or more frequently in the woods. In abandoned +mines the mushrooms sometimes grow from the mycelium which spreads out +on the rock roof overhead. The rock roof prevents the plant from growing +upright, and in growing laterally the weight of the plant together with +the slight hold it can obtain on the solid rock causes it to hang +downward. The end of the stem then curves upward so that the pileus is +brought in a horizontal position. I have seen this in the case of +_Coprinus micaceus_ several times. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 15.--Polyporus applanatus. From this view the +larger cap is in the normal position in which it grew on the standing +tree. Turn one fourth way round to the right for position of the plant +after the tree fell. (1/6 natural size.)] + +In the woods, especially in the case of the perennial shelving fungi, +interesting cases are met with. Figure 15 illustrates one of these +peculiar forms of _Polyporus (Fomes) applanatus_. This is the species so +often collected as a "curio," and on account of its very white under +surface is much used for etching various figures. In the figure the +larger cap which is horizontal represents the position of the plant when +on the standing maple trunk. When the tree fell the shelf was brought +into a perpendicular position. The fungus continued to grow, but its +substance being hard and woody it cannot turn as the mushroom can. +Instead, it now grows in such a way as to form several new caps, all +horizontal, i. e., parallel with the surface of the earth, but +perpendicular to the old shelf. If the page is turned one-fourth way +round the figure will be brought in the position of the plant when it +was growing on the fallen log. + +[Illustration: PLATE 3, FIGURE 16.--Daedalea ambigua. Upper right-hand +shows normal plant in normal position when on tree. Upper left-hand +shows abnormal plant with the large cap in normal position when growing +on standing tree. Lower plant shows same plant in position after the +tree fell, with new caps growing out in horizontal direction. (Lower +plant 1/2 natural size.)] + +Another very interesting case is shown in the ambiguous trametes +(_Trametes ambigua_), a white shelving fungus which occurs in the +Southern States. It is shown in Fig. 16. At the upper right hand is +shown the normal plant in the normal position. At the upper left hand is +shown an abnormal one with the large and first formed cap also in the +normal position as it grew when the tree was standing. When the tree +fell the shelf was on the upper side of the log. Now numerous new caps +grew out from the edge as shown in the lower figure, forming a series of +steps, as it were, up one side and down the other. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +GILL BEARING FUNGI: AGARICACEAE.[A] + + +The gill bearing fungi are known under the family _Agaricaceae_, or +popularly the agarics. They are distinguished by the fruiting area being +distributed over the surface of plate-like or knife-like extensions or +folds, usually from the under surface of the cap. These are known as the +gills, or lamellae, and they usually radiate from a common point, as from +or near the stem, when the stem is present; or from the point of +attachment of the pileus when the stem is absent. The plants vary widely +in form and consistency, some being very soft and soon decaying, others +turning into an inky fluid, others being tough and leathery, and some +more or less woody or corky. The spores when seen in mass possess +certain colors, white, rosy, brown or purple brown, black or ochraceous. +While a more natural division of the agarics can be made on the basis of +structure and consistency, the treatment here followed is based on the +color of the spores, the method in vogue with the older botanists. While +this method is more artificial, it is believed to be better for the +beginner, especially for a popular treatment. The sections will be +treated in the following order: + + 1. The purple-brown-spored agarics. + 2. The black-spored agarics. + 3. The white-spored agarics. + 4. The rosy-spored agarics. + 5. The ochre-spored agarics. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[A] For analytical keys to the families and genera see Chapter XXIV. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +THE PURPLE-BROWN-SPORED AGARICS.[B] + + +The members of this subdivision are recognized at maturity by the +purple-brown, dark brown or nearly black spores when seen in mass. As +they ripen on the surface of the gills the large number give the +characteristic color to the lamellae. Even on the gills the purple tinge +of the brown spores can often be seen. The color is more satisfactorily +obtained when the spores are caught in mass by placing the cap, gills +downward, on white paper. + + +AGARICUS Linn. (PSALLIOTA Fr.) + +In the genus _Agaricus_ the spores at maturity are either purple-brown +in mass or blackish with a purple tinge. The annulus is present on the +stem, though disappearing soon in some species, and the stem is easily +separated from the substance of the pileus. The gills are free from the +stem, or only slightly adnexed. The genus is closely related to +_Stropharia_ and the species of the two genera are by some united under +one genus (_Psalliota_, Hennings). Peck, 36th Report, N. Y. State Mus., +p. 41--49, describes 7 species. Lloyd Mycol. Notes, No. 4, describes 8 +species. C. O. Smith, Rhodora, I: 161--164, 1899, describes 8 species. + +=Agaricus (Psalliota) campestris= Linn. =Edible.=--This plant has been +quite fully described in the treatment of the parts of the mushroom, and +a recapitulation will be sufficient here. It grows in lawns, pastures, +by roadsides, and even in gardens and cultivated fields. A few specimens +begin to appear in July, it is more plentiful in August, and abundantly +so in September and October. It is 5--8 cm. high (2--3 inches), the cap +is 5--12 cm. broad, and the stem 8--12 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is first rounded, then convex and more or less expanded. +The surface at first is nearly smooth, presenting a soft, silky +appearance from numerous loose fibrils. The surface is sometimes more or +less torn into triangular scales, especially as the plants become old. +The color is usually white, but varies more or less to light brown, +especially in the scaly forms, where the scales may be quite prominent +and dark brown in color. Sometimes the color is brownish before the +scales appear. The flesh is white. The =gills= in the young button stage +are white. They soon become pink in color and after the cap is expanded +they quickly become purple brown, dark brown, and nearly black from the +large number of spores on their surfaces. The gills are free from the +stem and rounded behind (near the stem). The =stem= is white, nearly +cylindrical, or it tapers a little toward the lower end. The flesh is +solid, though the central core is less firm. The =veil= is thin, white, +silky, and very frail. It is stretched as the cap expands and finally +torn so that it clings either as an annulus around the stem, or +fragments cling around the margin of the cap. Since the =annulus= is so +frail it shrivels as the plant ages and becomes quite inconspicuous or +disappears entirely (see Figs. 1--7). + +[Illustration: FIGURE 17.--Agaricus rodmani. Entirely white, showing +double veil or ring. (Natural size.) Copyright.] + +Variations in the surface characters of the cap and stem have led some +to recognize several varieties. This is known as the common mushroom and +is more widely known and collected for food than any other. It is also +cultivated in mushroom houses, cellars, caves, abandoned mines, etc. + +=Agaricus (Psalliota) rodmani= Pk. =Edible.=--Rodman's mushroom, +_Agaricus rodmani_, grows in grassy places along streets of cities, +either between the curbing and the walk, or between the curbing and the +pavement. It is entirely white or whitish and sometimes tinged with +yellowish at the center of the pileus. The plants are 4--8 cm. high, the +cap 5--8 cm. broad and the stem 1--2 cm. in thickness. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 18.--Agaricus arvensis, fairy ring.] + +The =pileus= is rounded, and then convex, very firm, compact and thick, +with white flesh. The =gills= are crowded, first white, then pink, and +in age blackish brown. The =stem= is very short, solid, nearly +cylindrical, not bulbous. The =annulus= is quite characteristic, being +very thick, with a short limb, and double, so that it often appears as +two distinct rings on the middle or lower part of the stem as shown in +Fig. 17. This form of the annulus is probably due to the fact that the +thick part of the margin of the pileus during the young stage rests +between the lower and upper part of the annulus, i. e., the thick veil +is attached both to the inner and outer surface of the margin of the +cap, and when it is freed by the expansion of the pileus it remains as a +double ring. It is eagerly sought and much relished by several persons +at Ithaca familiar with its edible qualities. + +The plant closely resembles A. campestris var., edulis, Vittad. (See +Plate 54, Bresadola, I Funghi Mangerecci e Velenosi, 1899) and is +probably the same. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 19.--Agaricus silvicola. White to cream color, or +yellow stains. (Natural size.) Copyright.] + +=Agaricus (Psalliota) arvensis= Schaeff. =Edible.=--The field mushroom, +or horse mushroom, _Agaricus arvensis_, grows in fields or pastures, +sometimes under trees and in borders of woods. One form is often white, +or yellowish white, and often shows the yellow color when dried. The +plant sometimes occurs in the form of a fairy ring as shown in Fig. 18. +It is 5--12 cm. high, the cap from 5--15 cm. broad and the stem 8--15 +mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is smooth, quite thick and firm, convex to expanded. The +=gills= are first white, then tinged with pink and finally blackish +brown. The =stem= is stout, nearly cylindrical, hollow, bulbous. The +veil is double like that of _Agaricus placomyces_, the upper or inner +layer remaining as a membrane, while the lower or outer layer is split +radially and remains in large patches on the lower surface of the upper +membrane. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 20.--Agaricus silvicola, showing radiately torn +lower part of veil. (Natural size.) Copyright.] + +=Agaricus (Psalliota) silvicola= Vittad. =Edible.=--The _Agaricus +silvicola_ grows in woods, groves, etc., on the ground, and has been +found also in a newly made garden in the vicinity of trees near the +woods. It is an attractive plant because of its graceful habit and the +delicate shades of yellow and white. It ranges from 10--20 cm. high, the +cap is 5--12 cm. broad and the stem 6--10 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= becomes convex, and expanded or nearly flat, and often with +an elevation or umbo in the center. It is thin, smooth, whitish and +often tinged more or less deeply with yellow (sulfur or ochraceous) and +is sometimes tinged with pink in the center. The flesh is whitish or +tinged with pink. The =gills= when very young are whitish, then pink, +and finally dark brown or blackish brown, much crowded, and distant from +the stem. The =stem= is long, nearly cylindrical, whitish, abruptly +enlarged below into a bulb. It is often yellowish below, and especially +in drying becomes stained with yellow. The =ring= is thin, +membranaceous, delicate, sometimes with broad, soft, floccose patches on +the under side. The ring usually appears single, but sometimes the +=veil= is seen to be double, and the outer or lower portion tends to +split radially as in _A. arvensis_ or _A. placomyces_. This is well +shown in large specimens, and especially as the veil is stretched over +the gills as shown in Fig. 20. + +From the form of the plant as well as the peculiarities of the veil in +the larger specimens, it is related to _A. arvensis_ and _A. +placomyces_, more closely to the former. It occurs during mid-summer and +early autumn. Figure 10 is from plants (No. 1986 C. U. herbarium) +collected in open woods at Ithaca. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 21. FIGURE 22. + +PLATE 4.--Agaricus placomyces. Figure 21.--Upper view of cap, side view +of stem. Figure 22.--Under view of plant showing radiately torn under +side of the double veil. (3/4 natural size.) Copyright.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 5, FIGURE 23.--Agaricus placomyces. Three different +views, see text for explanations. Dark scales on cap. (Natural size.) +Copyright.] + +=Agaricus (Psalliota) subrufescens= Pk. =Edible.=--The _Agaricus +subrufescens_ was described by Dr. Peck from specimens collected on a +compost heap composed chiefly of leaves, at Glen Cove, Long Island. It +occurs sometimes in greenhouses. In one case reported by Peck it +appeared in soil prepared for forcing cucumbers in a greenhouse in +Washington, D. C. + +According to the description the =pileus= becomes convex or broadly +expanded, is covered with silky hairs and numerous minute scales. The +color is whitish, grayish or dull reddish brown, the center being +usually smooth and darker, while the flesh is white. The =gills= change +from white to pinkish and blackish brown in age. The =stem= is long, +nearly cylindrical or somewhat enlarged or bulbous at the base, first +stuffed, then hollow, white. The =annulus= is thick, and the under side +marked by loose threads or scales. + +This plant is said to differ from the common mushroom (_A. campestris_) +in the more deeply hemispherical cap of the young plant, the hollow and +somewhat bulbous stem, and in the scales on the under side of the +annulus. In fresh plants the flesh has also a flavor of almonds. It is +closely related to =A. silvaticus= Schaeff., p. 62, T. 242, Icones Fung. +Bav. etc., 1770, if not identical with it. _A. silvaticus_ has light +ochraceous or subrufescent scales on the cap, a strong odor, and occurs +in gardens as well as in the woods. + +=Agaricus (Psalliota) fabaceus= Berk., was described in Hooker's London +Journal of Botany, =6=: 314, 1847, from specimens collected in Ohio. The +plant is white and is said to have a strong but not unpleasant odor. +_Agaricus amygdalinus_ Curt., from North Carolina, and of which no +description was published, was so named on account of the almond-like +flavor of the plant. Dr. Farlow suggests (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. +=26=: 356--358, 1894) that _A. fabaceus_, _amygdalinus_, and +_subrufescens_ are identical. + +=Agaricus (Psalliota) placomyces= Pk. =Edible.=--The flat-cap mushroom, +_Agaricus placomyces_ Pk., occurs in borders of woods or under trees +from June to September. According to Peck it occurs in borders of +hemlock woods, or under hemlock trees. At Ithaca it is not always +associated with hemlock trees. The largest specimens found here were in +the border of mixed woods where hemlock was a constituent. It has been +found near and under white pine trees in lawns, around the Norway spruce +and under the Norway spruce. The plants are from 5--15 cm. high, the cap +from 5--12 cm. in diameter, and the stem 6--8 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= when young is broadly ovate, then becomes convex or fully +expanded and flat in age, and is quite thin. The ground color is +whitish, often with a yellowish tinge, while the surface is ornamented +with numerous minute brownish scales which are scattered over a large +part of the cap, but crowded or conjoined at the center into a large +circular patch. This gives to the plant with its shapely form a +beautiful appearance. In the young stage the entire surface of the +pileus is quite evenly brown. As it expands the outer brown portion is +torn asunder into numerous scales because the surface threads composing +this brown layer cease to grow. These scales are farther apart toward +the margin of the cap, because this portion of the cap always expands +more than the center, in all mushrooms. The =gills= are at first white, +or very soon pink in color, and in age are blackish brown. Spores 5--8 x +3--4 mu. + +The =stem= is nearly cylindrical, hollow or stuffed, white or whitish, +smooth, bulbous, and the bulb is sometimes tinged with yellow. The +=veil= is very handsome, and the way in which the annulus is formed from +it is very interesting. The veil is quite broad, and it is double, that +is, it consists of two layers which are loosely joined by threads. In +the young stage the veil lies between the gills and the lower two-thirds +of the stem. As the pileus expands the lower (outer part) layer of the +veil is torn, often in quite regular radiating portions, as shown in +Fig. 22. An interesting condition of the veil is shown in the middle +plant in Fig. 23. Here the outer or lower layer of the veil did not +split radially, but remained as a tube surrounding the stem, while the +two layers were separated, the inner one being still stretched over the +gills. It is customary to speak of the lower part of the veil as the +outer part when the cap is expanded and the veil is still stretched +across over the gills, while the upper portion is spoken of as the inner +layer or part. It is closely related to _A. arvensis_, and may represent +a wood inhabiting variety of that species. + +=Agaricus (Psalliota) comtulus= Fr.--This pretty little agaric seems to +be rather rare. It was found sparingly on several occasions in open +woods under pines at Ithaca, N. Y., during October, 1898. Lloyd reports +it from Ohio (Mycolog. Notes, No. 56, Nov. 1899), and Smith from Vermont +(Rhodora I, 1899). Fries' description (Epicrisis, No. 877) runs as +follows: "Pileus slightly fleshy, convex, plane, obtuse, nearly smooth, +with appressed silky hairs, stem hollow, sub-attenuate, smooth, white to +yellowish, annulus fugacious; gills free, crowded, broad in front, from +flesh to rose color. In damp grassy places. Stem 2 inches by 2 lines, at +first floccose stuffed. Pileus 1--1-1/2 inch diameter. Color from white +to yellowish." + +[Illustration: FIGURE 24.--Agaricus comtulus (natural size, sometimes +larger). Cap creamy white with egg-yellow stains, smoky when older. Stem +same color; gills grayish, then rose, then purple brown. Copyright.] + +The plants collected at Ithaca are illustrated in Fig. 24 from a +photograph of plants (No. 2879 C. U. herbarium). My notes on these +specimens run as follows: Plant 3--6 cm. high, pileus 1.5--3 cm. broad, +stem 3--4 mm. in thickness. =Pileus= convex to expanded, fleshy, thin on +the margin, margin at first incurved, creamy white with egg yellow +stains, darker on the center, in age somewhat darker to umber or +fuliginous, moist when fresh, surface soon dry, flesh tinged with +yellow. The =gills= are white when young, then grayish to pale rose, and +finally light purple brown, rounded in front, tapering behind (next the +stem) and rounded, free from the stem, 4--5 mm. broad. =Basidia= +clavate, 25--30 x 5--6 mu. =Spores= small, oval, 3--4 x 2--3 mu, in mass +light purple brown. The =stem= tapers above, is sub-bulbous below, +yellowish and stained with darker yellowish threads below the annulus, +hollow, fibrous, fleshy. The =veil= whitish stained with yellow, +delicate, rupturing irregularly, portions of it clinging to margin of +the pileus and portions forming a delicate ring. When parts of the plant +come in contact with white paper a blue stain is apt to be imparted to +the paper, resembling the reaction of iodine on starch. This peculiarity +has been observed also in the case of another species of _Agaricus_. The +species is regarded with suspicion by some. I collected the plant also +at Blowing Rock, N. C., in September, 1899. The caps of these specimens +measure 4 cm. in diameter. + +=Agaricus diminutivus= Pk., is a closely related species. It is +distinguished chiefly by its somewhat larger size, and purplish to +reddish brown hairs on the surface of the pileus, and by the somewhat +larger spores, which, however, are small. I have found it at Ithaca, the +surface of the pileus hairy, with beautiful, triangular, soft, +appressed, purplish scales. + + +HYPHOLOMA Fr. + +In the genus _Hypholoma_ the spores are purple brown, the gills attached +to the stem, and the veil when ruptured clings to the margin of the cap +instead of to the stem, so that a ring is not formed, or only rarely in +some specimens. The stem is said to be continuous with the substance of +the cap, that is, it is not easily separated from it. The genus is +closely related to _Agaricus (Psalliota)_ and _Stropharia_, from both of +which it differs in the veil not forming a ring, but clinging to the +margin of the cap. It further differs from _Agaricus_ in the stem being +continuous with the substance of the cap, while _Stropharia_ seems to +differ in this respect in different species. The plants grow both on the +ground and on wood. There are several species which are edible and are +very common. Peck gives a synopsis of six species in the 49th Report New +York State Mus., page 61, 1896, and Morgan describes 7 species in Jour. +Cinn. Soc. Nat. Hist. =6=: 113--115. + +=Hypholoma sublateritium= Schaeff. =Edible=, _bitter sometimes_. The +name of this species is derived from the color of the cap, which is +nearly a brick red color, sometimes tawny. The margin is lighter in +color. The plants grow usually in large clusters on old stumps or +frequently appearing on the ground from buried portions of stumps or +from roots. There are from six to ten, or twenty or more plants in a +single cluster. A single plant is from 8--12 cm. high, the cap is 5--8 +cm. broad, and the stem 6--8 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is convex to expanded, smooth, or sometimes with loose +threads from the veil, especially when young, even, dry. The flesh is +firm, whitish, and in age becoming somewhat yellowish. The =gills= are +adnate, sometimes decurrent by a little tooth, rather crowded, narrow, +whitish, then dull yellow, and becoming dark from the spores, purplish +to olivaceous. The =stem= usually tapers downward, is firm, stuffed, +smooth, or with remnants of the veil giving it a floccose scaly +appearance, usually ascending because of the crowded growth. The =veil= +is thin and only manifested in the young stage of the plant as a loose +weft of threads. As the cap expands the veil is torn and adheres to the +margin, but soon disappears. + +[Illustration: PLATE 6, FIGURE 25.--Hypholoma sublateritium. Cap +brick-red or tawny. (Natural size, often larger.) Copyright.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 7, FIGURE 26.--Hypholoma appendiculatum (natural +size, often larger). White floccose scales on cap (var. coroniferum) and +appendiculate veil; caps whitish or brown, tawny, or tinge of ochre. +Gills white, then purple-brown. Copyright.] + +The flesh of this plant is said by European writers to be bitter to the +taste, and it is regarded there as poisonous. This character seems to be +the only distinguishing one between the _Hypholoma sublateritium_ +Schaeff., of Europe, and the _Hypholoma perplexum_ Pk., of this country +which is edible, and probably is identical with _H. sublateritium_. If +the plant in hand agrees with this description in other respects, and is +not bitter, there should be no danger in its use. According to +Bresadola, the bitter taste is not pronounced in _H. sublateritium_. The +taste probably varies as it does in other plants. For example, in +_Pholiota praecox_, an edible species, I detected a decided bitter taste +in plants collected in June, 1900. Four other persons were requested to +taste the plants. Two of them pronounced them bitter, while two did not +detect the bitter taste. + +There is a variety of _Hypholoma sublateritium_, with delicate floccose +scales in concentric rows near the margin of the cap, called _var. +squamosum_ Cooke. This is the plant illustrated in Fig. 25, from +specimens collected on rotting wood in the Cascadilla woods, Ithaca, N. +Y. It occurs from spring to autumn. + +_Hypholoma epixanthum_ Fr., is near the former species, but has a yellow +pileus, and the light yellow gills become gray, not purple. + +=Hypholoma appendiculatum= Bull. =Edible.=--This species is common +during late spring and in the summer. It grows on old stumps and logs, +and often on the ground, especially where there are dead roots. It is +scattered or clustered, but large tufts are not formed as in _H. +sublateritium_. The plants are 6--8 cm. high, the cap 5--7 cm. broad, +and the stem 4--6 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is ovate, convex to expanded, and often the margin +elevated, and then the cap appears depressed. It is fleshy, thin, +whitish or brown, tawny, or with a tinge of ochre, and becoming pale in +age and when dry. As the plant becomes old the pileus often cracks in +various ways, sometimes splitting radially into several lobes, and then +in other cases cracking into irregular areas, showing the white flesh +underneath. The surface of the pileus when young is sometimes sprinkled +with whitish particles giving it a mealy appearance. The =gills= are +attached to the stem, crowded, becoming more or less free by breaking +away from the stem, especially in old plants. They are white, then flesh +colored, brownish with a slight purple tinge. The =stem= is white, +smooth, or with numerous small white particles at the apex, becoming +hollow. The =veil= is very delicate, white, and only seen in quite young +plants when they are fresh. It clings to the margin of the cap for a +short period, and then soon disappears. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 27.--Hypholoma appendiculatum (natural size), +showing appendiculate veil. Copyright.] + +Sometimes the pileus is covered with numerous white, delicate floccose +scales, which give it a beautiful appearance, as in Fig. 26, from +specimens (No. 3185 C. U. herbarium), collected on the campus of Cornell +University among grass. The entire plant is very brittle, and easily +broken. It is tender and excellent for food. I often eat the caps raw. + +=Hypholoma candolleanum= Fr., occurs in woods on the ground, or on very +rotten wood. It is not so fragile as _H. appendiculatum_ and the gills +are dark violaceous, not flesh color as they are in _H. appendiculatum_ +when they begin to turn, and nearly free from the stem. + +=Hypholoma lacrymabundum= Fr.--This plant was found during September and +October in wet grassy places in a shallow ditch by the roadside, and in +borders of woods, Ithaca, N. Y., 1898. The plants are scattered or +clustered, several often joined at the base of the stem. They are 4--8 +cm. high, the cap 2--5 cm. broad, and the stem 4--8 mm. in thickness. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 28.--Hypholoma lacrymabundum (natural size). Cap +and stem tawny or light yellowish, with intermediate shades or shades of +umber, surface with soft floccose scales. Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex to expanded, sometimes broadly umbonate in age, +and usually with radiating wrinkles extending irregularly. On the +surface are silky or tomentose threads not much elevated from the +surface, and as the plant ages these are drawn into triangular scales +which are easily washed apart by the rains. The color is tawny or light +yellowish with intermediate shades, darker on the umbo and becoming +darker in age, sometimes umber colored, and stained with black, +especially after rains where the spores are washed on the pileus. The +flesh is tinged with light yellow, or tawny, or brown, soft, and easily +broken. The =gills= are sinuate, adnate, somewhat ventricose, very +rarely in abnormal specimens anastomosing near the margin of the pileus, +at first light yellowish, then shading to umber and spotted with black +and rusty brown as the spores mature, easily breaking away from the +stipe, whitish on the edge. Drops of moisture sometimes are formed on +the gills. =Basidia= abruptly clavate, 30--35 x 10--12 mu. =Cystidia= +hyaline, thin walled, projecting above the hymenium 40 mu, and 14--15 mu +broad. Spores black, purple tinged, broadly elliptical and somewhat +curved, 9--11 x 7--8 mu. + +The =stem= is fleshy to fibrous, the same color as the pileus, floccose +scaly more or less up to the veil, smooth or white pruinose above the +veil, straight or curved, somewhat striate below. + +The =veil= in young plants is hairy, of the same texture as the surface +of the pileus, torn and mostly clinging to the margin of the pileus, and +disappearing with age. + +The general habit and different stages of development as well as some of +the characters of the plant are shown in Fig. 28 (No. 4620 Cornell +University herbarium). The edible qualities of this plant have not been +tested. + +=Hypholoma rugocephalum= Atkinson.--This interesting species grows in +damp places in woods. The plants are tufted or occur singly. They are +8--12 cm. high, the cap 6--10 cm. broad, and the stem 6--10 mm. in +thickness. + +The =pileus= is convex to expanded, and the margin at last revolute +(upturned). The surface is marked by strong wrinkles (rugae), which +radiate irregularly from the center toward the margin. The pileus is +broadly umbonate, fleshy at the center and thinner toward the margin, +the flesh tinged with yellow, the surface slightly viscid, but not +markedly so even when moist, smooth, not hairy or scaly, the thin margin +extending little beyond ends of the gills. The color is tawny (near +fulvus). The =gills= are adnate, slightly sinuate, 5--7 mm. broad, in +age easily breaking away from the stem and then rounded at this end, +spotted with the black spores, lighter on the edge. The =spores= are +black in mass (with a suggestion of a purple tinge), oval to broadly +elliptical, inequilateral, pointed at each end, echinulate, or minutely +tuberculate, 8--11 x 6--8 mu. The =basidia= are short, cylindrical; +=cystidia= cylindrical, somewhat enlarged at the free end, hyaline, +delicate, thin-walled, in groups of two to six or more (perhaps this is +partly responsible for the black spotted condition of the gills). The +=stem= is cylindrical, even, somewhat bulbous, of the same color as the +pileus, but lighter above the annulus, irregular, smooth, fleshy, +hollow, continuous with the substance of the pileus. The =annulus= is +formed of a few threads, remnants of the veil, which are stained black +by the spores. Figure 29 is from plants (No. 3202 C. U. herbarium) +collected near Ithaca, July 18, 1899. + +[Illustration: PLATE 8, FIGURE 29.--Hypholoma rugocephalum (7/8 natural +size). Cap tawny, gills purple black, spotted. Copyright.] + + +STROPHARIA Fr. + +The genus _Stropharia_ has purple-brown spores, the gills are attached +to the stem, and the veil forms a ring on the stem. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 30.--Stropharia semiglobata (natural size). Cap +and stem light yellow, viscid, gills brownish purple. Copyright.] + +=Stropharia semiglobata= Batsch.--This species is rather common and +widely distributed, occurring in grassy places recently manured, or on +dung. The plants are scattered or clustered, rarely two or three joined +at the base. They are 5--12 cm. high, the cap 1--3 cm. broad, and the +stems 2--4 mm. in thickness. The entire plant is light yellow, and +viscid when moist, the gills becoming purplish brown, or nearly black. +Stevenson says it is regarded as poisonous. + +The =pileus= is rounded, then hemispherical (semi-globate), smooth, +fleshy at the center, thinner toward the margin, even, very viscid or +viscous when moist, light yellow. The =gills= are squarely set against +the stem (adnate), broad, smooth, in age purplish brown to blackish, the +color more or less clouded. The =spores= in mass, are brownish purple. +The =stem= is slender, cylindrical, becoming hollow, straight, even or +bulbous below, yellowish, but paler at the apex where there are often +parallel striae, marks from the gills in the young stage. The stem is +often viscid and smeared with the glutinous substance which envelopes +the plant when young, and from the more or less glutinous veil. The +=ring= is glutinous when moist. + +Figure 30 is from plants (No. 4613 C. U. herbarium) collected on one of +the streets of Ithaca. + +=Stropharia stercoraria= Fr., is a closely related plant, about the same +size, but the pileus, first hemispherical, then becoming expanded and +sometimes striate on the margin, while the stem is stuffed. The gills +are said to be of one color and the ring floccose, viscose, and +evanescent in drying. It occurs on dung, or in grassy places recently +manured. + +=Stropharia aeruginosa= Curt., the greenish _Stropharia_, is from 6--8 +cm. high, and the pileus 5--7 cm. broad. The ground color is yellowish, +but the plant is covered with a greenish slime which tends to disappear +with age. It is found in woods and open places during late summer and in +autumn. According to Stevenson it is poisonous. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[B] For analytical key to the genera see Chapter XXIV. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +THE BLACK-SPORED AGARICS. + + +The spores are black in mass, not purple tinged. For analytical keys to +the genera see Chapter XXIV. + + +COPRINUS Pers. + +The species of _Coprinus_ are readily recognised from the black spores +in addition to the fact that the gills, at maturity, dissolve into a +black or inky fluid. The larger species especially form in this way an +abundance of the black fluid, so that it drops from the pileus and +blackens the grass, etc., underneath the plant. In some of the smaller +species the gills do not wholly deliquesce, but the cap splits on top +along the line of the longer gills, this split passing down through the +gill, dividing it into two thin laminae, which, however, remain united at +the lower edge. This gives a fluted appearance to the margin of the +pileus, which is very thin and membranaceous. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 31.--Coprinus comatus, "shaggy-mane," in lawn.] + +The plants vary in size, from tiny ones to those which are several +inches high and more than an inch broad. Their habitat (that is, the +place where they grow) is peculiar. A number of the species grow on dung +or recently manured ground. From this peculiarity the genus received the +name _Coprinus_ from the Greek word [Greek: kopros], meaning dung. Some +of the species, however, grow on decaying logs, on the ground, on +leaves, etc. + +=Coprinus comatus= Fr. =Edible.=--One of the finest species in this +genus is the shaggy-mane, or horse-tail mushroom, as it is popularly +called. It occurs in lawns and other grassy places, especially in richly +manured ground. The plants sometimes occur singly, or a few together, +but often quite large numbers of them appear in a small area. They occur +most abundantly during quite wet weather, or after heavy rains, in late +spring or during the autumn, and also in the summer. From the rapid +growth of many of the mushrooms we are apt to be taken by surprise to +see them all up some day, when the day before there were none. The +shaggy-mane often furnishes a surprise of this kind. In our lawns we are +accustomed to a pretty bit of greensward with clumps of shrubbery, and +here and there the overhanging branches of some shade tree. On some fine +morning when we find a whole flock of these shaggy-manes, which have +sprung up during the night, we can imagine that some such kind of a +surprise must have come to Browning when he wrote these words: + + "By the rose flesh mushroom undivulged + Last evening. Nay, in to-day's first dew + Yon sudden coral nipple bulged, + Where a freaked, fawn colored, flaky crew + Of toadstools peep indulged." + +[Illustration: FIGURE 32.--Coprinus comatus. "Buttons," some in section +showing gill slits and hollow stem; colors white and black. (Natural +size.)] + +The plant is called shaggy-mane because of the very shaggy appearance of +the cap, due to the surface being torn up into long locks. The +illustrations of the shaggy mane shown here represent the different +stages of development, and the account here given is largely taken from +the account written by me in Bulletin 168 of the Cornell University Agr. +Exp. Station. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 33.--Coprinus comatus (natural size).] + +In Fig. 32 are shown two buttons of the size when they are just ready to +break through the soil. They appear mottled with dark and white, for the +outer layer of fungus threads, which are dark brown, is torn and +separated into patches or scales, showing between the delicate meshes of +white threads which lie beneath. The upper part of the button is already +forming the cap, and the slight constriction about midway shows the +lower boundary or margin of the pileus where it is still connected with +the undeveloped stem. + +At the right of each of these buttons in the figure is shown a section +of a plant of the same age. Here the parts of the plant, though still +undeveloped, are quite well marked out. Just underneath the pileus layer +are the gills. In the section one gill is exposed to view on either +side. In the section of the larger button the free edge of the gill is +still closely applied to the stem, while in the small one the gills are +separated a short distance from the stems showing "gill slits." Here, +too, the connection of the margin of the pileus with the stem is still +shown, and forms the veil. This kind of a veil is a marginal veil. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 34.--Coprinus comatus (natural size). This one +entirely white, none of the scales black tipped.] + +The stem is hollow even at this young stage, and a slender cord of +mycelium extends down the center of the tube thus formed, as is shown in +the sections. + +The plants are nearly all white when full grown. The brown scales, so +close together on the buttons, are widely separated except at the top or +center of the pileus, where they remain close together and form a broad +cap. + +A study of the different stages, which appear from the button stage to +the mature plant, reveals the cause of this change in color and the wide +separation of the dark brown scales. The threads of the outer layer of +the pileus, and especially those in the brown patches seen on the +buttons, soon cease to grow, though they are firmly entangled with the +inner layers. Now the threads underneath and all through the plant, in +the gills and in the upper part of the stem, grow and elongate rapidly. +This pulls on the outer layer, tearing it in the first place into small +patches, and causing them later to be more widely separated on the +mature plant. Some of these scales remain quite large, while others are +torn up into quite small tufts. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 35.--Coprinus comatus, sections of the plants in +Fig. 33 (natural size).] + +As the plant ages, the next inner layers of the pileus grow less +rapidly, so that the white layer beneath the brown is torn up into an +intricate tangle of locks and tufts, or is frazzled into a delicate pile +which exists here and there between well formed tufts. While all present +the same general characters there is considerable individual variation, +as one can see by comparing a number of different plants. Figure 34 +shows one of the interesting conditions. There is little of the brown +color, and the outer portion of the pileus is torn into long locks, +quite evenly distributed and curled up at the ends in an interesting +fashion which merits well the term "shaggy." In others the threads are +looped up quite regularly into triangular tresses which appear to be +knotted at the ends where the tangle of brown threads holds them +together. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 36.--Coprinus comatus, early stages of +deliquescence; the ring is lying on the sod (natural size).] + +There is one curious feature about the expansion of the pileus of the +shaggy-mane which could not escape our attention. The pileus has become +very long while comparatively little lateral expansion has taken place. +The pileus has remained cylindrical or barrel-shaped, while in the case +of the common mushroom the pileus expands into the form of an umbrella. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 37.--Coprinus comatus, later stage of +deliquescence, pileus becoming more expanded (natural size).] + +The cylindrical or barrel-shaped pileus is characteristic of the +shaggy-mane mushroom. As the pileus elongates the stem does also, but +more rapidly. This tears apart the connection of the margin of the +pileus with the base of the stem, as is plainly shown in Fig. 33. In +breaking away, the connecting portion or veil is freed both from the +stem and from the margin of the pileus, and is left as a free, or loose, +ring around the stem. In the shaggy-mane the veil does not form a thin, +expanded curtain. It is really an annular outer layer of the button +lying between the margin of the cap and the base of the stem. It becomes +free from the stem. As the stem elongates more rapidly than the cap, the +latter is lifted up away from the base of the stem. Sometimes the free +ring is left as a collar around the base of the stem, still loosely +adherent to the superficial layer of the same, or it remains for a time +more or less adherent to the margin of the pileus as shown in the plant +at the left hand in Fig. 33. It is often lifted higher up on the stem +before it becomes free from the cap, and is then left dangling somewhere +on the stem, or it may break and fall down on the sod. In other +instances it may remain quite firmly adherent to the margin of the +pileus so that it breaks apart as the pileus in age expands somewhat. In +such cases one often searches for some time to discover it clinging as a +sterile margin of the cap. It is interesting to observe a section of the +plants at this stage. These sections can be made by splitting the pileus +and stem lengthwise through the middle line with a sharp knife, as shown +in Fig. 35. Here, in the plant at the right hand, the "cord" of mycelium +is plainly seen running through the hollow stem. The gills form a large +portion of the plant, for they are very broad and lie closely packed +side by side. They are nowhere attached to the stem, but at the upper +end round off to the cap, leaving a well defined space between their +ends and the stem. The cap, while it is rather thick at the center, i. +e., where it joins the stem, becomes comparatively thin where it spreads +out over the gills. At this age of the plant the gills are of a rich +salmon color, i. e., before the spores are ripe, and the taste when raw +is a pleasant nutty flavor, reminding one of the meat of fresh green +hickory nuts. In a somewhat earlier stage the edges of all the gills are +closely applied to the stem which they surround. So closely are they +applied to the stem in most cases that threads of mycelium pass from the +stem to the edge of the gills. As the cap expands slightly in ageing, +these threads are torn asunder and the stem is covered with a very +delicate down or with flocculent particles which easily disappear on +handling or by the washing of the rains. The edges of the gills are also +left in a frazzled condition, as one can see by examining them with a +good hand lens. + +The spores now begin to ripen and as they become black the color of the +gills changes. At the same time the gills and the cap begin to dissolve +into an inky fluid, first becoming dark and then melting into a black +liquid. As this accumulates it forms into drops which dangle from the +cap until they fall away. This change takes place on the margin of the +cap first, and advances toward the center, and the contrast of color, as +the blackening invades the rich salmon, is very striking. The cap now +begins to expand outward more, so that it becomes somewhat umbrella +shaped. The extreme outer surface does not dissolve so freely, and the +thin remnant curls upward and becomes enrolled on the upper side as the +cap with wasted gills becomes nearly flat. + +=Coprinus atramentarius= (Bull.) Fr. =Edible.=--The ink-cap (_Coprinus +atramentarius_) occurs under much the same conditions as the +shaggy-mane, and is sometimes found accompanying it. It is usually more +common and more abundant. It springs up in old or newly made lawns which +have been richly manured, or it occurs in other grassy places. Sometimes +the plants are scattered, sometimes two or three in a cluster, but +usually large clusters are formed where ten to twenty or more are +crowded closely together (Fig. 39). The stems are shorter than those of +the shaggy-mane and the cap is different in shape and color. The cap is +egg-shaped or oval. It varies in color from a silvery grey, in some +forms, to a dark ashen grey, or smoky brown color in others. Sometimes +the cap is entirely smooth, as I have seen it in some of the silvery +grey forms, where the delicate fibres coursing down in lines on the +outer surface cast a beautiful silvery sheen in the light. Other forms +present numerous small scales on the top or center of the cap which are +formed by the cleavage of the outer surface here into large numbers of +pointed tufts. In others, the delicate tufts cover more or less the +entire surface, giving the plant a coarsely granular aspect. This is +perhaps the more common appearance, at least so far as my observation +goes. But not infrequently one finds forms which have the entire outer +surface of the cap torn into quite a large number of coarse scales, and +these are often more prominent over the upper portion. Fine lines or +striations mark also the entire surface of all the forms, especially +toward the margin, where the scales are not so prominent. The marginal +half of the cap is also frequently furrowed more or less irregularly, +and this forms a crenate or uneven edge. + +[Illustration: PLATE 9, FIGURE 38. Coprinus comatus, drops of inky fluid +about to fall from wasted pileus (natural size).] + +[Illustration: PLATE 10, FIGURE 39.--Coprinus atramentarius, nearly +smooth form, gray color (natural size).] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 40.--Coprinus atramentarius, scaly form (natural +size).] + +The annulus or ring on the stem of the ink-cap is very different from +that of the shaggy-mane. It forms an irregularly zigzag elevated line of +threads which extend around the stem near the base. It is well shown in +Fig. 41 as a border line between the lower scaly end of the stem and the +smooth white upper part. It is formed at the time of the separation of +the margin of the cap from the stem, the connecting fibres being pulled +outward and left to mark the line of junction, while others below give +the scaly appearance. It is easily effaced by rough handling or by the +washing of the rains. A section of a plant is illustrated by a +photograph in Fig. 42. On either side of the stem is shown the layer of +fibres which form the annulus, and this layer is of a different texture +from that of the stem. The stem is hollow as seen here also. In this +figure one can see the change in color of the gills just at the time +when they begin to deliquesce. This deliquescence proceeds much in the +same way as in the shaggy-mane, and sometimes the thin remnant of the +cap expands and the margin is enrolled over the top. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 41.--Coprinus atramentarius, showing annulus as +border line between scaly and smooth part of the stem (natural size).] + +=Coprinus micaceus= (Bull.) Fr. =Edible.=--The glistening coprinus +received its name because of the very delicate scales which often cover +the surface of the cap, and glisten in the light like particles of mica. +This plant is very common during the spring and early summer, though it +does appear during the autumn. It occurs about the bases of stumps or +trees or in grassy or denuded places, from dead roots, etc., buried in +the soil. It occurs in dense tufts of ten to thirty or more individuals; +sometimes as many as several hundred spring up from the roots of a dead +tree or stump along the streets or in lawns, forming large masses. More +rarely it occurs on logs in the woods, and sometimes the plants are +scattered in lawns. From the different habits of the plant it is +sometimes difficult to determine, especially where the individuals are +more or less scattered. However, the color, and the markings on the cap, +especially the presence of the small shining scales when not effaced, +characterize the plant so that little difficulty is experienced in +determining it when one has once carefully noted these peculiarities. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 42.--Coprinus atramentarius, section of one of the +plants in Fig. 41 (natural size).] + +Figure 43 is from a group of three young individuals photographed just +as the margin of the pileus is breaking away from the lower part of the +stem, showing the delicate fibrous ring which is formed in the same way +as in _Coprinus atramentarius_. The ring is much more delicate and is +rarely seen except in very young specimens which are carefully collected +and which have not been washed by rains. The mature plants are 8--10 cm. +high (3--4 inches), and the cap varies from 2--4 cm. in diameter. The +stem is quite slender and the cap and gills quite thin as compared with +the shaggy-mane and ink-cap. The gills are not nearly so crowded as they +are in the two other species. The cap is tan color, or light buff, or +yellowish brown. Except near the center it is marked with quite +prominent striations which radiate to the margin. These striations are +minute furrows or depressed lines, and form one of the characters of the +species, being much more prominent than on the cap of the ink-cap. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 43.--Coprinus micaceus, young stage showing +annulus, on the cap the "mica" particles (natural size).] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 44.--Coprinus micaceus, plants natural size, from +floor of coal mine at Wilkesbarre. Caps tan color. Copyright.] + +In wet weather this coprinus melts down into an inky fluid also, but in +quite dry weather it remains more or less firm, and sometimes it does +not deliquesce at all, but dries with all parts well preserved, though +much shrunken of course, as is the case with all the very fleshy fungi. + +[Illustration: PLATE 11, FIGURE 45.--Panaeolus retirugis, group of plants +from lawn along street, showing veil in young plants at the left, which +breaks into V-shaped loops and clings to margin of the cap. Cap dark +smoky color at first, becoming grayish in age (natural size). +Copyright.] + + +PANAEOLUS Fr. + +In _Panaeolus_, the pileus is somewhat fleshy, or thin, the margin even, +that is, not striate. The margin extends beyond the gills, and the gills +are not uniform in color, being clouded or spotted with black and brown +colors, the edge of the gills often white in contrast. The spores are +black. The stem is usually smooth, sometimes floccose scaly, often long, +firm, generally hollow. The veil is of interwoven threads, sometimes +quite compact, especially when the plants are young. Peck, 23rd Report +N. Y. State Mus., p. 10 et seq., gives a synopsis of five species. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 46.--Panaeolus retirugis, section of caps showing +form and position of gills (natural size).] + +=Panaeolus retirugis= Fr.--The color of this plant is not attractive, but +it is one of the most beautiful species I have studied, if one regards +form and the general features in its development. It is said to occur on +dung. I have found it in lawns or grassy places, especially freshly made +lawns or greenswards which have been heavily manured. The illustrations +in Figs. 45--48 were made from photographs of plants which grew in a +newly made boulevard along Buffalo street, Ithaca, N. Y. (No. 2356 C. U. +herbarium). The plants are from 7--15 cm. high, the cap from 1--3 cm. in +diameter, and the stem is 3--4 mm. in thickness. The size of the plants +varies greatly according to the environment, being larger in moist soil +and wet weather and smaller in dry soil and dry weather. It occurs in +late spring and during the summer. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 47.--Panaeolus retirugis, showing rugose character +of cap in left-hand plant (natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is oval to ovate and conic, and in some cases it becomes +more or less expanded, but never, so far as I have observed, does it +become depressed or even plane. In wet weather it is usually at first +dark smoky in color, viscid, becoming grayish in age, and as the pileus +dries it becomes shining. In lighter colored forms the pileus is at +first light leather color to cream color. Toward the center of the +pileus are irregular wrinkles or shallow pits, the wrinkles anastomosing +more or less, and it is because of this character of the surface of the +pileus that the plant receives its specific name. During dry weather +there is a tendency for the pileus to crack, separating the dark color +of the surface into patches showing the white flesh beneath. The pileus +is often umbonate or gibbous, and the center is often darker than the +margin. The pileus in rare cases is entirely white. The =gills= are +adnate, broad in the middle, and in the more expanded forms as the gills +separate more and more from the stem there is a tendency for them to +become somewhat triangular. The =spores= are black in mass, are +elliptical or short fusiform, and measure from 10--12 x 15--18 mu. The +=stem= is cylindrical, sometimes tortuous, smoky gray, light reddish +brown, or paler, sometimes entirely white, the lighter forms of the stem +accompanying the light forms of the pileus; cartilaginous in texture, +becoming hollow, always darker below and paler above, smooth, granulate +with minute darker points, bulbous. The =veil= is very prominent and +stout when the plant is young, and extends from the margin of the pileus +to the stem when the plant is very young and the stem has not elongated. +As the stipe elongates the veil separates from the stipe as a ring, and +then, as the pileus expands, it is broken quite regularly into short +segments which become arranged regularly around the margin of the pileus +in the form of the letter V, which gives a beautiful appearance to this +stage of the plant. It is only when the plants are fresh and moist that +this condition of the veil can be seen, for on drying the veil +collapses. Water is sometimes caught under the veil before the pileus +separates far from the stem, and the spores falling thus float against +the stem at this point and make a dark ring around the stem, which, +however, should not be mistaken for the annulus. In no case was the veil +observed to cling to the stem, and many plants have been observed to see +if this variation might present itself. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 48.--Panaeolus retirugis, showing cracked surface +of cap in the left-hand plant, also in same plant the ring mark of black +spores which lodged before veil ruptured, in other plants showing well +the V-shaped loops of veil on margin of cap (natural size). Copyright.] + +This peculiarity of the veil in clinging to the margin of the pileus +has led Hennings to place the plant in Karsten's genus (Engler and +Prantl, Pflanzenfamilien) _Chalymotta_, as _Chalymotta retirugis_. The +plants have several times been eaten raw by me, and while they have a +nutty flavor and odor, the taste is not entirely agreeable in this +condition, because of the accompanying slimy sensation. + +A number of smaller species, among them =P. fimicola= Fr., and =P. +papilionaceus= Fr., occur in similar places. =Panaeolus solidipes= Pk., +is a large species with a long, solid stem, growing on dung. =Psilocybe +foenisecii=, abundant in lawns and grassy places during late spring +and summer, resembles a Panaeolus. The cap shows zones of light and dark +color, due to different amounts of water, which disappear as the plant +matures. It belongs to the purple-brown-spored agarics. + + +PSATHYRELLA Fr. + +The pileus is thin, membranaceous, striate, the margin not extending +beyond the edge of the gills, and when young the margin of the pileus +lies straight against the stem. The gills are black to fuliginous, of a +uniform color, i. e., not spotted as in _Panaeolus_ and _Anellaria_. The +spores are black. The plants are all fragile. Only one species is +mentioned here. In appearance the species are like _Psathyra_ of the +purple-brown-spored agarics, but much thinner. Peck describes three +species in the 23d Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 102 et seq. Only one +species is described here. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 49.--Psathyrella disseminata (natural size), caps +whitish, grayish, or grayish-brown. Copyright.] + +=Psathyrella disseminata= Pers.--This is a very common and widely +distributed species, appearing from late spring until late autumn. It +sometimes appears in greenhouses throughout the year. The plants are +2--3 cm. high, and the caps 6--10 mm. broad. The plants are crowded in +large tufts, often growing on decaying wood, but also on the ground, +especially about much decayed stumps, but also in lawns and similar +places, where buried roots, etc., are decaying. They resemble small +specimens of a _Coprinus_. + +The =pileus= is whitish or gray, or grayish brown, very thin, oval, then +bell-shaped, minutely scaly, becoming smooth, prominently silicate or +plicate, plaited. The =gills= are adnate, broad, white, gray, then +black. The =spores= are black, oblong, 8 x 6 mu. The =stem= is very +slender, becoming hollow, often curved. The entire plant is very +fragile, and in age becomes so soft as to suggest a _Coprinus_ in +addition to the general appearance. Figure 49 is from plants collected +on decaying logs at Ithaca. + + +GOMPHIDIUS Fr. + +The genus _Gomphidius_ has a slimy or glutinous universal veil +enveloping the entire plant when young, and for a time is stretched over +the gills as the pileus is expanding. The gills are somewhat +mucilaginous in consistency, are distant and decurrent on the stem. The +gills are easily removed from the under surface of the pileus in some +species by peeling off in strips, showing the imprint of the gills +beneath the projecting portions of the pileus, which extended part way +between the laminae of the gills. The spores in some species are +blackish, and for this reason the genus has been placed by many with the +black-spored agarics, while its true relationship is probably with the +genus _Hygrophorus_ or _Paxillus_. + +=Gomphidius nigricans= Pk.--The description given by Peck for this plant +in the 48th Report, p. 12, 1895, reads as follows: + +"Pileus convex, or nearly plane, pale, brownish red, covered with a +tough gluten, which becomes black in drying, flesh firm, whitish; +lamellae distant, decurrent, some of them forked, white, becoming smoky +brown, black in the dried plant; stem subequal, longer than the diameter +of the pileus, glutinous, solid, at first whitish, especially at the +top, soon blackish by the drying of the gluten, whitish within, slightly +tinged with red toward the base; spores oblong fusoid, 15--25 mu long, +6--7 mu broad. Pileus 1--2 inches broad; stem 1.5--2.5 inches long, 2--4 +lines thick." + +"This species is easily known by the blackening gluten which smears both +pileus and stem, and even forms a veil by which the lamellae in the young +plant are concealed. In the dried state the whole plant is black." + +"Under pine trees, Westport, September." + +[Illustration: FIGURE 50.--Gomphidius nigricans. Side and under view +showing forked gills, and reticulate collapsed patches of dark slime on +stem. Cap flesh color, gills dark gray; entire plant black when dried +(natural size). Copyright.] + +What appears to be the same plant was collected by me at Blowing Rock, +N. C., under a pine tree, in September, 1899 (No. 3979 C. U. herbarium). + +The notes taken on the fresh plant are as follows: + +Very viscid, with a thick, tough viscid cuticle, cortina or veil viscid, +and collapsing on the stem, forming coarse, walnut-brown or dark +vinaceous reticulations, terminating abruptly near the gills, or +reaching them. + +The =stem= is white underneath the slimy veil covering, tough, fibrous, +continuous, and not separable from the hymenophore, tapering below. + +The =pileus= is convex, the very thin margin somewhat incurved, disk +expanded, uneven, near the center cracked into numerous small viscid +brownish areoles; pileus flesh color, flesh same color except toward the +gills. Gills dark drab gray, arcuate, distant, decurrent, many of them +forked, separating easily from the hymenophore, peeling off in broad +sheets, and leaving behind corresponding elevations of the hymenophore +which extended between the laminae of the lamellae. Pileus 7 cm. in +diameter; stem 4--5 cm. long by 2 cm. diameter. + +In drying, the entire plant as well as the gluten becomes black, on the +pileus a shining black. + +The =spores= are rusty to dark brown, or nearly black, fusoid or oblong, +and measure 15--22 x 5--6 mu. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 51.--Gomphidius nigricans. Under view with portion +of gills stripped off from hymenophore, showing forked character of +gills (natural size). Copyright.] + +In Fig. 50 a side and under view of the plant are given, and in Fig. 51 +a view after a portion of the lamellae have been peeled off, showing how +nicely the separation takes place, as well as showing the forked +character of the lamellae and the processes of the pileus, which extend +between the laminae of the lamellae. + +This plant seems to be very near _Gomphidius glutinosus_ (Schaeff.), +Fr., if not identical with it, though the illustrations cited in +Schaeffer and in Krombholz seem to indicate a stouter plant. The +descriptions say nothing as to the appearance of the dried plant. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. + + +The spores are white in mass, or sometimes with a faint yellowish or +lilac tinge. For analytical keys to the genera see Chapter XXIV. + + +AMANITA Pers. + +The genus _Amanita_ has both a volva and a veil; the spores are white, +and the stem is easily separable from the cap. In the young stage the +volva forms a universal veil, that is, a layer of fungus tissue which +entirely envelops the young plant. In the button stage, where this +envelope runs over the cap, it is more or less free from it, that is, it +is not "concrete" with the surface of the pileus. As the pileus expands +and the stem elongates, the volva is ruptured in different ways +according to the species. In some the volva splits at the apex and is +left as a "cup" at the base of the stem. In others it splits circularly, +that is, transversely across the middle, the lower half forming a +shallow cup with a very narrow rim, or in other cases it is closely +fitted against the stem, while the upper half remains on the cap and is +broken up into patches or warts. In still other cases the volva breaks +irregularly, and only remnants of it may be found on either the base of +the stem or on the pileus. For the various conditions one must consult +the descriptions of the species. The genus is closely related to +_Lepiota_, from which it is separated by the volva being separate from +the pileus. This genus contains some of the most deadly poisonous +mushrooms, and also some of the species are edible. Morgan, Jour. Mycol. +=3=: 25--33, describes 28 species. Peck, 33d Report N. Y. State Mus., +pp. 38--49, describes 14 species. Lloyd, A Compilation of the Volvae of +the U. S., Cincinnati, 1898, gives a brief synopsis of our species. + +=Amanita muscaria= Linn. =Poisonous.=--This plant in some places is +popularly known as the fly agaric, since infusions of it are used as a +fly poison. It occurs during the summer and early autumn. It grows along +roadsides near trees, or in groves, and in woods, according to some +preferring a rather poor gravelly soil. It attains its typical form +usually under these conditions in groves or rather open woods where the +soil is poor. It is a handsome and striking plant because of the usually +brilliant coloring of the cap in contrast with the white stems and +gills, and the usually white scales on the surface. It usually ranges +from 10--15 cm. high, and the cap from 8--12 cm. broad, while the stem +is 1--1.5 cm. in thickness, or the plant may be considerably larger. + +[Illustration: PLATE 12, FIGURE 52.--Amanita muscaria, "buttons," +showing different stages of rupture of the volva or universal veil, and +formation of inner veil (natural size). Copyright.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 13, FIGURE 53.--Amanita muscaria. Further stages in +opening of plant, formation of veil and ring. Cap yellowish, or orange. +Scales on cap and at base of stem white; stem and gills white (natural +size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= passes from convex to expanded and nearly flat in age, the +margin when mature is marked by depressed lines forming parallel +striations, and on the surface are numbers of scattered floccose or +rather compact scales, formed from the fragments of the upper part of +the volva or outer veil. These scales are usually white in color and are +quite easily removed, so that old plants are sometimes quite free from +them. The scales are sometimes yellowish in color. The color of the +pileus varies from yellow to orange, or even red, the yellow color being +more common. Late in the season the color is paler, and in old plants +also the color fades out, so that white forms are sometimes found. The +flesh is white, sometimes yellowish underneath the cuticle. The =gills= +in typical forms are white, in some forms accredited to this species +they are yellowish. The =stem= is cylindrical, hollow, or stuffed when +young, and enlarged below into a prominent bulb. It is white, covered +with loose floccose scales, or more or less lacerate or torn, and the +lower part of the stem and upper part of the bulb are marked usually by +prominent concentric scales forming interrupted rings. These are formed +by the splitting of the outer veil or volva, and form the remnants of +the volva present on the base of the stem. + +The main features in the development of the plant are shown in Figs. +52--54, where a series from the button stage to the mature plant is +represented. In the youngest specimens the outline of the bulb and the +young convex or nearly globose cap are only seen, and these are covered +with the more or less floccose outer veil or volva. The fungus threads +composing this layer cease to grow, and with the expansion of the cap +and the elongation of the stem, the volva is torn into patches. The +upper and lower surface of the inner veil is attached to the edge of the +gills and to the outer surface of the stem by loose threads, which are +torn asunder as the pileus expands. Floccose scales are thus left on the +surface of the stem below the annulus, as in the left hand plant of Fig. +53. The veil remains attached longer to the gills and is first separated +from the stem. Again, as in the right hand plant, it may first be +separated from the gills when it is later ripped up from the stem. + +The fly agaric is one of the well known poisonous species and is very +widely distributed in this country, as well as in other parts of the +world. In well developed forms there should be no difficulty in +distinguishing it from the common mushroom by even a novice. Nor should +there be difficulty in distinguishing it from the royal agaric, or +Caesar's agaric (_Amanita caesarea_), by one who has become reasonably +familiar with the characters and appearance of the two. But small and +depauperate specimens of the two species run so nearly together in form, +color, and surface characters, that it becomes a matter of some +difficulty for even an expert to distinguish them. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 54.--Amanita muscaria. View of upper side of cap +(natural size). Colors as in Fig. 53. Copyright.] + +Figures 52--54 are from plants (No. 2065 C. U. herbarium) collected in +an open woods near Ithaca. For the poisonous property of the plant see +Chapter XX. + +=Amanita frostiana= Pk. =Poisonous.=--According to Dr. Peck, who +published the first description of this plant, it grows in company with +_Amanita muscaria_, but seems to prefer more dense woods, especially +mixed or hemlock woods, and occurs from June to October. The plant is +5--8 cm. high, the caps 2--5 cm. broad, and the stems 3--6 mm. in +thickness. + +The =pileus= is "convex to expanded, bright orange or yellow, warty, +sometimes nearly or quite smooth, striate on the margin; =lamellae= +white or tinged with yellow; =stem= white or yellowish, stuffed, bearing +a slight, sometimes evanescent annulus, bulbous at the base, the bulb +_slightly margined_ by the volva; spores globose," 7.5--10 mu in +diameter. He notes that it appears like a small form of _A. muscaria_, +to which it was first referred as _var. minor_,--"The only characters +for distinguishing it are its small size and its globose spores." It is +near _A. muscaria var. puella_ Pers. + +I have several times found this plant in the Adirondack mountains, N. +Y., and Ithaca, and also at Blowing Rock, N. C. The volva is often +yellowish, so that the warts on the pileus are also yellow, and +sometimes the only remnants of the volva on the base of the stem are +yellow or orange particles. The annulus is also frequently yellow. In +our plants, which seem to be typical, the spores are nearly globose, +varying to oval, and with the minute point where the spore was attached +to the sterigma at the smaller end, the spores usually being finely +granular, 6--9 mu in diameter, and rarely varying towards short +elliptical, showing a tendency to approach the shape of the spores of +_A. muscaria_. The species as I have seen it is a very variable one, +large forms being difficult to separate from _A. muscaria_, on the one +hand, and others difficult to separate from the depauperate forms of _A. +caesarea_. In the latter, however, the striae are coarser, though the +yellow color may be present only on portions of the pileus. The spores +of _A. caesarea_ are from globose to oval, ovate or short elliptical, the +globose ones often agreeing in size with the spores of _A. frostiana_, +but they usually contain a prominent oil drop or "nucleus," often nearly +filling the spore. In some specimens of _A. frostiana_ the spores are +quite variable, being nearly globose, ovate to elliptical, approaching +the spores of _A. muscaria_. These intermediate forms should not in +themselves lead one to regard all these three species as representing +variations in a single variable species. With observations in the field +I should think it possible to separate them. + +=Amanita phalloides= Fr. =Deadly Poisonous.=--The _Amanita phalloides_ +and its various forms, or closely related species, are the most +dangerous of the poisonous mushrooms. For this reason the _A. +phalloides_ is known as the _deadly agaric_, or _deadly amanita_. The +plant is very variable in color, the forms being pure white, or +yellowish, green, or olive to umber. Variations also occur in the way in +which the volva ruptures, as well as in the surface characters of the +stem, and thus it is often a difficult matter to determine whether all +these forms represent a single variable species or whether there are +several species, and if so, what are the limits of these species. +Whether these are recognized as different forms of one species or as +different species, they are all very poisonous. The plant usually occurs +in woods or along the borders of woods. It does, however, sometimes +occur in lawns. It varies from 6--20 cm. high, the cap from 3--10 cm. +broad, and the stem 6--10 mm. in thickness. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 55.--Amanita phalloides, white form, showing cap, +stem, ring, and cup-like volva with a free, prominent limb (natural +size).] + +The =pileus= is fleshy, viscid or slimy when moist, smooth, that is, not +striate, orbicular to bell-shaped, convex and finally expanded, and in +old specimens more or less depressed by the elevation of the margin. The +cap is often free from any remnants of the volva, while in other cases +portions of the volva or outer veil appear on the surface of the cap in +rather broad patches, or it may be broken up into a number of smaller +ones quite evenly distributed over the surface of the cap. The presence +or absence of these scales on the cap depends entirely on the way in +which the volva ruptures. When there is a clean rupture at the apex the +pileus is free from scales, but if portions of the apex of the volva are +torn away they are apt to remain on the cap. + +[Illustration: PLATE 14, FIGURE 56.--Amanita phalloides, brownish, +umber, or olive-brown form (natural size). Caps brownish or whitish, and +streaked with brown, scales white, gills and stem white, stem slowly +turning dull brown where bruised. Copyright.] + +The white form is common in this country, and so is the olive or umber +form. The yellow form is rarer. Sometimes there is only a tinge of +yellow at the center of the white pileus, while in other cases a large +part of the pileus may be yellow, a deeper shade usually on the center. +The green form is probably more common in Europe than in this country. +The olive form varies considerably also in the depth of the color, +usually darker on the center and fading out to light olive or gray, or +whitish, on the margin. In other cases the entire pileus may be dark +olive or umber color. The =gills= in all the forms are white, and free +from the stem or only joined by a narrow line. The stem is stuffed when +young, but in age is nearly or quite hollow. It is cylindrical, 6--20 +cm. long x 6--12 mm. in thickness. In the larger specimens the bulb is +quite prominent and abrupt, while in the smaller specimens it is not +always proportionally so large. The =stem= is usually smooth and the +color is white, except in the dark forms, when it is dingy or partakes +more or less of the color of the pileus, though much lighter in shade. +There is a tendency in these forms to a discoloration of the stem where +handled or bruised, and this should caution one in comparing such forms +with the edible _A. rubescens_. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 57.--Amanita phalloides, volva circumscissile, cap +scaly, limb of volva not prominent, cap dark, scales white (natural +size). Copyright.] + +Perhaps no part of the plant is more variable than the outer veil or +volva. Where the volva is quite thick and stout it usually splits at the +apex, and there is a prominent free limb, as shown in Fig. 55. Sometimes +thin portions of the volva are caught, and remain on the surface of the +pileus. But when the volva is thinner and of a looser texture, it splits +transversely about the middle, circumscissile, and all or a large part +of the upper half of the volva then clings to the cap, and is separated +into patches. Between this and the former condition there seem to be all +gradations. Some of these are shown in Fig. 56, which is from a +photograph of dark olive and umber forms, from plants collected in the +Blue Ridge mountains, at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. In +the very young plant the volva split transversely (in a circumscissile +fashion) quite clearly, and the free limb is quite short and distant +from the stem on the margin of the saucer-like bulb. In the large and +fully expanded plant at the center, the volva ruptured irregularly at +the apex, and portions of the thin upper half remain as patches on the +cap while the larger part remains as the free limb, attached at the +margin of the broad saucer-shaped bulb, and collapsed up against the +base of the stem. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 58.--Amanita phalloides, volva circumscissile, +concave bulb margined by definite short limb of volva; upper part of +volva has disappeared from cap; cap whitish, tinged with brown.] + +Figure 58 and the small plant in Fig. 56, both from photographs of the +sooty form of _Amanita phalloides_, show in a striking manner the +typical condition of the circumscissile volva margining the broad +saucer-like bulb as described for _Amanita mappa_. The color of _A. +mappa_ is usually said to be straw color, but Fries even says that the +color is as in _A. phalloides_, "now white, now green, now yellow, now +dark brown" (Epicrisis, page 6). According to this, Fig. 58 would +represent _A. mappa_. + +The variable condition in this one species _A. phalloides_, now +splitting at the apex, now tearing up irregularly, now splitting in a +definitely circumscissile manner, seems to bid defiance to any attempt +to separate the species of _Amanita_ into groups based on the manner in +which the volva ruptures. While it seems to be quite fixed and +characteristic in certain species, it is so extremely variable in others +as to lead to the suspicion that it is responsible in some cases for the +multiplication and confusion of species. At the same time, the +occurrence of some of these forms at certain seasons of the year +suggests the desirability of prolonged and careful study of fresh +material, and the search for additional evidence of the unity of these +forms, or of their definite segregation. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 59.--Amanita verna, white (natural size). +Copyright.] + +Since the _Amanita phalloides_ occurs usually in woods, or along borders +of woods, there is little danger of confounding it with edible mushrooms +collected in lawns distant from the woods, and in open fields. However, +it does occur in lawns bordering on woods, and in the summer of 1899 I +found several of the white forms of this species in a lawn distant from +the woods. This should cause beginners and those not thoroughly familiar +with the appearance of the plant to be extremely cautious against eating +mushrooms simply because they were not collected in or near the woods. +Furthermore, sometimes the white form of the deadly amanita possesses a +faint tinge of pink in the gills, which might lead the novice to mistake +it for the common mushroom. The bulb of the deadly amanita is usually +inserted quite deep in the soil or leaf mold, and specimens are often +picked leaving the very important character of the volva in the ground, +and then the plant might easily be taken for the common mushroom, or +more likely for the smooth lepiota, _Lepiota naucina_, which is entirely +white, the gills only in age showing a faint pink tinge. It is very +important, therefore, that, until one has such familiarity with these +plants that they are easily recognized in the absence of some of these +characters, the stem should be carefully dug from the soil. In the case +of the specimens of the deadly amanita growing in the lawn on the campus +of Cornell University, the stems were sunk to three to four inches in +the quite hard ground. + +=Amanita verna= Bull. =Deadly Poisonous.=--The _Amanita verna_ is by +some considered as only a white form of the _Amanita phalloides_. It is +of a pure white color, and this in addition to its very poisonous +property has led to its designation as the "destroying angel." + +[Illustration: FIGURE 60.--Amanita verna, "buttons," cap bursting +through the volva; left hand plant in section (natural size). +Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is smooth and viscid when moist; the gills free; the =stem= +stuffed or hollow in age; the =annulus= forms a broad collar, and the +=volva= is split at the apex, and being quite stout, the free limb is +prominent, and it hugs more or less closely to the base of the stem. +Figure 59 represents the form of the plant which Gillet recognizes as +_A. verna_; the pileus convex, the annulus broad and entire, and the +stem scaly. These floccose scales are formed as a result of the +separation of the annulus from the outer layer of the stem. + +The characters presented in the formation of the veil and annulus in +this species are very interesting, and sometimes present two of the +types in the formation of the veil and annulus found in the genus +_Amanita_. In the very young plant, in the button stage, as the young +gills lie with their edges close against the side of the stem, loose +threads extend from the edges of the gills to the outer layer of the +stem. This outer layer of the stem forms the veil, and is more or less +loosely connected with the firmer portion of the stem by loose threads. +As the pileus expands, the threads connecting the edges of the gills +with the veil are stronger than those which unite the veil with the +surface of the stem. The veil is separated from the stem then, +simultaneously, or nearly so, throughout its entire extent, and is not +ripped up from below as in _Amanita velatipes_. + +As the pileus expands, then, the veil lies closely over the edges of the +gills until finally it is freed from them and from the margin of the +pileus. As the veil is split off from the surface of the stem, the +latter is torn into numerous floccose scales, as shown in Fig. 59. + +In other cases, in addition to the primary veil which is separated from +the stem in the manner described above, there is a secondary veil formed +in exactly the same way as that described for _Amanita velatipes_. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 61.--Amanita verna, small form, white (natural +size). Copyright.] + +In such cases there are two veils, or a double veil, each attached to +the margin of the pileus, the upper one ascending over the edges of the +gills and attached above on the stem, while the lower one descends and +is attached below as it is being ripped up from a second layer of the +stem. Figures 59--61 are from plants collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., +in September, 1899. + +=Amanita virosa= Fr. =Deadly Poisonous.=--This plant also by some is +regarded as only a form of _Amanita phalloides_. It is a pure white +plant and the pileus is viscid as in the _A. verna_ and _A. phalloides_. +The volva splits at the apex as in _A. verna_, but the veil is very +fragile and torn into shreds as the pileus expands, portions of it +clinging to the margin of the cap as well as to the stem, as shown in +Fig. 62. The stem is also adorned with soft floccose scales. Gillet +further states that the pileus is conic to campanulate, not becoming +convex as in _A. verna_ and _A. phalloides_. + +The variability presented in the character of the veil and in the shape +of the pileus suggests, as some believe, that all these are but forms of +a single variable species. On the other hand, we need a more careful and +extended field study of these variations. Doubtless different +interpretations of the specific limits by different students will lead +some to recognize several species where others would recognize but one. +Since species are not distinct creations there may be tolerably good +grounds for both of these views. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 62.--Amanita virosa, white (natural size). +Copyright.] + +=Amanita floccocephala= Atkinson. =Probably Poisonous.=--This species +occurs in woods and groves at Ithaca during the autumn. The plants are +medium sized, 6--8 cm. high, the cap 3--6 cm. broad, and the stems 4--6 +mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is hemispherical to convex, and expanded, smooth, whitish, +with a tinge of straw color, and covered with torn, thin floccose +patches of the upper half of the circumscissile volva. The =gills= are +white and adnexed. The =spores= are globose, 7--10 mu. The =stem= is +cylindrical or slightly tapering above, hollow or stuffed, floccose +scaly and abruptly bulbous below. The =annulus= is superior, that is, +near the upper end of the stem, membranaceous, thin, sometimes tearing, +as in _A. virosa_. The =volva= is circumscissile, the margin of the bulb +not being clear cut and prominent, because there is much refuse matter +and soil interwoven with the lower portion of the volva. The bulb +closely resembles those in Cooke's figure (Illustrations, 4) of _A. +mappa_. Figure 63 shows these characters well. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 63.--Amanita floccocephala (natural size). +Copyright.] + +=Amanita velatipes= Atkinson. =Properties Unknown.=--This plant is very +interesting since it shows in a striking manner the peculiar way in +which the veil is formed in some of the species of _Amanita_. Though not +possessing brilliant colors, it is handsome in its form and in the +peculiar setting of the volva fragments on the rich brown or faint +yellow of the pileus. It has been found on several occasions during the +month of July in a beech woods on one of the old flood plains of +Six-mile creek, one of the gorges in the vicinity of Ithaca, N. Y. The +mature plant is from 15--20 cm. high, the cap from 8--10 cm. broad, and +the stem 1--1.5 cm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is viscid when moist, rounded, then broadly oval and convex +to expanded, striate on the margin, sometimes in old plants the margin +is elevated. It is smooth throughout, and of a soft, rich hair brown, or +umber brown color, darker in the center. Sometimes there is a decided +but dull maize yellow tinge over the larger part of the pileus, but even +then the center is often brown in color, shading into the yellow color +toward the margin; the light yellow forms in age, often thinning out to +a cream color. The flesh of the pileus is rather thin, even in the +center, and becomes very thin toward the margin, as shown in Fig. 67. +The scales on the pileus are more or less flattened, rather thin, +clearly separated from the pileus, and easily removed. They are more or +less angular, and while elongated transversely at first, become nearly +isodiametric as the pileus becomes fully expanded, passing from an +elongated form to rectangular, or sinuous in outline, the margin more or +less upturned, especially in age, when they begin to loosen and "peel" +from the surface of the cap. They are lighter in color than the pileus +and I have never observed the yellow tint in them. The =gills= are +white, broad at the middle, about 1 cm., and taper gradually toward each +end. The =spores= are usually inequilaterally oval, 8--10 x 6--7 mu, +granular when young, when mature with a large oil drop. + +[Illustration: PLATE 15, FIGURE 64.--Amanita velatipes (3/4 natural +size). Cap hair-brown, or umber-brown, sometimes with tinge of lemon +yellow, or entirely maize-yellow. Scales, gills, and stem white. +Copyright.] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 65.--Amanita velatipes. Different stages of +"buttons," in the right-hand plant the upper part of the volva +separating to form the scales (natural size). Copyright.] + +The =stem= is cylindrical, somewhat bulbous, the bulb often tapering +abruptly, as shown in Figs. 64, 66. The stem is white, smooth, or +floccose scaly where the veil has been ripped off from it. It is +hollow and stuffed with loose cottony threads, as shown in Fig. 67. The +=veil= is formed by the ripping up of the outer layer of the stem as the +latter elongates and as the pileus expands. When it is freed from the +margin of the cap it collapses and hangs downward as a broad collar +(Fig. 64). The =annulus= is inferior, its position on the stem being due +to the peculiar way in which it is formed. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 66.--Amanita velatipes. Three plants natural size, +the left-hand one sectioned, showing stuffed center of stem. Others show +how veil is ripped up from the stem. For other details see text. +Copyright.] + +Some of the stages of development are illustrated in Figs. 64--67. The +buttons are queer looking objects, the bulb being the most prominent +part. It tapers abruptly below, and on the upper side is the small +rounded young cap seated in the center. The volva is present as a rough +floccose layer, covering the upper part of the bulb and the young cap. +As the stem elongates and the pileus enlarges and expands, the volva is +torn into areolate patches. The lower patches, those adjoining the +margin of the cap and the upper part of the bulb, are separated in a +more or less concentric manner. One or more of them lie on the upper +part of the bulb, forming the "limb" of the "ocreate" volva. Others lie +around the margin of the pileus. Sometimes an annular one bordering the +pileus and bulb is left clinging part way up on the stem, as shown in +Fig. 66. The concentric arrangement on the pileus is sometimes shown for +a considerable time, as in Fig. 67, the elongated areas being present in +greater number at this age of the pileus. However, as the pileus expands +more, these are separated into smaller areas and their connection with +the surface of the pileus becomes less firm. + +The formation of the veil and annulus can be easily followed in these +figures. The margin of the cap in the button stage is firmly connected +with the outer layer of the stem at its lower end. This probably occurs +by the intermingling growth of the threads from the lower end of the +stem and the margin of the cap, while the edges of the gills are quite +free from the stem. Now as the stem elongates and the cap expands the +veil is "ripped" up from the outer part of the stem. This is very +clearly shown in Fig. 66, especially where two strips on the stem have +become disconnected from the margin of the cap and are therefore left in +position on the outside of the stem. + +This species is related to _A. excelsa_ Fr., which is said to have a +superior ring. + +[Illustration: PLATE 16, FIGURE 67.--Amanita velatipes. The right-hand +plant shows how the veil is ripped up from the stem and also shows the +transversely elongate scales on the cap. For details see text (natural +size). Copyright.] + +=Amanita cothurnata= Atkinson. =Probably Poisonous.=--The booted +amanita, _Amanita cothurnata_, I have found in two different years in +the Blue Ridge mountains at Blowing Rock, N. C., once in 1888, during +the first week of September, and again during the three first weeks in +September, 1899. It occurs sparingly during the first week or so of +September, and during the middle of the month is very abundant. The +species seems to be clearly distinct from other species of _Amanita_, +and there are certain characters so persistent as to make it easily +recognizable. It ranges in height from 7--12 cm. and the caps are 3--7 +cm. or more broad, while the stems are 4--10 mm. in thickness. The +entire plant is usually white, but in some specimens the cap has a tinge +of citron yellow, or in others tawny olive, in the center. + +[Illustration: PLATE 17, FIGURE 68.--Amanita cothurnata. Different +stages of development; for details see text. Entire plant white, +sometimes tinge of umber at center of cap, and rarely slight tinge of +lemon-yellow at center (natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is fleshy, and passes, in its development, from nearly +globose to hemispherical, convex, expanded, and when specimens are very +old sometimes the margin is elevated. It is usually white, though +specimens are found with a tinge of citron yellow in the center, or +of tawny olive in the center of other specimens. The pileus is viscid, +strongly so when moist. It is finely striate on the margin, and covered +with numerous, white, floccose scales from the upper half of the volva, +forming more or less dense patches, which may wash off in heavy rains. +The =gills= are rounded next the stem, and quite remote from it. The +edge of the gills is often eroded or frazzly from the torn out threads +with which they were loosely connected to the upper side of the veil in +the young or button stage. The =spores= are globose or nearly so, with a +large "nucleus" nearly filling the spore. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 69.--Amanita cothurnata. Different stages opening +up of plant, the two center ones showing veil being ripped from stem, +but veil narrow. The right-hand illustration has been scratched +transversely, these marks not being characteristic of the plant (natural +size). Copyright.] + +The =stem= is cylindrical, even, and expanded below into quite a large +oval bulb, the stem just above the bulb being margined by a close +fitting roll of the volva, and the upper edge of this presenting the +appearance of having been sewed at the top like the rolled edge of a +garment or buskin. The surface of the stem is minutely floccose scaly or +strongly so, and decidedly hollow even from a very young stage, or +sometimes when young with loose threads in the cavity. + +Figures 68--70, from plants (No. 3715, C. U. herbarium) collected at +Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899, illustrate certain of the +features in the form and development of this plant. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 70.--Amanita cothurnata. Two plants in section +showing clearly hollow stem, veil attachment, etc. (natural size). +Copyright.] + +In _Amanita frostiana_ the remains of the volva sometimes form a similar +collar, but not so stout, on the base of the stem. The variations in _A. +frostiana_ where the stem, annulus and gills are white might suggest +that there is a close relationship between _A. frostiana_ and _A. +cothurnata_, and that the latter is only a form of the former. From a +careful study of the two plants growing side by side the evidence is +convincing that the two are distinct. _Amanita frostiana_ occurs also at +Blowing Rock, appearing earlier in the season than _A. cothurnata_, and +also being contemporary with it. _A. frostiana_ is more variable, not +nearly so viscid, nor nearly so abundant, the stem is solid or stuffed, +the annulus is more frail and evolved from the stem in a different +manner. The volva does not leave such a constant and well defined roll +where it separated on the stem transversely, and the pileus is yellow or +orange. When _A. cothurnata_ is yellowish at all it is a different tint +of yellow and then only a tinge of yellow at the center. Albino or faded +forms of _A. frostiana_ might occur, but we would not expect them to +appear at a definite season of the year in great abundance while the +normal form, showing no intergrading specimens in the same locality, +continued to appear in the same abundance and with the same characters +as before. The dried plants of _A. cothurnata_ are apt to become tinged +with yellow on the gills, the upper part of the stem and upper part of +the annulus during the processes of drying, but the pileus does not +change in like manner, nor do these plants show traces of yellow on +these parts when fresh. The spores are also decidedly different, though +the shape and size do not differ to any great extent. In _A. frostiana_ +and the pale forms of the species the spores are nearly globose or oval, +rarely with a tendency to become elliptical, but _the content is quite +constantly finely granular_, while the spores of _A. cothurnata_ are +perhaps more constantly globose or nearly so, but the spore is _nearly +filled with a highly refractive oil globule or "nucleus."_ The pileus +of _A. frostiana_ is also thinner than that of _A. cothurnata_. It is +nearer, in some respects, to specimens of _Amanita pantherina_ received +from Bresadola, of Austria-Hungary. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 71.--Amanita spreta. The two outside plants show +the free limb of the volva lying close against the stem (natural size, +often larger). Copyright.] + +=Amanita spreta= Pk. =Said to be Poisonous.=--According to Peck this +species grows in open or bushy places. The specimens illustrated in Fig. +71 grew in sandy ground by the roadside near trees in the edge of an +open field at Blowing Rock, N. C., and others were found in a grove. The +plants are 10--15 cm. high, the caps 6--12 cm. broad, and the stems +8--12 mm. in thickness. The =pileus= is convex to expanded, gray or +light drab, and darker on the center, or according to Dr. Peck it may be +white. It is smooth, or with only a few remnants of the volva, striate +on the margin, and 1--.5 cm. thick at the center. The =gills= are white, +adnexed, that is they reach the stem by their upper angle. The =stem= is +of the same color as the pileus, but somewhat lighter, white to light +gray or light drab, cylindrical, not bulbous, hollow or stuffed. The +=annulus= is thin and attached above the middle of the stem. The =volva= +is sordid white, and sheathes the stem with a long free limb of 3--5 +lobes. It splits at the apex, but portions sometimes cling to the +surface of the pileus. + +Figure 71 is from plants (No. 3707, C. U.) collected at Blowing Rock, N. +C., September, 1899. + +=Amanita caesarea= Scop. =Edible=, _but use great caution_.--This plant +is known as the orange amanita, royal agaric, Caesar's agaric, etc. It is +one of the most beautiful of all the agarics, and is well distributed +over the earth. With us it is more common in the Southern States. It +occurs in the summer and early autumn in the woods. It is easily +recognized by its usually large size, yellow or orange color of the cap, +gills, stem and ring, and the prominent, white, sac-like volva at the +base of the stem. It is usually 12--20 cm. high, the cap 5--10 cm. +broad, and the stems 6--10 mm. in thickness, though it may exceed this +size, and depauperate forms are met with which are much smaller. + +The =pileus= is ovate to bell-shaped, convex, and finally more or less +expanded, when the surface may be nearly flat or the center may be +somewhat elevated or umbonate and the margin curved downward. The +surface is smooth except at the margin, where it is prominently striate. +The color varies from orange to reddish or yellow, usually the well +developed and larger specimens have the deeper and richer colors, while +the smaller specimens have the lighter colors, and the color is usually +deeper on the center of the pileus. The =gills= are yellow, and free +from the stem. The =stem= is hollow, even in young plants, when it may +be stuffed with loose threads. It is often very floccose scaly below the +annulus. It is cylindrical, only slightly enlarged below, where it is +covered by the large, fleshy, sac-like white volva. The =annulus= is +membranaceous, large, and hangs like a broad collar from the upper part +of the stem. The stem and ring are orange or yellow, the depth of the +color varying more with the size of the plant than is the case with the +color of the cap. In small specimens the stem is often white, especially +in depauperate specimens are the stem and annulus white, and even the +gills are white when the volva may be so reduced as to make it difficult +to distinguish the specimens from similar specimens of the poisonous fly +agaric. + +[Illustration: PLATE 18, FIGURE 72.--Amanita caesarea. Different stages +of development (2/3 natural size). Cap, stem, gills, veil orange or +yellow. Volva white. Copyright.] + +In the button stage the plant is ovate and the white color of the volva, +which at this time entirely surrounds the plants, presents an appearance +not unlike that of an egg. The volva splits open at the apex as the stem +elongates. The veil is often connected by loose threads with the outer +portion of the stem and as the pileus expands this is torn away, leaving +coarse floccose scales on the stem. Some of the different stages in the +opening of the plant are shown in Fig. 72. This illustration is taken +from a photograph of plants (No. 3726, C. U. herbarium) collected at +Blowing Rock, N. C., September, 1899. The plant is said to be one of the +best esculents, and has been prized as an article of food from ancient +times. Great caution should be used in distinguishing it from the fly +agaric and from other amanitas. + +[Illustration: PLATE 19. + + FIG. 1.--Amanita rubescens + FIG. 2.--A. caesarea. + Copyright 1900.] + +=Amanita rubescens= Fr. =Edible=, _but use great caution_.--The reddish +amanita, _Amanita rubescens_, is so called because of the sordid reddish +color diffused over the entire plant, and especially because bruised +portions quickly change to a reddish color. The plant is often quite +large, from 12--20 cm. high, the cap 8--12 cm. broad and the stem 8--12 +mm. in thickness, but it is sometimes much smaller. It occurs during the +latter part of the summer and in early autumn, in woods and open places. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 73.--Amanita rubescens. Plant partly expanded. +Dull reddish brown, stains reddish when bruised; for other details see +text (natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is oval to convex, and becoming expanded when old. It is +smooth or faintly striate on the margin, and covered with numerous +scattered, thin, floccose, grayish scales, forming remnants of the +larger part of the volva or outer veil. The color of the cap varies +correspondingly, but is always tinged more or less distinctly with pink, +red, or brownish red hues. The =gills= are white or whitish and free +from the stem. The =stem= is nearly cylindrical, tapering some above, +and with a prominent bulb which often tapers abruptly below. In addition +to the suffused dull reddish color the stem is often stained with red, +especially where handled or touched by some object. There are very few +evidences of the volva on the stem since the volva is so floccose and +torn into loose fragments, most of which remain on the surface of the +cap. Sometimes a few of these loose fragments are seen on the upper +portion of the bulb, but they are easily removed by handling or by +rains. The =annulus= is membranous, broad, and fragile. + +Since the plant has become well known it is regarded as excellent and +wholesome for food and pleasant to the taste. In case of the larger +specimens there should be no difficulty in distinguishing it from others +by those who care to compare the descriptions closely with the fresh +specimens. But as in all cases beginners should use extreme caution in +eating plants they have not become thoroughly familiar with. Small +specimens of this species sometimes show but little of the reddish +color, and are therefore difficult to determine. + +Figures 73 and 74 are from plants (No. 3727 C. U. herbarium) collected +at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. + +=Amanita solitaria= Bull. =Edible=, _but use caution_.--The solitary +amanita, like many other plants, is not always true to its name. While +it often occurs solitary, it does occur sometimes in groups. It is one +of the largest of the amanitas. Its large size, together with its chalky +white or grayish white color, and ragged or shaggy appearance, makes it +a striking object in the woods, or along roadsides in woods where it +grows. Frequently parts of the cap, the entire stem and the gills are +covered with a white, crumbly, floccose substance of a mealy consistency +which often sticks to the hands or other objects. The plant ranges from +15--20 cm. or more high, the cap from 8--15 cm. broad, and the stems are +1--2 cm. or more in thickness. + +In form the =pileus= ranges from nearly globose in the button stage, to +hemispherical, convex and expanded, when quite old the margin becoming +more or less elevated. It is covered either with flaky or floccose +portions of the volva, or with more or less distinct conic white scales, +especially toward the center. The conic scales are easily rubbed off in +handling or are easily washed off by rains. Many of them are loosened +and fall because of the tension produced by the expanding pileus on the +surface of which they rest. These scales vary in size from quite small +ones, appearing like granules, to those fewer in number and larger, 3 +mm. high and nearly as broad at the base. In other cases the scales are +harder and stouter and dark colored. These forms will be discussed after +the description of the other parts of the plant. + +[Illustration: PLATE 20, FIGURE 74.--Amanita rubescens. Under and side +view. Dull reddish brown, stains reddish where bruised (3/4 natural +size). Copyright.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 21, FIGURE 75.--Amanita solitaria. Entirely white, +or cap and scales sordid buff, dull brown, or grayish in some plants. +For details see text (1/2 natural size). Copyright.] + +The =gills= are free, or are only attached by the upper inner angle; the +edges are often floccose where they are torn from the slight union with +the upper surface of the veil. The =stem= is cylindrical, solid or +stuffed when old, enlarged usually below into a prominent bulb which +then tapers into a more or less elongated root-like process, sometimes +extending 5--10 cm. in the ground below the bulb. In rare cases the bulb +is not present, but the cylindrical stem extends for a considerable +distance into the ground. The =veil= is a very interesting part of the +plant and the manner in which it forms and disappears as the cap expands +is worth a careful study. This is well shown in Figs. 75, 76, from +photographs of plants (No. 3731 C. U. herbarium) made at Blowing Rock, +N. C., during September, 1899. + +During the latter part of August and the first three weeks of September +the plants were quite common in the mountain woods at Blowing Rock. In +certain features there was close agreement in the case of all the +specimens examined, especially in the long rooting character of the base +of the stem. The veil and annulus were also quite constant in their +characters, though sometimes a tendency was manifested to split up more +irregularly than at other times. In the character of the warts of the +pileus there was great variation, showing typical forms of _Amanita +solitaria_ and grading into forms which might be taken for typical +_Amanita strobiliformis_. Especially is this so in the case of some of +my specimens (No. 3733), where the scales are pyramidal, dark brown, +surrounded by a sordid buff or grayish area, and these latter areas +separated by narrow chinks whitish in color. The scales in this specimen +are fixed quite firmly to the surface of the pileus. In other specimens +(No. 3732) these hard scales remove quite easily, while in still another +the pileus is almost smooth, even the floccose scales having been +obliterated, while a very few of the hard angular warts are still +present. In another half expanded plant (of No. 3732) the warts are +pyramidal, 4--6 mm. long at the center of the pileus and rather closely +imbricated, hard, and firmly joined to the surface of the cap. In Nos. +3733 and 3731 the spores measure 7--9 x 4--6 mu. In 3732 they are longer, +varying from 7--11 mu. + +The specimens with the long hard scales suggest _Amanita strobiliformis_ +Vittad., but the long rooting base of the stem does not agree with the +description of that plant, but does clearly agree with _Amanita +solitaria_ Bull. A study of the variations in these plants suggests that +_Amanita solitaria_ and _strobiliformis_ Vittad., represent only +variations in a single species as Bulliard interpreted the species more +than a century ago. Forms of the plant are also found which suggest +that _A. polypyramis_ B. & C., collected in North Carolina, is but one +of the variations of _A. solitaria_. + +Figures 75, 76 show well certain stages in the development of this +plant. The conical or pyramidal warts are formed in a very young stage +of the plant by the primary separation of the outer part of the volva, +and as the pileus expands more, and the cessation of growth of the outer +veil proceeds inward, the scales become more widely separated at the +apex and broader at the base. In some cases the volva is probably +thinner than in others, and with the rapid expansion of the pileus in +wet weather the scales would be smaller, or more floccose. But with +different conditions, when it is not so wet, the plant expands less +rapidly, the surface of the pileus becomes drier, the volva layer does +not separate so readily and the fissures between the scales proceed +deeper, and sometimes probably enter the surface of the pileus, so that +the size of the warts is augmented. A similar state of things sometimes +takes place on the base of the stem at the upper margin of the bulb, +where the concentric fissures may extend to some distance in the stem, +making the scales here more prominent in some specimens than in others. +A similar variation in the character of the scales on the bulb of +_Amanita muscaria_ is sometimes presented. + +The veil is often loosely attached to the edges of the gills, and so is +stripped off from the stem quite early. Sometimes it is more strongly +adherent to the stem, or portions of it may be, when it is very +irregularly ruptured as it is peeled off from the stem, as shown in the +plant near the left side in Fig. 75. The veil is very fragile and often +tears a little distance from the margin of the cap, while the portion +attached to the stem forms the annulus. This condition is shown in the +case of three plants in Fig. 75. The plant is said to be edible. + + +AMANITOPSIS Roze. + +This genus has white spores, and a volva, but the annulus and inner veil +are wanting. In other respects it agrees with _Amanita_. It is +considered as a sub-genus of _Amanita_ by some. + +[Illustration: PLATE 22, FIGURE 76.--Amanita solitaria. Three plants, +3/4 natural size. Copyright.] + +=Amanitopsis vaginata= (Bull.) Roz. =Edible.=--The sheathed amanitopsis, +_A. vaginata_, is a quite common and widely distributed plant in woods. +It is well named since the prominent volva forms a large sheath to the +cylindrical base of the stem. The plant occurs in several forms, a gray +or mouse colored form, and a brownish or fulvous form, and sometimes +nearly white. These forms are recognized by some as varieties, and by +others as species. The plants are 8--15 cm. high, the caps 3--7 cm. +broad, and the stems 5--8 mm. in thickness. + +[Illustration: PLATE 23, FIGURE 77.--Amanitopsis vaginata. Tawny form +(natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is from ovate to bell-shaped, then convex and expanded, +smooth, rarely with fragments of the volva on the surface. The margin is +thin and marked by deep furrows and ridges, so that it is deeply +striate, or the terms sulcate or pectinate sulcate are used to express +the character of the margin. The term pectinate sulcate is employed on +account of a series of small elevations on the ridges, giving them a +pectinate, or comb-like, appearance. The color varies from gray to mouse +color, brown, or ochraceous brown. The flesh is white. The =gills= are +white or nearly so, and free. The =spores= are globose, 7--10 mu in +diameter. The =stem= is cylindrical, even, or slightly tapering upward, +hollow or stuffed, not bulbous, smooth, or with mealy particles or +prominent floccose scales. These scales are formed by the separation of +the edges of the gills from the surface of the stem, to which they are +closely applied before the pileus begins to expand. Threads of mycelium +growing from the edge of the lamellae and from the stem intermingle. When +the pileus expands these are torn asunder, or by their pull tear up the +outer surface of the stem. The =volva= forms a prominent sheath which is +usually quite soft and easily collapses (Fig. 77). + +The entire plant is very brittle and fragile. It is considered an +excellent one for food. I often eat it raw when collecting. + +Authors differ as to the number of species recognized in the plant as +described above. Secretan recognized as many as ten species. The two +prominent color forms are quite often recognized as two species, or by +others as varieties; the gray or mouse colored form as _A. livida_ +Pers., and the tawny form as _A. spadicea_ Pers. According to Fries and +others the _livida_ appears earlier in the season than _spadicea_, and +this fact is recognized by some as entitling the two to specific rank. +Plowright (Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc., p. 40, 1897--98) points out that in +European forms of _spadicea_ there is a second volva inside the outer, +and in _livida_ there are "folds or wrinkles of considerable size on the +inner surface of the volva." He thinks the two entitled to specific +rank. At Ithaca and in the mountains of North Carolina I have found both +forms appearing at the same season, and thus far have been unable to +detect the differences noted by Plowright in the volva. But I have never +found intergrading color forms, and have not yet satisfied myself as to +whether or not the two should be entitled to specific rank. + +Some of the other species of _Amanitopsis_ found in this country are +=A. nivalis= Grev., an entirely white plant regarded by some as only a +white form of =A. vaginata=. Another white plant is =A. volvata= Pk., +which has elliptical spores, and is striate on the margin instead of +sulcate. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 78.--Amanitopsis farinosa. Cap grayish (natural +size). Copyright.] + +=Amanitopsis farinosa= Schw.--The mealy agaric, or powdery amanita, is a +pretty little species. It was first collected and described from North +Carolina by de Schweinitz (Synop. fung. Car. No. 552, 1822), and the +specimens illustrated in Fig. 78 were collected by me at Blowing Rock, +N. C., during September, 1899. Peck has given in the 33rd Report N. Y. +State Mus., p. 49, an excellent description of the plant, though it +often exceeds somewhat the height given by him. It ranges from 5--8 or +10 cm. high, the cap from 2--3 cm. broad, and the stem 3--6 mm. in +thickness. + +The =pileus= is from subglobose to convex and expanded, becoming nearly +plane or even depressed by the elevation of the margin in old specimens. +The color is gray or grayish brown, or mouse colored. The pileus is +thin, and deeply striate on the margin, covered with a grayish floccose, +powdery or mealy substance, the remnant of the evanescent volva. This +substance is denser at the center and is easily rubbed off. The =gills= +are white and free from the stem. The =spores= are subglobose and +ovate to elliptical, 6--7 mu long. The =stem= is cylindrical, even, +hollow or stuffed, whitish or gray and very slightly enlarged at the +base into a small rounded bulb which is quite constant and +characteristic, and at first is covered on its upper margin by the +floccose matter from the volva. + +[Illustration: PLATE 24, FIGURE 79.--Lepiota naucina. Entirely white +(natural size).] + +At Blowing Rock the plants occurred in sandy soil by roadsides or in +open woods. In habit it resembles strikingly forms of _Amanitopsis +vaginata_, but the volva is entirely different (Fig. 78). Although _A. +vaginata_ was common in the same locality, I searched in vain for +intermediate forms which I thought might be found. Sometimes the +floccose matter would cling together more or less, and portions of it +remained as patches on the lower part of the stem, while depauperate +forms of _A. vaginata_ would have a somewhat reduced volva, but in no +case did I find intermediate stages between the two kinds of volva. + + +LEPIOTA Fr. + +The genus _Lepiota_ lacks a volva, but the veil is present forming a +ring on the stem. The genus is closely related to _Amanita_, from which +it differs in the absence of the volva, or perhaps more properly +speaking in the fact that the universal veil is firmly connected +(concrete with) with the pileus, and with the base of the stem, so that +a volva is not formed. The gills are usually free from the stem, some +being simply adnexed, but in some species connected with a collar near +the stem. The stem is fleshy and is easily separable from the cap. A +number of the species are edible. Peck, 35th Report N. Y. State Mus., p. +150--164, describes 18 species. Lloyd, Mycol. Notes, November, 1898, +describes 9 species. + +=Lepiota naucina= Fr. (_Lepiota naucinoides_ Pk., _Annularia laevis_ +Krombh.) =Edible.=--The smooth lepiota, _L. naucina_, grows in lawns, in +pastures and by roadsides, etc. It occurs during the latter part of +summer and during autumn, being more abundant in September and early +October. It is entirely white, or the cap is sometimes buff, and in age +the gills become dirty pink in color. It is from 8--12 cm. high, the cap +5--10 cm. broad, and the stem 8--15 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is very fleshy, nearly globose, then convex to nearly +expanded, smooth, or rarely the surface is broken into minute scales. +The =gills= are first white, free from the stem, and in age assume a +dull pink tinge. The =spores= are usually white in mass, but rarely when +caught on white paper they show a faint pink tinge. The spores are +elliptical to oval. The =stem= is nearly cylindrical, gradually +enlarging below so that it is clavate, nearly hollow or stuffed with +loose threads. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 80.--Lepiota naucina.--Section of three plants, +different ages.] + +Since the plant occurs in the same situations as the _Agaricus +campestris_ it might be mistaken for it, especially for white forms. But +of course no harm could come by eating it by mistake for the common +mushroom, for it is valued just as highly for food by some who have +eaten it. If one should look at the gills, however, they would not +likely mistake it for the common mushroom because the gills become pink +only when the plant is well expanded and quite old. There is much more +danger in mistaking it for the white amanitas, _A. phalloides_, _A. +verna_, or _A. virosa_, since the gills of these deadly plants are +white, and they do sometimes grow in lawns and other grassy places where +the smooth lepiota and the common mushroom grow. For this reason one +should study the descriptions and illustrations of these amanitas given +on preceding pages, and especially should the suggestions given there +about care in collecting plants be followed, until one is so certainly +familiar with the characters that the plants would be known "on sight." + +[Illustration: PLATE 25, FIGURE 81.--Lepiota procera. Grayish brown to +reddish brown, gills and flesh white (3/4 natural size). Copyright.] + +The pink color of the gills of this lepiota has led certain students of +the fungi into mistakes of another kind. This pink color of the gills +has led some to place the plant among the rosy spored agarics in the +genus _Annularia_, where it was named _Annularia laevis_ by Krombholtz +(vide Bresadola Funghi Mangerecci e velenosi, p. 29, 1899). It fits +the description of that plant exactly. The pink color of the gills, as +well as the fact that the gills turn brownish when dry, has led to a +confusion in some cases of the _Lepiota naucina_ with the chalky agaric, +_Agaricus cretaceus_. The external resemblance of the plants, as shown +in various illustrations, is very striking, and in the chalky agaric the +gills remain pink very late, only becoming brown when very old. + +=Lepiota procera= Scop. =Edible.=--The parasol mushroom, _Lepiota +procera_, grows in pastures, lawns, gardens, along roadsides, or in thin +woods, or in gardens. It is a large and handsome plant and when expanded +seems not inappropriately named. It is from 12--20 cm. or more high, the +cap expands from 5--12 cm., while the stem is 4--7 mm. in thickness. It +occurs during summer and in early autumn. + +The =pileus= is oval, then bell-shaped, convex and nearly expanded, with +usually a more or less prominent elevation (umbo) at the center. +Sometimes it is depressed at the center. It is grayish brown or reddish +brown in color on the surface and the flesh is whitish. As the cap +expands the surface layer ceases to grow and is therefore cracked, first +narrow chinks appearing, showing white or grayish threads underneath. As +the cap becomes more expanded the brown surface is torn into scales, +which give the cap a more or less shaggy appearance except on the umbo, +where the color is more uniform. The torn surface of the pileus shows +numerous radiating fibres, and it is soft and yielding to the touch. The +=gills= are remote from the stem, broad and crowded. The =spores= are +long, elliptical, 12--17 mu long. The =stem= is cylindrical, hollow, or +stuffed, even, enlarged below into a prominent bulb, of the same color +as the pileus, though paler, especially above the annulus. The surface +is usually cracked into numerous small scales, the chinks between +showing the white inner portion of the stem. The =ring= is stout, +narrow, usually quite free from the stem, so that it can be moved up and +down on the stem, and is called a movable ring. + +Figure 81 is from plants (No. 3842, C. U. herbarium) collected in a +garden at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. + +A closely related plant, _Lepiota rachodes_ Vitt., has smaller spores, +9--12 x 7--9 mu. It is also edible, and by some considered only a variety +of _L. procera_. It is rare in this country, but appears about Boston in +considerable quantities "in or near greenhouses or in enriched soil out +of doors," where it has the appearance of an introduced plant (Webster, +Rhodora, 1: 226, 1899). It is a much stouter plant than _L. procera_, +the pileus usually depressed, much more coarsely scaly, and usually +grows in dense clusters, while _L. procera_ usually occurs singly or +scattered, is more slender, often umbonate. _L. rachodes_ has a veil +with a double edge, the edges more or less fringed. The veil is fixed to +the stem until the plant is quite mature, when it becomes movable. The +flesh of the plant on exposure to the air becomes a brownish orange +tint. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 82.--Lepiota americana. Scales and center of cap +reddish or reddish brown. Entire plant turns reddish on drying (natural +size). Copyright.] + +=Lepiota morgani= Pk.--This plant occurs from Ohio, southward and west. +It grows in grassy places, especially in wet pastures. It is one of the +largest of the lepiotas, ranging from 20--40 cm. high, the cap 20--30 +cm. broad, and the stem about 2 cm. in thickness. The =pileus=, when +fully expanded, is whitish, with large dark scales, especially toward +the center. The =ring= is large, sometimes movable, and the =gills= and +=spores= are greenish. Some report the plant as edible, while others say +illness results from eating it. + +=Lepiota americana= Pk. =Edible.=--This plant is widely distributed in +the United States. The plants occur singly or are clustered, 6--12 cm. +high, the cap 4--10 cm. broad, and the stem 4--10 mm. in thickness. The +cap is adorned with reddish or reddish brown scales except on the +center, where the color is uniform because the surface is not broken up +into scales. The flesh is white, but changes to reddish when cut or +bruised, and the whole plant becomes reddish on drying. + +Figure 82 is from plants (No. 2718, C. U. herbarium) collected at +Ithaca. + +The European plant, _L. badhami_, also reported in this country, changes +to a brownish red. It is believed by some to be identical with _L. +americana_. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 83.--Lepiota cristata. Entirely white, but scales +grayish or pinkish brown, stem often flesh color (natural size). +Copyright.] + +=Lepiota acutesquamosa= Weinm.--This is a medium or small sized plant +with a floccose pileus adorned with small, acute, erect scales, and has +a loose, hairy or wooly veil which is often torn irregularly. The erect +scales fall away from the pileus and leave little scars where they were +attached. + +=Lepiota cristata= A. & S. =Edible.=--The crested lepiota, _Lepiota +cristata_, occurs in grassy places and borders of woods, in groves, +etc., from May to September, and is widely distributed. The plant is +small, 3--5 cm. high, the cap 1--4 cm. broad, and the stem 2--5 mm. in +thickness. It grows in clusters or is scattered. + +The =pileus= is ovate, bell-shaped, then convex and expanded, and thin. +The surface is at first entirely dull reddish or reddish brown, but soon +cracks into numerous scales of the same color arranged in a crested +manner, more numerous between the margin and the center, and often +arranged in a concentric manner. The center of the cap often preserves +the uniform reddish brown color because the pileus at this point does +not expand so much and therefore the surface does not crack, while the +margin often becomes white because of the disappearance of the brown +covering here. The =gills= are free from the stem, narrow, crowded, and +close to the stem. The =spores= are more or less angular, elongated, +more narrowed at one end, and measure 5--8 x 3--4 mu. The =stem= is +slender, cylindrical, hollow, whitish, smooth. The =ring= is small, +white, and easily breaks up and disappears. + +The characters of the plant are well shown in Fig. 83 from plants +collected at Ithaca. _Lepiota angustana_ Britz. is identical, and +according to Morgan _L. miamensis_ Morgan is a white form of _L. +angustana_. + +=Lepiota asperula= Atkinson.--This lepiota resembles _A. asper_ in some +respects, but it is smaller and the spores are much smaller, being very +minute. The plant is 5--8 cm. high, the pileus 2--4 cm. broad, and the +stem 4--6 mm. in thickness. It grows in leaf mould in the woods and has +been found at Ithaca, N. Y., twice during July and September, 1897. + +The =pileus= is convex and bell-shaped, becoming nearly or quite +expanded. It is hair brown to olive brown in color. The surface is dry, +made up of interwoven threads, and is adorned with numerous small, +erect, pointed scales resembling in this respect _A. asper_ Fr. The +=gills= are white or yellowish, free, but rather close to the stem, +narrow, often eroded on the edge, sometimes forked near the stem, and +some of them arranged in pairs. The spores are oblong, smooth, and very +minute, measuring 5 x 2 mu. The =stem= is the same color as the pileus, +cylindrical, hollow, with loose threads in the cavity, enlarged into a +rounded bulb below, minutely downy to pubescent. The outer portion of +the bulb is formed of intricately interwoven threads, among which are +entangled soil and humus particles. The =veil= is white, silky, hairy, +separating from the stem like a dense cortina, the threads stretched +both above and below as shown in Fig. 84 from plants (No. 3157 C. U. +herbarium), collected at Ithaca. + +In some specimens, as the pileus expands, the spaces between the pointed +scales are torn, thus forming quite coarse scales which are often +arranged in more or less concentric rows, showing the yellow-tinged +flesh in the cracks, and the coarse scales bearing the fine point at the +center. A layer connecting the margin of the pileus with the base of the +stem and covered with fine brown points, sometimes separates from the +edge of the cap and the base of the stem, and clings partly to the +cortina and partly to the stem in much the same way that portions of the +volva cling to the stem of certain species of _Amanita_, as seen in _A. +velatipes_ (Fig. 66). Sometimes this is left on the base of the stem +and then resembles a short, free limb of a volva, and suggests a species +of _Amanita_. The scales, however, are concrete with the pileus, and the +species appears to show a closer relationship with _Lepiota_. + +[Illustration: PLATE 26, FIGURE 84.--Lepiota asperula. Cap hair-brown to +olive-brown, scales minute, pointed, gills and stem white (natural +size). Copyright.] + + +ARMILLARIA Fr. + +In the genus _Armillaria_ the inner veil which forms a ring on the stem +is present. The stem is fibrous, or the outer portion cartilaginous in +some species, and not easily separable from the substance of the pileus +(continuous with the hymenophore), and the gills are attached to the +stem, sinuate, or decurrent, spores white. Peck, 43rd Report N. Y. State +Mus., p. 40--45, describes 6 species. + +Some of the species resemble very closely certain species of _Amanita_ +or _Lepiota_, but can be distinguished by the firm continuity of the +substance of the stem and cap. + +=Armillaria mellea= Vahl. =Edible.=--This is one of the most common of +the late summer and autumn fungi, and is widely distributed over the +world. It grows about the bases of old stumps or dead trees, or from +buried roots. Sometimes it is found attached to the living roots of +trees. The plant occurs in tufts or clusters, several to many +individuals growing together, the bases of their stems connected with a +black rope-like strand from which they arise. The entire plant is often +more or less honey colored, from which the plant gets its specific name. +Its clustered habit, the usually prominent ring on the stems, and the +sharp, blackish, erect scales which usually adorn the center of the cap, +mark it as an easy plant to determine in most cases. The colors and +markings, however, vary greatly, so that some of the forms are very +puzzling. The plant varies in height from 10--15 cm., the cap from 5--10 +cm. broad, and the stem 4--10 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is oval to convex and expanded, sometimes with a slight +umbo or elevation at the center. The color varies from honey color to +nearly white, or yellowish brown to dull reddish brown, usually darker +on the center. In typical forms the pileus is adorned with pointed dark +brown, or blackish, erect, scales especially abundant over the center, +while the margin is often free from them, but may be marked with looser +floccose, brownish, or yellowish scales. Sometimes there are no blackish +pointed scales anywhere on the cap, only loose floccose colored scales, +or in some forms the cap is entirely smooth. The margin in old specimens +is often striate. The pileus is usually dry, but Webster cites an +instance in which it was viscid in wet weather. + +The =gills= are attached to the stem squarely (adnate) or they are +decurrent (extend downward on the stem), are white, or whitish, becoming +in age more or less dingy or stained. The spores are rounded or +elliptical, 6--9 mu. The =stem= is elastic, spongy within and sometimes +hollow. It is smooth or often floccose scaly below the ring, sometimes +with prominent transverse bands of a hairy substance. It is usually +whitish near the upper end, but dull brown or reddish brown below the +annulus, sometimes distinctly yellowish. The =veil= varies greatly also. +It may be membranaceous and thin, or quite thick, or in other cases may +be absent entirely. The =ring= of course varies in a corresponding +manner. As shown in Fig. 85 it is quite thick, so that it appears double +on the edge, where it broke away from the inner and outer surfaces of +the margin of the cap. It is frequently fixed to the stem, that is, not +movable, but when very thin and frail it often disappears. + +The honey colored agaric is said by nearly all writers to be edible, +though some condemn it. It is not one of the best since it is of rather +tough consistency. It is a species of considerable economic importance +and interest, since it is a parasite on certain coniferous trees, and +perhaps also on certain of the broad-leaved trees. It attacks the roots +of these trees, the mycelium making its way through the outer layer, and +then it grows beneath the bark. Here it forms fan-like sheets of +mycelium which advance along both away from the tree and towards the +trunk. It disorganizes and breaks down the tissues of the root here, +providing a space for a thicker growth of the mycelium as it becomes +older. In places the mycelium forms rope-like strands, at first white in +color, but later becoming dark brown and shining. These cords or +strands, known as _rhizomorphs_, extend for long distances underneath +the bark of the root. They are also found growing in the hollow trunks +of trees sometimes. In time enough of the roots are injured to kill the +tree, or the roots are so weakened that heavy winds will blow the trees +over. + +The fruiting plants always arise from these rhizomorphs, and by digging +carefully around the bases of the stems one can find these cords with +the stems attached, though the attachment is frail and the stems are +easily separated from the cords. Often these cords grow for years +without forming any fruit bodies. In this condition they are often found +by stripping off the bark from dead and rotting logs in the woods. These +cords were once supposed to be separate fungi, and they were known under +the name _Rhizomorpha subcorticalis_. + +[Illustration: PLATE 27, FIGURE 85.--Armillaria mellea. Showing double +ring present in some large specimens; cap honey colored, scales minute, +more numerous at center, blackish, often floccose, and sometimes wanting +(3/4 natural size, often smaller). Copyright.] + +=Armillaria aurantia= Schaeff. (_Tricholoma peckii_ Howe) +=Suspected.=--This is a very pretty species and rare in the United +States. The plants are 6--8 cm. high, the cap 4--7 cm. broad, and the +stem 6--8 mm. in thickness. It occurs in woods. It is known by its +viscid pileus, the orange brown or ochraceous rufus color of the pileus +and stem, and the color of the stem being confined to the superficial +layer, which becomes torn into concentric floccose scales, forming +numerous minute floccose irregular rings of color around the stem. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 86.--Armillaria aurantia Schaeff. (=Tricholoma +peckii Howe). Cap orange-brown or ochraceous rufus, viscid; floccose +scales on stem same color (natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex to expanded, with an umbo, and the edge inrolled, +fleshy, thin, viscid, ochraceous rufus (in specimens collected by +myself), darker on the umbo, and minutely scaly from tufts of hairs, and +the viscid cuticle easily peeling off. The =gills= are narrow, crowded, +slightly adnexed, or many free, white, becoming brown discolored where +bruised, and in drying brownish or rufus. The =spores= are minute, +globose to ovoid, or rarely sub-elliptical when a little longer, with a +prominent oil globule usually, 3--3.5 x 3--5 mu, sometimes a little +longer when the elliptical forms are presented. The =stem= is straight +or ascending, even, very floccose scaly as the pileus is unrolled from +it, scales same color as the pileus, the scales running transversely, +being separated perhaps by the elongation of the stem so that numerous +floccose rings are formed, showing the white flesh of the stem between. +The upper part of the stem, that above the annulus, is white, but the +upper part floccose. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 87.--Tricholoma personatum. Entire plant grayish +brown, tinged with lilac or purple, spores light ochraceous (natural +size, often larger).] + +This plant has been long known in Europe. There is a rather poor figure +of it in Schaeffer Table 37, and a better one in Gillet Champignons de +France, Hymenomycetes, =1=, opposite page 76, but a very good one in +Bresadola Funghi Mangerecci e Velenosi, Tavel 18, 1899. A good figure is +also given by Barla, Les Champignons des Alpes--Maritimes, Pl. 19, Figs. +1--6. The plant was first reported from America in the 41st Report, +State Museum, N. Y., p. 82, 1888, under the name _Tricholoma peckii_ +Howe, from the Catskill Mountains, N. Y. Figure 86 is from plants (No. +3991, C. U. herbarium) collected in the Blue Ridge mountains, at Blowing +Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. The European and American +description both ascribe a bitter taste to the flesh of the pileus, and +it is regarded as suspicious. + +There does not seem to be a well formed annulus, the veil only being +present in a rather young stage, as the inrolled margin of the pileus is +unrolling from the surface of the stem. It seems to be more in the form +of a universal veil resembling the veil of some of the lepiotas. It +shows a relationship with _Tricholoma_ which possesses in typical forms +a delicate veil present only in the young stage. Perhaps for this reason +it was referred by Howe to _Tricholoma_ as an undescribed species when +it was named _T. peckii_. If its affinities should prove to be with +_Tricholoma_ rather than with _Armillaria_, it would then be known as +_Tricholoma aurantium_. + + +TRICHOLOMA Fr. + +In the genus _Tricholoma_ the volva and annulus are both wanting, the +spores are white, and the gills are attached to the stem, but are more +or less strongly notched or sinuate at the stem. Sometimes the notch is +very slight. The stem is fleshy-fibrous, attached to the center of the +pileus, and is usually short and stout. In some specimens when young +there is a slight cobwebby veil which very soon disappears. The genus is +a very large one. Some species are said to be poisonous and a few are +known to be edible. Peck, 44th Report, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 38--64, +describes 46 species. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 88.--Tricholoma personatum. Section (natural +size).] + +=Tricholoma personatum= Fr. =Edible.=--This plant occurs during the +autumn and persists up to the winter months. It grows on the ground in +open places and in woods. The stem is short, usually 3--7 cm. long x +1--2 cm. in thickness, and the cap is from 5--10 cm. or more broad. The +entire plant often has a lilac or purple tint. + +The =pileus= is convex, expanded, moist, smooth, grayish to brownish +tinged with lilac or purple, especially when young, fading out in age. +When young the pileus is sometimes adorned with white mealy particles, +and when old the margin may be more or less upturned and wavy. The +=gills= are crowded, rounded next the stem, and nearly free but close to +the stem, violet or lilac when young, changing to dull reddish brown +when old. The =spores= when caught in mass are dull pink or salmon +color. They measure 7--9 mu long. The =stem= is solid, fibrous, smooth, +deep lilac when young and retaining the lilac color longer than the +pileus. Sometimes the base is bulbous as in Fig. 87. + +This plant is regarded by all writers as one of the best of the edible +fungi. Sometimes the pileus is water soaked and then the flavor is not +so fine. The position of the plant is regarded as doubtful by some +because of the more or less russety pink color of the spores when seen +in mass, and the ease with which the gills separate from the pileus, +characters which show its relationship to the genus _Paxillus_. + +=Tricholoma sejunctum= Sowerb. =Edible.=--This plant occurs on the +ground in rather open woods during late summer and in the autumn. It is +8--12 cm. high, the cap 5--8 cm. broad, and the stem 10--15 mm. in +thickness. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 89.--Tricholoma sejunctum. Cap light yellow, +streaked with dark threads on the surface, viscid. Stem and gills white +(natural size, often larger). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex to expanded, umbonate, viscid when moist, light +yellow in color and streaked with dark threads in the surface. The flesh +is white, and very fragile, differing in this respect from _T. +equestre_, which it resembles in general form. The =gills= are broad, +rather distant, broadly notched near the stem, and easily separating +from the stem. The =stem= is solid, smooth and shining white. Figure 89 +is from plants collected at Ithaca. It is said to be edible. + +[Illustration: PLATE 28, FIGURE 90.--Clitocybe candida. Entirely white +(natural size). Copyright.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 29, FIGURE 91.--Clitocybe candida. Under view of +nearly lateral stemmed individual (natural size). Copyright.] + + +CLITOCYBE Fr. + +The volva and annulus are wanting in this genus, and the spores are +white. The stem is elastic, spongy within, the outside being elastic or +fibrous, so that the fibres hold together well when the stem is twisted +or broken, as in _Tricholoma_. The stem does not separate readily from +the pileus, but the rather strong fibres are continuous with the +substance of the pileus. The gills are narrowed toward the stem, joined +squarely or decurrent (running down on the stem), very rarely some of +them notched at the stem while others of the same plant are decurrent. +In one species at least (_C. laccata_, by some placed in the genus +_Laccaria_) the gills are often strongly notched or sinuate. The cap is +usually plane, depressed, or funnel-shaped, many of the species having +the latter form. The plants grow chiefly on the ground, though a number +of species occur on dead wood. The genus contains a very large number of +species. Peck describes ten species in the 23rd Report, N. Y. State +Mus., p. 76, et. seq., also 48th Report, p. 172, several species. +Morgan, Jour. Cinn. Soc. Nat. Hist. =6=: 70--73, describes 12 species. + +=Clitocybe candida= Bres. =Edible.=--This is one of the large species of +the genus. It occurs in late autumn in Europe. It has been found on +several occasions during late autumn at Ithaca, N. Y., on the ground in +open woods, during wet weather. It occurs in clusters, though the +specimens are usually not crowded. The stem is usually very short, 2--4 +cm. long, and 2--3 cm. in thickness, while the cap is up to 10--18 cm. +broad. + +The =pileus= is sometimes regular, but often very irregular, and +produced much more strongly on one side than on the other. It is convex, +then expanded, the margin first incurved and finally wavy and often +somewhat lobed. The color is white or light buff in age. The flesh is +thick and white. The =gills= are white, stout, broad, somewhat +decurrent, some adnate. + +The taste is not unpleasant when raw, and when cooked it is agreeable. I +have eaten it on several occasions. Figures 90, 91 are from plants (No. +4612 C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca. + +=Clitocybe laccata= Scop. =Edible.=--This plant is a very common and +widely distributed one, growing in woods, fields, roadsides and other +waste places. It is usually quite easily recognized from the whitish +scurfy cap, the pink or purplish gills, though the spores are white, +from the gills being either decurrent, adnate, or more or less strongly +notched, and the stem fibrous and whitish or of a pale pink color. When +the plants are mature the pale red or pink gills appear mealy from +being covered with the numerous white spores. + +The =pileus= is thin, convex or later expanded, of a watery appearance, +nearly smooth or scurfy or slightly squamulose. The =spores= are +rounded, and possess spine-like processes, or are prominently roughened. +In the warty character of the spores this species differs from most of +the species of the genus _Clitocybe_, and some writers place it in a +different genus erected to accommodate the species of _Clitocybe_ which +have warty or spiny spores. The species with spiny spores are few. The +genus in which this plant is placed by some is _Laccaria_, and then the +plant is called _Laccaria laccata_. There are several other species of +_Clitocybe_ which are common and which one is apt to run across often, +especially in the woods. These are of the funnel form type, the cap +being more or less funnel-shaped. =Clitocybe infundibuliformis= +Schaeffer is one of these. The cap, when mature, is pale red or tan +color, fading out in age. It is 5--7 cm. high, and the cap 2--4 cm. +broad. It is considered delicious. =Clitocybe cyathiformis=, as its name +indicates, is similar in form, and occurs in woods. The pileus is of a +darker color, dark brown or smoky in color. + +=Clitocybe illudens= Schw. =Not Edible.=--This species is distributed +through the Eastern United States and sometimes is very abundant. It +occurs from July to October about the bases of old stumps, dead trees, +or from underground roots. It is one of the large species, the cap being +15--20 cm. broad, the stem 12--20 cm. long, and 8--12 mm. in thickness. +It occurs in large clusters, several or many joined at their bases. From +the rich saffron yellow color of all parts of the plant, and especially +by its strong phosphorescence, so evident in the dark, it is an easy +plant to recognize. Because of its phosphorescence it is sometimes +called "Jack-my-lantern." + +The =pileus= is convex, then expanded, and depressed, sometimes with a +small umbo, smooth, often irregular or eccentric from its crowded habit, +and in age the margin of the pileus is wavy. The flesh is thick at the +center and thin toward the margin. In old plants the color becomes +sordid or brownish. The =gills= are broad, not crowded, decurrent, some +extending for a considerable distance down on the stem while others for +a less distance. The =stem= is solid, firm, smooth, and tapers toward +the base. + +While the plant is not a dangerously poisonous one, it has occasioned +serious cases of illness, acting as a violent emetic, and of course +should be avoided. Its phosphorescence has often been observed. Another +and much smaller plant, widely distributed in this country as well as +Europe, and belonging to another genus, is also phosphorescent. It is +_Panus stipticus_, a small white plant with a short lateral stem, +growing on branches, stumps, trunks, etc. When freshly developed the +phosphorescence is marked, but when the plants become old they often +fail to show it. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 92.--Clitocybe illudens. Entire plant rich saffron +yellow, old plants become sordid brown sometimes; when fresh shows +phosphorescence at night (2/3 natural size, often much larger). +Copyright.] + +=Clitocybe multiceps= Peck. =Edible.=--This plant is not uncommon during +late summer and autumn. It usually grows in large tufts of 10 to 30 or +more individuals. The caps in such large clusters are often irregular +from pressure. The plants are 6--12 cm. high, the caps 5--10 cm. broad, +and the stems 8--15 mm. in thickness. The =pileus= is white or gray, +brownish gray or buff, smooth, dry, the flesh white. The =gills= are +white, crowded, narrow at each end. The =spores= are smooth, globose, +5--7 mu in diameter. The stems are tough, fibrous, solid, tinged with the +same color as cap. Fig. 93 is from plants (No. 5467, C. U. herbarium) +collected at Ithaca, October 14, 1900. + + +COLLYBIA Fr. + +In the genus _Collybia_ the annulus and volva are both wanting, the +spores are white, the gills are free or notched, or sinuate. The stem is +either entirely cartilaginous or has a cartilaginous rind, while the +central portion of the stem is fibrous, or fleshy, stuffed or fistulose. +The pileus is fleshy and when the plants are young the margin of the +pileus is incurved or inrolled, i. e., it does not lie straight against +the stem as in _Mycena_. + +Many of the species of _Collybia_ are quite firm and will revive +somewhat after drying when moistened, but they are not coriaceous as in +_Marasmius_, nor do they revive so thoroughly. It is difficult, however, +to draw the line between the two genera. Twenty-five of the New York +species of Collybia are described by Peck in the 49th Report N. Y. State +Mus., p. 32 et seq. Morgan describes twelve species in Jour. Cinn. Soc. +Nat. Hist., 6: 70--73. + +=Collybia radicata= Rehl. =Edible.=--This is one of the common and +widely distributed species of the genus. It occurs on the ground in the +woods or groves or borders of woods. It is quite easily recognized by +the more or less flattened cap, the long striate stem somewhat enlarged +below and then tapering off into a long, slender root-like process in +the ground. It is from this "rooting" character that the plant gets its +specific name. It is 10--20 cm. high, the cap 3--7 cm. broad, and the +stem 4--8 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is fleshy, thin, convex to nearly plane, or even with the +margin upturned in old plants, and the center sometimes umbonate. It is +smooth, viscid when moist, and often with wrinkles on the surface which +extend radially. The color varies from nearly white in some small +specimens to grayish, grayish brown or umber. The flesh is white. The +=gills= are white, broad, rather distant, adnexed, i. e., joined to the +stem by the upper angle. The =spores= are elliptical and about 15 x 10 + mu. The =stem= is the same color as the pileus though paler, and usually +white above, tapers gradually above, is often striate or grooved, or +sometimes only mealy. The long tapering "root" is often attached to some +underground dead root. Fig. 94 is from plants (No. 5641, C. U. +herbarium) collected at Ithaca, August, 1900. + +[Illustration: PLATE 30, FIGURE 93.--Clitocybe multiceps. Plants white +or gray to buff or grayish brown. (Three-fourths natural size.) +Copyright.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 31, FIG. 94.--Collybia radicata. Caps grayish-brown +to grayish and white in some small forms. (Natural size.) Copyright.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 32, FIG. 95.--Collybia velutipes. Cap yellowish or +reddish yellow, viscid, gills white, stem dark brown, velvety hairy +(natural size). Copyright.] + +=Collybia velutipes= Curt. =Edible.=--This is very common in woods +or groves during the autumn, on dead limbs or trunks, or from dead +places in living ones. The plants are very viscid, and the stem, except +in young plants, is velvety hairy with dark hairs. Figure 95 is from +plants (No. 5430, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca, October, 1900. + +=Collybia longipes= Bull., is a closely related plant. It is much +larger, has a velvety, to hairy, stem, and a much longer root-like +process to the stem. It has been sometimes considered to be merely a +variety of _C. radicata_, and may be only a large form of that species. +I have found a few specimens in the Adirondack mountains, and one in the +Blue Ridge mountains, which seem to belong to this species. + +=Collybia platyphylla= Fr. =Edible.=--This is a much larger and stouter +plant than _Collybia radicata_, though it is not so tall as the larger +specimens of that species. It occurs on rotten logs or on the ground +about rotten logs and stumps in the woods from June to September. It is +8--12 cm. high, the cap 10--15 cm. broad, and the stem about 2 cm. in +thickness. + +The =pileus= is convex becoming expanded, plane, and even the margin +upturned in age. It is whitish, varying to grayish brown or dark brown, +the center sometimes darker than the margin, as is usual in many plants. +The surface of the pileus is often marked in radiating streaks by fine +dark hairs. The =gills= are white, very broad, adnexed, and usually +deeply and broadly notched next the stem. In age they are more or less +broken and cracked. The =spores= are white, elliptical, 7--10 x 6--7 mu. + +The plant resembles somewhat certain species of _Tricholoma_ and care +should be used in selecting it in order to avoid the suspected species +of _Tricholoma_. + + +MYCENA Fr. + +The genus _Mycena_ is closely related to _Collybia_. The plants are +usually smaller, many of them being of small size, the cap is usually +bell-shaped, rarely umbilicate, but what is a more important character +the margin of the cap in the young stage is straight as it is applied +against the stem, and not at first incurved as it is in _Collybia_, when +the gills and margin of the pileus lie against the stem. The stem is +cartilaginous as in _Collybia_, and is usually hollow or fistulose. The +gills are not decurrent, or only slightly so by a tooth-like process. +Some of the species are apt to be confused with certain species of +_Omphalia_ in which the gills are but slightly decurrent, but in +_Omphalia_ the pileus is umbilicate in such species, while in _Mycena_ +it is blunt or umbonate. The spores are white. A large number of the +plants grow on leaves and wood, few on the ground. Some of those which +grow on leaves might be mistaken for species of _Marasmius_, but in +_Marasmius_ the plants are of a tough consistency, and when dried will +revive again if moistened with water. + +Some of the plants have distinct odors, as alkaline, or the odor of +radishes, and in collecting them notes should be made on all these +characters which usually disappear in drying. A few of the plants exude +a colored or watery juice when bruised, and should not be confounded +with species of _Lactarius_. + +=Mycena galericulata= Scop. =Edible.=--_Mycena galericulata_ grows on +dead logs, stumps, branches, etc., in woods. It is a very common and +very widely distributed species. It occurs from late spring to autumn. +The plants are clustered, many growing in a compact group, the hairy +bases closely joined and the stems usually ascending. The plants are +from 5--12 cm. high, the caps from 1--3 cm. broad, and the slender stems +2--3 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is conic to bell-shaped, sometimes umbonate, striate to +near the center, and in color some shade of brown or gray, but variable. +The =gills= are decurrent by a tooth, not crowded, connected by veins +over the interspaces, white or flesh colored. The slender =stems= are +firm, hollow, and hairy at the base. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 96.--Mycena polygramma, long-stemmed form growing +on ground (= M. praelonga Pk.). Cap dark brown with a leaden tint, +striate on margin; stem finely and beautifully longitudinally striate +(natural size). Copyright.] + +=Mycena polygramma= Bull.--This plant is very closely related to _M. +galericulata_, and has the same habit. It might be easily mistaken for +it. It is easily distinguished by its peculiar bright, shining, +longitudinally striate to sulcate stem. It usually grows on wood, but +does occur on the ground, when it often has a very long stem. In this +condition it was described by Peck in the 23rd Report, N. Y. State Mus., +p. 81, as _Mycena praelonga_, from plants collected in a sphagnum moor +during the month of June. This form was also collected at Ithaca several +times during late autumn in a woods near Ithaca, in 1898. The plants are +from 12--20 cm. high, the cap 1--2 cm. broad, and the stem 2--3 mm. in +thickness. + +The =pileus= is first nearly cylindrical, then conic, becoming +bell-shaped and finally nearly expanded, when it is umbonate. It is +smooth, striate on the margin, of a dark brown color with a leaden tint. +The =gills= are narrow, white, adnate and slightly decurrent on the stem +by a tooth. The very long =stem= is smooth, but marked with parallel +grooves too fine to show in the photograph, firm, hollow, somewhat paler +than the pileus, usually tinged with red, and hairy at the base. Figure +96 is from plants (No. 3113 C. U. herbarium), collected in a woods near +Ithaca in damp places among leaves. A number of the specimens collected +were attacked by a parasitic mucor of the genus _Spinellus_. Two +species, _S. fusiger_ (Link.) van Tiegh., and _S. macrocarpus_ (Corda) +Karst., were found, sometimes both on the same plant. The long-stalked +sporangia bristle in all directions from the cap. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 97.--Mycena pura. Entire plant rose, rose purple, +violet, or lilac. Striate on margin of pileus (natural size, often much +larger).] + +=Mycena pura= Pers.--This plant is quite common and very widely +distributed, and occurs in woods and grassy open places, during late +summer and in the autumn. The entire plant is nearly of a uniform color, +and the color varies from rose, to rose purple, violet, or lilac. Plants +from the Blue Ridge mountains of North Carolina were chiefly rose +purple, very young plants of a much deeper color (auricula purple of +Ridgeway), while those collected at Ithaca were violet. The plants vary +from 5--8 cm. high, the cap 2--3 cm. broad, and the stem 2--4 mm. stout. +The plants are scattered or somewhat clustered, sometimes occurring +singly, and again many covering a small area of ground. + +The =pileus= is thin, conic, bell-shaped to convex and nearly expanded, +sometimes with a small umbo, smooth, and finely striate on the margin, +in age the striae sometimes rugulose from the upturning of the margin. +Sometimes the pileus is rugose on the center. The =gills= vary from +white to violet, rose, etc., they are adnate to sinuate, and in age +sometimes become free by breaking away from the stem. They are broad in +the middle, connected by vein-like elevations over the surface, and +sometimes wavy and crenate on the edge, the edge of the gills sometimes +white. The =spores= are white, oblong, 2.5--3.5 x 6--7 mu, smooth. The +=basidia= are cylindrical, 20--25 x 3--4 mu, four-spored. There are a few +=cystidia= in the hymenium, colorless, thin walled, clavate, the portion +above the hymenium cylindrical, and 30--40 x 10--12 mu. + +The =stem= is sometimes white when young, but later becomes of the same +color as the pileus, often a lighter shade above. It is straight, or +ascending, cylindrical, even, smooth, hollow, with a few white threads +at the base. + +Sometimes on drying the pileus becomes deeper in color than when fresh. +The gills also become deeper in color in drying, though the edge remains +white if white when fresh. Figure 97 is from plants (No. 3946, C. U. +herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., in August, 1899. The plants +are often considerably larger than shown in the figure. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 98.--Mycena epipterygia. Cap viscid, grayish, +often tinged with yellowish or reddish in age, gills white, sometimes +tinged with blue or red, stem yellowish, or same color as cap (natural +size). Copyright.] + +=Mycena epipterygia= Scop.--This pretty little species is quite readily +distinguished by the gray, conic or bell-shaped cap, the long, hollow, +slender stem, and the viscid pellicle or skin which is quite easily +peeled off from the stem or cap when moist. It grows in woods or grassy +places, or among moss, etc., on the ground or on very rotten wood. The +plants are from 5--10 cm. high, the cap 1--2 cm. broad, and the stem +about 2 mm. in thickness. It is widely distributed in Europe, America, +and other North temperate countries. + +The =pileus= is viscid when moist, ovate to conic or campanulate, and +later more or less expanded, obtuse, the margin striate, and sometimes +minutely toothed. The usual color is grayish, but in age it often +becomes reddish. The =gills= are decurrent by a small tooth, and quite +variable in color, whitish, then gray, or tinged with blue or red. + +The =stem= is very slender, flexuous, or straight, fistulose, tough, +with soft hairs at the base, usually yellowish, sometimes the same color +as the cap, and viscid like the cap when moist. Figure 98 is from plants +(No. 4547, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca in August, 1899. + +=Mycena vulgaris= Pers.--This common and pretty species is easily +recognized by its smoky or grayish color, the umbilicate pileus and very +slimy stem. It grows on decaying leaves, sticks, etc., in woods. It +occurs in clusters. The plants are small, 3--5 cm. high, the cap 4--7 +mm. broad, and the stem about 1.5 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is thin, bell-shaped, then convex, and depressed at the +center, with a papilla usually in the center, finely striate on the +margin, and slightly viscid. The =gills= are white, thin, and finally +decurrent, so that from the form of the cap and the decurrent gills the +plant has much the appearance of an _Omphalia_. The =stem= is very +viscid, grayish in color, often rooting at the base, and with white +fibrils at the base, becoming hollow. + +Figure 99 is from plants collected in woods near Ithaca, during August, +1899. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 99.--Mycena vulgaris. Entirely white, center of +cap grayish, entire plant very slimy when moist (natural size). +Copyright.] + +=Mycena acicula= Schaeff.--This is one of the very small mycenas, and +with the brilliant red pileus and yellow gills and stem it makes a very +pretty object growing on leaves, twigs, or rotten wood in the forest. It +occurs during summer and autumn. It is 2--5 cm. high, the cap 2--4 mm. +broad, and the stem is thread-like. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 100.--Mycena acicula. Cap brilliant red, gills and +stem yellowish (natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is very thin, membranaceous, bell-shaped, then convex, when +the pointed apex appears as a small umbo. It is smooth, striate on the +margin, and of a rich vermilion or orange color. The =gills= are rounded +at the stem and adnexed, rather broad in the middle, distant, yellow, +the edge white, or sometimes the gills are entirely white. The =stem= is +very slender, with a root-like process entering the rotten wood, smooth +except the hairs on the root-like process, yellow. + +Figure 100 is from plants (No. 2780, C. U. herbarium) collected in a +woods near Ithaca. It has been found here several times. + +=Mycena cyanothrix= Atkinson.--This is a very pretty plant growing on +rotting wood in clusters, often two or three joined at the base, the +base of the stem inserted in the rotten wood for 1--2 cm., and the base +is clothed with blue, hair-like threads. The plants are 6--9 cm. high, +the cap 1--2 cm. broad, and the stem not quite 2 mm. in diameter. + +The =pileus= is ovate to convex, viscid when young. The color is bright +blue when young, becoming pale and whitish in age, with a tendency to +fuscous on the center. The cap is smooth and the margin finely striate. +After the plants have dried the color is nearly uniform ochraceous or +tawny. The =gills= are close, free, narrow, white, then grayish white, +the edge finely toothed or fimbriate. The =spores= are globose, smooth, +6--9 mu. The =stem= is slender, hollow, faintly purple when young, +becoming whitish or flesh color, flexuous, or nearly straight, even, +often two united at the base into a root-like extension which enters the +rotten wood. The base of the stem is covered with deep blue mycelium +which retains its color in age, but disappears on drying after a time. +Figure 101 is from plants (No. 2382, C. U. herbarium) collected at +Ithaca, in woods, June 16, 1898. + +=Mycena haematopa= Pers.--This is one of the species of _Mycena_ with a +red juice which exudes in drops where wounds occur on the plant. It is +easily recognized by its dense cespitose habit, the deep blood red +juice, the hollow stem, and the crenate or denticulate sterile margin of +the cap. Numbers of the plant occur usually in a single cluster, and +their bases are closely joined and hairy. The stems are more or less +ascending according to the position of the plant on the wood. The plants +are 5--10 cm. high, the cap is 1--2.5 cm. broad, and the stem 2--3 mm. +in thickness. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 101.--Mycena cyanothrix. Cap viscid when young, +blue, becoming pale and whitish in age, and fuscous in center; gills +white; stem faintly purple when young, then flesh color or white, blue, +clothed with blue hairs at base (natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is conic, then bell-shaped, and as the margin of the cap +expands more appears umbonate, obtuse, smooth, even or somewhat striate +on the margin. The color varies from whitish to flesh color, or dull +red, and appears more or less saturated with a red juice. The thin +margin extends a short distance beyond the ends of the gills, and the +margin is then beautifully crenate. The =gills= are adnate, and often +extend down on the stem a short distance by a little tooth. The =stem= +is firm, sometimes smooth, sometimes with minute hairs, at the base +with long hairs, hollow, in color the same as that of the pileus. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 102.--Mycena haematopa. Dull red or flesh color, or +whitish, a dull red juice exudes where broken or cut, margin of cap +serrate with thin sterile flaps (natural size). Copyright.] + +The color varies somewhat, being darker in some plants than in others. +In some plants the juice is more abundant and they bleed profusely when +wounded, while in other cases there is but little of the juice, +sometimes wounds only showing a change in color to a deep red without +any free drops exuding. Figure 102 is from plants collected at Ithaca, +in August, 1899. It is widely distributed in Europe and North America. + +=Mycena succosa= Pk., another species of _Mycena_ with a juice, occurs +on very rotten wood in the woods. It is a small plant, dull white at +first, but soon spotted with black, and turning black in handling or +where bruised, and when dried. Wounds exude a "serum-like juice," and +the wounds soon become black. It was described by Peck under _Collybia_ +in the 25th Report, p. 74. + + +OMPHALIA Fr. + +The genus _Omphalia_ is closely related to _Mycena_ and _Collybia_. It +differs from these mainly in the decurrent gills. In the small species +of _Mycena_ where the gills are slightly decurrent, the pileus is not +umbilicate as it is in corresponding species of _Omphalia_. In some of +the species of _Omphalia_ the pileus is not umbilicate, but here the +gills are plainly decurrent. The stem is cartilaginous. + +[Illustration: PLATE 33, FIGURE 103.--Omphalia campanella. Watkin's +Glen, N. Y., August, 1898. Caps dull reddish-yellow. Gills yellow. Stem +brownish, hairy at base. (Natural size.) Copyright.] + +=Omphalia campanella= Batsch.--One of the most common and widely +distributed species of the genus is the little bell-omphalia, _Omphalia +campanella_. It occurs throughout the summer and autumn on dead or +rotten logs, stumps, branches, etc., in woods. It is often clustered, +large numbers covering a considerable surface of the decaying log. It is +1--3 cm. high, the cap 8--20 mm. broad, and the stem very slender. + +The =pileus= is convex, umbilicate, faintly striate, dull reddish +yellow, in damp weather with a watery appearance. The =gills= are +narrow, yellow, connected by veins, strongly curved because of the form +of the pileus, and then being decurrent on the stem. The =stem= is +slender, often ascending, brownish hairy toward the base, and paler +above. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 104.--Omphalia epichysium. Entire plant smoky or +dull gray in color (natural size). Copyright.] + +=Omphalia epichysium= Pers.--This plant occurs during the autumn in +woods, growing usually on much decayed wood, or sometimes apparently on +the ground. The smoky, or dull gray color of the entire plant, the +depressed or funnel-shaped pileus, and short, slender stem serve to +distinguish it. The cap is 2--4 cm. broad, the plant is 3--5 cm. high, +and the stem 2--4 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is convex, becoming expanded, umbilicate or depressed at +the center or nearly funnel-shaped, smooth, smoky or gray with a +saturated watery appearance, light gray or nearly white when dry. The +=gills= are narrow, crowded, or a little decurrent. The slender =stem= +is smooth, hollow, equal. Figure 104 is from plants (No. 3373, C. U. +herbarium) collected in woods near Ithaca, N. Y., in the autumn of 1899. + + +PLEUROTUS Fr. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 105.--Pleurotus ulmarius. Cap white, or with +shades of yellow or brown near the center (natural size). Copyright.] + +The genus _Pleurotus_ is usually recognized without difficulty among the +fleshy, white-spored agarics, because of the eccentric (not quite in the +center of the pileus) or lateral stem, or by the pileus being attached +at one side in a more or less shelving position, or in some species +where the upper side of the pileus lies directly against the wood on +which the plant is growing, and is then said to be _resupinate_. The +gills are either decurrent (extending downward) on the stem, or in some +species they are rounded or notched at the junction with the stem. There +is no annulus, though sometimes a veil, and the genus resembles both +_Tricholoma_ and _Clitocybe_, except for the position of the stem on the +pileus. In _Tricholoma_ and _Clitocybe_ the stem is usually attached at +the center, and the majority of the species grow on the ground, while +the species of _Pleurotus_ are especially characterized by growing on +wood. Some species, at least, appear to grow from the ground, as in +Pleurotus petaloides, which is sometimes found growing on buried roots +or portions of decayed stumps which no longer show above ground. On the +other hand species of _Clitocybe_, as in C. candida (Fig. 91), often +have an eccentric stem. This presents to us one of the many difficulties +which students, especially beginners, of this group of fungi meet, and +also suggests how unsatisfactory any arrangement of genera as yet +proposed is. + +=Pleurotus ulmarius= Bull. =Edible.=--The elm pleurotus is so called +because it is often found growing on dead elm branches or trunks, or +from wounds in living trees, but it is not confined to the elm. It is a +large species, easily distinguished from the oyster agaric and the other +related species by its long stem attached usually near the center of the +cap, and by the gills being rounded or notched at their inner extremity. +The cap is 5--12 cm. broad, the stem 5--10 cm. long, and 1--2 cm. in +thickness. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 106.--Pleurotus ulmarius. Under view and section +(natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex, the margin incurved, then nearly expanded, +smooth, firm, white or whitish, or with shades of yellow or brown on the +center, and the flesh is white. The =gills= are broad, rather distant, +sinuate, white or nearly so. The =spores= are globose, 5--8 mu in +diameter. The =stem= is firm, eccentric, usually curved because of its +lateral attachment on the side of the tree, and the horizontal position +of the pileus. + +The elm pleurotus has been long known as an edible fungus, and is +regarded as an excellent one for food on account of its flavor and +because of its large size. It occurs abundantly during the late autumn, +and at this season of the year is usually well protected from the +attacks of insects. It occurs in the woods, or fields, more frequently +on dead trees. On shade trees which have been severely pruned, and are +nearly or quite dead, it sometimes appears at the wounds, where limbs +have been removed, in great abundance. In the plants shown in Fig. 105 +the stems are strongly curved because the weight of the cap bore the +plant downward. Sometimes when the plant is growing directly on the +upper side of a branch or log, the stem may be central. + +=Pleurotus ostreatus= Jacq. =Edible.=--This plant is known as the oyster +agaric, because the form of the plant sometimes suggests the outline of +an oyster shell, as is seen in Fig. 107. It grows on dead trunks and +branches, usually in crowded clusters, the caps often overlapping or +imbricated. It is large, measuring 8--20 cm. or more broad. + +The =pileus= is elongated and attached at one side by being sessile, or +it is narrowed into a very short stem. It is broadest at the outer +extremity, where it becomes quite thin toward the margin. It is more or +less curved in outline as seen from the side, being depressed usually on +the upper side near the point of attachment, and toward the margin +convex and the margin incurved. The color is white, light gray, buff or +dark gray, often becoming yellowish on drying. The =gills= are white, +broad, not much crowded, and run down on the stem in long elevated lines +resembling veins, which anastomose often in a reticulate fashion. The +=spores= are white, oblong, 7--10 mu long. The =stem= when present is +very short, and often hairy at the base. + +The oyster agaric has long been known as an edible mushroom, but it is +not ranked among the best, because, like most _Pleuroti_, it is rather +tough, especially in age. It is well to select young plants. Figure 107 +is from plants (No. 2097, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca, N. Y. + +[Illustration: PLATE 34, FIGURE 107.--Pleurotus ostreatus. Under view +showing decurrent and anastomosing gills on the stem. Cap white, light +gray, buff, or dark gray in color. Spores white (natural size, often +larger). Copyright.] + +=Pleurotus sapidus= Kalchb. =Edible.=--This plant usually grows in large +clusters from dead trunks or branches or from dead portions of living +trees. It grows on a number of different kinds of trees. The stems are +often joined at the base, but sometimes the plants are scattered over +a portion of the branch or trunk. The cap is from 5--10 cm. broad. +The plants occur from June to November. + +[Illustration: PLATE 35, FIGURE 108.--Pleurotus sapidus. Color of cap +white, yellowish, gray, or brownish, with lilac tints sometimes. Spores +lilac tinted in mass (1/2 natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex, the margin incurved when young, and more or less +depressed in age, smooth, broadened toward the margin and tapering into +the short stem, which is very short in some cases and elongated in +others. Often the caps are quite irregular and the margin wavy, +especially when old. It is quite firm, but the margin splits quite +readily on being handled. The color varies greatly, white, yellowish, +gray, or brownish and lilac tints. The flesh is white. The =stems= are +usually attached to the pileus, at or near one edge. The =gills= are +white, broad, not at all crowded, and extend down on the stem as in the +oyster agaric. They are white or whitish, and as in the other related +species are sometimes cracked, due probably to the tension brought to +bear because of the expanding pileus. The =spores= are tinged with lilac +when seen in mass, as when caught on paper. The color seems to be +intensified after the spores have lain on the paper for a day or two. + +It is very difficult to distinguish this species from the oyster agaric. +The color of the spores seems to be the only distinguishing character, +and this may not be constant. Peck suggests that it may only be a +variety of the oyster agaric. I have found the plant growing from a dead +spot on the base of a living oak tree. There was for several years a +drive near this tree, and the wheels of vehicles cut into the roots of +the tree on this side, and probably so injured it as to kill a portion +and give this fungus and another one (_Polystictus pergamenus_) a start, +and later they have slowly encroached on the side of the tree. + +Figure 108 represents the plant (No. 3307, C. U. herbarium) from a dead +maple trunk in a woods near Ithaca, collected during the autumn of 1899. +This plant compares favorably with the oyster agaric as an edible one. +Neither of these plants preserve as well as the elm pleurotus. + +=Pleurotus dryinus= Pers. =Edible.=--_Pleurotus dryinus_ represents a +section of the genus in which the species are provided with a veil when +young, but which disappears as the pileus expands. This species has been +long known in Europe on trunks of oak, ash, willow, etc., and occurs +there from September to October. It was collected near Ithaca, N. Y., in +a beech woods along Six-mile creek, on October 24th, 1898, growing from +a decayed knothole in the trunk of a living hickory tree, and again in a +few days from a decayed stump. The pileus varies from 5--10 cm. broad, +and the lateral or eccentric stem is 2--12 cm. long by 1--2 cm. in +thickness, the length of the stem depending on the depth of the +insertion of the stem in a hollow portion of the trunk. The plant is +white or whitish, and the substance is quite firm, drying quite hard. + +The =pileus= is convex to expanded, more or less depressed in the +center, the margin involute, and the surface at first floccose, becoming +in age floccose scaly, since the surface breaks up into triangular +scales more prominent in and near the center, smaller and inconspicuous +toward the margin. The prevailing color is white, but in age the scales +become cream color or buff (in European plants said to become fuscous). +The pileus is either definitely lateral (Fig. 109) or eccentric when the +stem is attached near the center as in Fig. 110. The =gills= are white, +becoming tinged with yellow in age, decurrent (running down on the stem) +in striae for short distances, 4--5 mm. broad, not crowded. The =stem= is +nearly central (Fig. 110), or definitely lateral (Fig. 109), the length +varying according to conditions as stated above. It is firm, tough, +fibrous. The =veil= is prominent in young and medium plants, floccose, +tearing irregularly as the pileus expands. + +Figure 110 is from plants (No. 2478a C. U. herbarium) growing from +knothole in living hickory tree, and Fig. 109 from plants (No. 2478b) +growing on a dead stump, near Ithaca. + +According to the descriptions of _P. dryinus_ as given by Persoon, and +as followed by Fries and most later writers, the pileus is definitely +lateral, and more or less dimidiate, while in _P. corticatus_ Fr., the +pileus is entire and the stem rather long and eccentric. Stevenson +suggests (p. 166) that corticatus is perhaps too closely allied to +dryinus. The plants in our Fig. 110 agree in all respects with _P. +corticatus_, except that possibly the lamellae do not anastomose on the +stem as they are said to in _corticatus_. According to the usual +descriptions _corticatus_ is given as the larger species, while Fig. 109 +of our plant, possessing the typical characters of _dryinus_, is the +larger. The form of the pileus, the length and position of the stem, +depends, as we know, to a large extent on the position of the plant on +the tree. When growing from the upper side, so that there is room above +for the expansion of the cap, the pileus is apt to be more regular, just +as is the case in _Pleurotus ulmarius_, and the stem more nearly +central. When the plant grows from a hollow place in the trunk as those +shown in Fig. 110 did, then there is an opportunity for them to grow +more or less erect, at least until they emerge from the hollow, and then +the pileus is more nearly equal in its expansion and the stem is longer. +Berkeley describes specimens of P. dryinus with long stems growing +from a hollow in an ash, and Stevenson (p. 167) reports the same +condition. + +[Illustration: PLATE 36, FIGURE 109.--Pleurotus dryinus. Side and upper +view. Plant entirely white, scales sometimes buff or cream colored in +age (natural size). Copyright.] + +=Pleurotus sulfureoides= Pk.--This rare species, first collected in the +Catskill Mountains 1869, and described by Peck in the 23rd Report, N. Y. +State Mus., p. 86, 1870, was found by me on two different occasions at +Ithaca, N. Y., during the autumn of 1898, on rotting logs, Ithaca Flats, +and again in Enfield Gorge, six miles from Ithaca. The plants are from +5--8 cm. high, the cap 3--5 cm. broad, and the stem 5--7 mm. in +thickness, and the entire plant is of a dull, or pale, yellow. + +[Illustration: PLATE 37, FIGURE 110.--Pleurotus dryinus, form +corticatus. Entire plant white, scales cream or buff in age sometimes. +The ruptured veil shows in the small plant below (natural size). +Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is nearly regular, fleshy, thin toward the margin, convex, +umbonate, smooth or with a few small scales. The =gills= are rather +crowded, broad, rounded or notched at the stem, pale yellow. The +=spores= are elliptical, 7--9 x 5--6 mu. The =stem= is ascending and +curved, nearly or quite central in some specimens in its attachment to +the pileus, whitish or yellowish, mealy or slightly tomentose at the +apex. + +Figure 111 is from plants (No. 2953, C. U. herbarium) on rotting log, +Ithaca Flats, October, 1898. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 111.--Pleurotus sulfureoides. Entire plant dull or +pale yellow (natural size). Copyright.] + +=Pleurotus petaloides= Bull. =Edible.=--The petal-like agaric is so +called from the fancied resemblance of the plant to the petal of a +flower. The plant usually grows in a nearly upright or more or less +ascending position, or when it grows from the side of a trunk it is +somewhat shelving. It is somewhat spathulate in form, i. e., broad at +the free end and tapering downward into the short stem in a +wedge-shaped manner, and varies from 2--10 cm. long and 1--5 cm. in +breadth. It grows on fallen branches or trunks, on stumps, and often +apparently from the ground, but in reality from underground roots or +buried portions of decayed stumps, etc. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 112.--Pleurotus petaloides. Color pale reddish +brown or brown, sometimes entirely white; gills white (natural size). +Copyright.] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 113.--Pleurotus petaloides. More irregular form +than that shown in figure 112; color same as there described (natural +size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= varies from a regular wedge-shape to spathulate, or more or +less irregularly petaloid, or conchoid forms, the extremes of size and +form being shown in Figs. 112, 113. The margin is at first involute, +finally fully expanded, and the upper surface is nearly plane or +somewhat depressed. The color is often a pale reddish brown, or brown, +and sometimes pure white. The margin is sometimes marked with fine +striations when moist. The upper portion near the union with the stem is +sometimes tomentose, sometimes smooth. The =gills= are narrow, white, or +yellowish, crowded and strongly decurrent. While the plant varies +greatly in form and size, it is easily recognized by the presence of +numerous short whitish =cystidia= in the hymenium, which bristle over +the surface of the hymenium and under a pocket lens present a "fuzzy" +appearance to the lamellae. They are 70--80 x 10--12 mu. The spores are +white. + +Figures 112, 113 are from plants collected at Ithaca. + +=Pleurotus serotinus= Schrad. This is an interesting plant and occurs +during the autumn on dead trunks, branches, etc., in the woods. The stem +is wanting, and the cap is shelving, dimidiate, reniform or +suborbicular. The plants occur singly or are clustered and overlapping, +about the same size and position as _Claudopus nidulans_, from which it +is readily told by its white gills and spores. The color varies from +dull yellow to brownish, often with shades of olive or green. + +=Pleurotus applicatus= Batsch.--This is a pretty little species and +usually occurs on much decayed wood, lying close to the ground so that +it is usually directly on the under side of the log or branch. It does +occur, however, on the side of the log when it is more or less shelving, +because of the tendency of the pileus always to be more or less +horizontal. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 114.--Pleurotus applicatus. Color gray to dark +bluish gray, or black with a bluish tinge (natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is 4--6 mm. broad, its upper surface closely applied to the +wood or bark on which it is growing when it appears directly on the +under side. The margin is sometimes free and involute. Sometimes it is +attached only by the center of the pileus. There is then often a short +process. When it grows on the side of the log it is attached laterally, +or on the upper side of one margin, while the greater portion of the +pileus is free and shelving. The surface is smooth or somewhat hairy. +The color varies from gray to dark bluish gray, or black with a bluish +tinge. The =gills= are thick, broad in proportion to the size of the +cap, distant, and are said by some to be paler than the pileus. In +plants collected at Ithaca, the gills are often as dark as the pileus. +The entire plant is rather tough, and revives after being dried if +placed in water, resembling in this respect _Marasmius_, _Panus_, or +_Trogia_, and it may be more nearly related to one of these. Figure 114 +is from plants (No. 4599, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca. + + +HYGROPHORUS Fries. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 115.--Hygrophorus chrysodon. Entirely white with +golden yellow granules on cap and stem (natural size). Copyright.] + +The genus _Hygrophorus_ is one which presents some difficulties in the +case of some of the species, especially to beginners, and plants need to +be studied in the fresh condition to understand the most important +character which separates it from certain of the other white-spored +agarics. The substance of the pileus is continuous with that of the +stem, that is, the stem is not easily separated from the cap at the +point of junction, but is more or less tenacious. The gills may be +adnexed, adnate, sinuate, or decurrent, but what is important they are +usually rather distant, the edge is acute or sharp, and gradually +thickened toward the junction with the cap, so that a section of the +gill is more or less triangular. This is brought about by the fact that +the substance of the cap extends downward into the gill between the +laminae or surfaces of the gill. But the most important character for +determining the genus is the fact that the surfaces of the gills become +rather of a waxy consistency at maturity, so that they appear to be full +of a watery substance though they do not bleed, and the surface of the +gill can be rather easily removed, leaving the projecting line of the +_trama_. This is more marked in some species than in others. The waxy +consistency of the gills then, with the gills acute at the edge, broad +at the point of attachment to the pileus, and the gills being rather +widely separated are the important characters in determining the species +which belong to this genus. The nearest related genus is Cantharellus, +which, however, has blunt and forked gills. A number of the plants are +brilliantly colored. + +[Illustration: PLATE 38, FIGURE 116.--Hygrophorus eburneus. Entirely +white, slimy (natural size). Copyright.] + +=Hygrophorus chrysodon= (Batsch.) Fries. =Edible.=--This plant has about +the same range as _Hygrophorus eburneus_, though it is said to be rare. +It is a very pretty plant and one quite easily recognised because of the +uniform white ground color of the entire plant when fresh, and the +numerous golden floccules or squamules scattered over the cap and the +stem. The name _chrysodon_ means golden tooth, and refers to these +numerous golden flecks on the plant. A form of the plant, variety +_leucodon_, is said to occur in which these granules are white. The +plant is 4--7 cm. high, the cap 4--7 cm. broad, and the stem 6--10 mm. +in thickness. The plants grow on the ground in the woods, or rather open +places, during late summer and autumn. + +The =pileus= is convex, then expanded, the margin strongly involute when +young, and unrolling as the cap expands, very viscid, so that particles +of dirt and portions of leaves, etc., cling to it in drying. The golden +or light yellow granules on the surface are rather numerous near the +margin of the pileus, but are scattered over the entire surface. On the +margin they sometimes stand in concentric rows close together. The +=gills= are white, distant, decurrent, 3--6 mm. broad, white, somewhat +yellowish in age and in drying, and connected by veins. The =spores= +white, oval to ovate, the longer ones approaching elliptical, 6--10 x +5--6 mu. + +The =stem= is soft, spongy within, nearly equal, white, the yellowish +granules scattered over the surface, but more numerous toward the apex, +where they are often arranged in the form of a ring. When the plant is +young these yellow granules or squamules on the stem and the upper +surface of the inrolled margin of the pileus meet, forming a continuous +layer in the form of a veil, which becomes spread out in the form of +separated granules as the pileus expands, and no free collar is left on +the stem. + +Figure 115 is from plants (No. 3108, C. U. herbarium) collected in +October, 1898, in woods, and by roadsides, Ithaca, N. Y. + +=Hygrophorus eburneus= (Bulliard) Fries. =Edible.=--This plant is widely +distributed in Europe and America. It is entirely white, of medium size, +very viscid or glutinous, being entirely covered with a coating of +gluten, which makes it very slippery in handling. The odor is mild and +not unpleasant like that of a closely related species, _H. cossus_. The +plants are 6--15 cm. high, the cap is from 3--8 cm. broad, and the stem +3--8 mm. in thickness. It grows on the ground in woods, or in open +grassy places. + +The =pileus= is fleshy, moderately thick, sometimes thin, convex to +expanded, the margin uneven or sometimes wavy, smooth, and shining. When +young the margin of the cap is incurved. The =gills= are strongly +decurrent, distant, with vein-like elevations near the stem. =Spores= +rather long, oval, 6--10 x 5--6 mu, granular. The =stem= varies in +length, it is spongy to stuffed within, sometimes hollow and tapers +below. The slime which envelops the plant is sometimes so abundant as to +form a veil covering the entire plant and extending across from the +margin of the cap to the stem, covering the gills. As the plant dries +this disappears, and does not leave an annulus on the stem. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 117.--Hygrophorus fuligineus. Cap and stem dull +reddish brown or smoky brown, very viscid when moist; gills white +(natural size). Copyright.] + +Figure 116 is from a photograph of plants (No. 2534, C. U. herbarium) +collected in Enfield Gorge near Ithaca, N. Y., Nov. 5th, 1898. + +=Hygrophorus fuligineus= Frost. =Edible.=--The smoky hygrophorus was +described in the 35th Report of the N. Y. State Museum, p. 134. It is an +American plant, and was first collected at West Albany, during the month +of November. It is one of the largest species of the genus, and grows on +the ground in woods, in late autumn. The plants are 5--10 cm. high, the +cap from 3--10 cm. broad, and the stem 1--2 cm. in thickness. The large +size of the plant together with the smoky, brown, viscid cap aid in the +recognition of the plant. + +The =pileus= is convex, becoming expanded, smooth, very viscid, dull +reddish brown or smoky brown, darker on the center; the margin of the +pileus is even in young specimens, becoming irregular in others; and in +age often elevated more or less. The =gills= are broad, distant, usually +decurrent, often connected by veins, white, with yellowish tinge in +drying. The =spores= oval to elliptical, 8--12 x 5--7 mu. The =stem= is +stout, sometimes ascending, equal, or enlarged in the middle, or +tapering toward the base, solid, viscid like the pileus, usually white, +sometimes tinged with the same color as pileus, somewhat yellowish +tinged in drying. + +Figure 117 is from plants (No. 2546, C. U. herbarium) collected in +Enfield Gorge near Ithaca, Nov. 5, 1898. + +=Hygrophorus pratensis= (Pers.) Fr. =Edible.=--This hygrophorus grows on +the ground in pastures, old fields, or in waste places, or in thin and +open woods, from mid-summer to late autumn. The plants are 3--5 cm. +high, the cap 2--5 cm. or more broad, and the stem 6--12 mm. in +thickness. The cap being thick at the center, and the stem being usually +stouter at the apex, often gives to the plant a shape like that of a +top. + +The =pileus= is hemispherical, then convex, then nearly or quite +expanded, white, or with various shades of yellow or tawny, or buff, not +viscid, often cracking in dry weather. Flesh very thick at the center, +thinner at the margin. The flesh is firm and white. The =gills= are +stout, distant, long decurrent, white or yellowish, and arcuate when the +margin of the pileus is incurved in the young state, then ascending as +the pileus takes the shape of an inverted cone. The =gills= are +connected across the interspaces by vein-like folds, or elevations. The +=spores= are nearly globose to ovate or nearly elliptical, white, 6--8 x +5--6 mu. The =stem= is smooth, firm outside and spongy within, tapering +downward. + +=Hygrophorus miniatus= Fr. The vermilion hygrophorus is a very common +plant in the woods during the summer. The cap and stem are bright red, +sometimes vermilion. The gills are yellow and often tinged with red. The +gills are adnate or sinuate. The plant is a small one but often +abundant, and measures from 3--5 cm. high, and the cap 2--4 cm. broad. +=Hygrophorus coccineus= (Schaeff.) Fr., is a somewhat larger plant and +with a scarlet cap, which becomes yellowish in age, and the gills are +adnate. =Hygrophorus conicus= (Scop.) Fr., is another bright red plant +with a remarkable conical pileus, and the gills are annexed to free. + +=Hygrophorus psittacinus= Fr., is a remarkably pretty plant, the cap +being from bell-shaped to expanded, umbilicate, striate, and covered +with a greenish slime. It occurs in woods and open places. The +prevailing color is yellow, tinged with green, but it varies greatly, +sometimes yellow, red, white, etc., but nearly always is marked by the +presence of the greenish slime, the color of this disappearing as the +plant dries. It occurs in pastures, open woods, etc., from mid-summer to +autumn. + +=Hygrophorus hypothejus= Fr., is another very variable plant in color as +well as in size, varying from yellow, orange, reddish, sometimes paler, +usually first grayish when covered with the olive colored slime. The +gills are decurrent, white, then yellow. It occurs in autumn. + + +LACTARIUS Fr. + +The genus _Lactarius_ is easily distinguished from nearly all the other +agarics by the presence of a milky or colored juice which exudes from +wounded, cut, or broken places on the fresh plant. There are a few of +the species of the genus _Mycena_ which exude a watery or colored juice +where wounded, but these are easily told from _Lactarius_ because of +their small size, more slender habit, and bell-shaped cap. By careful +observation of these characters it is quite an easy matter to tell +whether or not the plant at hand is a _Lactarius_. In addition to the +presence of this juice or milk as it is commonly termed, the entire +plant while firm is quite brittle, especially the gills. There are +groups of rounded or vesiculose cells intermingled with thread-like +cells in the substance of the cap. This latter character can only be +seen on examination with the microscope. The brittleness of the plant as +well as the presence of these groups of vesiculose cells is shared by +the genus _Russula_, which is at once separated from _Lactarius_ by the +absence of a juice which exudes in drops. + +In determining the species it is a very important thing to know the +taste of the juice or of the fresh plant, whether it is peppery, or +bitter, or mild, that is, tasteless. If one is careful not to swallow +any of the juice or flesh of the plant no harm results from tasting any +of the plants, provided they are not tasted too often during a short +time, beyond the unpleasant sensation resulting from tasting some of +the very "hot" kinds. It is important also to know the color of the milk +when it first exudes from wounds and if it changes color on exposure to +the air. These tests of the plant should be made of course while it is +fresh. The spores are white, globose or nearly so in all species, and +usually covered with minute spiny processes. There are a large number of +species. Peck, 38th Report, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 111--133, describes 40 +American species. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 118.--Lactarius corrugis. Showing corrugated cap, +and white milk exuding. Dark tawny brown, gills orange brown (natural +size, often larger). Copyright.] + +=Lactarius volemus= Fr. =Edible.=--This species is by some termed the +orange brown lactarius because of its usual color. It was probably +termed _Lactarius volemus_ because of the voluminous quantity of milk +which exudes where the plant is broken or bruised, though it is not the +only species having this character. In fresh, young plants, a mere crack +or bruise will set loose quantities of the milky juice which drops +rapidly from the plant. The plant is about the size of _Lactarius +deliciosus_ and occurs in damp woods, where it grows in considerable +abundance from July to September, several usually growing near each +other. The =pileus= is convex, then expanded, often with a small +elevation (umbo) at the center, or sometimes plane, and when old a +little depressed in the center, smooth or somewhat wrinkled. The cap is +dull orange or tawny, the shade of color being lighter in some plants +and darker in others. The flesh is white and quite firm. The =gills= are +white, often tinged with the same color as the pileus, but much lighter; +they are adnate or slightly decurrent. The =stem= is usually short, but +varies from 3--10 x 1--2 cm. It is colored like the pileus, but a +lighter shade. + +The milk is white, abundant, mild, not unpleasant to the taste, but +sticky as it dries. This plant has also long been known as one of the +excellent mushrooms for food both in Europe and America. Peck states +that there are several plants which resemble _Lactarius volemus_ in +color and in the milk, but that no harm could come from eating them. +There is one with a more reddish brown pileus, _Lactarius rufus_, found +sparingly in the woods, but which has a very peppery taste. It is said +by some to be poisonous. + +=Lactarius corrugis= Pk. =Edible.=--This species occurs with _Lactarius +volemus_ and very closely resembles it, but it is of a darker color, and +the pileus is more often marked by prominent wrinkles, from which +character the plant has derived its specific name. It is perhaps a +little stouter plant than _L. volemus_, and with a thicker cap. The +surface of the =pileus= seems to be covered with a very fine velvety +tomentum which glistens as the cap is turned in the light. The =gills= +are much darker than in _L. volemus_. The plants are usually clearly +separated on account of these characters, yet there are occasionally +light colored forms of _L. corrugis_ which are difficult to distinguish +from dark forms of _L. volemus_, and this fact has aroused the suspicion +that _corrugis_ is only a form of _volemus_. + +The milk is very abundant and in every respect agrees with that of _L. +volemus_. I do not know that any one has tested _L. corrugis_ for food. +But since it is so closely related to _L. volemus_ I tested it during +the summer of 1899 in the North Carolina mountains. I consider it +excellent. The methods of cooking there were rather primitive. It was +sliced and fried with butter and salt. It should be well cooked, for +when not well done the partially raw taste is not pleasant. The plant +was very abundant in the woods, and for three weeks an abundance was +served twice a day for a table of twelve persons. The only disagreeable +feature about it is the sticky character of the milk, which adheres in +quantity to the hands and becomes black. This makes the preparation of +the plant for the broiler a rather unpleasant task. + +Figure 118 is from plants (No. 3910, C. U. herbarium) collected in the +woods at Blowing Rock, during September, 1899. Just before the exposure +was made to get the photograph several of the plants were wounded with a +pin to cause the drops of milk to exude, as is well shown in the +illustration. + +The dark color of the lamellae in _L. corrugis_ is due to the number of +brown cystidia or setae, in the hymenium, which project above the surface +of the gills, and they are especially abundant on the edge of the gills. +These setae are long fusoid, 80--120 x 10--12 mu. The variations in the +color of the gills, in some plants the gills being much darker than in +others, is due to the variations either in the number of these setae or +to the variation in their color. Where the cystidia are fewer in number +or are lighter in color the lamellae are lighter colored. Typical forms +of _Lactarius volemus_ have similar setae, but they are very pale in +color and not so abundant over the surface of the gills. In the darker +forms of _L. volemus_ the setae are more abundant and darker in color, +approaching those found in _L. corrugis_. These facts, supported by the +variation in the color of the pileus in the two species and the +variations in the rugosities of the pileus, seem to indicate that the +two species are very closely related. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 119.--Lactarius lignyotus. Cap and stem sooty, cap +wrinkled, gills white, then tinged with ochre (natural size, sometimes +larger). Copyright.] + +=Lactarius lignyotus= Fr.--This is known as the sooty lactarius and +occurs in woods along with the smoky lactarius. It is distinguished from +the latter by the dark brown color of the pileus and by the presence +usually of rugose wrinkles over the center of the cap. In size it agrees +with the smoky lactarius. + +The =pileus= is convex, then plane, or somewhat depressed in the center, +dry, sometimes with a small umbo, dark brown or sooty (chocolate to seal +brown as given in Ridgeway's nomenclature of colors), covered with a +very fine tomentum which has the appearance of a bloom. The margin of +the cap, especially in old plants, is somewhat wavy or plicate as in +_Lactarius fuliginosus_. The =gills= are moderately crowded when young, +becoming distant in older plants, white, then cream color or yellow, +changing to reddish or salmon color where bruised. The =spores= are +yellowish in mass, faintly so under the microscope, globose, strongly +echinulate, 6--10 mu. The taste is mild, or sometimes slowly and slightly +acrid. The plants from North Carolina showed distinctly the change to +reddish or salmon color when the gills were bruised, and the taste was +noted as mild. + +Figure 119 is from plants (No. 3864, C. U. herbarium) collected in the +Blue Ridge Mountains, at Blowing Rock, N. C., September, 1899. + +=Lactarius fuliginosus= Fr.--The smoky or dingy lactarius occurs in +woods and open grassy places. It is widely distributed. The plants are +4--7 cm. high, the cap 3--5 cm. broad, and the stem 6--10 mm. in +thickness. The light smoky color of the cap and stem, the dull yellowish +white color of the gills, and in old plants the wavy margin of the cap +make it comparatively easy to recognize the species. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 120.--Lactarius fuliginosus. Cap and stem smoky, +cap usually not wrinkled; gills white, then light ochre, distant +(natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is thin, at first firm, becoming soft, convex, then plane +and often somewhat depressed in the center, usually even, dry, the +margin in old plants crenately wavy, dull gray or smoky gray in color, +with a fine down or tomentum. The =gills= are adnate, distant, more so +in old plants, white, then yellowish, sometimes changing to salmon color +or reddish where bruised. The =spores= are yellowish in mass, faintly +yellow under the microscope, strongly echinulate or tuberculate, +globose, 6--10 mu. The =stem= is usually paler than the pileus, firm, +stuffed. The milk is white, slowly acrid to the taste. + +Figure 120 is from plants (No. 3867, C. U. herbarium) collected at +Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. + +=Lactarius gerardii= Pk.--This plant was described by Dr. Peck in the +26th Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 65, and in the 28th Rept. p. 129. +According to the descriptions it differs from _Lactarius fuliginosus_ +only in the spores being white, the gills more distant, and the taste +being constantly mild. Since the taste in _L. fuliginosus_ is sometimes +mild, or slowly acrid, and the lamellae in the older plants are more +distant, the spores sometimes only tinged with yellow, there does not +seem to be a very marked difference between the two species. In fact all +three of these species, _fuliginosus_, _lignyotus_ and _gerardii_, seem +to be very closely related. Forms of _fuliginosus_ approach _lignyotus_ +in color, and the =pileus= sometimes is rugose wrinkled, while in +_lignyotus_ pale forms occur, and the pileus is not always rugose +wrinkled. The color of the bruised lamellae is the same in the two last +species and sometimes the change in color is not marked. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 121.--Lactarius torminosus. Cap ochraceous and +pink hues, with zones of darker color, margin of cap wooly (natural +size, often much larger). Copyright.] + +=Lactarius torminosus= (Schaeff.) Fr.--This plant is widely distributed +in Europe, Asia, as well as in America. It is easily recognised by the +uneven mixture of pink and ochraceous colors, and the very hairy or +tomentose margin of the cap. The plants are 5--10 cm. high, the cap +about the same breadth, and the stem 1--2 cm. in thickness. It occurs in +woods on the ground during late summer and autumn. + +The =pileus= is convex, depressed in the center, and the margin strongly +incurved when young, the abundant hairs on the margin forming an +apparent veil at this time which covers up the gills. The upper surface +of the pileus is smooth, or sometimes more or less covered with a +tomentum similar to that on the margin. The color is an admixture of +ochraceous and pink hues, sometimes with concentric zones of darker +shades. The =gills= are crowded, narrow, whitish, with a tinge of +yellowish flesh color. The =stem= is cylindrical, even, hollow, whitish. + +The milk is white, unchangeable, acrid to the taste. Figure 121, left +hand plants, is from plants (No. 3911, C. U. herbarium) collected in the +Blue Ridge Mountains, N. C., in September, 1899, and the right hand +plant (No. 2960, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca, N. Y. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 122.--Lactarius piperatus. Entirely white, milk +very peppery (natural size, often larger). Copyright.] + +=Lactarius piperatus= (Scop.) Fr.--This species is very hot and peppery +to the taste, is of medium size, entirely white, depressed at the +center, or funnel-shaped, with a short stem, and very narrow and crowded +gills, and abundant white milk. The plants are 3--7 cm. high, the cap +8--12 cm. broad, and the stem 1--2 cm. in thickness. It grows in woods +on the ground and is quite common, sometimes very common in late summer +and autumn. + +The =pileus= is fleshy, thick, firm, convex, umbilicate, and then +depressed in the center, becoming finally more or less funnel-shaped by +the elevation of the margin. It is white, smooth when young, in age +sometimes becoming sordid and somewhat roughened. The =gills= are +white, very narrow, very much crowded, and some of them forked, arcuate +and then ascending because of the funnel-shaped pileus. The =spores= are +_smooth_, oval, with a small point, 5--7 x 4--5 mu. The =stem= is equal +or tapering below, short, solid. + +The milk is white, unchangeable, very acrid to the taste and abundant. +The plant is reported as edible. A closely related species is _L. +pergamenus_ (Swartz) Fr., which resembles it very closely, but has a +longer, stuffed stem, and thinner, more pliant pileus, which is more +frequently irregular and eccentric, and not at first umbilicate. Figure +122 is from plants (No. 3887, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing +Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 123.--Lactarius resimus. Entire plant white, in +age scales on cap dull ochraceous (natural size). Copyright.] + +=Lactarius resimus= Fr.?--This plant is very common in the woods +bordering a sphagnum moor at Malloryville, N. Y., ten miles from Ithaca, +during July to September. I have found it at this place every summer for +the past three years. It occurs also in the woods of the damp ravines in +the vicinity of Ithaca. It was also abundant in the Blue Ridge +Mountains of North Carolina, during September, 1899. The plants are +large, the caps 10--15 cm. broad, the stem 5--8 cm. long, and 2--3 cm. +in thickness. + +The =pileus= is convex, umbilicate, then depressed and more or less +funnel-shaped in age, white, in the center roughened with fibrous scales +as the plant ages, the scales becoming quite stout in old plants. The +scales are tinged with dull ochraceous or are light brownish in the +older plants. The ochre colored scales are sometimes evident over the +entire cap, even in young plants. In young plants the margin is strongly +involute or inrolled, and a loose but thick veil of interwoven threads +extends from the surface of the roll to the stem. This disappears as the +margin of the cap unrolls with the expanding pileus. The margin of the +pileus is often sterile, that is, it extends beyond the ends of the +gills. The =gills= are white, stout, and broad, decurrent, some of them +forked near the stem. When bruised, the gills after several hours become +ochraceous brown. The spores are subglobose, minutely spiny, 8--12 mu. +The =stem= is solid, cylindrical, minutely tomentose, spongy within when +old. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 124.--Lactarius resimus. Section of young plant +showing inrolled margin of cap, and the veil (natural size). Copyright.] + +The taste is very acrid, and the white milk not changing to yellow. +While the milk does not change to yellow, broken portions of the plant +slowly change to flesh color, then ochraceous brown. Figures 123, 124 +are from plants collected in one of the damp gorges near Ithaca, during +September, 1896. The forked gills, the strongly inrolled margin of the +cap and veil of the young plants are well shown in the illustration. + +=Lactarius chrysorrheus= Fr.--This is a common and widely distributed +species, from small to medium size. The plants are 5--8 cm. high, the +cap 5--10 cm. broad, and the stem 1--1.5 cm. in thickness. It grows in +woods and groves during late summer and autumn. + +The =pileus= is fleshy, of medium thickness, convex and depressed in the +center from the young condition, and as the pileus expands the margin +becomes more and more upturned and the depression deeper, so that +eventually it is more or less broadly funnel-form. The color varies from +white to flesh color, tinged with yellow sometimes in spots, and marked +usually with faint zones of brighter yellow. The zones are sometimes +very indistinct or entirely wanting. The =gills= are crowded, white then +yellow, where bruised becoming yellowish, then dull reddish. The =stem= +is equal or tapering below, hollow or stuffed, paler than the pileus, +smooth (sometimes pitted as shown in the Fig. 125). + +[Illustration: FIGURE 125.--Lactarius chrysorrheus. Cap white or flesh +color, often tinged with yellowish, and with darker zones (natural +size). Copyright.] + +The plant is acrid to the taste, the milk white changing to citron +yellow on exposure. Figure 125 is from plants (No. 3875, C. U. +herbarium) collected in the Blue Ridge Mountains at Blowing Rock, N. C., +September, 1899. The species was quite abundant in this locality during +August and September, in chestnut groves, mixed woods, and borders of +woods. + +=Lactarius deliciosus= (L.) Fr. =Edible.=--_Lactarius deliciosus_ grows +in damp woods, is widely distributed and sometimes is quite common. It +occurs from July to October. It is one of the medium or large sized +species, being 3--10 cm. high, the cap 5--12 cm. broad, and the stem +1--2 cm. in thickness. It is easily recognized by its orange color and +the concentric zones of light and dark orange around on the pileus, and +by the orange milk which is exuded where wounded. + +The =pileus= is first convex, then slightly depressed in the center, +becoming more expanded, and finally more or less funnel-shaped by the +elevation of the margin. It is usually more or less orange in color or +mottled with varying shades, and with concentric bands of a deeper +color. The =gills= are yellowish orange often with darker spots. The +=stem= is of the same color as the pileus but paler, sometimes with +darker spots. The flesh of the plant is white, shaded with orange. In +old plants the color fades out somewhat and becomes unevenly tinged with +green, and bruised places become green. Peck states that when fresh the +plant often has a slight acrid taste. + +Being a widely distributed and not uncommon plant, and one so readily +recognized, it has long been known in the old world as well as here. All +writers on these subjects concur in recommending it for food, some +pronouncing it excellent, some the most delicious known. Its name +suggests the estimation in which it was held when christened. + +=Lactarius chelidonium= Pk. =Edible.=--This pretty little _Lactarius_ +was described by Peck in the 24th Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 74. It is +closely allied to _Lactarius deliciosus_, from which it is said to +differ in its "more narrow lamellae, differently colored milk, smaller +spores." The plant is about 5 cm. high, the cap about 5 cm. broad, and +the stem 1--1.5 cm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is fleshy, firm, convex and depressed in the center, +smooth, slightly viscid when moist, "of a grayish green color with blue +and yellow tints, and a few narrow zones on the margin." The =gills= are +crowded, narrow, some of them forked at the base, and sometimes joining +to form reticulations. The =spores= are yellowish. The short =stem= is +nearly equal, smooth, hollow, and the same color as the pileus. + +The taste is mild, the milk not abundant, and of a yellowish color, +"resembling the juice of Celandine or the liquid secreted from the mouth +of grasshoppers." Wounds on the plant are first of the color of the +milk, changing on exposure to blue, and finally to green. The plant +occurs during late summer and in the autumn in woods. Peck reported it +first from Saratoga, N. Y. It has been found elsewhere in the State, and +it has probably quite a wide distribution. I found it during September, +1899, in the Blue Ridge Mountains of N. C. Figure 1, plate 39, is from +some of the water color drawings made by Mr. Franklin R. Rathbun. + +[Illustration: PLATE 39. + + FIG. 1.--Lactarius deliciosus. + FIG. 2.--L. chelidonium. + FIG. 3.--L. indigo. + Copyright 1900.] + +=Lactarius indigo= (Schw.) Fr.--The indigo blue lactarius is a very +striking and easily recognized plant because of the rich indigo blue +color so predominant in the entire plant. It is not very abundant, but +is widely distributed in North America. The plant is 5--7 cm. high, the +cap 5--12 cm. broad, and the stem is 1--2 cm. in thickness. The plants +occur during late summer and in the autumn. + +The =pileus= when young is umbilicate, the margin involute, and in age +the margin becomes elevated and then the pileus is more or less +funnel-shaped. The indigo blue color is deeply seated, and the surface +of the pileus has a silvery gray appearance through which the indigo +blue color is seen. The surface is marked by concentric zones of a +darker shade. In age the color is apt to be less uniformly distributed, +it is paler, and the zones are fainter. The _gills_ are crowded, and +when bruised, or in age, the indigo blue color changes somewhat to +greenish. The milk is dark blue. + + +RUSSULA Pers. + +The species of _Russula_ are very characteristic, and the genus is +easily recognized in most cases after a little experience. In the very +brittle texture of the plants the genus resembles _Lactarius_, and many +of them are more brittle than the species of this genus. A section of +the pileus shows under the microscope a similar vesicular condition, +that is the grouping of large rounded cells together, with threads +between. But the species of _Russula_ are at once separated from those +of _Lactarius_ by the absence of a juice which exudes in drops from +bruised parts of _Lactarius_. While some of the species are white and +others have dull or sombre colors, many of the species of _Russula_ have +bright, or even brilliant colors, as red, purple, violet, pink, blue, +yellow, green. In determining many of the species, however, it is +necessary to know the taste, whether mild, bitter, acrid, etc., and in +this respect the genus again resembles _Lactarius_. The color of the +gills as well as the color of the spores in mass should also be +determined. The genus is quite a large one, and the American species are +not well known, the genus being a difficult one. In Jour. Mycolog., =5=: +58--64, 1889, the characters of the tribes of Russula with descriptions +of 25 species are quoted from Stevenson, with notes on their +distribution in N. A. by MacAdam. + +=Russula alutacea= Fr. =Edible.=--This handsome _Russula_ differs from +the others described here in the color of the gills and spores. The +plant is common and occurs in mixed woods during the summer and early +autumn. It is 5--10 cm. high, the cap 5--12 cm. broad, and the stem +1.5--2.5 cm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is fleshy, oval to bell-shaped, becoming plane, and +sometimes umbilicate. It is red or blood red in color, sometimes purple, +and becoming pale in age, especially at the center. It is viscid when +moist, the margin thin and striate-tuberculate. The =gills= are free +from the stem, stout, broad, first white, becoming yellow, and in age +ochraceous. The gills are all of the same length, not crowded, and they +are connected by vein-like elevations over the surface. The =stem= is +stout, solid, even, white, portions of the stem are red, sometimes +purple. + +The taste is mild, and the plant is regarded as one of the very good +ones for food. + +=Russula lepida= Fr. =Edible.=--This elegant _Russula_ occurs in birch +woods or in mixed woods during late summer and autumn. It is 5--8 cm. +high, the cap 6--8 cm. broad, and the stem 1--2 cm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is fleshy, convex, then expanded, obtuse, not shining, deep +red, becoming pale in age, often whitish at the center, silky, in age +the surface cracking, the margin blunt and not striate. The =gills= are +rounded next the stem, thick, rather crowded, and sometimes forked, +white, sometimes red on the edge near the margin of the pileus. The +gills are often connected by vein-like elevations over the surface. The +=stem= is equal, white or rose color. The taste is mild. + +=Russula virescens= (Schaeff.) Fr. =Edible.=--This plant grows on the +ground in woods or in grassy places in groves from July to September. +The stem is short, 2--7 cm. long x 1--2 cm. thick, and the cap is 5--10 +cm. broad. The plant is well known by the green color of the pileus and +by the surface of the pileus being separated into numerous, quite +regular, somewhat angular areas or patches, where the green color is +more pronounced. + +The =pileus= is first rounded, then convex and expanded, and when old +somewhat depressed in the center. It is quite firm, dry, greenish, and +the surface with numerous angular floccose areas or patches of usually a +deeper green. Sometimes the pileus is said to be tinged with yellow. The +=gills= are adnate, nearly free from the stem, and crowded. The =stem= +is white and firm. + +The greenish Russula, _Russula virescens_, like a number of other +plants, has long been recommended for food, both in Europe and in this +country. There are several species of _Russula_ in which the pileus is +green, but this species is readily distinguished from them by the +greenish floccose patches on the surface of the pileus. =Russula +furcata= is a common species in similar situations, with forked gills, +and the cap very variable in color, sometimes reddish, purple, purple +brown, or in one form green. I know of the _Russula furcata_ having been +eaten in rather small quantities, and while in this case no harm +resulted the taste was not agreeable. + +[Illustration: PLATE 40. + + FIG. 1.--Russula virescens. + FIG. 2.--R. alutacea. + FIG. 3.--R. lepida. + FIG. 4.--R. emetica. + FIG. 5.--Yellow Russula. + FIG. 6.--R. adusta. + Copyright 1900.] + +=Russula fragilis= (Pers.) Fr.--This plant is very common in damp woods, +or during wet weather from July to September. It is a small plant and +very fragile, as its name suggests, much more so than most other +species. It is 2--4 cm. high, the cap 2--5 cm. broad, and the stem about +1 cm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is convex, sometimes slightly umbonate, then plane, and in +age somewhat depressed. The cuticle peels off very easily. The color is +often a bright red, or pink, sometimes purple or violet, and becomes +paler in age. It is somewhat viscid when moist, and the margin is very +thin and strongly striate and tuberculate, i. e., the ridges between the +marginal furrows are tuberculate. The =gills= are lightly adnexed, thin, +crowded, broad, all of the same length, white. The =stem= is usually +white, sometimes more or less pink colored, spongy within, becoming +hollow. The taste is very acrid. + +=Russula emetica= Fr. =Poisonous.=--This _Russula_ has a very wide +distribution and occurs on the ground in woods or open places during +summer and autumn. It is a beautiful species and very fragile. The +plants are 5--10 cm. high, the cap 5--10 cm. broad, and the stem 1--2 +cm. in thickness. The =pileus= is oval to bell-shaped when young, +becoming plane, and in age depressed. It is smooth, shining, the margin +furrowed and tuberculate. The color is from pink or rosy when young to +dark red when older, and fading to tawny or sometimes yellowish in age. +The cuticle is easily separable as in _R. fragilis_, the flesh white, +but reddish just beneath the cuticle. The =gills= are nearly free, +broad, not crowded, white. The stem is stout, spongy within, white or +reddish, fragile when old. + +The plant is very acrid to the taste and is said to be poisonous, and to +act as an emetic. + +=Russula adusta= (Pers.) Fr.--This plant occurs on the ground in woods +during late summer and in autumn. It is 3--6 cm. high, the cap 5--15 cm. +broad, and the stem is 1--1.5 cm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is fleshy, firm, convex, depressed at the center, and when +old more or less funnel-shaped from the upturning of the margin, which +is at first incurved and smooth. It varies from white to gray and smoky +color. The =gills= are adnate, or decurrent, thin, crowded, of unequal +lengths, white, then becoming dark. The =stem= is colored like the +pileus. The entire plant becomes darker in drying, sometimes almost +black. It is near _Russula nigricans_, but is smaller, and does not have +a red juice as _R. nigricans_ has. + + +CANTHARELLUS Adanson. + +From the other white-spored agarics of a fleshy consistency +_Cantharellus_ is distinguished by the form of the gills. The gills are +generally forked, once or several times, in a dichotomous manner, though +sometimes irregularly. They are blunt on the edge, not acute as in most +of the other genera. The gills are usually narrow and in many species +look like veins, folds, or wrinkles, but in some species, as in +_Cantharellus aurantiacus_, they are rather thin and broad. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 126.--Cantharellus cibarius. Under view showing +forked gills with veins connecting them. Entire plant rich chrome yellow +(natural size).] + +=Cantharellus cibarius= Fr. =Edible.=--This plant is known as the +_chanterelle_. It has a very wide distribution and has long been +regarded as one of the best of the edible mushrooms. Many of the writers +on fungi speak of it in terms of high praise. The entire plant is a +uniform rich chrome yellow. Sometimes it is symmetrical in form, but +usually it is more or less irregular and unsymmetrical in form. The +plants are 5--10 cm. high, the cap 4--8 cm. broad, and the stem short +and rather thick. + +[Illustration: PLATE 41, FIGURE 127.--Cantharellus aurantiacus. Color +orange yellow, and cap varies ochre, raw sienna, tawny, in different +specimens (natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is fleshy, rather thick, the margin thick and blunt and at +first inrolled. It is convex, becoming expanded or sometimes depressed +by the margin of the cap becoming elevated. The margin is often wavy or +repand, and in irregular forms it is only produced at one side, or more +at one side than at the other, or the cap is irregularly lobed. The +=gills= are very narrow, stout, distant, more or less sinuous, forked or +anastomosing irregularly, and because of the pileus being something like +an inverted cone the gills appear to run down on the stem. The =spores= +are faintly yellowish, elliptical, 7--10 mu. Figure 126 represents but a +single specimen, and this one with a nearly lateral pileus. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 128.--Cantharellus aurantiacus, under view, +enlarged nearly twice, showing regularly forked gills.] + +=Cantharellus aurantiacus= Fr.--This orange cantharellus is very common, +and occurs on the ground or on very rotten wood, logs, branches, etc., +from summer to very late autumn. It is widely distributed in Europe and +America. It is easily known by its dull orange or brownish pileus, +yellow gills, which are thin and regularly forked, and by the pileus +being more or less depressed or funnel-shaped. The plants are from 5--8 +cm. high, the cap from 2--7 cm. broad, and the stem about 4--8 mm. in +thickness. + +The =pileus= is fleshy, soft, flexible, convex, to expanded, or obconic, +plane or depressed, or funnel-shaped, the margin strongly inrolled when +young, in age simply incurved, the margin plane or repand and undulate. +The color varies from ochre yellow to dull orange, or orange ochraceous, +raw sienna, and tawny, in different specimens. It is often brownish at +the center. The surface of the pileus is minutely tomentose with silky +hairs, especially toward the center, and sometimes smooth toward the +margin. The flesh is 3--5 mm. at the center, and thin toward the margin. +The gills are arcuate, decurrent, thin, the edge blunt, but not so much +so as in a number of other species, crowded, regularly forked several +times, at length ascending when the pileus is elevated at the margin. +The color of the =gills= is orange to cadmium orange, or sometimes +paler, cadmium yellow or deep chrome. The =stem= is clay color to ochre +yellow, enlarged below, spongy, stuffed, fistulose, soft, fibrous, more +or less ascending at the base. + +The taste is somewhat nutty, sometimes bitterish. The plants in Fig. 127 +(No. 3272, C. U. herbarium) were collected near Ithaca, October 7, 1899. + + +MARASMIUS Fr. + +In this genus the plants are tough and fleshy or membranaceous, leathery +and dry. They do not easily decay, but shrivel up in dry weather, and +revive in wet weather, or when placed in water. This is an important +character in distinguishing the genus. It is closely related to +_Collybia_, from which it is difficult to separate certain species. On +the other hand, it is closely related to _Lentinus_ and _Panus_, both of +which are tough and pliant. In _Marasmius_, however, the substance of +the pileus is separate from that of the stem, while in _Lentinus_ and +_Panus_ it is continuous, a character rather difficult for the beginner +to understand. The species of _Marasmius_, however, are generally much +smaller than those of _Lentinus_ and _Panus_, especially those which +grow on wood. The stem in _Marasmius_ is in nearly all species central, +while in _Lentinus_ and _Panus_ it is generally more or less eccentric. +Many of the species of the genus _Marasmius_ have an odor of garlic when +fresh. Besides the fairy ring (_M. oreades_) which grows on the ground, +_M. rotula_ is a very common species on wood and leaves. It has a +slender, black, shining stem, and a brownish pileus usually with a black +spot in the depression in the center. The species are very numerous. +Peck, 23rd Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 124--126, describes 8 species. +Morgan Jour. Cinn. Soc. Nat. Hist. =6=: 189--194, describes 17 species. + +=Marasmius oreades= Fr. =Edible.=--This is the well known "fairy ring" +mushroom. It grows during the summer and autumn in grassy places, as in +lawns, by roadsides, in pastures, etc. It appears most abundantly during +wet weather or following heavy rains. It is found usually in circles, or +in the arc of a circle, though few scattered plants not arranged in this +way often occur. The plants are 7--10 cm. high, the cap 2--4 cm. broad, +and the stem 3--4 mm. in thickness. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 129.--Marasmius oreades. Caps buff, tawny, or +reddish.] + +The =pileus= is convex to expanded, sometimes the center elevated, +fleshy, rather thin, tough, smooth, buff color, or tawny or reddish, in +age, or in drying, paler. When moist the pileus may be striate on the +margin. The =gills= are broad, free or adnexed, rounded near the stem, +white or dull yellowish. The =spores= are elliptical, 7--8 mu long. The +=stem= is tough, solid, whitish. + +This widely distributed fungus is much prized everywhere by those who +know it. It is not the only fungus which appears in rings, so that this +habit is not peculiar to this plant. Several different kinds are known +to appear in rings at times. The appearance of the fungus in rings is +due to the mode of growth of the mycelium or spawn in the soil. + +Having started at a given spot the mycelium consumes the food material +in the soil suitable for it, and the plants for the first year appear in +a group. In the center of this spot the mycelium, having consumed all +the available food, probably dies after producing the crop of +mushrooms. But around the edge of the spot the mycelium or spawn still +exists, and at the beginning of the next season it starts into growth +and feeds on the available food in a zone surrounding the spot where it +grew the previous year. This second year, then, the plants appear in a +small ring. So in succeeding years it advances outward, the ring each +year becoming larger. Where the plants appear only in the arc of a +circle, something has happened to check or destroy the mycelium in the +remaining arc of the circle. + +It has been noted by several observers that the grass in the ring +occupied by the mushrooms is often greener than that adjoining. This is +perhaps due to some stimulus exerted by the mycelium of the fungus on +the grass, or possibly the mycelium may in some way make certain foods +available for the grass which gives an additional supply to it at this +point. + +Fig. 129 is from plants (No. 5503, C. U. herbarium) collected in a lawn, +October 25, 1900, Ithaca. + +Illustrations of some fine large rings formed by this fungus appeared in +circular No. 13 by Mr. Coville, of the Division of Botany in the U. S. +Dept. Agr. + +=Marasmius cohaerens= (Fr.) Bres. (_Mycena cohaerens_ Fr. _Collybia +lachnophylla_ Berk. _Collybia spinulifera_ Pk.)--This plant grows in +dense clusters, ten to twenty individuals with their stems closely +joined below and fastened together by the abundant growth of threads +from the lower ends. From this character the name _cohaerens_ was +derived. The plants grow on the ground or on very rotten wood in woods +during late spring and in the summer. The plant is not very common in +this country, but appears to be widely distributed both in Europe and +here, having been collected in Carolina, Ohio, Vermont, New York, etc. +The plants are 12--20 cm. high, the cap 2--2.5 cm. broad, and the stem +4--7 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is fleshy, tough, convex or bell-shaped, then expanded, +sometimes umbonate, or in age sometimes the margin upturned and more or +less wavy, not viscid, but finely striate when damp, thin. The color +varies from vinaceous cinnamon to chestnut or light leather color, or +tawny, paler in age, and sometimes darker on the center. The =gills= are +sometimes more or less crowded, narrow, 5--6 mm. broad, adnate, but +notched, and sometimes becoming free from the stem. The color is light +leather color, brick red or bay, the color and color variations being +due to numbers of colored cystidia or spicules scattered over the +surface of the gills and on the edge. The =cystidia= are fulvous, +fusoid, 75--90 mu long. The =spores= are oval, white, small, 6 x 3 mu. +The =stem= is long and slender, nearly cylindrical, tapering somewhat +above, slightly enlarged below, and rooting. The color is the same as +that of the pileus or dark bay brown, and shining, and seems to be due +to large numbers of spicules similar to those on the gills. The color is +paler below in some cases, or gradually darker below in others. The +stems are bound together below by numerous threads. + +Figure 130 is from plants (No. 2373, C. U. herbarium) collected in woods +near Freeville, N. Y. The plants have been collected near Ithaca on +three different occasions, twice near Freeville about nine miles from +Ithaca, and once in the woods at Ithaca. It is easily distinguished by +its color and the presence of the peculiar setae or cystidia. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 130.--Marasmius cohaerens (Fr.) Bres. (= Mycena +cohaerens Fr. = Collybia lachnophylla Berk. = C. spinulifera Pk.) Color +chestnut, light leather color, tawny or vinaceous cinnamon, darker in +center, stems dark, shining, gills leather color, or fulvous, or wine +color, brick red or bay, varying in different specimens (natural size). +Copyright.] + +Although the plant has been collected on several different occasions in +America, it does not seem to have been recognized under this name until +recently, save the record of it from Carolina by de Schweinitz (Synop. +fung. Car. No. 606. p. 81). + + +LENTINUS Fr. + +The plants of this genus are tough and pliant, becoming hard when old, +unless very watery, and when dry. The genus differs from the other tough +and pliant ones by the peculiarity of the gills, the gills being notched +or serrate on the edges. Sometimes this appearance is intensified by the +cracking of the gills in age or in drying. The nearest ally of the genus +is _Panus_, which is only separated from _Lentinus_ by the edge of the +gills being plane. This does not seem a very good character on which to +separate the species of the two genera, since it is often difficult to +tell whether the gills are naturally serrate or whether they have become +so by certain tensions which exist on the lamellae during the expansion +and drying of the pileus. Schroeter unites _Panus_ with _Lentinus_ +(Cohn's Krypt. Flora, Schlesien, =3=, 1; 554, 1889). The plants are +usually very irregular and many of them shelving, only a few grow +upright and have regular caps. + +=Lentinus vulpinus= Fr.--This is a large and handsome species, having a +wide distribution in Europe and in this country, but it does not seem to +be common. It grows on trunks, logs, stumps, etc., in the woods. It was +quite abundant during late summer and in the autumn on fallen logs, in a +woods near Ithaca. The =caps= are shelving, closely overlapping in +shingled fashion (imbricated), and joined at the narrowed base. The +surface is convex, and the margin is strongly incurved, so that each of +the individual caps is shell-shaped (conchate). The surface of the +pileus is coarsely hairy or hispid, the surface becoming more rough with +age. Many coarse hairs unite to form coarse tufts which are stouter and +nearly erect toward the base of the cap, and give the surface a +tuberculate appearance. Toward the margin of the cap these coarse hairs +are arranged in nearly parallel lines, making rows or ridges, which are +very rough. The hairs and tubercles are dark in color, being nearly +black toward the base, especially in old plants, and sometimes pale or +of a smoky hue, especially in young plants. The pileus is flesh color +when young, becoming darker when old, and the flesh is quite thin, +whitish toward the gills and darker toward the surface. The =gills= are +broad, nearly white, flesh color near the base, coarsely serrate, +becoming cracked in age and in drying, narrowed toward the base of the +pileus, not forked, crowded, 4--6 mm. broad. The cap and gills are tough +even when fresh. The plant has an intensely pungent taste. + +Figures 131, 132 represent an upper, front, and under view of the pilei +(No. 3315, C. U. herbarium). + +[Illustration: PLATE 42, FIGURE 131.--Lentinus vulpinus. The coarse, +hairy scales are black in old plants, paler, of a smoky hue, in younger +ones (natural size). Copyright.] + +=Lentinus lecomtei= Fr., is a very common and widely distributed species +growing on wood. When it grows on the upper side of logs the pileus is +sometimes regular and funnel-shaped (cyathiform), but it is often +irregular and produced on one side, especially if it grows on the side +of the substratum. In most cases, however, there is a funnel-shaped +depression above the attachment of the stem. The =pileus= is tough, +reddish or reddish brown or leather color, hairy or sometimes strigose, +the margin incurved. The =stem= is usually short, hairy, or in age it +may become more or less smooth. The =gills= are narrow, crowded, the +spores small, ovate to elliptical 5--6 x 2--3 mu. According to Bresadola +this is the same as _Panus rudis_ Fr. It resembles very closely also +_Panus cyathiformis_ (Schaeff.) Fr., and _P. strigosus_ B. & C. + +=Lentinus lepideus= Fr., [_L. squamosus_ (Schaeff.) Schroet.] is another +common and widely distributed species. It is much larger than _L. +lecomtei_, whitish with coarse brown scales on the cap. It is 12--20 cm. +high, and the cap is often as broad. The stem is 2--8 cm. long and 1--2 +cm. in thickness. It grows on wood. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 132.--Lentinus vulpinus, front and under view +(natural size). Copyright.] + +=Lentinus stipticus= (Bull.) Schroet. (_Panus stipticus_ Bull.) is a +very small species compared with the three named above. It is, however, +a very common and widely distributed one, growing on wood, and may be +found the year around. The pileus is 1--3 cm. in diameter, whitish or +grayish, very tough, expanded in wet weather, and curled up in dry +weather. The stem is very short, and attached to one side of the cap. +When freshly developed the plant is phosphorescent. + + +SCHIZOPHYLLUM Fr. + +This is a very interesting genus, but the species are very few. The +plants are tough, pliant when fresh, and dry. The gills are very +characteristic, being split along the edge and generally strongly +revolute, that is, the split edges curve around against the side of the +gill. This character can be seen sometimes with the aid of a hand lens, +but is very evident when a section of the cap and gills is made and then +examined with a microscope. The spores are white. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 133.--Schizophyllum alneum (==S. commune). View of +under side (natural size). Copyright.] + +=Schizophyllum alneum= (L.) Schroet.--This species usually goes by the +name of _Schizophyllum commune_, but the earlier name is _S. alneum_. It +is a very common plant and is world wide in its distribution, growing on +wood, as on branches, trunks, etc. It is white, and the =pileus= is very +hairy or tomentose, with coarse white hairs. It is 1--3 cm. in diameter, +and the cap is sessile, either attached at one side when the cap is more +produced on one side than on the other, or it may be attached at or +near the center of the top, when the cap is more evenly developed on all +sides. It is often crenate or lobed on the margin, the larger plants +showing this character more prominently. The margin is incurved. The +=gills= are white, wooly, branched and extend out toward the margin of +the cap like the radiations of a fan. The gills are deeply split along +the edge, and strongly revolute. It is a very pretty plant, but one +becomes rather tired of collecting it because it is so common. It may be +found at all seasons of the year on dead sticks and branches, either in +the woods or elsewhere, if the branches are present. It is very +coriaceous, and tough. During dry weather it is much shrunken and curled +up, but during rains it expands quickly and then it is seen in its +beauty. + +[Illustration: PLATE 43, FIGURE 134.--Trogia crispa. Large cluster of +caps, view of underside (natural size). Copyright.] + +Figure 133 shows the plant in the expanded condition, from the under +side. The plants were growing on a hickory branch, and were dry and +shrunken when brought in the laboratory. The branch and the fungus were +placed in water for a few hours, when the fungus expanded, and was then +photographed in this condition. + + +TROGIA Fr. + +This genus is characterized, according to Fries, by the gills being +channeled along the edge, but singularly the only species attributed to +the genus in Europe and in our country has not channeled gills, but only +somewhat crisped along the edges. It is usually, therefore, a difficult +matter for a beginner to determine the plant simply from this +description. The gills are furthermore narrow, irregular, and the plants +are somewhat soft and flabby when wet, but brittle and persistent when +dry, so that when moistened they revive and appear as if fresh. + +=Trogia crispa= Fr.--This species is the principal if not only one in +Europe and America. It is widely distributed, and sometimes not very +uncommon. It occurs on trunks, branches, etc., often on the birch. The +plants are from 0.5--1 cm. broad, usually sessile. The upper surface is +whitish or reddish yellow toward the attachment, sometimes tan color, +and when young it is sometimes covered with whitish hairs. The gills are +very narrow, vein-like, irregular, interrupted or continuous, and often +more or less branched. The gills are very much crisped, hence the name, +blunt at the edge and white or bluish gray. The caps are usually much +crowded and overlapped in an imbricated fashion as shown in Fig. 134; a +photograph of a fine specimen after being moistened. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +THE ROSY-SPORED AGARICS. + + +The spores are rosy, pink, salmon colored, flesh colored, or reddish. +For analytical keys to the genera see Chapter XXIV. + + +PLUTEUS Fr. + +In the genus _Pluteus_ the volva and annulus are both wanting, the gills +are usually free from the stem, and the stem is easily broken out from +the substance of the cap, reminding one in some cases of a ball and +socket joint. The substance of the cap is thus said to be not continuous +with that of the stem. The spores seen in mass are flesh colored as in +other genera of this subdivision of the agarics. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 135.--Pluteus cervinus. Cap grayish brown, or +sooty, smooth or sometimes scaly, rarely white, stem same color, but +paler; gills first white, then flesh color (natural size, often larger). +Copyright.] + +=Pluteus cervinus= Schaeff. =Edible.=--This is one of the very common +species of the higher fungi, and is also very widely distributed. It +varies considerably in size and appearance. It is 7--15 cm. high, the +cap 5--10 cm. broad, and the stem 6--12 mm. in thickness. It occurs on +the ground from underground roots or rotten wood, or grows on decaying +stumps, logs, etc., from spring until late autumn. Sometimes it is found +growing in sawdust. + +The =pileus= is fleshy, bell-shaped, then convex, and becoming expanded, +the surface usually smooth, but showing radiating fibrils, grayish +brown, or sometimes sooty, sometimes more or less scaly. The =gills= are +not crowded, broad, free from the stem, white, then becoming flesh color +with the maturity of the spores. One very characteristic feature of the +plant is the presence of =cystidia= in the hymenium on the gills. These +are stout, colorless, elliptical, thick-walled, and terminate in two or +three blunt, short prongs. + +The =stem= is nearly equal, solid, the color much the same as that of +the pileus, but often paler above, smooth or sometimes scaly. + +In some forms the plant is entirely white, except the gills. In addition +to the white forms occurring in the woods, I have found them in an old +abandoned cement mine growing on wood props. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 136.--Pluteus tomentosulus. Cap and stem entirely +white, gills flesh color, stem furrowed and tomentose (natural size). +Copyright.] + +=Pluteus tomentosulus= Pk.--This plant was described by Peck in the 32d +Report, N. Y. State Mus., page 28, 1879. It grows on decaying wood in +the woods during July and August. The plants are 5--12 cm. high, the cap +3--7 cm. broad, and the stem 4--8 mm. in thickness. The description +given by Peck is as follows: "Pileus thin, convex or expanded, +subumbonate, dry, minutely squamulose-tomentose, white, sometimes +pinkish on the margin; lamellae rather broad, rounded behind, free, +crowded, white then flesh colored; stem equal, solid, striate, slightly +pubescent or subtomentose, white; spores subglobose, 7 mu in diameter, +generally containing a large single nucleus." From the plant collected +at Ithaca the following notes were made. The =pileus= and stem are +entirely white, the gills flesh color. The pileus is expanded, umbonate, +thin except at the umbo, minutely floccose squamulose, no pinkish tinge +noted; the flesh is white, but on the umbo changing to flesh color where +wounded. The =gills= are free, with a clear white space between stem and +rounded edges, crowded, narrow (about 3--4 mm. broad) edge finely +fimbriate, probably formed by numerous bottle-shaped cystidia on the +edge, and which extend up a little distance on the side of the gills, +but are not distributed in numbers over the surface of the gills; +=cystidia= thin walled, hyaline. The =spores= are flesh colored, +subglobose, 5--7 mu. =Stem= cylindrical, even, twisted somewhat, white, +striate and minutely squamulose like the pileus, but with coarser +scales, especially toward the base, solid, flesh white. + +The species received its name from the tomentose, striate character of +the stem. The plants (No. 3219, C. U. herbarium) illustrated in Fig. 136 +were collected in Enfield Gorge, vicinity of Ithaca, July 28, 1899. + + +VOLVARIA Fr. + +This genus takes its name from the volva, which means a wrapper, and +which, as we know from our studies of _Amanita_, entirely envelops the +plant at a young stage. The genus is characterized then by the rosy or +reddish spores, the presence of a volva, and the annulus is wanting. The +stem is easily separable from the pileus at its junction, in this +respect being similar to _Amanita_, _Amanitopsis_, _Lepiota_ and others. +The gills are usually, also, free from the stem. The species grow on +rotting wood, on leaf mould and on richly manured ground, etc. They are +of a very soft texture and usually soon decay. + +=Volvaria bombycina= (Pers.) Fr. =Edible.=--The silky volvaria is so +called because of the beautiful silky texture of the surface of the cap. +It is not very common, but is world wide in its distribution, and +occurs on decayed wood of logs, stumps, etc., during late summer and in +autumn. It is usually of a beautiful white color, large, the volva large +and thick, reminding one of a bag, and the stem is ascending when the +plant grows on the side of the trunk, or erect when it grows on the +upper side of a log or stump. The plant is from 8--16 cm. high, the cap +6--20 cm. broad, and the stem 1--1.5 cm. thickness. + +The =pileus= is globose, then bell-shaped, and finally convex and +somewhat umbonate, white, according to some becoming somewhat reddish. +The entire surface is silky, and numerous hairs stand out in the form of +soft down, when older the surface becoming more or less scaly, or rarely +becoming smooth at the apex. The flesh is white. The =gills= are +crowded, very broad along the middle, flesh colored, the edge sometimes +ragged. The =spores= are rosy in mass, oval to broadly elliptical, 6--9 +x 5--6 mu, smooth. The =stem= tapers from the base to the apex, is solid, +smooth. The =volva= is large and bag-like. The plant is considered +edible by some. Figure 137 is from a plant (No. 3096, C. U. herbarium) +collected on a log of Acer rubrum in Cascadilla woods, Ithaca, on August +10th, 1898. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 137.--Volvaria bombycina. Cap, stem and volva +entirely white, gills flesh color (natural size). Copyright.] + +=Volvaria speciosa= Fr.--This plant seems to be rare, but it has a wide +distribution in Europe and the United States. It occurs on richly +manured ground, on dung, etc. The plants are 10--20 cm. high, the cap +6--12 cm. broad, and the stem 1--2 cm. in thickness. The entire plant is +white or whitish, sometimes grayish, especially at the center, where it +is also sometimes darker and of a smoky color. + +The =pileus= is globose when young, then bell-shaped, and finally more +or less expanded, and umbonate, smooth, very viscid, so that earth, +leaves, etc., cling to it. The flesh is white and very soft. The =gills= +are free, flesh colored to reddish or fulvous, from the deeply colored +spores. The =spores= are broadly elliptical, or oval, 12--18 x 8--10 mu. +The =stem= is nearly cylindrical, or tapering evenly from the base, when +young more or less hairy, becoming smooth. The =volva= is large, edge +free, but fitting very close, flabby and irregularly torn. + +The species is reported from California by McClatchie, and from +Wisconsin by Bundy. + +Specimens were received in June, 1898, from Dr. Post of Lansing, Mich., +which were collected there in a potato patch. It was abundant during May +and June. Plants which were sent in a fresh condition were badly decayed +by the time they reached Ithaca, and the odor was very disagreeable. It +is remarkable that the odor was that of rotting potatoes! In this +connection might be mentioned Dr. Peck's observation (Bull. Torr. Bot. +Club 26: p. 67, 1899) that _Agaricus maritimus_ Pk., which grows near +the seashore, possessed "a taste and odor suggestive of the sea." + +McClatchie reports that it is common in cultivated soil, especially +grain fields and along roads, and that it is "a fine edible agaric and +our most abundant one in California." + + +CLITOPILUS Fr. + +In the rosy-spored agarics belonging to this genus the gills are +decurrent, that is, extend for some distance down on the stem. The stem +is fleshy. The gills are white at first and become pink or salmon color +as the plants mature, and the spores take on their characteristic color. +The plants should thus not be confused with any of the species of +_Agaricus_ to which the common mushroom belongs, since in those species +the gills become dark brown or blackish when mature. The genus +corresponds with _Clitocybe_ among the white-spored ones. + +=Clitopilus prunulus= Scop. =Edible.=--This species grows on the ground +in the woods from mid-summer to autumn. It is not very common, but +sometimes appears in considerable quantities at one place. During the +autumn of 1898 quite a large number of specimens were found in a woods +near Ithaca, growing on the ground around an old stump. The plants are +3--8 cm. high, the cap 5--10 cm. broad, and stem 1--2 cm. in thickness. + +[Illustration: PLATE 44, FIGURE 138.--Clitopilus prunulus, cap whitish +or dark gray, gills flesh color (natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is fleshy, firm, convex and becoming nearly plane, and +sometimes as the plants become old the center may be slightly +depressed. It is whitish in color, or dark gray, or with a leaden +tint, dry, sometimes with a distinct bloom on the surface, and the +margin is often wavy. The cap is sometimes produced more on one side +than on the other. The =gills= are not close, at first whitish, then +salmon colored as the spores mature, and they are decurrent as is +characteristic of the genus. The =spores= are elliptical or nearly so, +and measure 10--12 mu long. + +Figure 138 is from plants collected near Ithaca, in the autumn of 1898. +This species is considered to be one of the excellent mushrooms for +food. When fresh it has a mealy odor and taste, as do several of the +species of this genus. It is known as the prune mushroom. + +=Clitopilus orcella= Bull. =Edible.=--This plant is sometimes spoken of +as the sweet-bread mushroom. It is much like the prune mushroom just +described, in odor and taste, and sometimes resembles it in form and +other characters. It is white in color, and the plants are usually +considerably smaller, and the pileus is, according to my observations, +sometimes more irregular, lobed and wavy on the margin. The flesh is +also softer, and the cap is said to be slightly viscid in wet weather. +The plant grows in the woods and sometimes in open fields. + + +ENTOLOMA Fr. + +The volva and annulus are absent in this genus, the spores are rosy, the +gills adnate to sinuate or adnexed, easily separating from the stem in +some species. The stem is fleshy or fibrous, sometimes waxy, and the +pileus is fleshy with the margin incurved, especially when young. The +spores are prominently angular. The genus corresponds with _Tricholoma_ +of the white-spored agarics, and also with _Hebeloma_ and _Inocybe_ of +the ochre-spored ones. _Entoloma repandum_ Bull., is an _Inocybe_ [_I. +repandum_ (Bull.) Bres.] and has angular spores resembling those of an +_Entoloma_, but the spores are not rosy. + +=Entoloma jubatum= Fr.--Growing on the ground in woods. The plants are +5--10 cm. high, the cap 3--6 cm. broad, and the stem 3--6 mm. in +thickness. + +The =pileus= is conic in some plants, to convex and umbonate, thin, +minutely scaly with blackish hairy scales, dull heliotrope purple, +darker on the umbo. The =gills= are vinaceous rufus to deep flesh color, +strongly sinuate, and irregularly notched along the edge. The =spores= +are irregularly oval to short oblong, coarsely angular, with an oil +drop, 5--7 angled, 7--11 x 6--7 mu. The =stem= is of the same color as +the pileus, sometimes deeply rooting, hollow. Figure 139 is from plants +(No. 4000, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during +September, 1899. + +=Entoloma grayanum= Pk.--This plant grows on the ground in woods. It is +from 6--8 cm. high, the cap is 3--6 cm. broad, and the stem 4--6 mm. in +thickness. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 139.--Entoloma jubatum. Entire plant dull +heliotrope purple, gills later flesh color (natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex to expanded, sometimes broadly umbonate, drab in +color, the surface wrinkled or rugose, and watery in appearance. The +flesh is thin and the margin incurved. The =gills= are first drab in +color, but lighter than the pileus, becoming pinkish in age. The +=spores= on paper are very light salmon color. They are globose or +rounded in outline, 5--7 angled, with an oil globule, 8--10 mu in +diameter. The =stem= is the same color as the pileus, but lighter, +striate, hollow, somewhat twisted, and enlarged below. Figure 140 is +from plants (No. 3998, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. +C., during September, 1899. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 140.--Entoloma grayanum. Cap and stem drab, gills +flesh color (natural size). Copyright.] + +=Entoloma strictius= Pk.--The plants grow in grassy places, pastures, +etc. They are clustered, sometimes two or three joined at the base of +the stem. They are 7--10 cm. high, the caps 2--4 cm. broad, and the +stems 3--6 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is convex, the disk expanded, and the margin incurved and +more or less wavy or repand on the extreme edge. It is umbonate at the +center with usually a slight depression around the umbo, smooth, watery +(hygrophanous) in appearance, not viscid, of an umber color, shining, +faintly and closely striate on the margin. In drying the surface of the +pileus loses some of its dark umber color and presents a silvery sheen. +The flesh is fibrous and umber color also. The =gills= are grayish +white, then tinged with flesh color, slightly sinuate, the longer ones +somewhat broader in the middle (ventricose), rather distant, and quite +thick as seen in cross section, the center of the gill (trama) +presenting parallel threads. The sub-hymenium is very thin and composed +of small cells; the =basidia= are clavate, 25--30 x 9--10 mu, and +four-spored. The =spores= are dull rose color on paper, subgloblose, +5--8 mu in diameter, angular with 5--6 angles as seen from one side. The +=stem= is the same color as the pileus, but considerably lighter. It is +hollow with white fibers within, fibrous striate on the surface, +twisted, brittle, and somewhat cartilaginous, partly snapping, but +holding by fibers in places, cylindrical, even, ascending, with delicate +white fibers covering the lower end. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 141.--Entoloma strictius. Cap umber or smoky, stem +paler, gills grayish, then flesh color (natural size). Copyright.] + +Figure 141 is from plants (No. 2461, C. U. herbarium) collected near +Ithaca, October, 1898. + + +LEPTONIA Fr. + +In _Leptonia_ the stem is cartilaginous, hollow or stuffed, smooth and +somewhat shining. The pileus is thin, umbilicate or with the center +darker, the surface hairy or scaly, and the margin at first incurved. +The gills are adnate or adnexed at first, and easily separating from the +stem in age. Many of the species are bright colored. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 142.--Leptonia asprella. Cap hair brown (mouse +colored), minute dark scales at center, stem same color, but sometimes +reddish brown, green or blue, gills flesh color.] + +=Leptonia asprella= Fr.--This species occurs on the ground in woods or +in open grassy places. The plants are 3--5 cm. high, the cap 2--4 cm. +broad, and the stem 2--3 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is convex, then more or less expanded, umbilicate, rarely +umbonate, hair brown (mouse colored), with dark scales on the center and +minute scales over the surface, striate. + +The =gills= are sinuate to adnexed. The =spores= are strongly 5--6 +angled, 10--12 x 8--10 mu. The =stem= is smooth, even, usually the same +color as the cap, but sometimes it is reddish brown, green, or blue. +Figure 142 is from plants (No. 3996, C. U. herbarium) collected at +Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. + +=Leptonia incana= Fr., is a more common species, and is characterized by +an odor of mice. + + +ECCILIA Fr. + +The genus _Eccilia_ corresponds with _Omphalia_ of the white-spored +agarics. The stem is cartilaginous, hollow or stuffed. The pileus is +thin and somewhat membranaceous, plane or depressed at the center, and +the margin at first incurved. The gills are more or less decurrent. + +=Eccilia polita= Pers.--This plant occurs on the ground in woods. It is +6--10 cm. high, the cap 2--4 cm. broad, and the stem is 3--4 mm. in +thickness. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 143.--Eccilia polita. Cap hair brown to olive, +stem lighter, gills flesh color, notched and irregular (natural size). +Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex and umbilicate, somewhat membranaceous, smooth, +watery in appearance, finely striate on the margin, hair brown to olive +in color. The =gills= are decurrent. In the specimens illustrated in +Fig. 143 the gills are very irregular and many of them appear sinuate. +The =spores= are strongly 4--5 angled, some of them square, 10--12 mu in +diameter, with a prominent mucro at one angle. The =stem= is +cartilaginous, becoming hollow, lighter in color than the pileus, and +somewhat enlarged below. Figure 143 is from plants (No. 3999, C. U. +herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. + +[Illustration: PLATE 45, FIGURE 144.--Claudopus nidulans, view of under +side. Cap rich yellow or buff, gills flesh color (natural size). +Copyright.] + + +CLAUDOPUS W. Smith. + +In the genus _Claudopus_, recognized by some, the pileus is eccentric or +lateral, that is, the stem is attached near the side of the cap, or the +cap is sessile and attached by one side to the wood on which the plant +is growing; or the plants are resupinate, that is, they may be spread +over the surface of the wood. + +The genus is perhaps not well separated from some of the species of +_Pleurotus_ with lilac spores like _P. sapidus_. In fact, a number of +the species were formerly placed in _Pleurotus_, while others were +placed in _Crepidotus_ among the ochre-spored agarics. Several species +are reported from America. Peck in 39th Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 67, +_et seq._, 1886, describes five species. + +=Claudopus nidulans= (Pers.) Pk.--This is one of the very pretty agarics +growing on dead branches and trunks during the autumn, and is widely +distributed. It has, however, been placed in the genus _Pleurotus_, as +_P. nidulans_. But because of the pink color of the spores in mass, Peck +places it in the genus _Claudopus_, where Fries suggested it should go +if removed from _Pleurotus_. It seems to be identical with _Panus +dorsalis Bosc_. It is usually sessile and attached to the side of dead +branches, logs, etc., in a shelving manner, or sometimes it is +resupinate. + +The =pileus= is sessile, or sometimes narrowed at the base into a short +stem, the caps often numerous and crowded together in an overlapping or +imbricate manner. It is nearly orbicular, or reniform, and 1--5 cm. +broad. The margin is at first involute. The surface is coarsely hairy or +tomentose, or scaly toward the margin, of a rich yellow or buff color. +It is soft, but rather tough in consistency. The =gills= are broad, +orange yellow. The =spores=, pink in mass, are smooth, elongated, +somewhat curved, 6--8 mu long. + +Figure 144 is from plants (No. 2660, C. U. herbarium) collected in woods +near Ithaca. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +THE OCHRE-SPORED AGARICS. + + +The spores are ochre yellow, rusty, rusty-brown, or some shade of +yellow. For analytical keys to the genera see Chapter XXIV. + + +PHOLIOTA Fr. + +The genus _Pholiota_ has ferruginous or ferruginous brown spores. It +lacks a volva, but has an annulus; the gills are attached to the stem. +It then corresponds to _Armillaria_ among white-spored agarics, and +_Stropharia_ among the purple-brown-spored ones. There is one genus in +the ochre or yellow-spored plants with which it is liable to be confused +on account of the veil, namely _Cortinarius_, but in the latter the veil +is in the form of loose threads, and is called an arachnoid veil, that +is, the veil is spider-web-like. Many of the species of _Pholiota_ grow +on trunks, stumps, and branches of trees, some grow on the ground. + +=Pholiota praecox= Pers. =Edible.=--_Agaricus candicans_ Bull. T. 217, +1770: _Pholiota candicans_ Schroeter, Krypt, Flora, Schlesien, p. 608, +1889. This plant occurs during late spring and in the summer, in +pastures, lawns and grassy places, roadsides, open woods, etc. Sometimes +it is very common, especially during or after prolonged or heavy rains. +The plants are 6--10 cm. high, the cap from 5--8 cm. broad, and the stem +3--5 mm. in thickness. The plants are scattered or a few sometimes +clustered. + +The =pileus= is convex, then expanded, whitish to cream color or +yellowish, then leather color, fleshy, the margin at first incurved, +moist, not viscid. Sometimes the pileus is umbonate. The surface is +sometimes uneven from numerous crowded shallow pits, giving it a frothy +appearance. In age the margin often becomes upturned and fluted. The +=gills= are adnate or slightly decurrent by a tooth, 3--4 mm. broad, a +little broader at or near the middle, crowded, white, then ferruginous +brown, edge sometimes whitish. There is often a prominent angle in the +gills at their broadest diameter, not far from the stem, which gives to +them, when the plants are young or middle age, a sinuate appearance. The +=spores= are ferruginous brown, elliptical. =Cystidia= abruptly +club-shaped, with a broad apiculus. The =stem= is stuffed, later +fistulose, even, fragile, striate often above the annulus. The stem is +whitish or sometimes flesh color. The veil is whitish, large, frail, and +sometimes breaks away from the stem and clings in shreds to the margin +of the cap. + +[Illustration: PLATE 46, FIGURE 145.--Pholiota praecox. Cap whitish, to +cream, or leather color, stem white, gills white then ferruginous brown +(natural size). Copyright.] + +Figure 145 is from plants (No. 2362, C. U. herbarium) collected on the +campus of Cornell University, June, 1898. The taste is often slightly +bitter. + +=Pholiota marginata= Batsch.--This is one of the very common species, a +small one, occurring all during the autumn, on decaying trunks, etc., in +the woods. The plants are usually clustered, though appearing also +singly. They are from 4--10 cm. high, the cap 3--4 cm. broad, and the +stem 3--5 mu in thickness. + +[Illustration: PLATE 47, FIGURE 146.--Pholiota adiposa. Cap very viscid, +saffron-yellow or burnt umber or wood-brown in center, scales wood-brown +to nearly black, stem whitish then yellowish; gills brownish, edge +yellow (natural size, sometimes larger). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex, then plane, tan or leather colored, darker when +dry. It has a watery appearance (hygrophanous), somewhat fleshy, smooth, +striate on the margin. The =gills= are joined squarely to the stem, +crowded, at maturity dark reddish brown from the spores. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 147.--Pholiota marginata. Cap and stem tan or +leather color, gills dark reddish brown when mature (natural size). +Copyright.] + +The =stem= is cylindrical, equal, smooth, fistulose, of the same color +as the pileus, becoming darker, and often with whitish fibrils at the +base. The =annulus= is distant from the apex of the stem, and often +disappears soon after the expansion of the pileus. Figure 147 is from +plants (No. 2743, C. U. herbarium) collected near Ithaca. + +=Pholiota unicolor= Vahl, is a smaller plant which grows in similar +situations. The plants are usually clustered, 3--5 cm. high, and the +caps 6--12 mm. in diameter, the annulus is thin but entire and +persistent. The entire plant is bay brown, becoming ochraceous in color, +and the margin of the cap in age is striate, first bell-shaped, then +convex and somewhat umbonate. The gills are lightly adnexed. + +=Pholiota adiposa= Fr.--The fatty pholiota usually forms large clusters +during the autumn, on the trunks of trees, stumps, etc. It is sometimes +of large size, measuring up to 15 cm. and the pileus up to 17 cm. +broad. Specimens collected at Ithaca during October, 1899, were 8--10 +cm. high, the pileus 4--8 cm. broad, and the stems 5--9 mm. in +thickness. The plants grew eight to ten in a cluster and the bases of +the stems were closely crowded and loosely joined. + +The =pileus= is convex, then expanded, the margin more or less inrolled, +then incurved, prominently umbonate, very viscid when moist, the ground +color a saffron yellow or in the center burnt umber to wood brown. The +cuticle of the pileus is plain or torn into scales which are wood brown, +or when close together they are often darker, sometimes nearly black. +The flesh is saffron yellow, thick at the center of the cap, thinning +out toward the margin, spongy and almost tasteless. The =gills= are +adnate, and sometimes a little notched, brown (mars brown), and the edge +yellow, 6--7 mm. broad. The =spores= are 8 x 5 mu. The =stem= tapers +downward, is compact, whitish then yellow, saffron yellow, flesh +vinaceous, viscid, and clothed more or less with reflexed (pointing +downward) scales. The stem is somewhat cartilaginous, tough, but +snapping off in places. The veil is thin floccose and sometimes with +coarse scales, soon disappearing. + +Figure 146 is from plants (No. 3295, C. U. herbarium) collected on the +Ithaca flats from a willow trunk, Oct. 10, 1899. + +=Pholiota aurivella= Batsch, which has been found in the United States, +is closely related to _P. adiposa_. + +=Pholiota squarrosa= Muell., widely distributed and common in the autumn, +both in Europe and America, on stumps and trunks, is a large, clustered, +scaly plant, the scales "squarrose", and abundant over the pileus and on +the stem below the annulus. It is brownish or ferruginous in color. + +=Pholiota squarrosoides= Pk., as its name indicates, is closely related +to _P. squarrosa_. It has erect, pointed, persistent scales, especially +when young, and has a similar habit to _squarrosa_, but differs chiefly +in the pileus being viscid, while that of _P. squarrosa_ is dry. _P. +subsquarrosa_ Fr., occurring in Europe, and also closely related to _P. +squarrosa_, is viscid, the scales are closely appressed to the surface +of the cap, while in _squarrosa_ they are prominent and revolute. + +=Pholiota cerasina= Pk., occurs on decaying trunks of trees during late +summer. The plants grow in tufts. They are 5--12 cm. high, the caps +5--10 cm. in diameter, and the stems 4--8 mm. in thickness. The pileus +is smooth, watery when damp, cinnamon in color when fresh, becoming +yellowish in drying, and the flesh is yellowish. The stem is solid, and +equal, the apex mealy. The annulus is not persistent, and the gills are +crowded and notched. The spores are elliptical, and rugose, 5 x 8 mu. + +[Illustration: PLATE 48, FIGURE 148.--Pholiota squarrosoides. Entire +plant brownish or reddish brown; pileus viscid (three-fourths natural +size). Copyright.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 49, FIGURE 149.--Pholiota johnsoniana. Cap +yellowish to yellowish brown, stem whitish, gills grayish then +rust-brown (natural size). Copyright.] + +=Pholiota johnsoniana= Pk. =Edible.=--This species was described from +specimens collected at Knowersville, N. Y., in 1889, by Peck, in the +23rd Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 98, as _Agaricus johnsonianus_. I found +it at Ithaca, N. Y., for the first time during the summer of 1899, and +it was rather common during September, 1899, in the Blue Ridge Mountains +at Blowing Rock, N. C. It grows in woods or in pastures on the ground. +The larger and handsomer specimens I have found in rather damp but well +drained woods. The plants are 7--15 cm. high, the cap 5--10 cm. broad, +and the stem 6--12 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is fleshy, very thick at the center, convex, then expanded +and plane, smooth, sometimes finely striate on the thin margin when +moist, yellowish, or fulvous, the margin whitish. The =gills= are +attached to the stem by the upper angle (adnexed), rounded, or some of +them angled, some nearly free. In color they are first gray, then rusty +brown. They appear ascending because of the somewhat top-shaped pileus. +The =spores= are irregularly ovoid, 4--6 x 3--3.5 mu. The =stem= is +cylindrical or slightly tapering upward, smooth, slightly striate above +the annulus, whitish, solid, with a tendency to become hollow. The +=veil= is thick, and the annulus narrow and very thick or "tumid," +easily breaking up and disappearing. The plant is quite readily +distinguished by the form of the pileus with the ascending gills and the +tumid annulus. Peck says it has a "somewhat nutty flavor." + +Figure 149 is from plants (No. 4014, C. U. herbarium) collected at +Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. + + +NAUCORIA Fr. + +This genus, with ferruginous spores, corresponds with _Collybia_ among +the white-spored agarics. The gills are free or attached, but not +decurrent, and the stem is cartilaginous. The plants grow both on the +ground and on wood. Peck, 23rd Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 91, _et +seq._, gives a synopsis of seven species. + +=Naucoria semi-orbicularis= Bull. =Edible.=--This is one of the common +and widely distributed species. It occurs in lawns, pastures, roadsides, +etc., in waste places, from June to autumn, being more abundant in rainy +weather. The plants are 7--10 cm. high, the cap 3--5 cm. broad, and the +stem 2--3 mm. in thickness. The =pileus= is convex to expanded, and is +remarkably hemispherical, from which the species takes the name of +_semi-orbicularis_. It is smooth, viscid when moist, tawny, and in age +ochraceous, sometimes the surface is cracked into areas. The =gills= are +attached, sometimes notched, crowded, much broader than the thickness +of the pileus, pale, then reddish brown. The =stem= is tough, slender, +smooth, even, pale reddish brown, shining, stuffed with a whitish pith. +Peck says that the plants have an oily flavor resembling beechnuts. + +=Naucoria vernalis= Pk.--_Naucoria vernalis_ was described by Peck in +23rd Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 91, from plants collected in May. The +plants described here appeared in woods in late autumn. The specimens +from which this description is drawn were found growing from the under +side of a very rotten beech log, usually from deep crevices in the log, +so that only the pileus is visible or exposed well to the view. The +plants are 4--8 cm. high, the cap 2--3 cm. broad, and the stem 4--5 mm. +in thickness. The taste is bitter. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 150.--Naucoria vernalis. Cap hair brown to clay +color; gills grayish brown to wood brown; stem clay color (natural +size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex, then the center is nearly or quite expanded, the +margin at first inrolled and never fully expanded, hygrophanous, smooth +(not striate nor rugose), flesh about 5--6 mm. thick at center, thin +toward the margin. The color changes during growth, it is from +ochraceous rufus when young (1--2 mm. broad), then clove brown to hair +brown and clay color in age. The =gills= are grayish brown to wood +brown, at first adnate to slightly sinuate, then easily breaking away +and appearing adnexed. The =spores= are wood brown in color, oval to +short elliptical and inequilateral 6--8 x 4--5 mu. =Cystidia= hyaline, +bottle shaped, 40--50 x 8--12 mu. The =stem= is somewhat hollow and +stuffed, rather cartilaginous, though somewhat brittle, especially when +very damp, breaking out from the pileus easily though with fragments of +the gills remaining attached, not strongly continuous with the substance +of the pileus. The color is buff to pale clay color; the stem being +even, not bulbous but somewhat enlarged below, mealy over the entire +length, which may be washed off by rains, striate at apex either from +marks left by the gills or remnants of the gills as they become freed +from the stem. Base of stem sometimes with white cottony threads, +especially in damp situations. In the original description the stem is +said to be "striate sulcate." Figure 150 is from plants (No. 3242, C. U. +herbarium) collected in woods near Ithaca, October 1, 1899. + + +GALERA Fr. + +_Galera_ with ochraceous (ochraceous ferruginous) spores corresponds to +_Mycena_ among the white-spored agarics. The pileus is usually +bell-shaped, and when young the margin fits straight against the stem. +The stem is somewhat cartilaginous, but often very fragile. The genus +does not contain many species. Peck gives a synopsis of five American +species in the 23rd Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 93, _et seq._, and of +twelve species in the 46th Report, p. 61, _et seq._ One of the common +species is =Galera tenera= Schaeff. It occurs in grassy fields or in +manured places. The plants are 5--8 cm. high, the cap 8--16 mm. broad, +and the stem 2--3 mm. in thickness. The =pileus= is oval to bell-shaped, +and tawny in color, thin, smooth, finely striate, becoming paler when +dry. The =gills= are crowded, reddish-brown, adnexed and easily +separating. The =stem= is smooth, colored like the pileus but a little +paler, sometimes striate, and with mealy whitish particles above. +=Galera lateritia= is a related species, somewhat larger, and growing on +dung heaps and in fields and lawns. =Galera ovalis= Fr., is also a +larger plant, somewhat shorter than the latter, and with a prominent +ovate cap when young. =Galera antipoda= Lasch., similar in general +appearance to G. _tenera_, has a rooting base by which it is easily +known. =Galera flava= Pk., occurs among vegetable mold in woods. The +pileus is membraneous, ovate or campanulate, moist or somewhat watery, +obtuse, plicate, striate on the margin, yellow. The plants are 5--8 cm. +high, the caps 12--25 mm. broad, and the stem 2--3 mm. in thickness. The +plant is recognized by the pale yellow color of the caps and the plicate +striate character of the margin. The plicate striate character of the +cap is singular among the species of this genus, and is shared by +another species, =G. coprinoides= Pk. + + +FLAMMULA Fr. + +In the genus _Flammula_, the pileus is fleshy, stem fleshy-fibrous, and +the gills adnate to decurrent. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 151.--Flammula polychroa, under view. Cap +vinaceous buff to orange buff, scales lilac, purple or lavender; gills +drab to hair brown (natural size). Copyright.] + +=Flammula polychroa= Berk.--This is a beautiful plant with tints of +violet, lavender, lilac and purple, especially on the scales of the +pileus, on the veil and on the stem. It occurs in clusters during late +summer and autumn, on logs, branches, etc., in the woods. The plants +occur singly, but more often in clusters of three to eight or more. The +plants are 4--7 cm. high, the cap 3--5 cm. broad, and the stem 4--6 mm. +in thickness. + +The =pileus= is convex, and in the young stage the margin strongly +incurved, later the cap becomes expanded and has a very broad umbo. It +is very viscid. The surface is covered with delicate hairs which form +scales, more prominent during mid-age of the plant, and on the margin of +the cap. These scales are very delicate and vary in color from +vinaceous-buff, lilac, wine-purple, or lavender. The ground color of the +pileus is vinaceous-buff or orange-buff, and toward the margin often +with shades of beryl-green, especially where it has been touched. In +the young plants the color of the delicate hairy surface is deeper, +often phlox-purple, the color becoming thinner as the cap expands. + +The =gills= are notched (sinuate) at the stem, or adnate, sometimes +slightly decurrent, crowded. Before exposure by the rupture of the veil +they are cream-buff in color, then taking on darker shades, drab to hair +brown or sepia with a purple tinge. The =stem= is yellowish, nearly or +quite the color of the cap, often with a purplish tinge at the base. It +is covered with numerous small punctate scales of the same color, or +sulphur yellow above where they are more crowded and larger. The scales +do not extend on the stem above the point where the veil is attached. +The stem is slightly striate above the attachment of the veil. It is +somewhat tough and cartilaginous, solid, or in age stuffed, or nearly +hollow. The =veil= is floccose and quite thick when the plant is young. +It is scaly on the under side, clinging to the margin of the pileus in +triangular remnants, appearing like a crown. The color of the veil and +of its remnants is the same as the color of the scales of the cap. + +The spores in mass are light brown, and when fresh with a slight purple +tinge. (The color of the spores on white paper is near walnut brown or +hair brown of Ridgeway's colors.) Under the microscope they are +yellowish, oval or short oblong, often inequilateral, 6--8 x 4--5 mu. + +Figure 151 is from plants (No. 4016, C. U. herbarium) collected at +Blowing Rock, N. C., September, 1899, on a fallen maple log. The plants +sometimes occur singly. It has been collected at Ithaca, N. Y., and was +first described from plants collected at Waynesville, Ohio. + +=Flammula sapinea= Fr., is a common plant growing on dead coniferous +wood. It is dull yellow, the pileus 1--4 cm. in diameter, and with +numerous small scales. + + +HEBELOMA Fr. + +In _Hebeloma_ the gills are either squarely set against the stem +(adnate) or they are notched (sinuate), and the spores are clay-colored. +The edge of the gills is usually whitish, the surface clay-colored. The +veil is only seen in the young stage, and then is very delicate and +fibrillose. The stem is fleshy and fibrous, and somewhat mealy at the +apex. The genus corresponds with _Tricholoma_ of the white-spored +agarics. All the species are regarded as unwholesome, and some are +considered poisonous. The species largely occur during the autumn. Few +have been studied in America. + +=Hebeloma crustuliniforme= Bull.--This plant is usually common in some +of the lawns, during the autumn, at Ithaca, N. Y. It often forms rings +as it grows on the ground. It is from 5--7 cm. high, the cap 4--8 cm. in +diameter, and the stem is 4--6 mm. in thickness. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 152.--Hebeloma crustuliniforme, var. minor. Cap +whitish or tan color, or reddish-brown at center; gills clay color +(natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex and expanded, somewhat umbonate, viscid when +moist, whitish or tan color, darker over the center, where it is often +reddish-brown. The =gills= are adnexed and rounded near the stem, +crowded, whitish, then clay color and reddish-brown, the edge whitish +and irregular. The =gills= are said to exude watery drops in wet +weather. The =stem= is stuffed, later hollow, somewhat enlarged at the +base, white, and mealy at the apex. Figure 152 is from plants (No. 2713, +C. U. herbarium) collected in lawns on the Cornell University campus. +The plants in this figure seem to represent the variety _minor_. + + +INOCYBE Fr. + +In the genus _Inocybe_ there is a universal veil which is fibrillose in +character, and more or less closely joined with the cuticle of the +pileus, and the surface of the pileus is therefore marked with fibrils +or is more or less scaly. Sometimes the margin of the pileus possesses +remnants of a veil which is quite prominent in a few species. The gills +are adnate, or sinuate, rarely decurrent, and in one species they are +free. It is thus seen that the species vary widely, and there may be, +after a careful study of the species, grounds for the separation of the +species into several genera. One of the most remarkable species is +_Inocybe echinata_ Roth. This plant is covered with a universal veil of +a sooty color and powdery in nature. The gills are reddish purple, and +the stem is of the same color, the spores on white paper of a faint +purplish red color. Some place in it _Psalliota_. Collected at Ithaca in +August, 1900. + + +TUBARIA W. Smith. + +In the genus _Tubaria_ the spores are rust-red, or rusty brown +(ferruginous or fuscous-ferruginous), the stem is somewhat +cartilaginous, hollow, and, what is more important, the gills are more +or less decurrent, broad next to the stem, and thus more or less +triangular in outline. It is related to _Naucoria_ and _Galera_, but +differs in the decurrent gills. The pileus is convex, or with an +umbilicus. + +=Tubaria pellucida= Bull.--This species grows by roadsides in grassy +places. The plants are from 3--4 cm. high, and the cap 1--2 cm. in +diameter, and the stem 2--3 mm. in thickness. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 153.--Tubaria pellucida. Dull reddish brown +(natural size).] + +The =pileus= is conic, then bell-shaped, often expanded and with a +slight umbo; the color is dull, reddish brown, and it has a watery +appearance. The plant is sometimes enveloped with a loose and delicate +universal or outer veil, which remains on the margin of the cap in the +form of silky squamules as shown in the figure. The margin of the pileus +is faintly striate. The =gills= are only slightly decurrent. Figure 153 +is from plants (No. 2360 C. U. herbarium) collected along a street in +Ithaca. + +The stem is at first solid, becoming hollow, tapering above, and the +apex is mealy. + + +CREPIDOTUS Fr. + +In _Crepidotus_ the pileus is lateral, or eccentric, and thus more or +less shelving, or it is resupinate, that is, lying flat or nearly so on +the wood. The species are usually of small size, thin, soft and fleshy. +The spores are reddish brown (ferruginous). The genus corresponds to +_Pleurotus_ among the white-spored agarics, or to _Claudopus_ among the +rosy-spored ones. Peck describes eleven species in the 39th Report, N. +Y. State Mus., p. 69 et seq., 1886. + +=Crepidotus versutus= Pk.--This little _Crepidotus_ has a pure white +pileus which is covered with a soft, whitish down. The plants grow +usually on the underside of rotten wood or bark, and then the upper side +of the cap lies against the wood, and is said to be resupinate. +Sometimes where they grow toward the side of the log the cap has a +tendency to be shelving. In the resupinate forms the cap is attached +usually near one side, and then is produced more at the opposite side, +so that it is more or less lateral or eccentric. As the plant becomes +mature the edge is free from the wood for some distance, only being +attached over a small area. The cap is somewhat reniform, thin, and from +6--12 cm. in diameter. The =gills= radiate from the point where the cap +is attached to the substratum, are not crowded, rounded behind, that is, +at the lateral part of the cap where they converge. They are whitish, +then ferruginous from the spores. The =spores= are sub-elliptical, +sometimes inequilateral, and measure from 8--12 x 4--6 mu. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 154.--Crepidotus versutus. Cap white, downy; gills +whitish, then rusty (twice natural size) Copyright.] + +=Crepidotus herbarum= Pk., is a closely related species, separated on +account of the smaller spores. Both species grow either on herbs or +decaying wood. As suggested by Peck they are both closely related to _C. +chimonophilus_ Berk., which has "oblong elliptical" spores. The shape of +the spores does not seem to differ from the specimens which I have taken +to be _C. versutus_. + +=Crepidotus applanatus= Fr., is a larger species, shelving and often +imbricated. =Crepidotus fulvotomentosus= Pk., is a pretty species with a +tomentose cap and tawny scales, usually occurring singly. It is closely +related to _C. calolepis_ Fr. + +Figure 154 is from plants of _Crepidotus versutus_ Pk., (No. 2732 C. U. +herbarium) collected on rotting wood at Freeville, N. Y., eight miles +from Ithaca. The plants are represented twice natural size. + + +CORTINARIUS Fr. + +The genus _Cortinarius_ is chiefly distinguished from the other genera +of the ochre-spored agarics by the presence of a spider-web-like +(arachnoid) veil which is separate from the cuticle of the pileus, that +is, superficial. The gills are powdered by the spores, that is, the +spores fall away with difficulty and thus give the gills a pulverulent +appearance. The plants are fleshy and decay easily. It is necessary to +have plants in the young as well as the old state to properly get at the +characters, and the character of the veil is only seen in young or half +developed specimens. The species are to be distinguished from other +ochre-spored agarics with a cobwebby veil by the fact that the veil in +_Cortinarius_ is superficial and the gills powdery. The number of +species is very large, and they are difficult to determine. They mostly +occur in northern countries and in the autumn or late summer; some +species, however, occur during early summer. Peck, 23d Report, N. Y. +State Mus., p. 105--112, describes 21 species. + +=Cortinarius (Inoloma) violaceus= (L.) Fr. =Edible.=--This species is +known by the violet or dark violet color which pervades all parts of the +plant. The plants are 8--10 cm. high, the pileus 7--15 cm. broad, and +the stem is bulbous, 6--8 mm. in thickness. The veil is single. It +occurs in woods and open places during late summer and in the autumn. +The flesh of the plant is also violet, and this color is imparted to the +liquid when the plant is cooked. The flavor is said to be something like +that of _Agaricus campestris_. + +=Cortinarius (Myxacium) collinitus= (Pers.) Fr. =Edible.=--This is known +as the smeared cortinarius because of the abundant glutinous substance +with which the plant is smeared during moist or wet weather. It grows in +woods. The plants are 7--10 cm. high, the cap 5--8 cm. in diameter, and +the stem is 8--12 mm. in thickness. It is usually known by the smooth, +even, tawny cap, the great abundance of slimy substance covering the +entire plant when moist, and when dry the cracking of the gluten on the +stem into annular patches. + +The =pileus= is convex to expanded, smooth, even, glutinous when wet, +shining when dry, tawny. The =gills= are adnate with a peculiar bluish +gray tinge when young, and clay color to cinnamon when old. The =spores= +are nearly elliptical, and 12--15 x 6--7 mu. The =stem= is cylindrical, +even, and with patches of the cracked gluten when dry. + +=Cortinarius (Dermocybe) cinnamomeus= (L.) Fr. =Edible.=--The cinnamon +cortinarius is so called because of the cinnamon color of the entire +plant, especially of the cap and stem. It grows in the woods during +summer and autumn. It is a very pretty plant, and varies from 5--8 cm. +high, the cap from 2--10 cm. broad, and the stem 4--6 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is conic, or convex, and nearly expanded, sometimes nearly +plane, and again with a prominent blunt or conic umbo. Sometimes the +pileus is abruptly bent downward near the margin as shown in the plants +in Fig. 155, giving the appearance of a "hip-roof." The surface is +smooth, silky, with innate fibrils. Sometimes there are cinnabar stains +on parts of the pileus, and often there are concentric rows of scales +near the margin. The flesh is light yellowish and with stains of +cinnabar. The =gills= are adnate, slightly sinuate, and decurrent by a +tooth, easily separating from the stem, rather crowded, slightly +ventricose. The color of the gills varies greatly; sometimes they are +the same color as the pileus, sometimes reddish brown, sometimes blood +red color, etc. This latter form is a very pretty plant, and is var. +_semi-sanguineus_ Fr. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 155.--Cortinarius cinnamomeus var. +semi-sanguineus. Cap and stem cinnamon, gills blood red color (natural +size). Copyright.] + +Figure 155 is from plants (No. 2883 C. U. herbarium) collected at +Ithaca. The species is widely distributed in this country as well as in +Europe. + +[Illustration: PLATE 50, FIGURE 156.--Cortinarius ochroleucus. Entire +plant pale ochre color, gills later ochre yellow (natural size). +Copyright.] + +=Cortinarius (Dermocybe) ochroleucus= (Schaeff.) Fr.--This is a very +beautiful plant because of the soft, silky appearance of the surface of +pileus and stem, and the delicate yellowish white color. It occurs in +woods, on the ground among decaying leaves. The plants are 4--12 cm. +high, the cap 4--7 cm. broad, and the stem above is 6--10 mm. in +thickness, and below from 2--3 cm. in thickness. + +[Illustration: PLATE 51, FIGURE 157.--Cortinarius ochroleucus. Colors +same as in Figure 156, this represents older plants.] + +The =pileus= is convex to nearly expanded, and sometimes a little +depressed, usually, however, remaining convex at the top. It is dry, on +the center finely tomentose to minutely squamulose, sometimes the scales +splitting up into concentric rows around the cap. The cap is fleshy at +the center, and thin at the margin, the color is from cream buff to +buff, darker on the center. The =gills= are sinuate or adnate, slightly +broader in the middle (ventricose) in age, pale at first, then becoming +ochre yellow, and darker when the plant dries. The =spores= are tawny in +mass, oval, elliptical, minutely tuberculate when mature, 6--9 x 4--6 mu. +The =stem= is clavate, pale cream buff in color, solid, becoming +irregularly fistulose in age, bulbous or somewhat ventricose below, the +bulb often large and abrupt, 1.5--3 cm. in diameter. The =veil= is +prominent and attached to the upper part of the stem, the abundant +threads attached over an area 1 cm. in extent and forming a beautiful +cortina of the same color as the pileus and stem, but becoming tawny +when the spores fall on it. The stem varies considerably in length and +shape, being rarely ventricose, and then only at the base; the bulbous +forms predominate and the bulb is often very large. + +Figures 156, 157 are from plants (No. 3674 C. U. herbarium) collected at +Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. + + +BOLBITIUS Fries. + +The genus _Bolbitius_ contains a few species with yellowish or yellowish +brown spores. The plants are very fragile, more or less mucilaginous +when moist, usually with yellowish colors, and, what is the most +characteristic feature beside the yellowish color of the spores, the +gills are very soft, and at maturity tend to dissolve into a +mucilaginous consistency, though they do not deliquesce, or only rarely +dissolve so far as to form drops. The surface of the gills at maturity +becomes covered with the spores so that they appear powdery, as in the +genus _Cortinarius_, which they also resemble in the color of the +spores. In the mucilaginous condition of the gills the genus approaches +_Coprinus_. It is believed to occupy an intermediate position between +_Coprinus_ and _Cortinarius_. The species usually grow on dung or in +manured ground, and in this respect resemble many of the species of +_Coprinus_. Some of the species are, however, not always confined to +such a substratum, but grow on decaying leaves, etc. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 158.--Bolbitius variicolor. Cap viscid, various +shades of yellow, or smoky olive; gills yellowish, then rusty (natural +size).] + +=Bolbitius variicolor= Atkinson.--This plant was found abundantly during +May and June, 1898, in a freshly manured grass plat between the +side-walk and the pavement along Buffalo street, Ithaca, N. Y. The +season was rainy, and the plants appeared each day during quite a long +period, sometimes large numbers of them covering a small area, but they +were not clustered nor cespitose. They vary in height from 4--10 cm., +the pileus from 2--4 cm. broad, and the stem is 3--8 mm. in thickness. +The colors vary from smoky to fuliginous, olive and yellow, and the +spores are ferruginous. + +The =pileus= is from ovate to conic when young, the margin not at all +incurved, but lies straight against the stem, somewhat unequal. In +expanding the cap becomes convex, then expanded, and finally many of the +plants with the margin elevated and with a broad umbo, and finely +striate for one-half to two-thirds the way from the margin to the +center. When young the pileus has a very viscid cuticle, which easily +peels from the surface, showing the yellow flesh. The cuticle is smoky +olive to fuliginous, darker when young, becoming paler as the pileus +expands, but always darker on the umbo. Sometimes the fibres on the +surface of the cap are drawn into strands which anastomose into coarse +reticulations, giving the appearance of elevated veins which have a +general radiate direction from the center of the cap. As the pileus +expands the yellow color of the flesh shows through the cuticle more and +more, especially when young, but becoming light olive to fuliginous in +age. In dry weather the surface of the pileus sometimes cracks into +patches as the pileus expands. The =gills= are rounded next the stem, +adnate to adnexed, becoming free, first yellow, then ferruginous. The +basidia are abruptly club-shaped, rather distant and separated regularly +by rounded cells, four spored. The =spores= are ferruginous, elliptical, +10--15 x 6--8 mu, smooth. The =stem= is cylindrical to terete, tapering +above, sulphur and ochre yellow, becoming paler and even with a light +brown tinge in age. The stem is hollow, and covered with numerous small +yellow floccose scales which point upward and are formed by the tearing +away of the edges of the gills, which are loosely united with the +surface of the stem in the young stage. The edges of the gills are thus +sometimes finely fimbriate. + +At maturity the gills become more or less mucilaginous, depending on the +weather. Plants placed in a moist chamber change to a mucilaginous mass. +When the plants dry the pileus is from a drab to hair brown or sepia +color (Ridgeway's colors). Figure 158 is from plants (No. 2355 C. U. +herbarium). + + +PAXILLUS Fr. + +In the genus _Paxillus_ the gills are usually easily separated from the +pileus, though there are some species accredited to the genus that do +not seem to possess this character in a marked degree. The spores are +ochre or ochre brown. Often the gills are forked near the stem or +anastomose, or they are connected by veins which themselves anastomose +in a reticulate fashion so that the meshes resemble the pores of certain +species of the family _Polyporaceae_. The pileus may be viscid or dry in +certain species, but the plant lacks a viscid universal veil. The genus +is closely related to _Gomphidius_, where the gills are often forked and +easily separate from the pileus, but _Gomphidius_ possesses a viscid or +glutinous universal veil. Peck in the Bull. N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist. +2: 29--33, describes five species. + +=Paxillus involutus= (Batsch.) Fr. =Edible.=--This plant is quite common +in some places and is widely distributed. It occurs on the ground in +grassy places, in the open, or in woods, and on decaying logs or stumps. +The stem is central, or nearly so, when growing on the ground, or +eccentric when growing on wood, especially if growing from the side of a +log or stump. The plants are 5--7 cm. high, the cap 3--7 cm. broad, and +the stem 1--2 cm. in thickness. The plant occurs from August to October. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 159.--Paxillus involutus. Cap and stem gray, +olive-brown, reddish brown or tawny (natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex to expanded, and depressed in the center. In the +young plant the margin is strongly inrolled, and as the pileus expands +it unrolls in a very pretty manner. The young plant is covered with a +grayish, downy substance, and when the inrolled margin of the cap comes +in contact with the gills, as it does, it presses the gills against this +down, and the unrolling margin is thus marked quite prominently, +sometimes with furrows where the pressure of the gills was applied. The +color of the pileus varies greatly. In the case of plants collected at +Ithaca and in North Carolina mountains the young plant when fresh is +often olive umber, becoming reddish or tawny when older, the margin with +a lighter shade. As Dr. Peck states, "it often presents a strange +admixture of gray, ochraceous, ferruginous, and brown hues." The flesh +is yellowish and changes to reddish or brownish where bruised. The +=gills= are decurrent, when young arcuate, then ascending, and are more +or less reticulated on the stem. They are grayish, then greenish yellow +changing to brown where bruised. The =spores= are oval, 7--9 x 4--5 mu. +The =stem= is short, even, and of the same color as the cap. + +[Illustration: PLATE 52, FIGURE 160.--Paxillus rhodoxanthus. Cap reddish +brown, stem paler, gills yellow (natural size). Copyright.] + +At Ithaca, N. Y., the plant is sometimes abundant in late autumn in +grassy places near or in groves. The Figure 159 is from plants (No. 2508 +C. U. herbarium) growing in such a place in the suburbs of Ithaca. At +Blowing Rock, N. C., the plant is often very abundant along the +roadsides on the ground during August and September. + +=Paxillus rhodoxanthus= (Schw.)--This species was first described by de +Schweinitz as _Agaricus rhodoxanthus_, p. 83 No. 640, Synopsis fungorum +Carolinae superioris, in Schriften der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft 1: +19--131, 1822. It was described under his third section of _Agaricus_ +under the sub-genus _Gymnopus_, in which are mainly species now +distributed in _Clitocybe_ and _Hygrophorus_. He remarks on the elegant +appearance of the plant and the fact that it so nearly resembles +_Boletus subtomentosus_ as to deceive one. The resemblance to _Boletus +subtomentosus_ as one looks upon the pileus when the plant is growing on +the ground is certainly striking, because of the reddish yellow, +ochraceous rufus or chestnut brown color of the cap together with the +minute tomentum covering the surface. The suggestion is aided also by +the color of the gills, which one is apt to get a glimpse of from above +without being aware that the fruiting surface has gills instead of +tubes. But as soon as the plant is picked and we look at the under +surface, all suggestion of a _Boletus_ vanishes, unless one looks +carefully at the venation of the surface of the gills and the spaces +between them. The plant grows on the ground in woods. At Blowing Rock, +N. C., where it is not uncommon, I have always found it along the +mountain roads on the banks. It is 5--10 cm. high, the cap from 3--8 cm. +broad, and the stem 6--10 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is convex, then expanded, plane or convex, and when mature +more or less top-shaped because it is so thick at the middle. In age the +surface of the cap often becomes cracked into small areas, showing the +yellow flesh in the cracks. The flesh is yellowish and the surface is +dry. The =gills= are not very distant, they are stout, chrome yellow to +lemon yellow, and strongly decurrent. A few of them are forked toward +the base, and the surface and the space between them are marked by +anastomosing veins forming a reticulum suggestive of the hymenium of the +_Polyporaceae_. This character is not evident without the use of a hand +lens. The surface of the gills as well as the edges is provided with +clavate =cystidia= which are filled with a yellow pigment, giving to the +gills the bright yellow color so characteristic. These cystidia extend +above the basidia, and the ends are rounded so that sometimes they +appear capitate. The yellow color is not confined to the cystidia, for +the sub-hymenium is also colored in a similar way. The =spores= are +yellowish, oblong to elliptical or spindle-shaped, and measure 8--12 x +3--5 mu. The =stem= is the same color as the pileus, but paler, and more +yellow at the base. It is marked with numerous minute dots of a darker +color than the ground color, formed of numerous small erect tufts of +mycelium. + +Figure 160 is from plants (No. 3977 C. U. herbarium) collected at +Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. As stated above, the plant +was first described by de Schweinitz as _Agaricus rhodoxanthus_ in 1822. +In 1834 (Synop. fung. Am. Bor. p. 151, 1834) he listed it under the +genus _Gomphus_ Fries (Syst. Mycolog. 319, 1821). Since Fries changed +_Gomphus_ to _Gomphidius_ (Epicrisis, 319, 1836--1838) the species has +usually been written _Gomphidius rhodoxanthus_ Schweinitz. The species +lacks one very important characteristic of the genus _Gomphidius_, +namely, the slimy veil which envelops the entire plant. Its relationship +seems rather to be with the genus _Paxillus_, though the gills do not +readily separate from the pileus, one of the characters ascribed to this +genus, and possessed by certain species of _Gomphidius_ in even a better +degree. (In Paxillus involutus the gills do not separate so readily as +they do in certain species of _Gomphidius_.) Berkeley (Decades N. A. +Fungi, 116) has described a plant from Ohio under the name _Paxillus +flavidus_. It has been suggested by some (see Peck, 29th Report, p. 36; +Lloyd, Mycolog. Notes, where he writes it as _Flammula rhodoxanthus_!) +that _Paxillus flavidus_ Berk., is identical with _Agaricus +rhodoxanthus_ Schw. + +_Paxillus rhodoxanthus_ seems also to be very near if not identical with +_Clitocybe pelletieri_ Lev. (Gillet, Hymenomycetes =1=: 170), and +Schroeter (Cohn's Krypt, Flora Schlesien, =3=, 1: 516, 1889) transfers +this species to _Paxillus_ as _Paxillus pelletieri_. He is followed by +Hennings, who under the same section of the genus, lists _P. flavidus_ +Berk., from N. A. The figure of _Clitocybe pelletieri_ in Gillet +Hymenomycetes, etc., resembles our plant very closely, and Saccardo +(Syll. Fung. =5=: 192) says that it has the aspect of _Boletus +subtomentosus,_ a remark similar to the one made by de Schweinitz in the +original description of _Agaricus rhodoxanthus_. _Flammula paradoxa_ +Kalch. (Fung. Hung. Tab. XVII, Fig. 1) seems to be the same plant, as +well as _F. tammii_ Fr., with which Patouillard (Tab. Anal. N. 354) +places _F. paradoxa_ and _Clitocybe pelletieri_. + +=Paxillus atro=tomentosus= (Batsch) Fr.--This plant is not very common. +It is often of quite large size, 6--15 cm. high, and the cap 5--10 cm. +broad, the stem very short or sometimes long, from 1--2.5 cm. in +thickness. The plant is quite easily recognized by the stout and black +hairy stem, and the dark brown or blackish, irregular and sometimes +lateral cap, with the margin incurved. It grows on wood, logs, stumps, +etc., during late summer and autumn. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 161.--Paxillus atro-tomentosus, form hirsutus. Cap +and stem brownish or blackish (natural size, small specimens, they are +often larger). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex, expanded, sometimes somewhat depressed, lateral, +irregular, or sometimes with the stem nearly in the center, brownish or +blackish, dry, sometimes with a brownish or blackish tomentum on the +surface. The margin is inrolled and later incurved. The flesh is white, +and the plant is tough. The =gills= are adnate, often decurrent on the +stem, and easily separable from the pileus, forked at the base and +sometimes reticulate, forming pores. =Spores= yellowish, oval, 4--6 x +3--4 mu. Stevenson says that the gills do not form pores like those of P. +involutus, but Fig. 161 (No. 3362 C. U. herbarium) from plants collected +at Ithaca, shows them well. There is, as it seems, some variation in +this respect. The =stem= is solid, tough and elastic, curved or +straight, covered with a dense black tomentum, sometimes with violet +shades. On drying the plant becomes quite hard, and the gills blackish +olive. + +=Paxillus panuoides= Fr.--This species was collected during August, +1900, on a side-walk and on a log at Ithaca. The specimens collected +were sessile and the =pileus= lateral, somewhat broadened at the free +end, or petaloid. The entire plant is pale or dull yellow, the surface +of the pileus fibrous and somewhat uneven but not scaly. The plants are +2--12 cm. long by 1--8 cm. broad, often many crowded together in an +imbricated manner. The =gills= are pale yellow, and the =spores= are of +the same color when caught on white paper, and they measure 4--5 x 3--4 + mu, the size given for European specimens of this species. The gills are +forked, somewhat anastomosing at the base, and sinuous in outline, +though not markedly corrugated as in the next form. From descriptions of +the European specimens the plants are sometimes larger than these here +described, and it is very variable in form and often imbricated as in +the following species. + +=Paxillus corrugatus= Atkinson.--This very interesting species was +collected at Ithaca, N. Y., on decaying wood, August 4, 1899. The pileus +is lateral, shelving, the stem being entirely absent in the specimens +found. The =pileus= is 2--5 cm. broad, narrowed down in an irregular +wedge form to the sessile base, convex, then expanded, the margin +incurved (involute). The color of the cap is yellow, maize yellow to +canary yellow, with a reddish brown tinge near the base. It is nearly +smooth, or very slightly tomentose. The flesh is pale yellow, spongy. +The =gills= are orange yellow, 2--3 mm. broad, not crowded, regularly +forked several times, thin, blunt, very wavy and crenulate, easily +separating from the hymenophore when fresh; the entire breadth of the +gills is fluted, giving a corrugated appearance to the side. The +=spores= in these specimens are faintly yellow, minute, oblong, broadly +elliptical, short, sometimes nearly oval, 3 x 1.5--2 mu. The =basidia= +are also very minute. The spores are olive yellow on white paper. The +plant has a characteristic and disagreeable odor. This odor persists in +the dried plant for several months. + +Figure 162 is from the plants (No. 3332 C. U. herbarium) collected as +noted above on decaying hemlock logs in woods. A side and under view is +shown in the figure, and the larger figure is the under-view, from a +photograph made a little more than twice natural size, in order to show +clearly the character of the gills. The two smaller plants are natural +size. When dry the plant is quite hard. + +[Illustration: PLATE 53, FIGURE 162.--Paxillus corrugatus. Cap maize +yellow to orange yellow, reddish brown near the base; gills orange +yellow. Two lower plants natural size; upper one 2-1/2 times natural +size. Copyright.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 54, FIGURE 163.--Paxillus panuoides, pale yellow; +natural size. Copyright.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 55. + + FIG. 1.--Boletus felleus. + FIG. 2.--B. edulis. + Copyright 1900.] + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +THE TUBE-BEARING FUNGI. POLYPORACEAE. + + +The plants belonging to this family are characterized especially by a +honey-combed fruiting surface, that is, the under surface of the plants +possesses numerous tubes or pores which stand close together side by +side, and except in a very few forms these tubes are joined by their +sides to each other. In _Fistulina_ the tubes are free from each other +though standing closely side by side. In _Merulius_ distinct tubes are +not present, but the surface is more or less irregularly pitted, the +pits being separated from each other by folds which anastomose, forming +a network. These pits correspond to shallow tubes. + +The plants vary greatly in consistency, some are very fleshy and soft +and putrify readily. Others are soft when young and become firmer as +they age, and some are quite hard and woody. Many of the latter are +perennial and live for several or many years, adding a new layer in +growth each year. The larger number of the species grow on wood, but +some grow on the ground; especially in the genus _Boletus_, which has +many species, the majority grow on the ground. Some of the plants have a +cap and stem, in others the stem is absent and the cap attached to the +tree or log, etc., forms a shelf, or the plant may be thin and spread +over the surface of the wood in a thin patch. + +In the genus _Daedalea_ the tubes become more or less elongated +horizontally and thus approach the form of the gills, while in some +species the tubes are more or less toothed or split and approach the +spine-bearing fungi at least in appearance of the fruit-bearing surface. +Only a few of the genera and species will be described. + +The following key is not complete, but may aid in separating some of the +larger plants: + + Tubes or pores free from each other, though + standing closely side by side, _Fistulina_. + Tubes or pores not free, joined side by side, 1. + 1--Plants soft and fleshy, soon decaying, 2. + Plants soft when young, becoming firm, some + woody or corky, stipitate, shelving, or spread + over the wood, _Polyporus_. + Tubes or pores shallow, formed by a network of + folds or wrinkles, plants thin, sometimes spread + over the wood, and somewhat gelatinous, _Merulius_. + 2--Mass (stratum) of tubes easily separating from the + cap when peeled off, cap not with coarse scales, + tubes in some species in radiating lines, _Boletus_. + Stratum of tubes separating, but not easily, cap + with coarse, prominent scales, _Strobilomyces_. + Stratum of tubes separating, but not easily, tubes + arranged in distinct radiating lines. In one + species (_B. porosus_) the tubes do not + separate from the cap, _Boletinus_. + +This last genus is apt to be confused with certain species of Boletus +which have a distinct radiate arrangement of the tubes. It is +questionable whether it is clearly distinguished from the genus Boletus. + + +BOLETUS Dill. + +Of the few genera in the _Polyporaceae_ which are fleshy and putrescent, +_Boletus_ contains by far the largest number of species. The entire +plant is soft and fleshy, and decays soon after maturity. The stratum of +tubes on the under side of the cap is easily peeled off and separates as +shown in the portion of a cap near the right hand side of Fig. 169. In +the genus _Polyporus_ the stratum of tubes cannot thus be separated. In +the genera _Strobilomyces_ and _Boletinus_, two other fleshy genera of +this family, the separation is said to be more difficult than in +_Boletus_, but it has many times seemed to me a "distinction without a +difference." + +The larger number of the species of _Boletus_ grow on the ground. Some +change color when bruised or cut, so that it is important to note this +character when the plant is fresh, and the taste should be noted as +well. + +=Boletus edulis= Bull. =Edible.= [_Ag. bulbosus_ Schaeff. Tab. 134, +1763. _Boletus bulbosus_ (Schaeff.) Schroeter. Cohn's Krypt, Flora. +Schlesien, p. 499, 1889].--This plant, which, as its name implies, is +edible, grows in open woods or their borders, in groves and in open +places, on the ground. It occurs in warm, wet weather, from July to +September. It is one of the largest of the Boleti, and varies from 5--12 +cm. high, the cap from 8--25 cm. broad, and the stem 2--4 cm. in +thickness. + +[Illustration: PLATE 56, FIGURE 164.--Boletus edulis. Cap light brown, +tubes greenish yellow or yellowish; stem in this specimen entirely +reticulate (natural size, often larger). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex to expanded, smooth, firm, quite hard when young +and becoming soft in age. The color varies greatly, from buff to dull +reddish, to reddish-brown, tawny-brown, often yellowish over a portion +of the cap, usually paler on the margin. The flesh is white or tinged +with yellow, sometimes reddish under the cuticle. The =tubes= are white +when young and the mouths are closed (stuffed), the lower surface of the +tubes is convex from the margin of the cap to the stem, and depressed +around the stem, sometimes separating from the stem. While the tubes are +white when young, they become greenish or greenish-yellow, or entirely +yellow when mature. The =spores= when caught on paper are +greenish-yellow, or yellow. They are oblong to fusiform, 12--15 mu long. +The =stem= is stout, even, or much enlarged at the base so that it is +clavate. The surface usually shows prominent reticulations on mature +plants near the tubes, sometimes over the entire stem. This is well +shown in Fig. 164 from plants (No. 2886, C. U. herbarium) collected at +Ithaca, N. Y. + +[Illustration: PLATE 57, FIGURE 165.--Cap light brown, tubes greenish +yellow or yellowish; stem in these specimens not reticulate (2/3 natural +size). Copyright.] + +Figure 165 represents plants (No. 4134, C. U. herbarium) collected at +Blowing Rock, N. C., in September, 1899. The plant is widely distributed +and has long been prized as an esculent in Europe and America. When raw +the plant has an agreeable nutty taste, sometimes sweet. The caps are +sometimes sliced and dried for future use. It is usually recommended to +discard the stems and remove the tubes since the latter are apt to form +a slimy mass on cooking. + +=Boletus felleus= Bull. =Bitter.=--This is known as the bitter boletus, +because of a bitter taste of the flesh. It usually grows on or near much +decayed logs or stumps of hemlock spruce. It is said to be easily +recognized by its bitter taste. I have found specimens of a plant which +seems to have all the characters of this one growing at the base of +hemlock spruce trees, except that the taste was not bitter. At Ithaca, +however, the plant occurs and the taste is bitter. It is one of the +large species of the genus, being from 8--12 cm. high, the cap 7--20 cm. +broad, and the stem 1--2.5 cm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is convex becoming nearly plane, firm, and in age soft, +smooth, the color varying from pale yellow to various shades of brown to +chestnut. The flesh is white, and where wounded often changes to a pink +color, but not always. The =tubes= are adnate, long, the under surface +convex and with a depression around the stem. The tubes are at first +white, but become flesh color or tinged with flesh color, and the mouths +are angular. The =stem= is stout, tapering upward, sometimes enlarged at +the base, usually reticulated at the upper end, and sometimes with the +reticulations over the entire surface (Fig. 166). The color is paler +than that of the cap. The =spores= are oblong to spindle-shaped, flesh +color in mass, and single ones measure 12--18 x 4--5 mu. + +The general appearance of the plant is somewhat like that of the +_Boletus edulis_, and beginners should be cautioned not to confuse the +two species. It is known by its bitter taste and the flesh-colored +tubes, while the taste of the _B. edulis_ is sweet, and the tubes are +greenish-yellow, or yellowish or light ochre. + +Plate 55 represents three specimens in color. + +=Boletus scaber= Fr. =Edible.=--This species is named the rough-stemmed +boletus, in allusion to the rough appearance given to the stem from +numerous dark brown or reddish dots or scales. This is a characteristic +feature, and aids one greatly in determining the species, since the +color of the cap varies much. The cap is sometimes whitish, orange red, +brown, or smoky in color. The plant is 6--15 cm. high, the cap 3--7 cm. +broad, and the stem 8--12 mm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is rounded, becoming convex, smooth, or nearly so, +sometimes scaly, and the flesh is soft and white, sometimes turning +slightly to a reddish or dark color where bruised. The =tubes= are +small, long, the surface formed by their free ends is convex in outline, +and the tubes are depressed around the stem. They are first white, +becoming darker, and somewhat brownish. The =stem= is solid, tapering +somewhat upward, and roughened as described above. + +The plant is one of the common species of the genus _Boletus_. It occurs +in the woods on the ground or in groves or borders of woods in grassy +places. Writers differ as to the excellence of this species for food; +some consider it excellent, while others regard it as less agreeable +than some other species. It is, at any rate, safe, and Peck considers it +"first-class." + +=Boletus retipes= B. & C.--This species was first collected in North +Carolina by Curtis, and described by Berkeley. It has since been +reported from Ohio, Wisconsin, and New England (Peck, Boleti of the U. +S.). Peck reported it from New York in the 23d Report, N. Y. State Mus., +p. 132. Later he recognized the New York plant as a new species which he +called _B. ornatipes_ (29th Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 67). I +collected the species in the mountains of North Carolina, at Blowing +Rock, in August, 1888. During the latter part of August and in +September, 1899, I had an opportunity of seeing quite a large number of +specimens in the same locality, for it is not uncommon there, and two +specimens were photographed and are represented here in Fig. 167. The +original description published in Grevillea =1=: 36, should be modified, +especially in regard to the size of the plant, its habit, and the +pulverulent condition of the pileus. The plants are 6--15 cm. high, the +cap 5--10 cm. broad, and the stem 0.5--1.5 cm. in thickness. + +[Illustration: PLATE 58, FIGURE 166.--Boletus felleus. Cap light brown, +tubes flesh color, stem in this specimen entirely reticulate (natural +size, often larger). Copyright.] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 167.--Boletus retipes. Cap yellowish brown, to +olive-brown or nearly black, stem yellow, beautifully reticulate, tubes +yellow (natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex, thick, soft and somewhat spongy, especially in +large plants. The cap is dry and sometimes, especially when young, it is +powdery; at other times, and in a majority of cases according to my +observations, it is not powdery. It is smooth or minutely tomentose, +sometimes the surface cracked into small patches, but usually even. The +color varies greatly between yellowish brown to olive brown, fuliginous +or nearly black. The =tubes= are yellow, adnate, the tube surface plane +or convex. The spores are yellowish or ochraceous, varying somewhat in +tint in different specimens. The =stem= is yellow, yellow also within, +and beautifully reticulate, usually to the base, but sometimes only +toward the apex. It is usually more strongly reticulate over the upper +half. The stem is erect or ascending. + +The plant grows in woods, in leaf mold or in grassy places. It is +usually single, that is, so far as my observations have gone at Blowing +Rock. Berkeley and Curtis report it as cespitose. I have never seen it +cespitose, never more than two specimens growing near each other. + +=Boletus ornatipes= Pk., does not seem to be essentially different from +_B. retipes_. Peck says (Boleti U. S., p. 126) that "the tufted mode of +growth, the pulverulent pileus and paler spores separate this species" +(_retipes_) "from the preceding one" (_ornatipes_). Inasmuch as I have +never found _B. retipes_ tufted, and the fact that the pileus is not +always pulverulent (the majority of specimens I collected were not), and +since the tint of the spores varies as it does in some other species, +the evidence is strong that the two names represent two different habits +of the same species. The tufted habit of the plants collected by Curtis, +or at least described by Berkeley, would seem to be a rather unusual +condition for this species, and this would account for the smaller size +given to the plants in the original description, where the pileus does +not exceed 5 cm. in diameter, and the stem is only 5 cm. long, and 6--12 +mm. in thickness. Plants which normally occur singly do on some +occasions occur tufted, and then the habit as well as the size of the +plant is often changed. + +A good illustration of this I found in the case of _Boletus edulis_ +during my stay in the North Carolina mountains. The plant usually occurs +singly and more or less scattered. I found one case where there were +6--8 plants in a tuft, the caps were smaller and the stems in this case +considerably longer than in normal specimens. A plant which agrees with +the North Carolina specimens I have collected at Ithaca, and so I judge +that _B. retipes_ occurs in New York. + +=Boletus chromapes= Frost.--This is a pretty boletus, and has been +reported from New England and from New York State. During the summer of +1899 it was quite common in the Blue Ridge mountains, North Carolina. +The plant grows on the ground in woods. It is 6--10 cm. high, the cap is +5--10 cm. in diameter, and the stem is 8--12 mm. in thickness. It is +known by the yellowish stem covered with reddish glandular dots. + +[Illustration: PLATE 59, FIGURE 168.--Boletus chromapes. Cap pale red, +rose or pink, tubes flesh color, then brown, stem yellowish either above +or below, the surface with reddish or pinkish dots (natural size). +Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex to nearly expanded, pale red, rose pink to +vinaceous pink in color, and sometimes slightly tomentose. The flesh is +white, and does not change when cut or bruised. The =tube= surface is +convex, and the tubes are attached slightly to the stem, or free. +They are white, then flesh color, and in age become brown. The =stem= is +even, or it tapers slightly upward, straight or ascending, whitish or +yellow above, or below, sometimes yellowish the entire length. The flesh +is also yellowish, especially at the base. The entire surface is marked +with reddish or pinkish dots. + +[Illustration: PLATE 60, FIGURE 169.--Boletus vermiculosus. Cap brown to +gray or buff; tubes yellowish with reddish brown mouths; flesh quickly +changes to blue where wounded (natural size, sometimes larger). +Copyright.] + +Figure 168 is from plants (No. 4085 C. U. herbarium) collected at +Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. + +=Boletus vermiculosus= Pk.--This species was named _B. vermiculosus_ +because it is sometimes very "wormy." This is not always the case, +however. It grows in woods on the ground, in the Eastern United States. +It is from 6--12 cm. high, the cap from 7--12 cm. broad, and the stem +1--2 cm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is thick, convex, firm, smooth, and varies in color from +brown to yellowish brown, or drab gray to buff, and is minutely +tomentose. The flesh quickly changes to blue where wounded, and the +bruised portion, sometimes, changing to yellowish. The =tubes= are +yellowish, with reddish-brown mouths, the tube surface being rounded, +free or nearly so, and the tubes changing to blue where wounded. The +=stem= is paler than the pileus, often dotted with short, small, dark +tufts below, and above near the tubes abruptly paler, and sometimes the +two colors separated by a brownish line. The stem is not reticulated. +Figure 169 is from a photograph of plants (No. 4132 C. U. herbarium) +collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. + +=Boletus obsonium= (Paul.) Fr.--This species was not uncommon in the +woods at Blowing Rock, N. C., during the latter part of August and +during September, 1899. It grows on the ground, the plants usually +appearing singly. It is from 10--15 cm. high, the cap 8--13 cm. broad, +and the stem 1--2 cm. in thickness, considerably broader at the base +than at the apex. + +The =pileus= is convex to expanded, vinaceous cinnamon, to pinkish +vinaceous or hazel in color. It is soft, slightly tomentose, and when +old the surface frequently cracks into fine patches showing the pink +flesh beneath. The thin margin extends slightly beyond the tubes, so +that it is sterile. The flesh does not change color on exposure to the +air. The =tubes= are plane, adnate, very slightly depressed around the +stem or nearly free, yellowish white when young, becoming dark olive +green in age from the color of the spores. The tube mouths are small and +rotund. The =spores= caught on white paper are dark olive green. They +are elliptical usually, with rounded ends, 12--15 x 4--5 mu. The =stem= +is white when young, with a tinge of yellow ochre, and pale flesh color +below. It is marked with somewhat parallel elevated lines, or rugae +below, where it is enlarged and nearly bulbous. In age it becomes flesh +color the entire length and is more plainly striate rugose with a +yellowish tinge at the base. The stem tapers gradually and strongly from +the base to the apex, so that it often appears long conic. + +The plant is often badly eaten by snails, so that it is sometimes +difficult to obtain perfect specimens. Figure 170 is from a photograph +of plants (No. 4092 C. U. herbarium) from Blowing Rock, N. C. + +=Boletus americanus= Pk.--This species occurs in woods and open places, +growing on the ground in wet weather. It occurs singly or clustered, +sometimes two or three joined by their bases, but usually more +scattered. It is usually found under or near pine trees. The plant is +3--6 cm. high, the cap 2--7 cm. broad, and the stem is 4--8 mm. in +thickness. It is very slimy in wet weather, the cap is yellow, streaked +or spotted with faint red, and the stem is covered with numerous brown +or reddish brown dots. + +The =pileus= is rounded, then convex, becoming nearly expanded and +sometimes with an umbo. It is soft, very slimy or viscid when moist, +yellow. When young the surface gluten is often mixed with loose threads, +more abundant on the margin, and continuous with the veil, which can +only be seen in the very young stage. As the pileus expands the margin +is sometimes scaly from remnants of the veil and of loose hairs on the +surface. The cap loses its bright color as it ages, and is then +sometimes streaked or spotted with red. The =tube= surface is nearly +plane, and the tubes join squarely against the stem. The tubes are +rather large, angular, yellowish, becoming dull ochraceous. The =stem= +is nearly equal, yellow, and covered with numerous brownish or reddish +brown glandular dots. No ring is present. + +This species grows in the same situations as the _B. granulatus_, +sometimes both species are common over the same area. Figure 171 is from +plants (No. 3991 C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., +September, 1899. The species is closely related to _B. flavidus_ Fr., +and according to some it is identical with it. + +=Boletus granulatus= L. =Edible.=--This species is one of the very +common and widely distributed ones. It grows in woods and open places on +the ground. Like _B. americanus_, it is usually found under or near +pines. It occurs during the summer and autumn, sometimes appearing very +late in the season. The plants are 3--6 cm. high, the cap is 4--10 cm. +broad, and the stem is 8--12 mm. in thickness. The plants usually are +clustered, though not often very crowded. + +[Illustration: PLATE 61, FIGURE 170.--Boletus obsonium. Cap cinnamon to +pink or hazel in color, slightly tomentose; stem white, then pale flesh +color (natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex to nearly expanded, flat. When moist it is very +viscid and reddish brown, paler and yellowish when it is dry, but very +variable in color, pink, red, yellow, tawny, and brown shades. The flesh +is pale yellow. The =tubes= are joined squarely to the stem, short, +yellowish, and the edges of the tubes, that is, at the open end (often +called the mouth), are dotted or granulated. The =stem= is dotted in the +same way above. The =spores= in mass are pale yellow; singly they are +spindle-shaped. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 171.--Boletus americanus. Cap slimy, yellow, +sometimes with reddish spots, tubes yellowish (natural size). +Copyright.] + +The species is edible, though some say it should be regarded with +suspicion. Peck has tried it, and I have eaten it, but the viscid +character of the plant did not make it a relish for me. There are +several species closely related to the granulated Boletus. _B. brevipes_ +Pk., is one chiefly distinguished by the short stem, which entirely +lacks the glandular dots. It grows in sandy soil, in pine groves and in +woods. + +=Boletus punctipes= Pk.--This species has been reported from New York +State by Peck. During September, 1899, I found it quite common in the +Blue Ridge mountains of North Carolina, at an elevation of between 4000 +and 5000 feet. It grows on the ground in mixed woods. The plants are +5--8 cm. high, the caps 5--7 cm. broad, and the stem 6--10 mm. in +thickness. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 172.--Boletus punctipes. Cap viscid when moist, +reddish brown, pink, yellow, tawny, etc., tubes yellowish, stem dark +punctate (natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex, sometimes becoming nearly plane, and it is quite +thick in the center, more so than the granulated boletus, while the +margin is thin, and when young with a minute gray powder. The margin +often becomes upturned when old; the cap is viscid when moist, dull +yellow. The =tubes= are short, their lower surface plane, and they are +set squarely against the stem. They are small, the mouths rounded, +brownish, then dull ochraceous, and dotted with glandules. The =stem= is +rather long, proportionately more so than in the granulated boletus. It +distinctly tapers upwards, is "rhubarb yellow," and dotted with +glandules. This character of the stem suggested the name of the species. +The =spores= are 8--10 x 4--5 mu. Figure 172 is from plants (No. 4067 C. +U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C. It is closely related to +_B. granulatus_ and by some is considered the same. + +=Boletus luteus= Linn. (_B. subluteus_ Pk.) This species is widely +distributed in Europe and America, and grows in sandy soil, in pine or +mixed woods or groves. The plants are 5--8 cm. high, the cap 3--12 cm. +in diameter, and the stem 6--10 mm. in thickness. The general color is +dull brown or yellowish brown, and the plants are slimy in moist +weather, the stem and tubes more or less dotted with dark points. These +characters vary greatly under different conditions, and the fact has led +to some confusion in the discrimination of species. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 173.--Boletus luteus. Cap viscid when moist, dull +yellowish to reddish brown, tubes yellowish, stem punctate both above +and below the annulus (natural size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is convex, becoming nearly plane, viscid or glutinous when +moist, dull yellowish to reddish brown, sometimes with the color +irregularly distributed in streaks. The flesh is whitish or dull +yellowish. The =tube= surface is plane or convex, the tubes set squarely +against the stem (adnate), while the tubes are small, with small, nearly +rounded, or slightly angular mouths. The color of the tubes is yellowish +or ochre colored, becoming darker in age, and sometimes nearly brown or +quite dark. The =stem= is pale yellowish, reddish or brownish, and more +or less covered with glandular dots, which when dry give a black dotted +appearance to the stem. In the case of descriptions of _B. luteus_ the +stem is said to be dotted only above the annulus, while the description +of _B. subluteus_ gives the stem as dotted both above and below the +annulus. The =spores= are yellowish brown or some shade of this color +in mass, lighter yellowish brown under the microscope, fusiform or +nearly so, and 7--10 x 2--4 mu. The =annulus= is very variable, sometimes +collapsing as a narrow ring around the stem as in Fig. 173, from plants +collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., September, 1899 (_B. subluteus_ Pk.), +and sometimes appearing as a broad, free collar, as in Fig. 174. The +veil is more or less gelatinous, and in an early stage of the plant may +cover the stem as a sheath. The lower part of the stem is sometimes +covered at maturity with the sheathing portion of the veil, the upper +part only appearing as a ring. In this way, the lower part of the stem +being covered, the glandular dots are not evident, while the stem is +seen to be dotted above the annulus. But in many cases the veil slips +off from the lower portion of the stem at an early stage, and then in +its slimy condition collapses around the upper part of the stem, leaving +the stem uncovered and showing the dots both above and below the ring +(_B. subluteus_). + +[Illustration: PLATE 62, FIGURE 174.--Boletus luteus. Cap drab to +hair-brown with streaks of the latter, viscid when moist, tubes tawny +olive to walnut-brown, stem black dotted both above and below the broad, +free annulus (natural size). Copyright.] + +An examination of the figures of the European plant shows that the veil +often slips off from the lower portion of the stem in _B. luteus_, +especially in the figures given by Krombholtz, T. 33. In some of these +figures the veil forms a broad, free collar, and the stem is then dotted +both above and below, as is well shown in the figures. In other figures +where the lower part of the veil remains as a sheath over the lower part +of the stem, the dots are hidden. I have three specimens of the _B. +luteus_ of Europe from Dr. Bresadola, collected at Trento, +Austria-Hungary: one of them has the veil sheathing the lower part of +the stem, and the stem only shows the dots above the annulus; a second +specimen has the annulus in the form of a collapsed ring near the upper +end of the stem, and the stem dotted both above and below the annulus; +in the third specimen the annulus is in the form of a broad, free +collar, and the stem dotted both above and below. The plants shown in +Fig. 174 (No. 4124, C. U. herbarium) were collected at Blowing Rock, N. +C., during September, 1899. They were found in open woods under Kalmia +where the sun had an opportunity to dry out the annulus before it became +collapsed or agglutinated against the stem, and the broad, free collar +was formed. My notes on these specimens read as follows: "The =pileus= +is convex, then expanded, rather thick at the center, the margin thin, +sometimes sterile, incurved. In color it runs from ecru drab to +hair-brown with streaks of the latter, and it is very viscid when moist. +When dried the surface of the pileus is shining. The =tubes= are plane +or concave, adnate, tawny-olive to walnut-brown. The tubes are small, +angular, somewhat as in _B. granulatus_, but smaller, and they are +granulated with reddish or brownish dots. The =spores= are walnut brown, +oblong to elliptical, 8--10 x 2--3 mu. The =stem= is cylindrical, even, +olive yellow above, and black dotted both above and below the annulus." + +[Illustration: FIGURE 175.--Boletinus pictus. Cap reddish, tinged with +yellowish between the scales, stem same color, tubes yellow, often +changing to reddish brown where bruised (natural size). Copyright.] + +=Boletinus pictus= Pk.--This very beautiful plant is quite common in +damp pine woods. It is easily recognized by the reddish cottony layer of +mycelium threads which cover the entire plant when young, and form a +veil which covers the gills at this time. As the plant expands the +reddish outer layer is torn into scales of the same color, showing the +yellowish, or pinkish, flesh beneath, and the flesh often changes to +pink or reddish where wounded. The tubes are first pale yellow, but +become darker in age, often changing to pinkish, with a brown tinge +where bruised. The stem is solid, and is thus different from a closely +related species, _B. cavipes_ Kalchb. The stem is covered with a coat +like that on the pileus and is similarly colored, though often paler. +The spores are ochraceous, 15--18 x 6--8 mu. The plants are 5--8 cm. +high, the caps 5--8 cm. broad, and the stems 6--12 mm. in thickness. + +Figure 175 is from plants collected in the Blue Ridge mountains, Blowing +Rock, N. C., September, 1899. + +=Boletinus porosus= (Berk.) Pk.--This very interesting species is widely +distributed in the Eastern United States. It resembles a _Polyporus_, +though it is very soft like a _Boletus_, but quite tenacious. The plants +are dull reddish-brown, viscid when moist, and shining. The cap is more +or less irregular and the stem eccentric, the cap being sometimes more +or less lobed. The plants are 4--6 cm. high, the cap 5--12 cm. broad, +and the short stem 8--12 mm. in thickness. It occurs in damp ground in +woods. + +The =pileus= is fleshy, thick at the middle, and thin at the margin. The +=tubes= are arranged in prominently radiating rows, the partitions often +running radiately in the form of lamellae, certain ones of them being +more prominent than others as shown in Fig. 176. These branch and are +connected by cross partitions of less prominence. This character of the +hymenium led Berkeley to place the plant in the genus _Paxillus_, with +which it does not seem to be so closely related as with the genus +_Boletus_. The stratum of tubes, though very soft, is very tenacious, +and does not separate from the flesh of the pileus, thus resembling +certain species of _Polyporus_. Figure 176 is from plants collected at +Ithaca. + +[Illustration: PLATE 63, FIGURE 176.--Boletinus porosus. Viscid when +moist, dull reddish brown (natural size). Copyright.] + +=Strobilomyces strobilaceus= Berk. =Edible.=--This plant has a peculiar +name, both the genus and the species referring to the cone-like +appearance of the cap with its coarse, crowded, dark brown scales, +bearing a fancied resemblance to a pine cone. It is very easily +distinguished from other species of _Boletus_ because of this character +of the cap. The plant has a very wide distribution though it is not +usually very common. The plant is 8--14 cm. high, the cap 5--10 cm. +broad, and the stem 1--2 cm. in thickness. + +The =pileus= is hemispherical to convex, shaggy from numerous large +blackish, coarse, hairy, projecting scales. The margin of the cap is +fringed with scales and fragments of the veil which covers the tubes in +the young plants. The flesh is whitish, but soon changes to reddish +color, and later to black where wounded or cut. The =tubes= are adnate, +whitish, becoming brown and blackish in the older plants. The mouths of +the tubes are large and angular, and change color where bruised, as does +the flesh of the cap. The stem is even, or sometimes tapers upward, +often grooved near the apex, very tomentose or scaly with soft scales of +the same color as the cap. The =spores= are in mass dark brown, nearly +globose, roughened, and 10--12 mu long. Figs. 177--179 are from plants +collected at Ithaca, N. Y. Another European plant, _S. floccopus_ Vahl, +is said by Peck to occur in the United States, but is much more rare. +The only difference in the two noted by Peck in the case of the American +plants is that the tubes are depressed around the stem in _S. +floccopus_. + +[Illustration: PLATE 64, FIGURE 177.--Strobilomyces strobilaceus. Scales +of cap dark brown or black, flesh white but soon changing to reddish and +later to black where wounded, stem same color but lighter (natural +size). Copyright.] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 178.--Strobilomyces strobilaceus. Sections of +plants. Copyright.] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 179.--Strobilomyces strobilaceus. Under view. +Copyright.] + + +FISTULINA Bull. + +In the genus _Fistulina_ the tubes, or pores, are crowded together, but +stand separately, that is, they are not connected together, or grown +together into a stratum as in _Boletus_ and other genera of the family +_Polyporaceae_. When the plant is young the tubes are very short, but +they elongate with age. + +=Fistulina hepatica= Fr. =Edible.=--This is one of the largest of the +species in the genus and is the most widely distributed and common one. +It is of a dark red color, very soft and juicy. It has usually a short +stem which expands out into the broad and thick cap. When young the +upper side of the cap is marked by minute elevations of a different +color, which suggest the papillae on the tongue; in age the tubes on the +under surface have also some such suggestive appearance. The form, as it +stands outward in a shelving fashion from stumps or trees, together with +the color and surface characters, has suggested several common names, as +beef tongue, beef-steak fungus, oak or chestnut tongue. The plant is +10--20 cm. long, and 8--15 cm. broad, the stem very short and thick, +sometimes almost wanting, and again quite long. I have seen some +specimens growing from a hollow log in which the stems were 12--15 cm. +long. + +The =pileus= is very thick, 2 cm. or more in thickness, fleshy, soft, +very juicy, and in wet weather very clammy and somewhat sticky to the +touch. When mature there are lines of color of different shades +extending out radially on the upper surface, and in making a +longitudinal section of the cap there are quite prominent, alternating, +dark and light red lines present in the flesh. The =tubes=, short at +first, become 2--3 mm. long, they are yellowish or tinged with flesh +color, becoming soiled in age. The =spores= are elliptical, yellowish, +and 5--6 mu long. + +The plant occurs on dead trunks or stumps of oak, chestnut, etc., in wet +weather from June to September. I have usually found it on chestnut. + +The beef-steak fungus is highly recommended by some, while others are +not pleased with it as an article of food. It has an acid flavor which +is disagreeable to some, but this is more marked in young specimens and +in those not well cooked. When it is sliced thin and well broiled or +fried, the acid taste is not marked. + +[Illustration: PLATE 65. + + FIG. 1.--Fistulina hepatica. + FIG. 2.--F. pallida. + Copyright 1900.] + +=Fistulina pallida= B. & Rav. (_Fistulina firma_ Pk.)--This rare and +interesting species was collected by Mrs. A. M. Hadley, near Manchester, +New Hampshire, October, 1898, and was described by Dr. Peck in the +Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, =26=: 70, 1899, as _Fistulina +firma_. But two plants were then found, and these were connected at the +base. During August and September it was quite common in a small woods +near Ithaca, N. Y., and was first collected growing from the roots of a +dead oak stump, August 4 (No. 3227 C. U. herbarium), and afterward +during October. During September I collected it at Blowing Rock, N. C., +in the Blue Ridge mountains, at an elevation of nearly 5000 feet, +growing from the roots of a dead white oak tree. It was collected during +September, 1899, by Mr. Frank Rathbun at Auburn, N. Y. It was collected +by Ravenel in the mountains of South Carolina, around a white oak stump +by Peters in Alabama, and was first described by Berkeley in 1872, in +=Grev. 1=: 71, Notices of N. A. F. No. 173. Growing from roots or wood +underneath the surface of the ground, the plant has an erect stem, the +length of the stem depending on the depth at which the root is buried, +just as in the case of _Polyporus radicatus_, which has a similar +habitat. The plants are 5--12 cm. high, the cap is 3--7 cm. broad, and +the stem 6--8 mm. in thickness. + +[Illustration: PLATE 66, FIGURE 180.--Fistulina pallida. Cap wood-brown +to fawn or clay color, tubes and lower part of the stem whitish (natural +size). Copyright.] + +The =pileus= is wood brown to fawn, clay color or isabelline color. It +is nearly semi-circular to reniform in outline, and the margin broadly +crenate, or sometimes lobed. The stem is attached at the concave margin, +where the cap is auriculate and has a prominent boss or elevation, and +bent at right angles with a characteristic curve. The pileus is firm, +flexible, tough and fibrous, flesh white. The surface is covered with a +fine and dense tomentum. The pileus is 5--8 mm. thick at the base, +thinning out toward the margin. The =tubes= are whitish, 2--3 mm. long +and 5--6 in the space of a millimeter. They are very slender, tubular, +the mouth somewhat enlarged, the margin of the tubes pale cream color +and minutely mealy or furfuraceous, with numerous irregular, roughened +threads. The tubes often stand somewhat separated, areas being +undeveloped or younger, so that the surface of the under side is not +regular. The tubes are not so crowded as is usual in the _Fistulina +hepatica_. They are not decurrent, but end abruptly near the stem. The +=spores= are subglobose, 3 mu in diameter. The stem tapers downward, is +whitish below, and near the pileus the color changes rather abruptly to +the same tint as the pileus. The stem is sometimes branched, and two or +three caps present, or the caps themselves may be joined, as well as the +stems, so that occasionally very irregular forms are developed, but +there is always the peculiar character of the attachment of the stem to +the side of the cap. + +Figure 180 is from plants (No 3676, C. U. herbarium) collected at +Blowing Rock, N. C., September, 1899. Figures on the colored plate +represent this plant. + +=Polyporus frondosus= Fr. =Edible.=--This plant occurs in both Europe +and America, and while not very common seems to be widely distributed. +It grows about old stumps or dead trees, from roots, often arising from +the roots below the surface of the ground, and also is found on logs. +The plant represents a section of the genus _Polyporus_, in which the +body, both the stem and the cap, are very much branched. In this species +the stem is stout at the base, but it branches into numerous smaller +trunks, which continue to branch until finally the branches terminate in +the expanded and leaf-like caps as shown in Figs. 181--182. The plants +appear usually during late summer and in the autumn. The species is +often found about oak stumps. Some of the specimens are very large, and +weigh 10 to 20 pounds, and the mass is sometimes 30 to 60 cm. (1--2 +feet) in diameter. + +The plant, when young and growing, is quite soft and tender, though it +is quite firm. It never becomes very hard, as many of the other species +of this family. When mature, insects begin to attack it, and not being +tough it soon succumbs to the ravages of insects and decay, as do a +number of the softer species of the _Polyporaceae_. The caps are very +irregular in shape, curved, repand, radiately furrowed, sometimes zoned; +gray, or hair-brown in color, with a perceptibly hairy surface, the +hairs running in lines on the surface. Sometimes they are quite broad +and not so numerous as in Plate 67, and in other plants they are narrow +and more numerous, as in Plate 68. The tubes are more or less irregular, +whitish, with a yellowish tinge when old. From the under side of the cap +they extend down on the stem. When the spores are mature they are +sometimes so numerous that they cover the lower caps and the grass for +quite a distance around as if with a white powder. + +This species is edible, and because of the large size which it often +attains, the few plants which are usually found make up in quantity what +they lack in numbers. Since the plant is quite firm it will keep several +days after being picked, in a cool place, and will serve for several +meals. A specimen which I gathered was divided between two families, and +was served at several meals on successive days. When stewed the plant +has for me a rather objectionable taste, but the stewing makes the +substance more tender, and when this is followed by broiling or frying +the objectionable taste is removed and it is quite palatable. The plants +represented in Plates 67 and 68 were collected at Ithaca. + +[Illustration: PLATE 67, FIGURE 181.--Polyporus frondosus. Caps +hair-brown or grayish, tubes white (1/3 natural size, masses often +20--40 cm. in breadth). The caps in this specimen are quite broad, often +they are narrower as in Fig. 182. Copyright.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 68, FIGURE 182.--Polyporus frondosus. Side and +under view of a larger cluster (1/3 natural size). Copyright.] + +There are several species which are related to the frondose polyporus +which occur in this country as well as in Europe. =Polyporus intybaceus= +Fr., is of about the same size, and the branching, and form of the caps +is much the same, but it is of a yellowish brown or reddish brown color. +It grows on logs, stumps, etc., and is probably edible. It is not so +common at Ithaca as the frondose polyporus. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 183.--Polyporus umbellatus. Caps hair-brown +(natural size, often much larger). Copyright.] + +=Polyporus umbellatus= Fr.--This species is also related to the frondose +polyporus, but is very distinct. It is more erect, the branching more +open, and the caps at the ends of the branches are more or less circular +and umbilicate. The branches are long, cylindrical and united near the +base. The spreading habit of the branching, or the form of the caps, +suggests an umbel or umbrella, and hence the specific name _umbellatus_. + +The tufts occur from 12--20 cm. in diameter, and the individual caps are +from 1--4 cm. in diameter. It grows from underground roots and about +stumps during summer. It is probably edible, but I have never tried it. +Figure 183 is from a plant (No. 1930, C. U. herbarium) collected in +Cascadilla woods, Ithaca. + +=Polyporus sulphureus= (Bull.) Fr. =Edible.= (_Boletus caudicinus_ +Schaeff. T. 131, 132: _Polyporus caudicinus_ Schroeter, Cohn's Krypt. +Flora, Schlesien, p. 471, 1899).--The sulphur polyporus is so-called +because of the bright sulphur color of the entire plant. It is one of +the widely distributed species, and grows on dead oak, birch, and other +trunks, and is also often found growing from wounds or knot-holes of +living trees of the oak, apple, walnut, etc. The mycelium enters at +wounds where limbs are broken off, and grows for years in the heart +wood, disorganizing it and causing it to decay. In time the mycelium has +spread over a considerable area, from which nutriment enough is supplied +for the formation of the fruiting condition. The caps then appear from +an open wound when such an exit is present. + +The color of the plant is quite constant, but varies of course in shades +of yellow to some extent. In form, however, it varies greatly. The caps +are usually clustered and imbricated, that is, they overlap. They may +all arise separately from the wood, and yet be overlapping, though +oftener several of them are closely joined or united at the base, so +that the mass of caps arises from a common outgrowth from the wood as +shown in Fig. 184. The individual caps are flattened, elongate, and more +or less fan-shaped. When mature there are radiating furrows and ridges +which often increase the fan-like appearance of the upper surface of the +cap. Sometimes also there are more or less marked concentric furrows. +The caps may be convex, or the margin may be more or less upturned so +that the central portion is depressed. When young the margin is thick +and blunt and of course lighter in color, but as the plant matures the +edge is usually thinner. + +In some forms of the plant the caps are so closely united as to form a +large rounded or tubercular mass, only the blunt tips of the individual +caps being free. This is well represented in Fig. 185, from a photograph +of a large specimen growing from a wound in a butter-nut tree in Central +New York. The plant was 30 cm. in diameter. The plants represented in +Plate 69 grew on an oak stump. The tree was affected by the fungus while +it was alive, and the heart wood became so weakened that the tree broke, +and later the fruit form of the fungus appeared from the dead stump. + +[Illustration: PLATE 69, FIGURE 184.--Polyporus sulphureus, on oak +stump. Entirely sulphur-yellow (1/6 natural size). Copyright.] + +The tubes are small, and the walls thin and delicate, and are sometimes +much torn, lacerated, and irregular. When the mycelium has grown in the +interior of a log for a number of years it tends to grow in sheets along +the line of the medullary rays of the wood or across in concentric +layers corresponding to the summer wood. Also as the wood becomes more +decomposed, cracks and rifts appear along these same lines. The mycelium +then grows in abundance in these rifts and forms broad and extensive +sheets which resemble somewhat chamois skin and is called "punk." +Similar punk is sometimes formed in conifers from the mycelium of _Fomes +pinicola_. + +[Illustration: PLATE 70, FIGURE 185.--Polyporus sulphureus. Caps joined +in a massive tubercle (1/2 natural size).] + +_Polyporus sulphureus_ has long been known as an edible fungus, but from +its rather firm and fibrous texture it requires a different preparation +from the fleshy fungi to prepare it for the table, and this may be one +reason why it is not employed more frequently as an article of food. It +is common enough during the summer and especially during the autumn to +provide this kind of food in considerable quantities. + +[Illustration: PLATE 71, FIGURE 186.--Polyporus brumalis. Cap and stem +brown, tubes white. Lower three plants natural size, upper one enlarged +twice natural size. Copyright.] + +=Polyporus brumalis= (Pers.) Fr.--This pretty plant is found at all +seasons of the year, and from its frequency during the winter was named +_brumalis_, from _bruma_, which means winter. It grows on sticks and +branches, or on trunks. It usually occurs singly, sometimes two or three +close together. The plants are 3--6 cm. high, the cap 2--6 cm. in +diameter, and the stem is 3--6 mm. in thickness. + +The =cap= is convex, then plane, and sometimes depressed at the center +or umbilicate. When young it is somewhat fleshy and pliant, then it +becomes tough, coriaceous, and hard when dry. During wet weather it +becomes pliant again. Being hard and firm, and tough, it preserves long +after mature, so that it may be found at any season of the year. The cap +is smoky in color, varying in shade, sometimes very dark, almost black, +and other specimens being quite light in color. The surface is hairy and +the margin is often fimbriate with coarse hairs. The =stem= is lighter, +hairy or strigose. The =tubes= are first white, then become yellowish. +The tubes are very regular in arrangement. + +Figure 186 represents well this species, three plants being grouped +rather closely on the same stick; two show the under surface and one +gives a side view. The upper portion of the plate represents two of the +plants enlarged, the three lower ones being natural size. The plant is +very common and widely distributed over the world. Those illustrated in +the plate were collected at Ithaca. This species is too tough for food. + +Many of the thin and pliant species of _Polyporus_ are separated by some +into the genus =Polystictus=. The species are very numerous, as well as +some of the individuals of certain species. They grow on wood or on the +ground, some have a central stem, and others are shelving, while some +are spread out on the surface of the wood. One very pretty species is +the =Polystictus perennis= Fr. This grows on the ground and has a +central stem. The plant is 2--3 cm. high, and the cap 1--4 cm. broad. +The =pileus= is thin, pliant when fresh and somewhat brittle when dry. +It is minutely velvety on the upper surface, reddish brown or cinnamon +in color, expanded or umbilicate to nearly funnel-shaped. The surface is +marked beautifully by radiations and fine concentric zones. The =stem= +is also velvety. The =tubes= are minute, the walls thin and acute, and +the mouths angular and at last more or less torn. The margin of the cap +is finely fimbriate, but in old specimens these hairs are apt to become +rubbed off. The left hand plant in Fig. 187 is _Polyporus perennis_. + +=Polystictus cinnamomeus= (Jacq.) Sacc., (_P. oblectans_ Berk. Hook. +Jour. p. 51, 1845, Dec. N. A. F. No. 35: _P. splendens_ Pk., 26th Report +N. Y. State Mus., p. 26) is a closely related species with the same +habit, color, and often is found growing side by side with _P. +perennis_. The margin of the cap is deeply and beautifully lacerate, as +shown in the three other plants in Fig. 187. _Polystictus connatus_ +Schw., grows in similar situations and one sometimes finds all three of +these plants near each other on the ground by roadsides. _P. connatus_ +has much larger pores than either of the other two, and it is a somewhat +larger plant. Figure 187 is from a photograph of plants collected at +Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 187.--Left-hand plant Polystictus perennis; +right-hand three plants Polystictus cinnamomeus. All natural size. +Copyright.] + +=Polystictus versicolor= (L.) Fr., is a very common plant growing on +trunks and branches. It is more or less shelving, with a leaf-like +pileus, marked by concentric bands of different colors. =P. hirsutus= +Fr., is a somewhat thicker and more spongy plant, whitish or grayish in +color, with the upper surface tomentose with coarse hairs. =P. +cinnabarinus= (Jacq.) Fr., is shelving, spongy, pliant, rather thick, +cinnabar colored. It grows on dead logs and branches. It is sometimes +placed in the genus _Trametes_ under the same specific name. +=Polystictus pergamenus= Fr., is another common one growing on wood of +various trees. It is thin and very pliant when fresh, somewhat tomentose +above when young, with faint bands, and the tubes are often violet or +purple color, and they soon become deeply torn and lacerate so that they +resemble the teeth of certain of the hedgehog fungi. + +[Illustration: PLATE 72, FIGURE 188.--Polyporus lucidus. Caps bright red +or chestnut color, with a hard shiny crust (1/6 natural size). +Copyright.] + +=Polyporus lucidus= (Leys.) Fr. [_Fomes lucidus_ (Leys.) Fr.]--This +species is a very striking one because of the bright red or chestnut +color, the hard and brittle crust over the surface of the cap, which has +usually the appearance of having been varnished. It grows on trunks, +logs, stumps, etc., in woods or groves. The cap is 5--20 cm. in +diameter, and the stem is 5--20 cm. long, and 1--2 cm. in thickness. The +stem is attached to one side of the pileus so that the pileus is +lateral, though the stem is more or less ascending. + +The =cap= is first yellowish when young, then it becomes blood red, then +chestnut color. The =stem= is the same color, and the =tubes= are not so +bright in color, being a dull brown. The substance of the plant is quite +woody and tough when mature. When dry it is soon attacked and eaten by +certain insects, which are fond of a number of fungi, so that they are +difficult to preserve in good condition in herbaria without great care. + +The surface of the pileus is quite uneven, wrinkled, and coarsely +grooved, the margin sometimes crenate, especially in large specimens. +Figure 188 represents the plant growing on a large hemlock spruce stump +in the woods. The surface character of the caps and the general form can +be seen. This photograph was taken near Ithaca, N. Y. + +=Polyporus applanatus= (Pers.) Fr. [_Fomes applanatus_ (Pers.) +Wallr.]--This plant is also one of the very common woody _Polyporaceae_. +It grows on dead trunks, etc., and sometimes is found growing from the +wounds of living trees. It is very hard and woody. It has a hard crust, +much harder than that of the _Polyporus lucidus_. The surface is more or +less marked by concentric zones which mark off the different years' +growth, for this plant is perennial. At certain seasons of the year the +upper surface is covered with a powdery substance of a reddish brown +color, made up of numerous colored spores or conidia which are developed +on the upper surface of this plant in addition to the smaller spores +developed in the tubes on the under surface. + +The plant varies in size from 5--20 cm. or more in diameter, and 1--10 +cm. in thickness, according to the rapidity of growth and the age of the +fungus. The fruiting surface is white, and the tubes are very minute. +They scarcely can be seen with the unaided eye. Bruises of the tubes +turn brown, and certain "artists" often collect these plants and sketch +with a pointed instrument on the tube surface. For other peculiarities +of this plant see page 15. The age of the plant can usually be told by +counting the number of the broader zones on the upper surface, or by +making a section through the plant and counting the number of tube +strata on the lower surface of the cap at its base. + +=Polyporus leucophaeus= Mont., is said to differ from this species in +being more strongly zonate, and in the crust being whitish instead of +reddish brown. + +=Polyporus fomentarius= (L.) Fr. [_Fomes fomentarius_ (L.) Fr.,] is +hoof-shaped, smoky in color, or gray, and of various shades of dull +brown. It is strongly zoned and sulcate, marking off each year's growth. +The margin is thick and blunt, and the tube surface concave, the tubes +having quite large mouths so that they can be readily seen, the color +when mature being reddish brown. Sections of the plant show that the +tubes are very long, the different years' growth not being marked off so +distinctly as in _P. applanatus_ and _leucophaeus_. The plant grows on +birch, beech, maple, etc. The inner portion was once used as tinder. + +=Polyporus pinicola= (Swartz.) Fr. [_Fomes pinicola_ (Swartz.) Fr.] +occurs on dead pine, spruce, balsam, hemlock spruce, and other conifers. +The cap is about the width of the _F. applanatus_, but it is stouter, +and does not have the same hard crust. The young growth at the margin, +which is very thick, is whitish yellow, while the old zones are reddish. +The tubes are yellowish, and sections show that they are in strata +corresponding to the years' growth. =Polyporus igniarius= (L.) Fr. +[_Fomes igniarius_ (L.) Fr.] is a black species, more or less +triangular, or sometimes hoof-shaped. The yearly zones are smaller, +become much cracked, and the tubes are dark brown. One of these plants +which I found on a birch tree in the Adirondacks was over 80 years old. + +The genus _Merulius_ has a fruiting surface of irregular folds or +wrinkles, forming shallow, irregular pits instead of a deeply +honey-combed surface. =Merulius lacrymans= (Jacq.) Fr., the "weeping" +merulius, or "house fungus," often occurs in damp cellars, buildings, +conduit pipes, etc. It is very destructive to buildings in certain parts +of Europe (see Figs. 189, 190). =Merulius tremellosus= Schrad., is very +common in woods during autumn. It is of a gelatinous consistency, and +spread on the under surface of limbs or forms irregular shelves from the +side (see Figs. 191, 192). + +[Illustration: PLATE 73.--Merulius lacrymans. FIGURE 189.--Upper plant +in conduit pipe leading from wash room, Gymnasium C. U., Autumn, 1899. +FIGURE 190.--Lower plant from under surface decaying hemlock spruce log +in woods near Freeville, N. Y., October, 1899. Margin of plants white, +fruiting surface a network of irregular folds, golden brown, or brown. +Copyright.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 74.--Merulius tremellosus. FIGURE 191.--Natural +size.] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 192.--Enlarged to show character of fruiting +surface. Fruiting surface yellowish; margin and upper surface in +shelving forms, white, hairy. Copyright.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 75, FIGURE 193.--Phlebia merismoides. On rotting +log, woods near Ithaca, November 23, 1898 (No. 2634 C. U. herbarium). +Various shades of orange, yellow or yellow brown when old. Copyright.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 76, FIGURE 194.--Phlebia merismoides. Portion of a +plant 2-1/2 times natural size, to show interrupted folds of fruiting +surface. For colors see Fig. 193. Copyright.] + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +HEDGEHOG FUNGI: HYDNACEAE. + + +The plants belonging to this family vary greatly in size, form, and +consistency. Some of them are very large, some quite small, some are +fleshy in consistency, some are woody, corky; some membranaceous; and if +we include plants formerly classed here, some are gelatinous, though +there is a tendency in recent years on the part of some to place the +gelatinous ones among the trembling fungi. The special character which +marks the members of this family is the peculiarity of the fruiting +surface, just as a number of the other families are distinguished by +some peculiarity of the fruiting surface. In the _Hydnaceae_ it covers +the surface of numerous processes in the form of spines, teeth, warts, +coarse granules, or folds which are interrupted at short intervals. +These spines or teeth always are directed toward the earth when the +plant is in the position in which it grew. In this way the members of +the family can be distinguished from certain members of the club fungi +belonging to the family _Clavariaceae_, for in the latter the branches or +free parts of the plant are erect. + +In form the _Hydnaceae_ are shelving, growing on trees; or growing on the +ground they often have a central or eccentric stem, and a more or less +circular cap; some of them are rounded masses, growing from trees, with +very long spines extending downward; others have ascending branches from +which the spines depend; and still others form thin sheets which are +spread over the surface of logs and sticks, the spines hanging down from +the surface, or roughened with granules or warts, or interrupted folds +(see _Phlebia_, Figs. 193, 194). In one genus there is no fruit body, +but the spines themselves extend downward from the rotten wood, the +genus _Mucronella_. This is only distinguished, so far as its family +position is concerned, from such a species as _Clavaria mucida_ by the +fact that the plant grows downward from the wood, while in _C. mucida_ +it grows erect. + + +HYDNUM Linn. + +The only species of the _Hydnaceae_ described here are in the genus +_Hydnum_. In this genus the fruiting surface is on spine, or awl-shaped +processes, which are either simple or in some cases the tips are more or +less branched. The plants grow on the ground or on wood. The species +vary greatly in form. Some are provided with a more or less regular cap +and a stem, while others are shelving or bracket shaped, and still +others are spread out over the surface of the wood (resupinate). + +[Illustration: FIGURE 195.--Hydnum coralloides. Entirely white (natural +size). Copyright.] + +=Hydnum coralloides= Scop. =Edible.=--Among the very beautiful species +of the genus _Hydnum_ is the coral one, _Hydnum coralloides_. It grows +in woods forming large, beautiful, pure white tufts on rotten logs, +branches, etc. The appearance of one of these tufts is shown in Fig. +195. There is a common stem which arises from the wood, and this +branches successively into long, ascending, graceful shoots. The spines +are scattered over the entire under side of these branches and hang down +for 3--6 mm. They are not clustered at the ends of the branches, as in +the bear's head hydnum, and the species can be easily distinguished by +giving attention to the form of the branching and the distribution of +the spines on the under side of the branches. Figure 195 represents a +plant collected at Ithaca, and it is natural size. They grow, however, +much larger than this specimen. The species is widely distributed, and +not uncommon. It is excellent for food. + +[Illustration: PLATE 77, FIGURE 196.--Hydnum caput-ursi. Entirely white +(natural size). Copyright.] + +=Hydnum caput-ursi= Fr. =Edible.=--This plant is also a beautiful one. +It is more common than the coral hydnum so far as my observation goes. +It is known by the popular name of "bear's head hydnum" in allusion to +the groups of spines at the ends of the branches. It occurs in woods +with a similar habit of growing on trunks, branches, etc. This plant +also arises from the wood with a single stout stem, which then branches +successively, the ends of the branches having groups of long pendant +spines appearing like numerous heads. Sometimes the spines on the top of +the group are twisted or curled in a peculiar way. Large tufts are +sometimes formed, varying from 12--20 or more centimeters in diameter. +Figure 196 is from a plant collected at Ithaca. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 197.--Hydnum erinaceus. Entirely white (natural +size, often larger).] + +=Hydnum caput-medusae= Bull. =Edible.=--The medusa's head hydnum is a +rarer species than either of the above in this country. It forms a +large, tubercular mass which does not branch like the coral hydnum or +the bear's head, but more like the Satyr's beard hydnum, though the +character of the spines will easily separate it from the latter. The +spines cover a large part of this large tubercle, and hang downward. The +plant is known by the additional character, that, on the upper part of +the tubercle, the spines are twisted and interwoven in a peculiar +fashion. + +=Hydnum erinaceus= Bull. =Edible.=--This plant is sometimes called +"Satyr's beard." It grows on dead trunks in the woods or groves, and is +often found growing from wounds in living trees. It forms a large, +tubercular mass which does not branch. The spines are very long and +straight and hang downward in straight parallel lines from the sides of +the mass. The spines are from 1--2 cm. or more long. Figure 197 +represents one of the plants, showing the long spines. + +=Hydnum repandum= L. =Edible.=--This plant is not uncommon, and it is +widely distributed. It grows usually in woods, on the ground. It varies +greatly in size, from very small specimens, 1--2 cm. high to others +10--12 cm. high. The cap is 2--18 cm. broad, and the stem 6--12 mm. in +thickness. + +[Illustration: PLATE 78, FIGURE 198.--Hydnum repandum. Cap whitish or +yellowish, or pale yellowish brown; spines whitish or yellowish (natural +size, often smaller). Copyright.] + +It is entirely white or the cap varies to buff, dull yellow reddish or +dull brown. It is very brittle, and must be handled with the utmost care +if one wishes to preserve the specimen intact. The pileus is more or +less irregular, the stem being generally eccentric, so that the pileus +is produced more on one side than on the other, sometimes entirely +lateral at the end of the stem. The margin is more or less wavy or +repand. The spines are white, straight, and very brittle. The stem is +even or clavate. Figure 198 is from plants collected at Ithaca during +August, 1899, and represents one of the large specimens of the species. +In one plant the pileus is entirely lateral on the end of the long +clavate stem, and is somewhat reniform, the stem being attached at the +sinus. In the other plant the stem is attached near the center. This +species is considered one of the best mushrooms for the table. + +[Illustration: PLATE 79, FIGURE 199.--Hydnum putidum. Caps whitish then +buff, then brownish or nearly black in older parts, edge white (natural +size). Copyright.] + +=Hydnum imbricatum= L. =Edible.=--This is a very variable species both +in size and in the surface characters of the pileus. It occurs in woods, +groves, or in open places under trees. The plants are 3--7 cm. high, and +the pileus varies from 5--15 cm. broad, the stem from .5--2.5 cm. in +thickness. The pileus is convex and nearly expanded, fleshy, thinner at +the margin, regular or very irregular. The color is grayish in the +younger and smaller plants to umber or quite dark in the larger and +older ones. The surface is cracked and torn into triangular scales, +showing the whitish color of the flesh between the scales. The scales +are small in the younger plants and larger in the older ones. Figure 200 +is from plants collected at Ithaca, and the pileus in these specimens is +irregular. The species is edible, but bitter to the taste. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 200.--Hydnum imbricatum. Caps brownish, spines +whitish (natural size, often larger).] + +=Hydnum putidum= Atkinson.--This plant grows on the ground in woods, and +was collected in the Blue Ridge mountains at Blowing Rock, N. C., at an +elevation of about 4000 feet. It is remarkable for its peculiar odor, +resembling, when fresh, that of an Ethiopian; for its tough, zonate +pileus with a prominent white edge, and the stout irregular stem, +resembling the stem of _Hydnum velutinum_. The plants are 8--12 cm. +high, the cap 8--12 cm. broad, and the stem 2--4 cm. in thickness. The +plants grow singly, or sometimes a few close together, and then two or +more may be conjoined. + +The =pileus= is first umbilicate or depressed, becoming depressed or +infundibuliform, irregular, eccentric, the margin repand, and sometimes +lobed, and lobes appearing at times on the upper surface of the cap. The +surface is first tomentose or pubescent, becoming smooth, with prominent +concentric zones probably marked off by periodical growth; the color is +first white, so that the edge is white, becoming cream color to buff, +and in age dull brown and sometimes blackish brown in the center of the +old plants. The pubescence disappears from the old portions of the cap, +so that it is smooth. The pubescence or tomentum is more prominent on +the intermediate zones. The margin is rather thick, somewhat acute or +blunt, the upper portion of the flesh is spongy and the middle portion +tough and coriaceous, and darker in color. The pileus is somewhat pliant +when moist or wet, and firm when dry, the dark inner stratum hard. + +The =spines= are first white or cream color, in age changing through +salmon color, or directly into grayish or grayish brown. The spines when +mature are long, slender, crowded, and decurrent on the upper part of +the stem. The =spores= are white, globose, echinulate, 3--4 mu. The +=stem= is stout and irregular, very closely resembling the stem of +_Hydnum velutinum_, with a thick, spongy, outer layer and a central hard +core. + +The odor, which resembles that of a perspiring darkey, before the plant +is dry, disappears after drying, and then the plant has the same +agreeable odor presented by several different species of Hydnum. The +odor suggests _H. graveolens_, but the characters of the stem and +surface of the pileus separate it from that species, while the tough and +pliant character of the cap separates it from _H. fragile_. Figure 199 +is from plants (No. 4334, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. +C., during September, 1899. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +CORAL FUNGI: CLAVARIACEAE. + + +This family is a very characteristic one, and very interesting from the +large number of beautiful species in one genus, the genus _Clavaria_. +The plants all are more or less erect, or at least stand out from the +substratum, that is, the substance on which they are growing. The +fruiting surface covers the entire upper part of the plant, all but the +bases of the stems. Some of the branched species of the _Thelephoraceae_ +resemble the branched species of the _Clavariaceae_, but in the former +there is a more or less well defined upper portion on the tips of the +branches which is flat, or truncate, and sterile, that is, lacks the +fruiting surface. Some of the species are simple, elongate and clavate +bodies. Some stand singly, others are clustered, or others are joined by +their bases, and others still are very much branched. All of the species +are said to be edible, that is, they are not poisonous. A few are rather +tough, but they are mostly the small species which would not be thought +of for food. The spores are borne on club-shaped basidia, as in the +common mushrooms. + +[Illustration: PLATE 80, FIGURE 201.--Clavaria formosa. Yellowish, red +tipped when young, red disappearing in age (natural size, sometimes +twice this size). Copyright.] + + +CLAVARIA Vaill. + +The genus _Clavaria_ is one of the most common ones in the family, and +is one of the most attractive from the variety and beauty of several of +the species. All of the plants are more or less erect, and at least +stand out from the substratum on which they grow. They are either long +and simple and more or less club-shaped, as the name implies, or they +are branched, some but a few times, while others are very profusely +branched. The plants vary in color, some are white, some yellow, some +red, and some are red-tipped, while others are brownish in color. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 202.--Clavaria botrytes. Branches red tipped +(natural size).] + +=Clavaria formosa= Pers. =Edible.=--This is one of the handsomest of the +genus. It is found in different parts of the world, and has been +collected in New England and in the Carolinas in this country. It is +usually from 15--20 cm. high, and because of the great number of +branches is often broader in extent. There is a stout stem from 2--4 cm. +in diameter, deep in the ground. This branches into a few stout trunks, +which then rapidly branch into slender and longer branches, terminating +into numerous tips. The entire plant is very brittle, and great care is +necessary to prevent its breaking, both before drying and afterward. +When the plant is young and is just pushing out of the ground, the +branches, especially the tips, are bright colored, red, pink, or orange, +the color usually brighter when young in the younger plants. As the +plant becomes older the color fades out, until at maturity the pink or +red color has in many cases disappeared, and then the entire plant is of +a light yellowish, or of a cream buff color. The spores are in mass +light yellow, and the spores on the surface of the plant probably give +the color to the plant at this stage. The spores are long, oval or +oblong, 10--15 x 2.5--3 mu, and are minutely spiny. Figure 201 is from a +plant (No. 4343, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., in +September, 1899. The plant is very common in the mountain woods of North +Carolina. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 203.--Clavaria pistillaris. Dull whitish, tan or +reddish (natural size).] + +Specimens of this Clavaria were several times prepared for table use +during my stay in the mountains, but the flavor was not an agreeable +one, possibly due to the fact that it needs some special preparation and +seasoning. + +=Clavaria botrytes= Pers. =Edible.=--This plant is much smaller than _C. +formosa_, but has much the same general habit and color, especially when +_C. formosa_ is young. The plant has a stout stem which soon dissolves +into numerous branches, which are red tipped. The spores are white, and +in this way it may be distinguished from _C. formosa_, or from _Clavaria +aurea_ (Schaeff.), which has yellow or ochre spores, and which has also +much the same habit as _C. botrytes_, and is nearer in size. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 204.--Clavaria mucida. White (natural size). +Copyright.] + +=Clavaria pistillaris= Linn. =Edible.=--This plant is a characteristic +one because of its usually large size and simple form. It is merely a +club-shaped body, growing from the ground. It has a wide range, both in +Europe and North America, but does not seem to be common, though I have +found it more common in the mountain woods of North Carolina than in New +York. The plant is 5--20 cm. high, and 1--3 cm. thick at the upper end. +It is smooth, though often irregularly grooved and furrowed, due +probably to unequal tensions in growth. The apex in typical specimens is +rounded and blunt. It is dull white or tan color or rufescent. The flesh +is white, and very spongy, especially in age, when it is apt to be +irregularly fistulose. Figure 203 is from plants collected at Blowing +Rock, N. C., during September 1899. + +There is what seems to be an abnormal form of this species figured by +Schaeffer, Table 290, which Fries separated as a distinct species and +placed in the genus _Craterellus_, one of the _Thelephoraceae_, and +called by him _Craterellus pistillaris_. This plant has been found at +Ithaca, and the only difference between this and the _Clavaria +pistillaris_ L., seems to be in the fact that in _Craterellus +pistillaris_ the end is truncate or in some specimens more or less +concave. The spores seem to be the same, and the color and general habit +of the two plants are the same. It is probably only a form of _Clavaria +pistillaris_. + +=Clavaria mucida= Pers.--This is one of the smallest species of the +genus _Clavaria_. It grows on rotten wood, and appears throughout the +year. It is usually simple and clavate, but sometimes branched. The +plant is white, or yellowish, or sometimes rose color, and measures from +0.5 to 2 cm. in height, though I have usually found it from 0.5--1 cm. +in height. It is soft and watery. Figure 204 is from plants (No. 4998, +C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca in October, 1899. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +THE TREMBLING FUNGI: TREMELLINEAE. + + +These fungi are called the trembling fungi because of their gelatinous +consistency. The colors vary from white, yellow, orange, reddish, +brownish, etc., and the form is various, often very irregular, +leaf-like, or strongly folded and uneven. They are when fresh usually +very soft, clammy to the touch, and yielding like a mass of gelatine. +They usually grow on wood, but some species grow on the ground, and some +are parasitic. The fruit surface usually covers the entire outer surface +of the plant, but in some it is confined to one side of the plant. The +basidia are peculiar to the order, are deeply seated in the substance of +the plant, rounded or globose, and divided into four cells in a cruciate +manner. From each one of these cells of the basidium a long, slender +process (sterigma) grows out to the surface of the plant and bears the +spore. A few species only are treated of here. + + +TREMELLA Dill. + +In this genus the plants are gelatinous or cartilaginous. The form of +the plant is usually very much contorted, fold-like or leaf-like, and +very much branched. The fruiting surface extends over the entire upper +surface of the plant. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 205.--Tremella mycetophila, on Collybia dryophila +(natural size).] + +=Tremella lutescens= Pers.--This plant is entirely yellow, and occurs on +branches. It is 2--5 cm. in diameter, and is strongly folded, somewhat +like the folds of a brain (gyrose). It is very soft and inclined to be +watery and fluid, and is of a bright yellow color, spread out on the +surface of rotten wood. It is of world-wide distribution, and appears +from mid-summer to late autumn. + +=Tremella mycetophila= Pk.--This plant is interesting from the fact that +it is parasitic on a mushroom, _Collybia dryophila_. It grows on the +stem or on the top of the cap of the _Collybia_, and it is white, or +yellowish, very much contorted (gyrose-plicate), nearly rounded, and +8--16 mm. in diameter. Figure 205 represents this _Tremella_ growing on +the _Collybia dryophila_, from plants collected at Freeville woods near +Ithaca. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 206.--Tremella frondosa. Pinkish yellow or pinkish +vinaceous (natural size). Copyright.] + +=Tremella frondosa= Fr.--This is said to be the largest species of the +genus. It grows on rotten wood. It occurs in Europe, has been collected +in New York State, and the Fig. 206 is from a plant (No. 4339, C. U. +herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., in September, 1899. The +plant figured here was 10 cm. long and about 8 cm. high. It is very much +twisted and contorted, leaf-like, and the middle and base all united. It +is of a pinkish yellow color, one plant being vinaceous pink and +another cream buff in color. When young the leaf-like lobes do not show +well, but as it expands they become very prominent. + +Several other species of Tremella are probably more common than the ones +illustrated here. One of the commonest of the _Tremellineae_ probably is +the =Exidia glandulosa=, which in dry weather appears as a black +incrustation on dead limbs, but during rains it swells up into a large, +black, very soft, gelatinous mass. It is commonly found on fallen limbs +of oak, and occurs from autumn until late spring. It is sometimes called +"witch's butter." + +[Illustration: FIGURE 207.--Tremella fuciformis. Entirely white (natural +size). Copyright.] + +=Tremella fuciformis= Berk.--This is a very beautiful white tremella +growing in woods on leaf mold close to the ground. It forms a large +white tubercular mass resting on the ground, from the upper surface of +which numerous stout, short, white processes arise which branch a few +times in a dichotomous manner. The masses are 10--15 cm. in diameter, +and nearly or quite as high. The flesh is very soft, and the parts are +more or less hollow. The basidia are like those of the genus, globose, +sunk in the substance of the plant, and terminate with four long, +slender, sterigmata which rise to the surface and bear the spores. The +spores are white, nearly ovoid, but inequilateral and somewhat reniform, +continuous, 7--9 x 5--6 mu. + +Figure 207 is from a plant collected in a woods near Ithaca, in August, +1897. + + +GYROCEPHALUS Pers. + +The genus _Gyrocephalus_ differs from the other _Tremellineae_ in having +the fruiting surface on the lower side of the fruit body, while the +upper side is sterile. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 208.--Gyrocephalus rufus. Reddish or reddish +yellow (natural size). Copyright.] + +=Gyrocephalus rufus= (Jacq.) Bref.--This species is sometimes very +abundant. It grows on the ground, generally from buried wood, or from +dead roots. It is erect, stout at the base, and the upper end flattened +and thinner. It is more or less spatulate, the upper side somewhat +concave, and the lower somewhat convex. In some plants the pileus is +more regular and there is then a tendency to the funnel form. It is +reddish, or reddish yellow in color, smooth, clammy, watery, and quite +gelatinous. When dry it is very hard. Figure 208 represents the form of +the plant well, from plants collected at Ithaca. The plant is quite +common in the damp glens and woods at Ithaca during the autumn. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +THELEPHORACEAE. + + +Many of the species of the Thelephoraceae to which the following two +species belong are too tough for food. A large number of these grow on +wood. They are known by their hard or membranaceous character and by the +fruiting surface (under surface when in the position in which they grew) +being smooth, or only slightly uneven, or cracked. + +=Craterellus cantharellus= (Schw.) Fr., is an edible species. In general +appearance it resembles the _Cantharellus cibarius_. The color is the +same, and the general shape, except that the former is perhaps more +irregular in form. It may, however, be in most cases easily +distinguished from _C. cibarius_ by the absence of folds on the under or +fruiting surface, since the fruiting surface is smooth, especially when +the plants are young or middle age. However, when the plants get quite +large and old, in some cases the fruiting surface becomes very uneven +from numerous folds and wrinkles, which, however, are more irregular +than the folds of _C. cibarius_. + +=Craterellus cornucopioides= (L.) Pers., is another edible species. It +grows on the ground in woods. It is of a dusky or dark smoky color, and +is deeply funnel-shaped, resembling a "horn of plenty," though usually +straight. The fruiting surface is somewhat uneven. + +The genus _Stereum_ is a very common one on branches, etc., either +entirely spread out on the wood, or with the margin or a large part of +the pileus free. _Hymenochaete_ is like _Stereum_, but has numerous small +black spines in the fruiting surface, giving it a velvety appearance. +_Corticium_ is very thin and spread over the wood in patches. + +[Illustration: PLATE 81, FIGURE 209.--Lycoperdon cyathiforme (natural +size).] + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +PUFF-BALLS: LYCOPERDACEAE. + + +This is not the place for a discussion of the different genera of the +puff-balls, etc., but it might be well to say that in recent years the +old genus _Lycoperdon_ has been divided into several genera. The giant +puff-ball, and the _L. cyathiforme_, where the wall or peridium ruptures +irregularly, have been placed in a genus called _Calvatia_; certain +other species which are nearly globose, and in which the wall is of a +papery texture at maturity, are placed in the genus _Bovista_. There is +one genus belonging to the same family as the lycoperdons, the species +of which are very interesting on account of the peculiar way in which +the wall is ruptured. This is the genus _Geaster_, that is, "earth +star." The wall, or peridium, is quite thick in the members of this +genus, and when it matures it separates into several layers which need +not all be discussed here. A thick outer portion which separates from a +thinner inner portion further splits radially into several star-like +divisions, which spread outward and give to the plant the form of a +star. Since the plants lie on the earth the name earth star was applied +to them. This opens out in dry weather, even curving around under the +plant, so that the plant is raised above the ground. Then in wet weather +it closes up again. The inner portion of the wall opens at the apex in +various ways, in the different species, so that the spores may escape. A +closely related genus has several small perforations like a pepper box +in the upper surface of the inner wall, _Myriostoma_. + + +LYCOPERDON Tourn. + +To this genus belong most of the "puff-balls," as they are commonly +called, or, as they are denominated in the South, "Devil's snuff box." +All, or a large portion, of the interior of the plant at maturity breaks +down into a powdery substance, which with the numerous spores is very +light, and when the plant is squeezed or pressed, clouds of this dust +burst out at the opening through the wall. The wall of the plant is +termed the _peridium_. In this genus the wall is quite thin, and at +maturity opens differently in different species. In several species it +opens irregularly, the entire wall becoming very brittle and cracking up +into bits, as in the giant puff-ball. In the remaining species it opens +by a distinct perforation at the apex, and the remainder of the wall is +more or less pliant and membranous. All of the puff-balls are said to be +edible, at least are harmless, if eaten when the flesh is white. They +should not be eaten when the flesh is dark, or is changing from the +white color. + +=Lycoperdon giganteum= Batsch. =Edible.=--This, the giant puff-ball, is +the largest species of the genus. Sometimes it reaches immense +proportions, two to three or even four feet, but these large sizes are +rare. It is usually 20 to 40 cm. (8--16 in.) in diameter. It grows on +the ground in grassy places during late summer and in the autumn. It is +a large rounded mass, resting on the ground, and near or at the center +of the under side, it is attached to the cords of mycelium in the +ground. It is white in color until it is ripe, that is, when the spores +are mature, and it should be gathered for food before it is thus ripe. +When it is maturing it becomes yellowish, then dusky or smoky in color. +The flesh, which is white when young, changes to greenish yellow and +finally brownish, with usually an olivaceous tinge, as the spores ripen. + +The plant is so large that it may be sliced, and should be sliced before +broiling. A single specimen often forms enough for a meal for a large +family, and some of the larger ones would serve for several meals. + +=Lycoperdon cyathiforme= Bosc. =Edible.=--This is called the +beaker-shaped puff-ball because the base of the plant, after the spores +have all been scattered, resembles to some extent a beaker, or a broad +cup with a stout, stem-like base. These old sterile bases of the plant +are often found in the fields long after the spores have disappeared. +The plants are somewhat pear-shaped, rounded above, and tapering below +to the stout base. They are 7--15 cm. in diameter, and white when young. +At maturity the spore mass is purplish, and by this color as well as by +the sterile base the plant is easily recognized. Of course these +characters cannot be recognized in the young and growing plant at the +time it is wanted for food, but the white color of the interior of the +plant would be a sufficient guarantee that it was edible, granted of +course that it was a member of the puff-ball family. Sometimes, long +before the spores mature, the outer portion of the plant changes from +white to pinkish, or brownish colors. At maturity the wall, or peridium, +breaks into brittle fragments, which disappear and the purplish mass of +the spores is exposed. The plant grows in grassy places or even in +cultivated fields. + +=Lycoperdon gemmatum= Batsch. =Edible.=--This puff-ball is widely +distributed throughout the world and is very common. It grows in the +woods, or in open places on the ground, usually. It is known from its +characteristic top shape, the more or less erect scales on the upper +surface intermingled with smaller ones, the larger ones falling away and +leaving circular scars over the surface, which gives it a reticulate +appearance. The plants are white, becoming dark gray or grayish brown +when mature. They vary in size from 3--7 cm. high to 2--5 cm. broad. +They are more or less top-shaped, and the stem, which is stout, is +sometimes longer than the rounded portion, which is the fruiting part. +The outer part of the wall (outer peridium) when quite young separates +into warts or scales of varying size, large ones arranged quite +regularly with smaller ones between. These warts are well shown in the +two plants at the left in Fig. 210, and the third plant from the left +shows the reticulations formed of numerous scars on the inner peridium +where the larger scales have fallen away. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 210.--Lycoperdon gemmatum. Entirely white except +when old (natural size). Copyright.] + +The plant at the extreme right is mature, and the inner peridium has +ruptured at the apex to permit the escape of the spores. The spore mass, +together with brownish threads which are intermingled, are greenish +yellow with an olive tinge, then they become pale brown. The spores are +rounded, 3.5--4.5 mu in diameter, smooth or minutely warted. + +Another small puff-ball everywhere common in woods is the _Lycoperdon +pyriforme_, so called because of its pear shape. It grows on very rotten +wood or on decaying logs in woods or groves, or in open places where +there is rotting wood. It is somewhat smaller than the gem-bearing +lycoperdon, is almost sessile, sometimes many crowded very close +together, and especially is it characterized by prominent root-like +white strands of mycelium which are attached to the base where the +plant enters the rotten wood. While these small species of puff-balls +are not injurious to eat, they do not seem to possess an agreeable +flavor. There are quite a number of species in this country which cannot +be enumerated here. + +Related to the puff-balls, and properly classed with them, are the +species of _Scleroderma_. This name is given to the genus because of the +hard peridium, the wall being much firmer and harder than in +_Lycoperdon_. There are two species which are not uncommon, _Scleroderma +vulgare_ and _S. verrucosum_. They grow on the ground or on very rotten +wood, and are sessile, often showing the root-like white strands +attached to their base. They vary in size from 2--6 cm. and the outer +wall is cracked into numerous coarse areas, or warts, giving the plant a +verrucose appearance, from which one of the species gets its specific +name. + +=Calostoma cinnabarinum= Desv.--This is a remarkably beautiful plant +with a general distribution in the Eastern United States. It has often +been referred to in this country under the genus name _Mitremyces_, and +sometimes has been confused with a rarer and different species, +_Calostoma lutescens_ (Schw.) Burnap. It grows in damp woods, usually +along the banks of streams and along mountain roads. It is remarkable +for the brilliant vermilion color of the inner surface of the outer +layer of the wall (_exoperidium_), which is exposed by splitting into +radial strips that curl and twist themselves off, and by the vermilion +color of the edges of the teeth at the apex of the inner wall +(_endoperidium_). The plant is 2--8 cm. high, and 1--2 cm. in diameter. +When mature the base or stem, which is formed of reticulated and +anastomosing cords, elongates and lifts the rounded or oval fruiting +portion to some distance above the surface of the ground, when the +gelatinous volva ruptures and falls to the ground or partly clings to +the stem, exposing the peridium, the outer portion of which then splits +in the manner described. + +When the plant is first seen above the ground it appears as a globose or +rounded body, and in wet weather has a very thick gelatinous layer +surrounding it. This is the volva and is formed by the gelatinization of +the outer layer of threads which compose it. This gelatinous layer is +thick and also viscid, and when the plants are placed on paper to dry, +it glues them firmly to the sheet. When the outer layer of the peridium +splits, it does so by splitting from the base toward the apex, or from +the apex toward the base. Of the large number of specimens which I have +seen at Blowing Rock, N. C., the split more often begins at the apex, or +at least, when the slit is complete, the strips usually stand out +loosely in a radiate manner, the tips being free. At this stage the +plant is a very beautiful object with the crown of vermilion strips +radiating outward from the base of the fruit body at the top of the +stem, and the inner peridium resting in the center and terminated by the +four to seven teeth with vermilion edges. At this time also the light +yellow spore mass is oozing out from between the teeth. The spores are +oblong to elliptical, marked with very fine points, and measure 15--18 x +8--10 mu. + +[Illustration: PLATE 82, FIGURE 211.--Calostoma cinnabarinum. See text +for colors (natural size).] + +Figure 211 is from plants collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., in +September, 1899. The _Mytremyces lutescens_ reported in my list of "Some +Fungi of Blowing Rock, N. C.," in Jour. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 9: +95--107, 1892, is this _Calostoma cinnabarinum_. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +THE STINK-HORN FUNGI: PHALLOIDEAE Fries. + + +Most of the stink-horn fungi are characterized by a very offensive odor. +Some of them at maturity are in shape not unlike that of a horn, and the +vulgar name is applied because of this form and the odor. The plants +grow in the ground, or in decaying organic matter lying on the ground. +The spawn or mycelium is in the form of rope-like strands which are +usually much branched and matted together. From these cords the fruit +form arises. During its period of growth and up to the maturity of the +spores, the fruit body is oval, that is, egg form, and because of this +form and the quite large size of these bodies they are often called +"eggs." The outer portion of the egg forms the volva. It is always +thick, and has an outer thin coat or membrane, and an inner membrane, +while between the two is a thick layer of gelatinous substance, so that +the wall of the volva is often 3--6 mm. in thickness, and is very soft. +The outline of the volva can be seen in Fig. 215, which shows sections +of three eggs in different stages. Inside of the volva is the short stem +(_receptacle_) which is in the middle portion, and covering the upper +portion and sides of this short stem is the pileus; the fruit-bearing +portion, which is divided into small chambers, lies on the outside of +the pileus. In the figure there can be seen cross lines extending +through this part from the pileus to the wall of the volva. These +represent ridges or crests which anastomose over the pileus, forming +reticulations. The stem or receptacle is hollow through the center, and +this hollow opens out at the end so that there is a rounded perforation +through the upper portion of the pileus. + +The spores are borne on club-shaped basidia within the chambers of the +fruit-bearing portion (_gleba_), and at maturity of the spores the stem +or receptacle begins to elongate. This pushes the gleba and the upper +part of the receptacle through the apex of the volva, leaving this as a +cup-shaped body at the base, much as in certain species of _Amanita_, +while the gleba is borne aloft on the much elongated stem. During this +elongation of the receptacle a large part of the substance of the gleba +dissolves into a thick liquid containing the spores. This runs off and +is washed off by the rains, leaving the inner surface of the gleba +exposed, and showing certain characters peculiar to the various genera. + +Among the stink-horns are a number of genera which are very interesting +from the peculiarities of development; and some of which are very +beautiful and curious objects, although they do possess offensive odors. +In some of the genera, the upper part of the plant expands into +leaf-like--or petal-like, bodies, which are highly colored and resemble +flowers. They are sometimes called "fungus flowers." + + +DICTYOPHORA Desvaux. + +=Dictyophora= means "net bearer," and as one can see from Fig. 212 it is +not an inappropriate name. The stem or receptacle, as one can see from +the illustrations of the two species treated of here, possesses a very +coarse mesh, so that not only the surface but the substance within is +reticulated, pitted and irregularly perforated. In the genus +_Dictyophora_ an outer layer of the receptacle or stem is separated as +it elongates, breaks away from the lower part of the stem, is carried +aloft, and hangs as a beautiful veil. This veil is very conspicuous in +some species and less so in others. + +=Dictyophora duplicata= (Bosc.) Ed. Fischer.--This species is +illustrated in Fig. 212, made from plants collected at Ithaca. The +plants are from 15--22 cm. high, the cap about 5 cm. in diameter, and +the stem 2--3 cm. in thickness. According to Burt (Bot. Gaz. =22=: 387, +1896) it is a common species in the Eastern United States. The cap is +more or less bell-shaped and the sculptured surface is marked in a +beautiful manner with the reticulations. + +[Illustration: PLATE 83, FIGURE 212.--Dictyophora duplicata. White +(natural size). Copyright.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 84, FIGURE 213.--Dictyophora ravenelii. Mature +plants showing volva at base; elongated receptacle, cap at the top, and +veil surrounding the receptacle under the cap (natural size). +Copyright.] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 214.--Dictyophora ravenelii. Egg stage, caps just +bursting through the volva (natural size). Copyright.] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 215.--Dictyophora ravenelii. Sections of eggs, and +showing cords of mycelium (natural size). Copyright.] + +=Dictyophora ravenelii= (B. & C.) Burt.--This plant also has a wide +distribution in the Eastern United States. The stem is more slender than +in the other species, _D. duplicata_, the pileus more nearly conic, and +the surface of the pileus is merely granular or minutely wrinkled after +the disappearance of the gleba, and does not present the strong +reticulating ridges and crests which that species shows. The plants are +from 10 to 18 cm. high. It grows in woods and fields about rotting wood, +and in sawdust. The veil is very thin and delicate, forming simply a +membrane, and does not possess the coarse meshes present in the veil of +_D. duplicata_. The Figs. 214, 215 represent the different stages in the +elongation of the receptacle of this plant, and the rupture of the +volva. This elongation takes place quite rapidly. While photographing +the plant as it was bursting through the volva, I had considerable +difficulty in getting a picture, since the stem elongated so rapidly +that the plant would show that it had moved perceptibly, and the picture +would be blurred. + +In a woods near Ithaca a large number of these plants have appeared from +year to year in a pile of sawdust. One of the most vile smelling plants +of this family is the _Ithyphallus impudicus_. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +MORELS, CUP-FUNGI, HELVELLAS, ETC.: DISCOMYCETES. + + +The remaining fungi to be considered belong to a very different group of +plants than do the mushrooms, puff-balls, etc. Nevertheless, because of +the size of several of the species and the fact that several of them are +excellent for food, some attention will be given to a few. The entire +group is sometimes spoken of as _Discomycetes_ or _cup-fungi_, because +many of the plants belonging here are shaped something like a disk, or +like a cup. The principal way in which they differ from the mushrooms, +the puff-balls, etc., is found in the manner in which the spores are +borne. In the mushrooms, etc., the spores, we recollect, are borne on +the end of a club-shaped body, usually four spores on one of these. In +this group, however, the spores are borne inside of club-shaped bodies, +called sacs or asci (singular, ascus). These sacs, or asci, are grouped +together, lying side by side, forming the fruiting surface or hymenium, +much as the basidia form the fruiting surface in the mushrooms. In the +case of the cup or disk forms, the upper side of the disk, or the upper +and inner surface of the cap, is covered with these sacs, standing side +by side, so that the free ends of the sacs form the outer surface. In +the case of the morel the entire outer surface of the upper portion of +the plant, that where there are so many pits, is covered with similar +sacs. Since so few of the genera and species of the morels and cup-fungi +will be treated of here, I shall not attempt to compare the genera or +even to give the characters by which the genera are known. In most +cases the illustrations will serve this purpose so far as it is +desirable to accomplish it in such a work as the present. Certain of the +species will then be described and illustrated. + +[Illustration: PLATE 85, FIGURE 216.--Morchella esculenta (natural +size). Copyright.] + + +MORCHELLA Dill. + +The morels are all edible and they are usually easy to recognize. The +plant consists of two distinct, prominent parts, the cap and the stem. +The cap varies in form from rounded, ovate, conic or cylindrical, or +bell-shaped, but it is always marked by rather broad pits, covering the +entire outer surface, which are separated from each other by ridges +forming a network. The color of the plants does not differ to any +perceptible extent in our species. The cap is usually buff or light +ochre yellow, becoming darker with age and in drying. + +The stem in all our species is usually quite stout, though it varies to +some extent in some of the different species, in proportion to the +thickness of the cap. The stem is marked in some of the species by large +wrinkles or folds extending irregularly but with considerable uniformity +over the surface. The surface is further minutely roughened by whitish +or grayish elevations, giving it a granular appearance. Sometimes these +granules are quite evenly distributed over the surface, and in some +species they are more or less separated into small areas by narrow +lines. + +The morels appear early in the season, during May and June. They grow +usually in damp situations, and are more abundant during rainy weather. +Three species are illustrated here. + +=Morchella esculenta= Pers. =Edible.=--The name of this species, the +esculent morel, indicates that it has been long known as an edible +plant, especially since the man who named it lived a century ago. The +plant is from 5--15 cm. high, the stem is 1--3 cm. in thickness, and the +cap is broader than the stem. The cap is somewhat longer than broad, and +is more or less oval or rounded in outline. The arrangement of the pits +on the surface of the cap is regarded by some as being characteristic of +certain species. In this species the pits are irregularly arranged, so +that they do not form rows, and so that the ridges separating them do +not run longitudinally from the base toward the apex of the cap, but run +quite irregularly. This arrangement can be seen in Fig. 216, which is +from a photograph of this species. The stem is hollow. + +=Morchella conica= Pers. =Edible.=--This species is very closely related +to the preceding one, and is considered by some to be only a form of the +_Morchella esculenta_. The size is about the same, the only difference +being in the somewhat longer cap and especially in the arrangement of +the pits. These are arranged more or less in distinct rows, so that the +ridges separating them run longitudinally and parallel from the base of +the cap to the apex, with connecting ridges extending across between the +pits. The cap is also more or less conic, but not necessarily so. Figure +217 illustrates this species. The plant shown here is branched, and this +should not be taken to be a character of the species, for it is not, +this form being rather rare. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 217.--Morchella conica (natural size). +Copyright.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 86, FIGURE 218.--Morchella crassipes (natural +size). Copyright.] + +=Morchella crassipes= (Vent.) Pers. =Edible.=--This species differs from +the two preceding in the fact that the stem is nearly equal in width +with the cap. Figure 218 illustrates a handsome specimen which was 17 +cm. high. The granular surface and the folds of the stem show very +distinctly and beautifully. Collected at Ithaca. + +=Morchella deliciosa= Fr. =Edible=, has the cap cylindrical or nearly +so. It is longer than the stem, and is usually two or three times as +long as it is broad. The plant is smaller than the preceding, though +large ones may equal in size small ones of those two. The plant is from +4--8 cm. high. + +=Morchella semilibera= DC., and =M. bispora= Sor., [_Verpa bohemica_ +(Kromb.) Schroet.] occur in this country, and are interesting from the +fact that the cap is bell-shaped, the lower margin being free from the +stem. In the latter species there are only two spores in an ascus. + + +HELVELLA L. + +The helvellas are pretty and attractive plants. They are smaller than +the morels, usually. They have a cap and stem, the cap being very +irregular in shape, often somewhat lobed or saddle-shaped. It is smooth, +or nearly so, at least it is not marked by the large pits present in the +cap of the morel, and this is one of the principal distinguishing +features of the helvellas as compared with the morels. In one species +the thin cap has its lower margin free from the stem. This is =Helvella +crispa= Fr., and it has a white or whitish cap, and a deeply furrowed +stem. It occurs in woods during the summer and autumn, and is known as +the white helvella. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 219.--Helvella lacunosa (natural size). +Copyright.] + +Another species which has a wide range is the =Helvella lacunosa=, so +called because of the deep longitudinal grooves in the stem. The cap is +thin, but differs from the _H. crispa_ in that the lower margin is +connected with the stem. This species is illustrated in Fig. 219 from +plants collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. + +The genus _Gyromitra_ is very closely related to _Helvella_, and is only +distinguished by the fact that the cap is marked by prominent folds and +convolutions, resembling somewhat the convolutions of the brain. Its +name means _convoluted cap_. The =Gyromitra esculenta= Fr., is from +5--10 cm. high, and the cap from 5--7 cm. broad. While this species has +long been reported as an edible one, and has been employed in many +instances as food with no evil results, there are known cases where it +has acted as a poison. In many cases where poisoning has resulted the +plants were quite old and probably in the incipient stages of decay. +However, it is claimed that a poisonous principle, called _helvellic +acid_, has been isolated by a certain chemist, which acts as a violent +poison. This principle is very soluble in hot water, and when care is +used to drain off first water in which they have been cooked, squeezing +the water well from the plants, they are pronounced harmless. The safer +way would be to avoid such suspicious species. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 220.--Spathularia velutipes (natural size). +Copyright.] + +=Spathularia velutipes= Cooke & Farlow.--This species represents another +interesting genus of the _Discomycetes_. It is in the form of a +"spatula," and from this shape of the plant the genus takes its name. +There are several species known in this country, and this one is quite +common. The stem extends the entire length of the plant, running right +through the cap, or perhaps it would be better to say that the cap or +fruiting portion forms two narrow blades or wings on opposite sides of +the upper part of the stem. These wing-like expansions of the cap on the +opposite sides of the stem give the spathulate form to the plant. Figure +220 is from plants collected in the woods near Ithaca. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 221.--Leotia lubrica (natural size). Copyright.] + +=Leotia lubrica= Pers.--The genus _Leotia_ is quite readily recognized +by its form, and because the plants are usually slimy. This species is +called _lubrica_ because of the slippery character of the entire plant. +It is dull yellowish or olive yellow in color. The cap, as can be seen +from the figure (221), is irregularly rounded, and broader than the +stem. The plant is illustrated natural size from specimens collected +near Ithaca. + + +THE TRUE CUP-FUNGI. + +By far the larger number of the _Discomycetes_ are cup-shaped, and are +popularly called "cup-fungi." They vary from plants of very minute size, +so small that they can be just seen with the eye, or some of the larger +ones are several inches in breadth. They grow on the ground, on leaves, +wood, etc. The variety of form and color is great. They may be sessile, +that is, the cup rests immediately on the ground or wood, or leaves, or +they may possess a short, or rather long stalk. The only species +illustrated here has a comparatively long stalk, and the cap is deep +cup-shaped, almost like a beaker. This plant is technically known as +_Sarcoscypha floccosa_. It is represented here natural size (Fig. 222). +The stem is slender, and the rim of the cup is beset with long, strigose +hairs. The inner surface of the cup is lined with the sacs (asci) and +sterile threads (paraphyses), spoken of on a former page, when treating +of the fruiting character of the morels and cup-fungi. In this plant the +color of the inside of the cup is very beautiful, being a bright red. +Another species, _Sarcoscypha coccinea_, the scarlet sarcoscypha, is a +larger plant which appears in very early spring, soon after the frost is +out of the ground. It grows on rotting logs and wood in the woods or in +groves. The inside of the cup in this species is a rich scarlet, and +from this rich color the species takes its name. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 222.--Sarcoscypha floccosa (natural size). +Copyright.] + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF THE FLESHY FUNGI. + + +In the collection of the higher fungi it is of the utmost importance +that certain precautions be employed in obtaining all parts of the +plant, and furthermore that care be exercised in handling, in order not +to remove or efface delicate characters. Not only is it important for +the beginner, but in many instances an "expert" may not be able to +determine a specimen which may have lost what undoubtedly seem, to some, +trivial marks. The suggestions given here should enable one to collect +specimens in such a way as to protect these characters while fresh, to +make notes of the important evanescent characters and to dry and +preserve them properly for future study. For collecting a number of +specimens under a variety of conditions the following list of +"apparatus" is recommended: + +One or two oblong or rectangular hand baskets, capacity from 8--12 +quarts. + +Or a rectangular zinc case with a closely fitting top (not the ordinary +botanical collecting case). + +Half a dozen or so tall pasteboard boxes, or tins, 3 x 3, or 4 x 4, x 5 +inches deep, to hold certain species in an upright position. + +A quantity of tissue paper cut 8 x 10 or 6 x 8 inches. + +Smaller quantity of waxed tissue paper for wrapping viscid or sticky +plants. + +Trowel; a stout knife; memorandum pad and pencil. + +=Collecting.=--During the proper season, and when rains are abundant, +the mushrooms are to be found in open fields, waste places, groves and +woods. They are usually more abundant in the forests. Especially in dry +weather are specimens more numerous in rather damp woods, along ravines +or streams. In collecting specimens which grow on the ground the trowel +should be used to dig up the plant carefully, to be sure that no +important part of the plant is left in the ground. After one has become +familiar with the habit of the different kinds the trowel will not be +necessary in all cases. For example, most species of _Russula_, +_Lactarius_, _Tricholoma_, _Boletus_, etc., are not deeply seated in the +soil, and careful hand-picking will in most cases secure specimens +properly, especially if one does not object to digging in the soil with +the fingers. But in the case of most species of _Amanita_, certain +species of _Lepiota_, _Collybia_, etc., a trowel is necessary to get up +the base of the plant in such a way as to preserve essential characters. +Even then it is possible, if the ground is not too hard, to dig them out +with the fingers, or with a stout knife, but I have often found +specimens which could only be taken up with a trowel or spade. + +Species growing on sticks or leaves are easily collected by taking a +portion of the substratum on which they grow. Specimens on the larger +limbs or trunks or stumps can sometimes be "picked," but until one is +accustomed to certain individualities of the plant it is well to employ +the knife and to cut off a portion of the wood if necessary, to avoid +cutting off the base of the stem. + +It is necessary also to handle the specimens with the greatest care to +avoid leaving finger marks where the surface of the stem or cap is +covered with a soft and delicate outer coat, especially if one wishes to +photograph the plant, since rubbed or marked places spoil the plant for +this purpose. Also a little careless handling will remove such important +characters as a frail annulus or volva, which often are absolutely +necessary to recognize the species. + +Having collected the specimens, they should be properly placed in the +basket or collecting case. Those which are quite firm, and not long and +slender, can be wrapped with tissue paper (waxed tissue paper if they +are viscid or sticky), and placed directly in the basket, with some note +or number to indicate habitat or other peculiarity which it is desirable +to make at the time of collection. The smaller, more slender and +fragile, specimens can be wrapped in tissue paper (a cluster of several +individuals can be frequently rolled up together) made in the form of a +narrow funnel and the ends then twisted. The shape of the paper enables +one to wrap them in such a way as to protect certain delicate characters +on the stem or cap. These can then be stood upright in the small +pasteboard boxes which should occupy a portion of the basket. A number +of such wrappers can be placed in a single box, unless the specimens are +of considerable size and numerous. In these boxes they are prevented +from being crushed by the jostling of the larger specimens in the +basket. These boxes have the additional advantage of preserving certain +specimens entire and upright if one wishes later to photograph them. + +=Field Notes.=--The field notes which may be taken upon the collection +will depend on circumstances. If one goes to the sorting room soon after +the collection is made, so that notes can be made there before the more +delicate specimens dry, few notes will answer in the field, and usually +one is so busy collecting or hunting for specimens there is not much +inclination to make extended notes in the field. But it is quite +important to note the _habitat_ and _environment_, i. e., the place +where they grow, the kind and character of the soil, in open field, +roadside, grove, woods, on ground, leaves, sticks, stumps, trunks, +rotting wood, or on living tree, etc. It is very important also that +different kinds be kept separate. The student will recognize the +importance of this and other suggestions much more than the new "fungus +hunter." + +=Sorting Room.=--When one returns from a collecting trip it is best to +take the plants as soon as possible to a room where they can be +assorted. An hour or so delay usually does not matter, but the sooner +they are attended to the better. Sometimes when they are carefully +placed in the basket, as described above, they may be kept over night +without injury, but this will depend on the _kinds_ in the collection. +_Coprini_ are apt to deliquesce, certain other specimens, especially in +warm weather, are apt to be so infested with larvae that they will be +ruined by morning, when immediate drying might save them. Other thin and +delicate ones, especially in dry weather, will dry out so completely +that one loses the opportunity of taking notes on the fresh specimen. +Specimens to be photographed should be attended to at once, unless it is +too late in the day, when they should be set aside in an upright +position, and if necessary under a bell-jar, until the following day. As +far as possible good specimens should be selected for the photograph, +representing different stages of development, and one to show the +fruiting surface. Sometimes it will be necessary to make more than one +photograph to obtain all the stages. Also on different days one is apt +to obtain a specimen representing an important stage in development not +represented before. The plants should be arranged close together to +economize space, but not usually touching nor too crowded. They should +be placed in their natural position as far as possible, and means for +support, if used, should be hidden behind the plant. They should be so +arranged as to show individual as well as specific character and should +be photographed if possible natural size, or at least not on a plate +smaller than 5 x 7 inches unless the plants are small; while larger ones +are better on 6 x 8 or larger. Some very small ones it may be necessary +to enlarge in order to show the character of the fruiting surface, and +even large specimens can sometimes have a portion of the hymenium +enlarged to good advantage if it is desirable to show the characters +clearly. The background should be selected to bring out the characters +strongly, and in the exposure and developing it is often necessary to +disregard the effect of the background in order to bring out the detail +of texture on the plant itself. The background should be renewed as +often as necessary to have it uniform and neat. There is much more that +might be said under this head, but there is not space here. + +=To Obtain Spore Prints.=--In many cases it is desirable to obtain +spores in a mass on paper in order to know the exact tint of color +produced by the species. Often the color of the spores can be +satisfactorily determined by an examination of them under the +microscope. One cannot always depend on the color of the lamellae since a +number of the species possess colored cystidia or spines in the hymenium +which disguise the color of the spores. The best way to determine the +color of the spores in mass is to catch them as they fall from the +fruiting surface on paper. For the ordinary purpose of study and +reference in the herbarium the spores caught on unprepared paper, which +later may be placed in the packet with the specimen, will answer. This +method has the advantage of saving time, and also the danger of injury +to the spores from some of the fixatives on prepared paper is avoided. +If for purposes of illustration one wishes pretty spore prints, perfect +caps must be cut from the stem and placed fruiting surface downward on +paper prepared with some gum arable or similar preparation spread over +it, while the paper is still moist with the fixative, and then the +specimen must be covered with a bell-jar or other receiver to prevent +even the slightest draft of air, otherwise the spores will float around +more or less. The spores may be caught on a thin, absorbent paper, and +the paper then be floated on the fixative in a shallow vessel until it +soaks through and comes in contact with the spores. I have sometimes +used white of egg as a fixative. These pieces of paper can then be cut +out and either glued to card-boards, or onto the herbarium sheet. + +=Sorting the Plants.=--This should be done as soon as possible after +collection. A large table in the sorting room is convenient, upon which +the specimens may be spread, or grouped rather, by species, the +individuals of a species together, on sheets of paper. Surplus dirt, or +wood, leaves, etc., can be removed. A few of the specimens can be turned +so that spores can be caught on the papers. If only one or a few +specimens of a given species have been found, and it is desirable not to +cut off the cap from the stem, the plant can be supported in an upright +position, a small piece of paper slit at one side can be slipped around +the stem underneath the cap, on which the spores will fall. Sometimes it +will be necessary to cover the plant with a bell-jar in order to prevent +it from drying before the spores are shed. Experience with different +species will suggest the treatment necessary. + +=Taking Notes on the Specimens.=--Very few probably realize the +desirability of making notes of certain characters while the plants are +fresh, for future reference, or for use by those to whom the plants may +be sent for determination. It is some trouble to do this, and when the +different kinds are plentiful the temptation is strong to neglect it. +When one has available books for determination of the species, as many +as possible should be studied and determined while fresh. But it is not +always possible to satisfactorily determine all. Some may be too +difficult for ready recognition, others may not be described in the +books at hand, or poorly so, and further the number of kinds may be too +great for determination before they will spoil. On these as well as on +some of the interesting ones recognized, it is important to make a +record of certain characters. These notes should be kept either with the +specimen, or a number should be given the specimen and the notes kept +separately with the corresponding number. + + +MEMORANDA. + +=No.=____. Locality, Date. Name of collector. + +=Weather.= + +=Habitat.=--If on ground, low or high, wet or dry, kind of soil; on +fallen leaves, twigs, branches, logs, stumps, roots, whether dead or +living, kind of tree; in open fields, pastures, etc., woods, groves, +etc., mixed woods or evergreen, oak, chestnut, etc. + +=Plants.=--Whether solitary, clustered, tufted, whether rooting or not, +taste, odor, color when bruised or cut, and if a change in color takes +place after exposure to the air. + +=Cap.=--Whether dry, moist, watery in appearance (hygrophanous), slimy, +viscid, glutinous; color when young, when old; whether with fine bloom, +powder; kind of scales and arrangement, whether free from the cuticle +and easily rubbed off. Shape of cap. + +=Margin of Cap.=--Whether straight or incurved when young, whether +striate or not when moist. + +=Stem.=--Whether slimy, viscid, glutinous, kind of scales if not smooth, +whether striate, dotted, granular, color; when there are several +specimens test one to see if it is easily broken out from the cap, also +to see if it is fibrous, or fleshy, or cartilaginous (firm on the +outside, partly snapping and partly tough). Shape of the stem. + +=Gills or Tubes.=--Color when young, old, color when bruised, and if +color changes, whether soft, waxy, brittle, or tough; sharp or blunt, +plane or serrate edge. + +=Milk.=--Color if present, changing after exposure, taste. + +=Veil.=--(Inner veil.) Whether present or not, character, whether +arachnoid, and if so whether free from cuticle of pileus or attached +only to the edge; whether fragile, persistent, disappearing, slimy, +etc., movable, etc. + +=Ring.=--Present or absent, fragile, or persistent, whether movable, +viscid, etc. + +=Volva.=--Present or absent, persistent or disappearing, whether it +splits at apex or is circumscissile, or all crumbly and granular or +floccose, whether the part on the pileus forms warts, and then the kind, +distribution, shape, persistence, etc. + +=Spores.=--Color when caught on white paper. + +To the close observer additional points of interest will often be noted. + +=To Dry the Specimens.=--Frequently the smaller specimens will dry well +when left in the room, especially in dry weather, or better if they are +placed where there is a draft of air. Some dry them in the sun. But +often the sun is not shining, and the weather may be rainy or the air +very humid, when it is impossible to dry the specimens properly except +by artificial heat. The latter method is better for the larger specimens +at all times. During the autumn when radiators are heated the fungi dry +well when placed on or over them. One of the best places which I have +utilized is the brick work around a boiler connected with a mountain +hotel. Two other methods are, however, capable of wider application. + +1st.--A tin oven about 2 x 2 feet, and two or several feet high, with +one side hinged as a door, and with several movable shelves of +perforated tin, or of wire netting; a vent at the top, and perforations +around the sides at the bottom to admit air. The object being to provide +for a constant current of air from below upwards between the specimens. +This may be heated, if not too large, with a lamp, though an oil stove +or gas jet or heater is better. The specimens are placed on the shelves +with the accompanying notes or numbers. The height of this box can be +extended where the number of specimens is great. + +2d.--A very successful method which I employed at a summer resort at +Blowing Rock, N. C., in the mountains of North Carolina, during +September, 1899, was as follows: An old cook stove was set up in an +unoccupied cottage, with two wire screens from 3 x 4 feet, one above the +other, the lower one about one foot above the top of the stove. Large +numbers can be dried on these frames. Care of course must be taken that +the plants are not burned. In all cases the plants must be so placed +that air will circulate under and around them, otherwise they are apt to +blacken. + +When the plants are dry they are very brittle and must be handled +carefully. When removed from the drier many kinds soon absorb enough +moisture to become pliant so that they are not easily broken. Others +remain brittle. They may be put away in small boxes; or pressed out +nearly flat, _not so as to crush the gills_, and then put in paper +packets. The plants which do not absorb sufficient moisture from the +air, so that they are pliant enough to press, can be placed in small +boxes or on paper in a large box with peat moss in the bottom, and the +box then closed tightly until they absorb enough moisture to become +flexible. The plants must not get wet, and they should be examined every +half hour or so, for some become limp much sooner than others. If the +plants get too moist the gills crush together when pressed, and +otherwise they do not make such good specimens. When the specimens are +dried and placed in the herbarium they must be protected from insects. +Some are already infested with insects which the process of drying does +not kill. They must be either poisoned with corrosive sublimate in +alcohol, or fumigated with carbon disulphide, and if the latter it must +be repeated one or two times at an interval of a month to catch those +which were in the egg state the first time. When placed in the herbarium +or in a box for storage, naphtha balls can be placed with them to keep +out insects, but it should be understood that the naphtha balls will not +kill or drive away insects already in the specimens. Where there are +enough duplicates, some specimens preserved in 75 per cent. alcohol, +under the same number, are of value for the study of structural +characters. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF MUSHROOMS FOR THE TABLE. + + +In the selection of mushrooms to eat, great caution should be employed +by those who are not reasonably familiar with the means of determination +of the species, or those who have not an intimate acquaintance with +certain forms. Rarely should the beginner be encouraged to eat them upon +his own determination. It is best at first to consult some one who +knows, or to send first specimens away for determination, though in many +cases a careful comparison of the plant with the figures and +descriptions given in this book will enable a novice to recognize it. In +taking up a species for the first time it would be well to experiment +cautiously. + +=No Certain Rule to Distinguish the Poisonous from the Edible.=--There +is no certain test, like the "silver spoon test," which will enable one +to tell the poisonous mushroom from the edible ones. Nor is the presence +of the so-called "death cup" a sure sign that the fungus is poisonous, +for the _Amanita caesarea_ has this cup. For the beginner, however, there +are certain general rules, which, if carefully followed, will enable him +to avoid the poisonous ones, while at the same time necessarily +excluding many edible ones. + +=1st.=--Reject all fungi which have begun to decay, or which are +infested with larvae. + +=2d.=--Reject all fungi when in the button stage, since the characters +are not yet shown which enable one to distinguish the genera and +species. Buttons in pasture lands which are at the surface of the +ground and not deep-seated in the soil, would very likely not belong to +any of the very poisonous kinds. + +=3d.=--Reject all fungi which have a cup or sac-like envelope at the +base of the stem, or which have a scaly or closely fitting layer at the +base of the stem, and rather loose warts on the pileus, especially if +the gills are white. _Amanita caesarea_ has a sac-like envelope at the +base of the stem, and yellow gills as well as a yellow cap, and is +edible. _Amanita rubescens_ has remnants of a scaly envelope on the base +of the stem and loose warts on the cap, and the flesh where wounded +becomes reddish. It is edible. (See plate 19.) + +=4th.=--Reject all fungi with a milky juice unless the juice is reddish. +Several species with copious white milk, sweet or mild to the taste, are +edible (see _Lactarius volemus_ and _corrugis_). + +=5th.=--Reject very brittle fungi with gills nearly all of equal length, +where the flesh of the cap is thin, especially those with bright caps. + +=6th.=--Reject all Boleti in which the flesh changes color where bruised +or cut, or those in which the tubes have reddish mouths, also those the +taste of which is bitter. _Strobilomyces strobilaceus_ changes color +when cut, and is edible. + +=7th.=--Reject fungi which have a cobwebby veil or ring when young, and +those with slimy caps and clay-colored spores. + +In addition, proceed cautiously in all cases, and make it a point to +become very familiar with a few species first, and gradually extend the +range of species, rather than attempt the first season to eat a large +number of different kinds. + +All puff-balls are edible so long as they are white inside, though some +are better than others. All coral-like or club fungi are edible. + +=To Clean and Prepare the Specimens.=--The mushrooms having been +collected, all tough stems, the parts to which earth clings, should be +removed. After the specimens are selected, if there is danger that some +of them may be infested with larvae, it is well to cut off the stem close +to the cap, for if the insects are in the stem and have not yet reached +the cap they may thus be cast away. Some recommend that the tubes of all +Boleti be removed, since they are apt to make a slimy mass in cooking. + +Where the plants are small they may be cooked entire. Large ones should +be quartered, or cut, or sliced, according to the size and form of the +plant, or method of cooking. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + +USES OF MUSHROOMS.[C] + + +The most prominent and at present important use of mushrooms from the +standpoint of the utilitarian is as an article of food. We have now +learned that their food value as a nutrient substance is not so great as +has been fondly supposed, but, as Mr. Clark points out in Chapter XXII, +in addition to the value they certainly do possess as food, they have +very great value as condiments or food accessories, and "their value as +such is beyond the computation of the chemist or physiologist. They are +among the most appetizing of table delicacies, and add greatly to the +palatability of many foods when cooked with them." Mushrooms undoubtedly +possess a food value beyond that attributed to them by the chemist or +physiologist, since it is not possible in laboratory analysis to +duplicate the conditions which exist in the natural digestion and +assimilation of foods. + +Probably the larger number of persons, in America, at present interested +in mushrooms, are chiefly concerned with them as an article of food, but +a great many of these persons love to tramp to the fields and woods in +quest of them just as the sportsman loves to hunt his game with dog and +gun. It is quite likely that there will always be a large body of +persons who will maintain a lively interest in the collection of _game_ +mushrooms for food. There are several reasons for this. The zest of the +search, the pleasure of discovery, and the healthfulness of the outdoor +recreation lend an appetizing flavor to the fruits of the chase not to +be obtained by purchasing a few pounds of cultivated mushrooms on the +market. It cultivates powers of observation, and arouses a sympathetic +feeling toward nature, and with those outdoor environments of man which +lend themselves so happily in bettering and brightening life, as well as +in prolonging it. + +Many others are discovering that the observation of form and habits of +mushrooms is a very interesting occupation for those who have short +periods of time at their disposal weekly. It requires but a little +observation to convince one that there is an interesting variety of form +among these plants, that their growth and expansion operate in +conformity with certain laws which result in great variation in form and +habit of the numerous kinds on the ground, on leaves, on branches, on +tree trunks, etc. + +Another very favorable indication accompanying the increasing interest +in the study of these plants, is the recognition of their importance as +objects for nature study. There are many useful as well as interesting +lessons taught by mushrooms to those who stop to read their stories. The +long growth period of the spawn in the ground, or in the tree trunk, +where it may sometimes be imprisoned for years, sometimes a century, or +more, before the mushroom appears, is calculated to dispel the popular +notion that the mushroom "grows in a night." Then from the button stage +to the ripe fruit, several days, a week, a month, or a year may be +needed, according to the kind, while some fruiting forms are known to +live from several to eighty or more years. The adjustment of the fruit +cap to a position most suitable for the scattering of the spores, the +different ways in which the fruit cap opens and expands, the different +forms of the fruit surface, their colors and other peculiarities, +suggest topics for instructive study and observation. The inclination, +just now becoming apparent, to extend nature study topics to include +mushrooms is an evidence of a broader and more sympathetic attitude +toward nature. + +A little extension of one's observation on the habits of these plants in +the woods will reveal the fact that certain ones are serious enemies of +timber trees and timber. It is quite easy in many cases for one +possessing no technical knowledge of the subject to read the story of +these "wood destroying" fungi in the living tree. Branches broken by +snow, by wind, or by falling timber provide entrance areas where the +spores, lodging on the heart wood of broken timber, or on a bruise on +the side of the trunk which has broken through the living part of the +tree lying just beneath the bark, provide a point for entrance. The +living substance (_protoplasm_) in the spawn exudes a "juice" (_enzyme_) +which dissolves an opening in the wood cells and permits the spawn to +enter the heart of the tree, where decay rapidly proceeds as a result. +But very few of these plants can enter the tree when the living part +underneath the bark is unbroken. + +These observations suggest useful topics for thought. They suggest +practical methods of prevention, careful forestry treatment and careful +lumbering to protect the young growth when timber trees are felled. They +suggest careful pruning of fruit and shade trees, by cutting limbs +smooth and close to the trunk, and then painting the smooth surface with +some lead paint. + +While we are thus apt to regard many of the mushrooms as enemies of the +forest, they are, at the same time, of incalculable use to the forest. +The mushrooms are nature's most active agents in the disposal of the +forest's waste material. Forests that have developed without the +guidance of man have been absolutely dependent upon them for their +continued existence. Where the species of mushrooms are comparatively +few which attack living trees, there are hundreds of kinds ready to +strike into fallen timber. There is a degree of moisture present on the +forest floor exactly suited to the rapid growth of the mycelium of +numbers of species in the bark, sap wood, and heart wood of the fallen +trees or shrubs. In a few years the branches begin to crumble because of +the disorganizing effect of the mycelium in the wood. Other species +adapted to growing in rotting wood follow and bring about, in a few +years, the complete disintegration of the wood. It gradually passes into +the soil of the forest floor, and is made available food for the living +trees. How often one notices that seedling trees and shrubs start more +abundantly on rotting logs. + +The fallen leaves, too, are seized upon by the mycelium of a great +variety of mushrooms. It is through the action of the mycelium of +mushrooms of every kind that the fallen forest leaves, as well as the +trunks and branches, are converted into food for the living trees. The +fungi, are, therefore, one of the most important agents in providing +available food for the virgin forest. + +The spawn of some fungi in the forest goes so far, in a number of cases, +as to completely envelop those portions of the roots of certain trees as +to prevent the possibility of the roots taking up food material and +moisture on their own account. In such cases, the oaks, beeches, +hornbeams, and the like, have the younger parts of their roots +completely enveloped with a dense coat of mycelium. The mycelium in +these cases absorbs the moisture from the soil or forest floor and +conveys it over to the roots of the tree, and in this way supplies them +with both food and water from the decaying humus, the oak being thus +dependent on the mycelium. In the fields, however, where there is not +the abundance of humus and decaying leaves present in the forest, the +coating of mycelium on the roots of these trees is absent, and in this +latter case the young roots are provided with root hairs which take up +the moisture and food substances from the soil in the ordinary way. + +The mushrooms also prevent the forest from becoming choked or strangled +by its own fallen members. Were it not for the action of the mushroom +mycelium in causing the decay of fallen timber in the forest, in time it +would be piled so high as to allow only a miserable existence to a few +choked individuals. The action of the mushrooms in thus disposing of the +fallen timber in the forests, and in converting dead trees and fallen +leaves into available food for the living ones, is probably the most +important role in the existence of these plants. Mushrooms, then, are to +be given very high rank among the natural agencies which have +contributed to the good of the world. When we contemplate the vast areas +of forest in the world we can gain some idea of the stupendous work +performed by the mushrooms in "house cleaning," and in "preparing food," +work in which they are still engaged. + + +FUNGI IN THE ARTS. + +A number of different species of mushrooms have been employed in the +manufacture of useful articles. Their use for such purposes, however, +was more common in the past than at present, and it is largely therefore +a matter of interest at the present time, though some are still employed +for purposes of this kind. + +=Tinder mushroom, or amadou.=--The _Polyporus fomentarius_, or "tinder +mushroom" or, as it is sometimes called, "German tinder," was once +employed in the manufacture of tinder. The outer hard coat was removed +and the central portion, consisting almost entirely of the tube system +of several years' growth, was cut into strips and beaten to a soft +condition. In this form it was used as tinder for striking fire. + +The inner portion was also used in making caps, chest-protectors, and +similar articles. A process now in vogue in some parts of Germany, is to +steam the fruit bodies, remove the outer crust, and then, by machinery +constructed for the purpose, shave the fruit body into a long, thin +strip by revolving it against a knife in much the same way that certain +woods are shaved into thin strips for the manufacture of baskets, +plates, etc. Some articles of clothing made from this fungus material +are worn by peasants in certain parts of Europe. + +=Mushrooms for razor strops.=--The beech polyporus (_P. betulinus_) +several centuries ago was used for razor strops. The fruit body after +being dried was cut into strips, glued upon a stretcher, and smoothed +down with pumice stone (Asa Gray Bull. 7: 18, 1900). The sheets of the +weeping merulius (see Fig. 189) were also employed for the same purpose, +as were also the sheets of "punk" formed from mycelium filling in +cracks in old logs or between boards in lumber piles. Sometimes +extensive sheets of this punk are found several feet long and a foot or +more wide. These sheets of pure mycelium resemble soft chamois skin or +soiled kid leather. + +=Mushrooms employed for flower pots.=--In Bohemia (according to Cooke, +Fungi, etc., p. 103) hoof-shaped fruit bodies of _Polyporus fomentarius_ +and _igniarius_ are used for flower pots. The inner, or tube portion, is +cut out. The hoof-shaped portion, then inverted and fastened to the side +of a building or place of support, serves as a receptacle for soil in +which plants are grown. + +=Curios.=--The _Polyporus applanatus_ is much sought by some persons as +a "curio," and also for the purpose of etching. In the latter case they +serve as pastels for a variety of art purposes. The under surface of the +plant is white. All collectors of this plant know that to preserve the +white fruiting surface in a perfect condition it must be handled very +carefully. A touch or bruise, or contact with other objects mars the +surface, since a bruise or a scratch results in a rapid change in color +of the injured surface. Beautiful etchings can thus be made with a fine +pointed instrument, the lines of color appearing as the instrument is +drawn over the surface. + +=Fungi for medicinal purposes.=--A number of the fungi were formerly +employed in medicine for various purposes, but most of them have been +discarded. Some of the plants were once used as a purgative, as in the +case of the officinal polyporus, the great puff ball, etc. The internal +portion of the great puff ball has been used as an anodyne, and +"formidable surgical operations have been performed under its +influence." It is frequently used as a narcotic. Some species are +employed as drugs by the Chinese. The anthelmintic polyporus is employed +in Burmah as a vermifuge. The ergot of rye is still employed to some +extent in medicine, and the ripe puff balls are still used in some cases +to stop bleeding of wounds. + +=Luminosity of fungi.=--While the luminosity possessed by certain fungi +cannot be said to be of distinct utility, their phosphorescence is a +noteworthy phenomenon. That decaying wood often emits this +phosphorescent light has been widely observed, especially in wooded +districts. It is due to the presence of the mycelium of one of the wood +destroying fungi. The luminosity is often so bright that when brought +near a printed page in the dark, words can be read. Hawthorne "reported +the light from an improvised torch of mycelium infected wood, to have +carried him safely several miles through an otherwise impassable +forest." (Asa Gray, Bull. =7=: 7, 1900). The sulphur polyporus is said +sometimes to be phosphorescent. The _Clitocybe illudens_ (see Fig. 92) +has long been known to emit a strong phosphorescent light, and has been +called "Jack-my-lantern." This plant often occurs in great abundance. At +mountain hotels it is often brought in by day, and the guests at night, +discovering its luminosity, trace grotesque figures, or monograms, on +the ground by broken portions, which can be seen at a considerable +distance. _Lentinus stipticus_ in this country is also phosphorescent. +In Europe, the _Pleurotus olearius_ (very closely related to our +_Clitocybe illudens_) on dead olive trunks is one of the best known of +the phosphorescent species. Other phosphorescent species are, according +to Tulasne, _A. igneus_ from Amboyna, _A. noctileucus_ in Manila, and +_A. gardneri_ in Brazil. + +The use of certain mushrooms in making intoxicant beverages is referred +to in Chapter XXII. + +Since the artificial cultivation of mushrooms for food is becoming quite +an industry in this country with some, the following chapter is devoted +to a treatment of the subject. Mention may be made here, however, of the +attempts in parts of France to cultivate truffles, species of +subterranean fungi belonging to the ascomycetes (various species of the +genus _Tuber_). It had long been observed that truffles grow in regions +forested by certain trees, as the oak, beech, hornbeam, etc. Efforts +were made to increase the production of truffles by planting certain +regions to these trees. Especially in certain calcareous districts of +France (see Cooke, Fungi, etc., p. 260) young plantations of oak, beech, +or beech and fir, after the lapse of a few years, produced truffles. The +spores of the truffles are in the soil, and the mycelium seems to +maintain some symbiotic relation with the roots of the young trees, +which results in the increase in the production of the fruit bodies. +Dogs and pigs are employed in the collection of truffles from the +ground. + +Comparatively few of the truffles, or other subterranean fungi, have +been found in America, owing probably to their subterranean habit, where +they are not readily observed, and to the necessity of special search to +find them. In California, however, Dr. Harkness (Proc. Calif. Acad. +Sci.) has collected a large number of species and genera. Recently +(Shear. Asa Gray Bull. 7: 118, 1899) reports finding a "truffle" +(_Terfezia oligosperma_ Tul.) in Maryland, and _T. leonis_ occurs in +Louisiana. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[C] There is not room here to discuss the uses of other fungi than the +"mushrooms." + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + +CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS. + + +The increasing interest in mushrooms during the past few years has not +been confined to the kinds growing spontaneously in fields and woods, +but the interest aroused in the collection and study of the wild +varieties has been the means of awakening a general interest in the +cultivation of mushrooms. This is leading many persons to inquire +concerning the methods of cultivation, especially those who wish to +undertake the cultivation of these plants on a small scale, in cellars +or cool basements, where they may be grown for their own consumption. At +somewhat frequent intervals articles appear in the newspapers depicting +the ease and certainty with which mushrooms can be grown, and the great +profits that accrue to the cultivator of these plants. While the profits +in some cases, at least in the past, have been very great to cultivators +of mushrooms, the competition has become so general that through a large +part of the year the market price of mushrooms is often not sufficient +to much more than pay expenses. In fact, it is quite likely that in many +cases of the house cultivation of mushrooms the profits are no larger, +taking the season through, than they are from the cultivation of +tomatoes or other hothouse vegetables. Occasionally some persons, who +may be cultivating them upon a small scale in houses erected for some +other purpose, or perhaps partly used for some other purpose, may +succeed in growing quite a large crop from a small area with little +expenditure of time and money. The profits figured from such a crop +grown on a small scale where the investment in houses, heating +apparatus, and time, is not counted, may appear to be very large, but +they do not represent the true conditions of the industry where the +expense of houses and the cost of time and labor are taken into +consideration. + +Probably the more profitable cultivation of mushrooms in this country is +where the cultivation is practiced on quite a large scale, in tunnels, +or caves, or abandoned mines, where no expense is necessary in the +erection of houses. The temperature throughout the year is favorable for +the growth of the mushrooms without artificial heating. It is possible, +also, to grow them on a large scale during the warm summer months when +it is impossible to grow them under the present conditions in heating +house structures, and also when the market price of the mushrooms is +very high, and can be controlled largely by the grower. For this reason, +if it were possible to construct a house with some practical system of +cooling the air through the summer, and prevent the drip, the +cultivation in houses would probably be more profitable. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 223.--View in Akron "tunnel," N. Y. Mushroom Co. +Beds beginning to bear. Copyright.] + +For the past few years the writer has been giving some attention to the +different methods of the cultivation of mushrooms in America, and in +response to the growing interest for information concerning the +artificial cultivation of these plants, it has seemed well to add this +chapter on the cultivation of mushrooms to the second edition of the +present work. The cultivation as practiced in America exists under a +great variety of conditions. All of these conditions have not been +thoroughly investigated, and yet a sufficient number of them have been +rather carefully studied to warrant the preparation of this chapter. The +illustrations which have been made from time to time, by flash light, of +the cave culture of mushrooms in America, as well as of the house +culture, will serve to illustrate graphically some of the stages in the +progress of the work. For present purposes we will consider, first, the +conditions under which the cultivation is carried on, followed by a +discussion of the principles involved in the selection and preparation +of the material, the selection and planting of the spawn, as well as the +harvesting of the crop. + + +THE CAVE CULTURE OF MUSHROOMS IN AMERICA. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 224.--View in Akron "tunnel," N. Y. Mushroom Co. +Beds beginning to bear. Copyright.] + +This has been practiced for a number of years in different parts of the +Eastern United States, but perhaps only a small portion of the available +caves or tunnels are at present used for this purpose. These +subterranean mushroom farms are usually established in some abandoned +mine where, the rock having been removed, the space is readily adapted +to this purpose, if portions of the mine are not wet from the dripping +water. The most extensive one which I have visited is located at Akron, +New York, and is operated by the New York Mushroom Company. In a single +abandoned cement mine there are 12 to 15 acres of available space; about +3 to 5 acres of this area are used in the operations of the culture and +handling of materials. The dry portions of the mine are selected, and +flat beds are made upon the bottom rock, with the use of hemlock +boards, making the beds usually 16 feet long by 4 feet wide, the boards +being 10 inches wide. In this case, the beds, after soiling or +finishing, are 9 inches deep, the material resting directly upon the +rock, the boards being used only to hold the material on the edges in +position. Figures 223 and 224 illustrate the position of the beds and +their relation to each other, as well as showing the general structural +features of the mine. The pillars of rock are those which were left at +the time of mining, as supports for the rock roof above, while +additional wood props are used in places. In this mine all of the beds +are constructed upon a single plan. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 225.--View in Wheatland cave, showing ridge beds, +and one flat bed. Copyright.] + +At another place, Wheatland, New York, where the Wheatland Cave +Mushrooms are grown, beds of two different styles are used, the flat +beds supported by boards as described in the previous case, and the +ridge beds, where the material, without any lateral support, is arranged +in parallel ridges as shown in Fig. 225. This is the method largely, if +not wholly employed in the celebrated mushroom caves at Paris, and is +also used in some cases in the outdoor cultivation of mushrooms. As to +the advantage of one system of bed over the other, one must consider the +conditions involved. Some believe a larger crop of mushrooms is obtained +where there is an opportunity, as in the ridge beds, for the mushrooms +to appear on the sides as well as on the upper surface of the beds. In +the flat beds the mushrooms can appear only at the upper surface, +though occasionally single ones crop out in the crevice between the side +board and the rock below. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 226.--Single mushroom house (Wm. Swayne, Kennett +Square, Pa.), "curing" shed at left. This house is heated in connection +with other hothouses.] + +Probably at Paris, and perhaps also at some other places where the +system of ridge beds is used, the question of the cost of the lumber is +an important one, and the system of ridge beds avoids the expense of +this item of lumber. In other cases, where the flat beds are used with +the board supports, the cost of lumber is considered a small item when +compared with the additional labor involved in making the ridge bed. The +flat beds are very quickly made, and the material in some cases is not +more than 7 inches deep, allowing a large surface area compared with the +amount of food material, for the growth of the mushrooms. It may be +possible, with the flat, shallow bed system, that as many or more +mushrooms are obtained from the same amount of manure, as in the case of +the ridge beds. When we consider the cost of the manure in some places, +this item is one which is well worth considering. + + +THE HOUSE CULTURE OF MUSHROOMS. + +Where this method of cultivation is employed, as the main issue, houses +are constructed especially for the purpose. In general the houses are of +two kinds. Those which are largely above the ground, and those where a +greater or lesser pit is excavated so that the larger part of the house +is below ground. Between these extremes all gradations exist. Probably +it is easier to maintain an equable temperature when the house is +largely below ground. Where it is largely above ground, however, the +equability of the temperature can be controlled to a certain extent by +the structure of the house. In some cases a wall air space is maintained +around the sides and also over the roof of the building. And in some +cases even a double air space of a foot or 18 inches each is maintained +over the roof. In some cases, instead of an air space, the space is +filled with sawdust, single on the sides of the house, and also a 12 or +18-inch space over the roof. The sides of the house are often banked +with earth, or the walls are built of stone or brick. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 227.--Double mushroom house (L. S. Bigony's +Mushroom Plant.) Packing room at left, "curing" shed at right, next to +this is boiler room.] + +All of these houses, no matter what the type of construction, require +ventilation. This is provided for by protected openings or exits through +the roof. In some cases the ventilators are along the side of the roof, +when there would be two rows of ventilators upon the single gable roof. +In other cases a row of ventilators is placed at the peak, when a single +row answers. These ventilators are provided with shut-offs, so that the +ventilation can be controlled at will. The size of the house varies, of +course, according to the extent of the operations which the grower has +in mind. + +The usual type of house is long and rather narrow, varying from 50 to +150 feet long by 18 to 21 or 24 feet wide. In some cases the single +house is constructed upon these proportions, as shown by Fig. 226, with +a gable roof. If it is desired to double the capacity of a house, two +such houses are built parallel, the intercepting wall supporting the +adjacent roof of the two houses, as shown in Fig. 227. A still further +increase in the capacity of the house is often effected by increasing +the number of these houses side by side. This results in a series of 8 +or 10 houses forming one consolidated block of houses, each with its +independent ridge roof and system of ventilation. The separating walls +between the several houses of such a block are probably maintained for +the purpose of better controlling the temperature conditions and +ventilation in various houses. If desired, communication from one house +to another can be had by doors. + +=Interior structure and position of the beds.=--The beds are usually +arranged in tiers, one above the other, though in some houses the beds +are confined only to the floor space. Where they are arranged in tiers +in a house of the proportions given above, there are three tiers of +beds. There is one tier on either side, and a tier through the middle; +the middle tier, on account of the peak of the roof at this point, has +one more bed than the tiers on the side. The number of beds in a tier +will depend on the height of the house. Usually the house is constructed +of a height which permits three beds in the side tier and four in the +center tier, with an alley on either side of the center tier of beds, +giving communication to all. If the house is very long and it is +desirable, for convenience in passing from one house to another, to have +cross alley-ways, they can be arranged, but the fewer cross alleys the +larger surface area there is for beds. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 228.--View in mushroom house (Wm. Swayne), showing +upper bed in left hand tier. Copyright.] + +The size of the beds is governed by convenience in making the beds and +handling the crop. The beds on the side tiers, therefore, are often +three to three and one-half feet in width, affording a convenient +reaching distance from the alley. The beds of the center tier have +access from the alley on either side and are usually seven feet in +width. The width of the alley varies according to the mind of the owner, +from two to three or three and one-half feet. The narrow alley +economizes space in the structure of a house; the wide alley, while +slightly increasing the cost of the structure, makes it much more +convenient in handling the material, and in moving about the house. The +beds are constructed of one-inch boards. Various kinds of lumber are +used, the hemlock spruce, the oak, Georgia pine, and so on. The beds are +supported on framework constructed of upright scantling and cross +stringers upon which the bottom boards are laid. These occur at +intervals of three to four feet. The board on the side of each bed is 10 +to 12 inches in width. The bottom bed, of course, is made on the ground. +The upper beds in the tier are situated so that the distance is about +three feet from the bottom of one bed to the bottom of the next above. +Figs. 228 to 231 show the general structure of the beds. + +=Heating.=--One portion of the house is set apart for the boiler room, +where a small hot water heater is located. The position of the heater in +one of these houses is shown in Fig. 227. In other cases, where the +plant is quite a large one, a small separate or connecting boiler +apartment is often constructed. In other cases, where the house is +connected with or adjoining a system of greenhouses devoted to hothouse +vegetables, the water pipes may run from the general boiler house which +supplies the heat for all the houses. The water pipes in the mushroom +houses are sometimes run beneath the boards or the walk in the alley, or +in other cases are run just beneath the roof of the building. + +=Cultivation of mushrooms under benches in greenhouses.=--This method is +practiced to quite a large extent by some growers. In the house of Mr. +William Swayne, Kennett Square, Pa., a number of large houses, devoted +through the winter to the growing of carnations, are also used for the +cultivation of mushrooms, a single long bed being made up underneath the +beds of carnations. In these houses the water pipes providing heat for +the building run along the sides of the building underneath the +carnation beds at this point. Under these beds, where the water pipes +run, no mushroom beds are made, since the heat would be too great, but +under the three middle rows of beds in the house, mushroom beds are +located. In this way, in a number of houses, several thousand square +feet of surface for mushroom beds can be obtained. The carnations are +grown, not in pots, but in a general bed on a bench. In watering the +carnations, care is used in the distribution of the water, and in the +amount used, to prevent a surplus of water dripping through on the +mushrooms below. + +=Cellar culture.=--For the cultivation of mushrooms on a small scale, +unoccupied portions of cellars in a dwelling house are often used. The +question is sometimes asked if it is injurious to the health of the +family in a dwelling house when mushrooms are grown in the cellar. +Probably where the materials used in making up the beds are thoroughly +cured before being taken into the cellar, no injurious results would +come from the cultivation of the plant there. In case the manure is +cured in the cellar, that is, is there carried through the process of +heating and fermentation in preparation for the beds, the odors arising +from the fermenting material are very disagreeable to say the least, and +probably are not at all beneficial to one's general health. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 229.--View in mushroom house (Wm. Swayne). View +down alley on right hand side. Copyright.] + +In the cellar culture of mushrooms the places selected are along the +sides of the cellar in unused portions. Floor beds alone may be made by +using the boards to support one side, while the wall forms the support +on the other side as in the arrangement of beds on the side tiers in the +mushroom houses; or tiers of beds may be arranged in the same way, one +bed on the bottom, and one or two beds above. The number of beds will +vary according to the available space. Sometimes, where it is not +convenient to arrange the larger beds directly on the bottom of the +cellar, or in tiers, boxes three or four feet, or larger, may be used in +place of the beds. These can be put in out of the way places in the +cellar. The use of boxes of this description would be very convenient in +case it was desired to entirely do away with the possibility of odors +during the fermentation of the manure, or in the making up of the bed. +Even though the manure may be cured outside of the cellar, at the time +it is made in the beds the odors released are sometimes considerable, +and for several days might be annoying and disagreeable to the occupants +of the dwelling, until such a time as the temperature of the manure had +dropped to the point where the odors no longer were perceptible. In this +case, with the use of boxes, the manure can be cured outside, made into +beds in the boxes and taken into the cellar after the temperature is +down to a point suitable for spawning, and very little odor will be +released. If there is a furnace in the cellar it should be partitioned +off from the portion devoted to mushroom culture. + +=Cultivation in sheds or out of the way places.=--It is possible to grow +mushrooms in a number of places not used for other purposes. In sheds +where the beds may be well protected from the rain and from changing +currents of air, they may be grown. In open sheds the beds could be +covered with a board door, the sides of the bed being high enough to +hold the door well above the mushrooms. In the basements of barns, or +even in stables where room can be secured on one side for a bed, or tier +of beds, they are often grown successfully. + +=Garden and field culture of mushrooms.=--In Europe, in some cases, +mushrooms are often grown in the garden, ridge beds being made up in the +spring and spawned, and then covered with litter, or with some material +similar to burlaps, to prevent the complete drying out of the surface of +the beds. Sometimes they are cultivated along with garden crops. Field +culture is also practiced to some extent. In the field culture rich and +well drained pastures are selected, and spawned sometime during the +month of May. The portions of spawn are inserted in the ground in little +T-shaped openings made by two strokes of the spade. The spade is set +into the ground once, lifted, and then inserted again so that this first +slit is on one side of the middle of the spade and perpendicular to it. +The spade is inserted here and then bent backwards partly so as to lift +open the sod in the letter T. In this opening the block of spawn is +inserted, then closed by pressure with the foot. The spawn is planted in +this way at distances of 6 to 8 feet. It runs through the summer, and +then in the autumn a good crop often appears. + + +CURING THE MANURE. + +=Selection of manure.=--Horse manure is the material which is most +generally used, though sometimes a small percentage of other manures, as +sheep manure, is added. In the selection of the manure it is desirable +to obtain that which is as fresh as possible, which has not passed +through the stage of fermentation, and which contains some straw, +usually as litter, but not too large a percentage of straw. Where there +is a very large percentage of straw the manure is usually shaken out +with a fork, and the coarser portion removed. If there is not too much +of this coarse material the latter is often cured in a separate pile and +used for the bottom of the beds, the finer portions of the manure, which +have been separated, are used for the finishing and for the bulk of the +bed. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 230.--View in mushroom house (L. S. Bigony). View +on top of fourth bed, middle tier. Copyright.] + +Where manure is obtained on a large scale for the cultivation in houses +or in caves, it is usually obtained by the carload from liveries in +large cities. It is possible to contract for manure of certain livery +stables so that it may be obtained in a practically fresh condition, and +handled by the liverymen according to directions, which will keep it in +the best possible condition for the purpose. In the cave culture of +mushrooms the manure is usually taken directly into the caves, and cured +in some portion of the cave. In the house cultivation of mushrooms there +is usually a shed constructed with an opening on one or two sides, at +the end of the house connected with the beds, where the manure may be +cured. In curing it, it is placed in piles, the size of which will +depend upon the amount of manure to be cured, and upon the method +employed by the operator. The usual size, where considerable manure is +used, is about three feet in depth by ten or twelve feet wide, and +fifteen to twenty feet long. The manure is laid in these piles to heat, +and is changed or turned whenever desirable to prevent the temperature +from rising too high. The object of turning is to prevent the burning of +the material, which results at high degrees of temperature in +fermentation. It is usually turned when the temperature rises to about +130 deg. F. At each turning the outside portions are brought to the center +of the pile. The process is continued until the manure is well fermented +and the temperature does not rise above 100 to 120 degrees, and then it +is ready for making into beds. + +There are several methods used in the process of curing, and it does not +seem necessary that any one method should be strictly adhered to. The +most important things to be observed are to prevent the temperature from +rising too high during the process of fermentation, to secure a thorough +fermentation, and to prevent the material from drying out, or burning, +or becoming too wet. The way in which the material is piled influences +the rapidity of fermentation, or the increase of temperature. Where the +material is rather loosely piled it ferments more rapidly, and the +temperature rises quickly. Watering the manure tends to increase the +rapidity of fermentation and the elevation of the temperature. It is +necessary, though, sometimes to water the material if the heat has +reached such a point that it is becoming too dry, or if there is a +tendency for it to burn. The material is then turned, and watered some, +but care should be used not to make it too wet, since the spawn will not +run in wet material. + +In general we might speak of three different methods in the curing of +the manure. _First, the slow process of curing._ According to this +method, which is practiced by some, the time of fermentation may extend +from four to five weeks. In this case the manure is piled in such a way +that the temperature does not rise rapidly. During the four or five +weeks the manure is turned four or five times. The turning occurs when +the temperature has arisen to such a point as to require it. + +_Another method, used by some, might be called a rapid process of +curing._ According to this, the time for curing the manure extends over +a period of about a week, or five to ten days. The material is piled in +such a way as to cause rapid fermentation and rapid rising of +temperature, the material sometimes requiring to be turned every day or +two, sometimes twice a day, in order to lower the temperature and +prevent the material from burning or drying out. Between this rapid +process of curing, and the slow process of curing, the practice may +extend so that, according to the method of different operators, the +period of curing extends from one week to a month or five weeks. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 231.--View in mushroom house (L. S. Bigony's +Mushroom Plant, Lansdale, Pa.), showing alley and side tier of beds. +Copyright.] + +_The third method of curing_ consists in putting the material at once +into the beds before curing, and mixing in with the manure, as it is +placed in the bed, about one part of loam or garden soil to four or five +parts of the fresh manure. The material is then left in this condition +to cure without changing or turning, the temperature rising perhaps not +above 130 deg. F. With some experience in determining the firmness with +which the bed should be made to prevent a too high rise of temperature, +this practice might prove to be successful, and would certainly save +considerable labor and expense in the making of the beds. Mr. William +Swayne of Kennett Square, Pa., in the winter of 1900--1901, made up a +portion of one of his beds in this way, and no difference could be seen +in the results of the crop, the crop from the beds made in this way +being as good as that of the adjoining beds, and he intends the +following year to make up all of his beds in the same way. + +=Mixing soil with the manure at the time of fermentation.=--While in the +cave culture of mushrooms the manure is usually fermented and used +without the admixture of soil, usually in the house or cellar culture +rich loam soil, or rotted sod, is mixed with the manure at the time of +turning it, during the process of fermentation. At the time of the first +turning, soil is mixed in, a layer of the manure being spread out on the +ground, and then a sprinkling of soil over this. Then another layer of +the manure is added with another sprinkling of soil, and so on as the +new pile is built up. In the first turning of the manure, about one part +of soil is used to eight or nine parts of manure. Then at the last +turning another mixture of soil is added, so that there is about +one-fifth part soil in the mixture. The soil aids somewhat in lowering +the temperature, and also adds some to the bulk, so that more beds can +be made up with the same amount of manure. + +=Horse droppings free from straw.=--For growing mushrooms on a small +scale, as in cellars or boxes, some prefer to select the horse droppings +free from straw. + + +MAKING UP THE BEDS. + +=Making up beds without the addition of soil.=--In the cave culture of +mushrooms the beds are usually made from manure alone, there being no +addition of soil. This is perhaps partly due to the expense of getting +the soil in and out from the caves as well as to the low temperature +prevailing there. It is believed by many that the results are equally as +good in beds from the manure alone as in those which contain an +admixture of soil. The method of making the beds in the Akron cave, or +"tunnel," is as follows: The manure, immediately after it has passed +through the process of fermentation and curing in the pile, is carted to +the district in the mine where the beds are to be made and is dumped in +a long windrow on the ground. The length of the windrow depends of +course upon the amount of material which is ready, as well as upon the +amount necessary for making up the beds for that distance. Two hemlock +boards, sixteen feet long and ten inches wide, and two, four feet long +and the same width, are then hastily nailed into the form of a +rectangular frame. This is placed upon the rock bottom at one end of the +row of material, perpendicular to it usually. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 232.--View in Akron "tunnel," N. Y. Mushroom Co. +Making up the beds. Copyright.] + +The workmen then, with forks, distribute the material in this frame. If +there is coarser material which has been separated from the finer +material, this is placed in the bottom of the bed and the finer material +is then filled on top. A layer of material is distributed over the +bottom and then tamped down by striking with the back of the fork, as +shown in Fig. 232. In this figure the material is shown to be off at one +end of the bed. This was in a section of the mine where it was not +convenient to follow the beds in the direction of the pile of manure, so +that the material is distributed on from the end of the bed instead of +from the side, as is the usual method. After several inches have been +distributed in this way and tamped down with the back of the fork, the +operator tramps over the material with his feet and presses it down more +firmly. Another layer of material is distributed over this, and tamped +and tramped down in a similar manner. The operation is repeated until +the depth of the manure after tramping down is about seven inches. It is +then left for the completion of the curing process and for the lowering +of the temperature to the desired point. Usually, after making the bed +in this way, there is a rise in the temperature for several days, +gradually lowering until finally it reaches the point favorable for +planting the spawn. + +Where the beds are made successively, one after another, following the +windrow of manure, the material used for the first bed removes from the +windrow a sufficient amount to make room for the second bed, and in like +manner room for the successive beds is provided for as the material is +taken for each one, so that the frames are put together and the beds are +formed rapidly and easily. + +=Making ridge beds in caves.=--In the making of the ridge beds in caves +there are two methods which might be spoken of. One method is the well +known one practiced in certain of the caves near Paris, where the +material is taken by workmen in large baskets and distributed in rows. +The ridge is gradually formed into shape by walking astride of it, as +additional material is emptied on from the baskets, the workmen packing +and shaping the ridge by pressure from their limbs as they stand astride +of the row. In this way the ridges are made as high or somewhat higher +than their breadth at the base, and quite near together, so that there +is just room in many cases to walk between the beds. In one cave in +America, where the ridge system is used to some extent, the ridges are +made with the aid of a board frame the length of the bed and the width +of the base of the ridge. The long boards of this frame are slanting so +that they are more or less the shape of the ridge, but not equal to its +height. This frame is placed on the rock bottom, filled with manure and +tramped on by the workmen. Then the frame is lifted on the ridge and +more material is added and tramped on in like manner, until the bulk of +the ridge bed is built up in this way and compressed into shape. + +=Beds in Houses Constructed for the Purpose of Growing +Mushrooms.=--Where only the floor of the house is used, a middle bed and +two side beds are sometimes formed in the same manner as described in +the construction of the house for the tiers of beds, with an alley on +either side of the large center bed, giving access to all. In some cases +the entire surface of the bottom is covered with material, but divided +into sections of large beds by framework of boards, but with no alleys +between. Access to these beds is obtained by placing planks on the top +of the boards which make the frame, thus forming walks directly over +portions of the bed. In some cases ridge beds, as described for cave +cultivation, are made on the floor of these houses. The beds are filled +in the same way as described for the cave culture of mushrooms, but +usually, in the beds made in houses built for the purpose of growing +mushrooms, a percentage of soil is mixed in with the manure, the soil +being usually mixed in at the time of turning the manure during the +process of fermentation. Garden soil or rich loam is added, say at the +first time the manure is turned while it is fermenting. Then, some time +later during the process of fermenting, another admixture of soil is +added. The total amount of soil added is usually equal to about +one-fifth of the bulk of the manure. + +As this material, formed of the manure with an admixture of soil, is +placed in the beds it is distributed much in the same manner as +described for the making of flat beds in caves or tunnels. Usually, +however, if there is coarse material which was separated from the manure +at the first sorting, this without any mixture of soil is placed in the +bottom of the bed, and then the manure and soil is used for the bulk of +the bed above. This coarser material, however, is not always at hand, +and in such cases the beds are built up from the bottom with the mixture +of manure and soil. The depth of the material in the beds in these +houses varies according to the experience of the operator. Some make the +beds about eighteen inches in depth, while others do not make the beds +more than eight or ten or twelve inches in depth. Where there are tiers +of beds, that is, one bed above the other, very often the lowest bed, +the one which rests directly upon the ground, is made deeper than the +others. + +While it is the general custom to use material consisting of an +admixture of manure and soil in the proportions described, this custom +is not always followed. In the case of the beds which are made up in the +summer for the fall and early winter crop, soil, being easily obtained +at that season of the year, is mixed with the manure. Some growers, +however, in making the beds in midwinter for the spring crop, do not use +any soil since it is more difficult to obtain it at that season. In such +cases the beds are made up of manure alone. The experience in some cases +shows that the crop resulting from this method is equally as good as +that grown where soil has been added. In the experience of some other +growers a bin of soil is collected during the summer or autumn which can +be used in the winter for mixing in with the manure and making the beds +for the spring crop. Where sod is used this is collected in pastures or +fence rows in June, piled, and allowed to rot during the summer. + +In distributing the material in the beds, the methods of packing it vary +according to the wishes or experience of the grower. It is often +recommended to pack the material very firmly. The feeling that this must +be packed very thinly has led to the disuse of beds in tiers by some, +because it is rather difficult to pack the material down very firmly +where one bed lies so closely above another. Where the practice is +followed of packing the material very firmly in the bed, some +instrument in the form of a maul is used to tamp it down. Where there +are tiers of beds an instrument of this kind cannot well be used. Here a +brick or a similar heavy and small instrument is used in the hand, and +the bed is thus pounded down firmly. This is a tedious and laborious +operation. Many growers do not regard it as essential that the beds +should be very firmly packed. In such cases the material is distributed +on the beds and the successive layers are tamped down as firmly as can +well be done with the back of a fork or an ordinary potato digger, which +can be wielded with the two hands in between the beds. In the experience +of these growers the results seem to be just as good as where the beds +are more firmly packed down. + +It is the practice in some cases where the bed lies against the side of +the house to build up the material of the bed at the rear, that is, at +the side of the house, much deeper than at the front, so that the depth +of the bed at the back may be eighteen to twenty inches or two feet, +while the front is eight to ten or twelve inches. This provides a +slightly increased surface because of the obliquity of the upper surface +of the bed, but it consumes probably a greater amount of material. It +probably is not advantageous where the operations are carried on on a +large scale, where abundant room is available, where the material for +making the beds is expensive, and it is desirable to obtain from the +material all that can be drawn in a single crop. The same practice is +sometimes recommended and followed in the case of the beds made in +cellars. + +In the making of beds with fresh material, that is, with unfermented +manure, as was done by Mr. William Swayne of Kennett Square, Pa., one +season, the coarser material is put in the bottom of the bed, and then +as the manure is distributed in the bed the soil is sprinkled on also, +so that finally when the bed is completed the proportions of soil and +manure are the same as when it is mixed in at the time of fermentation. +In making the beds in this way, should any one be led to attempt it, it +would be necessary to guard against a too high temperature in the +fermentation of this fresh material; the temperature should not run +above 130 degrees. It would also require a longer time from the making +of the bed to planting the spawn than in the case of those beds where +the manure is fermented and cured before being made up. Probably the +total amount of time from the beginning to the completion of the +preparation of the bed for spawning would not be greater, if it would be +so great. + +The beds all having been made, they are left until they are in a +suitable condition for spawning. The determination of this point, that +is, the point when the beds are ready for planting the spawn, seems to +be one of the most important and critical features of the business. The +material must be of a suitable temperature, preferably not above 90 deg. +F., and not below 70 deg. The most favorable temperature, according to +some, other conditions being congenial, ranges from 80 deg. to 85 deg. +F., while many prefer to spawn at 70 deg. to 75 deg. Many of the very +successful growers, however, do not lay so much stress upon the +temperature of the bed for the time of spawning as they do upon the +ripeness, or the cured condition, of the material in the bed. This is a +matter which it is very difficult to describe to one not familiar with +the subject, and it is one which it is very difficult to properly +appreciate unless one has learned it by experience. Some judge more by +the odor, or the "smell," as they say, of the manure. It must have lost +the fresh manure "smell," or the "sour smell," and possess, as they say, +a "sweet smell." Sometimes the odor is something like that of manure +when spawn has partly run through it. It sometimes has a sweetish smell, +or a smell suggestive of mushrooms even when no spawn has run through +it. + +Another important condition of the material is its state of dryness or +moisture. It must not be too dry or the spawn will not run. In such +cases there is not a sufficient amount of moisture to provide the water +necessary for the growth of the mycelium. On the other hand, it must not +be too wet, especially at the time of spawning and for a few weeks +after. Some test the material for moisture in this way. Take a handful +of the material and squeeze it. If on releasing the hold it falls to +pieces, it is too dry. By squeezing a handful near the ear, if there is +an indication of running water, even though no water may be expressed +from the material, it is too wet. If on pressure of the material there +is not that sense of the movement of water in it on holding it to the +ear, and if on releasing the pressure of the hand the material remains +in the form into which it has been squeezed, or expands slightly, it is +considered to be in a proper condition so far as moisture is concerned +for planting the spawn. + + +WHAT SPAWN IS. + +The spawn of the mushroom is the popular word used in speaking of the +mycelium of the mushroom. The term is commonly used in a commercial +sense of material in which the mycelium is growing. This material is +horse manure, or a mixture of one or two kinds of manure with some soil, +and with the threads of the mycelium growing in it. The mycelium, as is +well known, is the growing or vegetative part of the mushroom. +Sometimes the word "fiber" is used by the mushroom growers in referring +to the mycelium which appears in the spawn, or in the mushroom bed. The +mycelium is that portion of the plant which, in the case of the wild +varieties, grows in the soil, or in the leaf mold, in the tree trunk or +other material from which the mushroom derives its food. The threads of +mycelium, as we know, first originated from the spore of the mushroom. +The spore germinates and produces delicate threads, which branch and +increase by growth in extent, and form the mycelium. So the term spawn +is rarely applied to the pure mycelium, but is applied to the substratum +or material in which spawn is growing; that is, the substratum and +mycelium together constitute the spawn. + +=Natural spawn or virgin spawn.=--This is termed natural spawn because +it occurs under natural conditions of environment. The original natural +spawn was to be found in the fields. In the early history of mushroom +culture the spawn from the pastures and meadows where mushrooms grew was +one of the sources of the spawn used in planting. The earth containing +the spawn underneath clumps of mushrooms was collected and used. + +It occurs more abundantly, however, in piles of horse manure which have +stood for some time in barn yards, or very often in stalls where the +manure is allowed to accumulate, has been thoroughly tramped down and +then has been left in this condition for some time. It occurs also in +composts, hothouse beds, or wherever accumulations of horse manure are +likely to occur, if other conditions are congenial. The origin of the +natural spawn under these conditions of environment is probably +accounted for in many cases by the presence of the spores which have +been in the food eaten by the horse, have passed through the alimentary +canal and are thus distributed through the dung. + +The spores present in the food of the horse may be due to various +conditions. Horses which go out to pasture are likely to take in with +the food obtained in grazing the spores scattered around on the grass, +and in the upper part of the sod, coming from mushrooms which grew in +the field. In other cases, the spores may be present in the hay, having +been carried by the wind from adjacent fields, if not from those which +have grown in the meadow. In like manner they may be present in the oats +which have been fed to the horse. In the case of stable-fed animals, the +inoculation of the manure in this way may not always be certain or very +free. But in the case of pasture-fed horses which are stalled at night +probably the inoculation is very certain and very abundant, so that a +large number of spores would be present in the manure from horses fed in +this way. + +The natural spawn also may originate from spores which are carried by +the wind from the pasture or meadow mushrooms upon manure piles, or +especially from spores which may lodge in the dust of the highways or +street. Many of these spores would cling to the hoofs of the horses and +at night, or at times of feeding, would be left with the manure in the +stall. At other times horse droppings may be gathered from roads or +streets where spores may be present in the dust. The piles of the +droppings accumulated in this way, if left a sufficient time, may +provide natural spawn by this accidental inoculation from the spores. + +Probably few attempts have been made to grow the natural spawn with +certainty in this country, though it does not appear to be an +impracticable thing to do, since formerly this was one source of the +virgin spawn in Europe. It is usually obtained by search through stables +and barn yards or other places where piles of horse manure have +accumulated and have remained for several months. In some cases the +growers keep men employed through the summer season searching the yards +and stables over a considerable area for the purpose of finding and +gathering this natural spawn. It is probably termed virgin spawn because +of its origin under these natural conditions, and never having been +propagated artificially. + +The natural spawn, as indicated above, is employed for a variety of +purposes. It is used for inoculating the bricks in the manufacture of +brick spawn. It is used for propagating once or twice in the mushroom +beds, for the purpose of multiplying it, either in the manufacture of +brick spawn, or for flake spawn, which is planted directly in the beds +to be used for the crop. In some places in America it is collected on a +large scale and relied on as the chief source of spawn for planting +beds. In such cases the natural or virgin spawn is used directly and is +of the first and most vigorous generation. It is believed by growers who +employ it in this way that the results in the quality and quantity of +the crop exceed those produced from the market spawn. But even these +growers would not always depend on the natural spawn, for the reason, +that collecting it under these conditions, the quantity is certain to +vary from year to year. This is due probably to varying conditions of +the season and also to the varying conditions which bring about the +chance inoculation, or the accumulation of the material in the yard for +a sufficient amount of time to provide the mycelium. + +It would be interesting, and it might also prove to be profitable to +growers, if some attempt were made to grow natural spawn under +conditions which would perhaps more certainly produce a supply. This +might be attempted in several different ways. Stall-fed horses might be +fed a ripe mushroom every day or two. Or from the cap of ripe mushrooms +the spores might be caught, then mixed with oats and fed to the horse. +Again, the manure piles might be inoculated by spores caught from a +number of mushrooms. Manure might also be collected during the summer +months from the highways and aside from the probable natural inoculation +which this material would probably have from the spores blown from the +meadow and pasture mushrooms, additional inoculation might be made. The +manure obtained in this way could be piled under sheds, packed down +thoroughly, and not allowed to heat above 100 deg. F. These piles could +then be left for several months, care being used that the material should +have the proper moisture content, not too dry nor too wet. This is given +only as a suggestion and it is hoped that some practical grower will +test it upon a small scale. In all cases the temperature should be kept +low during the fermentation of these piles, else the spawn will be +killed. + +One of the methods of obtaining natural spawn recommended by Cuthill +("Treatise on the Cultivation of the Mushroom") is to collect horse +droppings all along the highways during the summer, mixing it with some +road sand and piling it in a dry shed. Here it is packed down firmly to +prevent the heat rising too high. A "trial" stick is kept in the pile. +When this is pulled out, if it is so hot as to "burn the hand," the heat +is too great and would kill the spawn. In several months an abundance of +the spawn is generated here. + +=Mill-track spawn.=--"Mill-track" spawn originated from the spawn found +in covered roadways at mills or along tram-car tracks where horses were +used. The accumulation of manure trodden down in these places and +sometimes mixed with sawdust or earth, provided a congenial place for +the growth of the mycelium. The spawn was likely introduced here through +spores taken in with the food of the horse, or brought there from +highways, if they were not already in the soil from mushrooms grown +there. It would be then multiplied by the growth of the spawn, and from +spores of mushrooms which might appear and ripen. The well tramped +material in which the mycelium grew here, when broken up, formed +convenient blocks of spawn for storage and transportation, and probably +led to the manufacture of brick spawn. + +=Manufactured spawn.=--The manufactured spawn, on the other hand, is +that which is propagated artificially by the special preparation of the +substratum or material in which the mycelium is to grow. This material +is inoculated either with a piece of natural spawn, or with pieces of +previously manufactured spawn. It is put upon the market in two +different forms; the brick spawn, and the flake spawn. The latter is +sometimes known as the French spawn, while the former, being largely +manufactured in England, is sometimes spoken of as the English spawn. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 233.--Brick spawn. Three "bricks," one marked to +show into how many pieces one brick may be broken.] + +=Brick spawn.=--The brick spawn is so called because the material in +which the mycelium is present is in the form of bricks. These bricks are +about 5 by 8 inches by 1-1/2 inches in thickness, and weigh about 1-1/4 +pounds each when dried. The proportions of different kinds of material +used in the manufacture of brick spawn probably vary with different +manufacturers, since there is a difference in the size and texture of +bricks from different sources. One method of making the brick spawn is +as follows: Equal parts of horse dung, and cow dung, and loam soil are +thoroughly mixed together to a consistency of mortar. This is pressed +into the form of bricks and stood on edge to dry. When partly dry, a +piece of spawn about an inch in diameter is pressed into one side of +each brick. The bricks are then stood up again until thoroughly dried. +They are then piled upon a layer of fresh horse manure about 8 inches +deep, the pile of bricks being about 3 feet high. This pile is then +covered over loosely with fresh horse manure, a sufficient amount to +produce, when heating, a temperature of about 100 deg. F. They are left in +this condition until the mycelium or "fiber" has thoroughly permeated +the bricks. The spawn is now completed, and the bricks are allowed to +dry. In this condition they are put upon the market. The bricks made +with a very high percentage of soil often have the appearance of dried +soil, with a slight admixture of vegetable matter. + +Brick spawn from other sources presents a very different texture and +contains probably a much larger percentage of horse manure, or, at +least, a much smaller percentage of soil. The appearance of the brick is +not that of soil with a slight admixture of vegetable materials, but has +much the appearance of a dried and compressed mixture of horse dung and +cow dung, with an abundance of the "fiber" or mycelium, "the greyish +moldy, or thready matter," which constitutes the vital part of the +spawn. In the selection of spawn this is an important item, that is, the +presence of an abundance of "fiber" or mycelium. It can be seen on the +surface, usually showing an abundance of these whitish threads or +sheets, or a distinct moldy appearance is presented. On breaking the +brick the great abundance of the "fiber" or whitish mycelium is seen all +through it. This indicates that the brick possesses a high percentage of +the "fiber," an important part of the spawn. + +One not accustomed to the quality of spawn can therefore judge to a +certain extent by the appearance of the bricks as to the quality, at +least they can judge as to the presence of an abundance or a scanty +quantity of the "fiber." Since the spawn remains in good condition for +several years, there is usually no danger in the use of spawn which may +be one or two years old. But it does deteriorate to some extent with +age, and young spawn is therefore to be preferred to old spawn, provided +the other desirable qualities are equal. Those who attempt to cultivate +mushrooms, and depend on commercial or manufactured spawn, should see to +it that the spawn purchased possesses these desirable qualities of +texture, and the presence of an abundance of the mycelium. That which +appears devoid of an abundance of mycelium should be rejected, and good +spawn should be called for. There is no more reason why a grower should +accept a worthless spawn from his seedsman than that he should accept +"addled" eggs from his grocer. In this business, that is, the +manufacture and sale of spawn, poor material is apt to be thrown on the +market just as in the case of seeds, poor material may find its way upon +the market. Sometimes this occurs through unscrupulous dealers, at other +times through their ignorance, or through their failure to know the +quality of the product they are handling. + +There are some brands of spawn, that is, those manufactured by certain +houses, which rank very high among those who know the qualities and the +value of good spawn. Some large growers send direct to the manufacturer +for their spawn, and where it is to be obtained in large quantities this +is a desirable thing to do, since the cost is much less. Where obtained +from seedsmen in large quantities, the prices are much lower than where +small quantities are purchased. One of these brands of spawn, the Barter +spawn, is for sale by several different dealers, by Mr. H. E. Hicks, +Kennett Square, Pa., by Henry F. Michell, 1018 Market street, +Philadelphia, and by Henry Dreer, 724 Chestnut street, Philadelphia. +Another brick spawn, known as "Watson Prolific," is for sale by George +C. Watson, Juniper and Walnut streets, Philadelphia. James Vicks Sons, +Rochester, N. Y., and Peter Henderson & Co., New York City, have their +spawn manufactured expressly for their trade. + +The Barter spawn is said to be made fresh every year, or every other +year. Instead of the "continued culture" of spawn, that is, inoculating +the bricks each succeeding year from the same line of spawn, which is, +as it were, used over and over again, a return is made each year, or in +the alternate years, to the natural or virgin spawn, which is obtained +from old manure heaps. In this way, the Barter spawn[D] is within two to +three, or four, generations of the natural spawn. The number of +generations distant the brick is from the natural spawn, depends upon +the number of times it may have been multiplied before it is inoculated +into the bricks. That is, the natural spawn is probably first grown in +large beds in order to multiply, to produce a sufficiently large +quantity for the inoculation of the immense number of bricks to be +manufactured. For it is likely that a sufficient amount of natural spawn +could not be obtained to inoculate all the bricks manufactured in one +year. If a sufficient amount of the natural or virgin spawn could be +obtained to inoculate all the bricks of one year's manufacture, this +would produce a spawn removed only one generation from that of natural +spawn. + +If the natural spawn were first grown in beds, and from here inoculated +into bricks, this particular brick spawn would be removed two +generations from the natural spawn. So the number of times that +successive inoculations are made to multiply the spawn, the manufactured +products are removed that many generations from the natural spawn. Where +recourse is had to the natural, or virgin spawn only once in two years, +the second year's product would then be further removed from the natural +spawn than the first year's product. Where we know that it is removed +but one or a few generations from the natural spawn, it is a more +desirable kind. For the nearer it is to the natural spawn, other things +being equal, the more vigorous the mycelium, and the finer will be the +mushrooms produced. + +The brick spawn is sometimes manufactured in this country by growers for +their own use, but at present it is manufactured on such a large scale +in England that little or no saving is effected by an attempt to +manufacture one's own brick spawn in this country. + +=Flake Spawn.=--The flake spawn, or "flakes," is commonly known as the +French spawn, because it is so extensively manufactured in France. It is +made by breaking down beds through which the mycelium has run, and +before the crop of mushrooms appears. That is, the bed is spawned in the +ordinary way. When the mycelium has thoroughly permeated the bed, it is +taken down and broken into irregular pieces, six to eight inches in +diameter. Thus, the French spawn, where the beds are made entirely of +horse manure, with no admixture of soil, consist merely of the fermented +and cured manure, through which the mycelium has run, the material, of +course, being thoroughly dried. This spawn may be removed one or several +generations from the natural spawn. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 234.--French spawn, or "flakes," ready to plant.] + +The French growers depend on natural spawn much more than American +growers do. The natural spawn is collected from old manure heaps. Beds +made up in the ordinary way for the cultivation of mushrooms are planted +with this. The mycelium is allowed to run until it has thoroughly +permeated the manure. These beds are broken down and used to spawn the +beds for the crop. In this case the crop would be grown from spawn only +one generation removed from the virgin spawn. If a sufficient amount of +natural spawn could not be obtained, to provide the amount required one +generation old, it might be run through the second generation before +being used. From the appearance of any spawn, of course, the purchaser +cannot tell how many generations it is removed from the natural spawn. +For this quality of the spawn one must depend upon the knowledge which +we may have of the methods practiced by the different producers of +spawn, if it is possible even to determine this. + + +SPAWNING THE BEDS. + +The beds for growing the mushrooms having been made up, the spawn having +been selected, the beds are ready for planting whenever the temperature +has been sufficiently reduced and the material is properly cured. It is +quite easy to determine the temperature of the beds, but it is a more +difficult problem for the inexperienced to determine the best stage in +the curing of the material for the reception of the spawn. Some growers +rely more on the state of curing of the manure than they do upon the +temperature. They would prefer to spawn it at quite a low temperature, +rather than to spawn at what is usually considered an optimum +temperature, if the material is not properly cured. The temperature at +which different treatises and growers recommend that the bed should be +spawned varies from 70 deg. to 90 deg. F. Ninety degrees F. is considered +by many rather high, while 70 deg. F. is considered by others to be rather +low; 80 deg. to 85 deg. is considered by many to be the most favorable +temperature, provided of course the other conditions of the bed are +congenial. But some, so far as temperature is concerned, would prefer to +spawn the bed at 75 deg. F. rather than at 90 deg., while many recommend +spawning at 70 deg. to 75 deg. In some cases, I have known the growers +to allow the temperature of the beds to fall as low as 60 deg. before +spawning, because the material was not, until that time, at the proper +state of curing. Yet an experienced grower, who understands the kind of +spawn to plant in such a bed, can allow the temperature to go down to 60 +deg. without any very great risk. Fresh spawn in an active state, that +is, spawn which is in a growing condition, as may be obtained by tearing +up a bed, or a portion of one, through which the spawn has run, is +better to plant in a bed of such low temperature. Or, a bed of such low +temperature, after spawning, might be "warmed up," by piling fresh horse +manure over it loosely for a week or ten days, sufficient to raise the +temperature to 80 deg. or 90 deg. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 235.--Pieces of brick spawn ready to plant.] + +When the brick spawn is used, the method of planting varies, of course, +with the methods of different operators. Some break the bricks into the +desired size and plant the pieces directly in the bed, without any +special preparation. The brick is broken into pieces about two or three +inches in diameter. Some recommend breaking the brick of the ordinary +size into about twelve pieces, some into nine pieces, so the custom +varies with different operators. These pieces are planted from seven to +nine inches apart in the bed. For example, if they are to be planted +nine inches apart in the bed, holes are made, either with the hand or +with some instrument, by pressing the material to one side sufficiently +to admit of the piece of spawn being pressed in tightly. These openings +are made, say, the first row on one side of the bed, about four and +one-half inches from the side, and nine inches apart in the row. The +second row is made nine inches from the first row, and so on. The pieces +of spawn are inserted in the opening in the bed, and at a slight +distance, two to three inches, below the surface. Some, however, insert +the piece of spawn just at the level of the bed, the opening being such +that the piece of spawn pressed into the opening is crowded below in +place, and the surrounding material fits snugly on the sides. Thus, when +the bed is spawned, the pieces may be a slight distance below the top of +the bed when they can be covered by some material, or in other cases, +where the operator varies the method, they would lie just at the surface +of the bed. + +The bed is now firmed down according to the custom of the operator, +either tamped down with some instrument very firmly, or by others, with +the back of the fork or other similar instrument, the bed is made firm, +but not quite so hard. The object in firming it down after spawning is +to make the surface of the bed level, and also to bring the material in +the bed very closely in touch on all sides with the spawn with which it +is impregnated. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 236. + + Piece of Natural Spawn. + Piece of French Spawn. + "Flakes" many generations old, "running out."] + +Some growers follow the method of giving the spawn some little +preparation before putting it into the bed. This preparation varies with +different operators. Its object, however, is to slightly moisten the dry +spawn, and perhaps, also, to very slightly start the growth. To +accomplish this, some will cover the bricks, before breaking them, with +fresh horse manure, and allow this to remain several days, so that the +warmth and moisture generated here penetrate the material and soften +somewhat the brick. Some pile it in a room or compartment where there is +little moisture, until the bricks are permeated to some extent with the +moisture, so that they are a little easier broken. They should not, +under any circumstances, be wet or soft in the sense of having absorbed +an excess of water, nor should they be stored for any length of time +where they will be damp. Still others break the bricks into the desired +pieces and place these directly on the top of the bed, at the place +where they wish to plant the piece of spawn. They are left here for two +or three days on the surface of the beds. These pieces absorb some +moisture and take up some warmth from the bed. Then they are planted in +the ordinary way. + +=Spawning with Flake Spawn, or Natural Spawn.=--In the use of the flake +or natural spawn, the planting is accomplished in a similar way, but +larger pieces of the spawn are used, two or three times the size of the +pieces of brick employed. Some use a large handful. In some few cases, +the growers use a flake spawn from their own crop. That is, each year a +few beds are spawned from material which has been kept over from the +previous season. This is often kept in boxes, in cool places, where it +does not thoroughly dry out. In this way, the spawn is used over and +over again, until it becomes much less vigorous than natural spawn, or a +spawn which is only one or only a few generations distant from the +natural spawn. This is seen in the less certainty with which the spawn +runs through the bed, in the smaller crop of mushrooms, and their +gradual deterioration in size. Some few practice the method of breaking +down the bed after the crop has been nearly gathered, using this weak +spawn to inoculate fresh beds. This practice is objectionable for the +same reason that long cultivated spawn is objectionable. + +=Soiling the Beds.=--After the beds have been planted with the spawn, +the next thing is to soil them. That is, the manure in the bed is +covered with a layer of loam soil, or garden soil, to the depth of two +inches, then spread evenly over the bed, leveled off, and tamped down, +though not packed too hard, and the surface is smoothed off. The time at +which the soiling is done, varies also with different operators. Some +soil immediately after planting the spawn. Others believe that the spawn +will most certainly fail to run if the beds are soiled immediately after +planting. These operators wait two or three weeks after the spawn has +been planted to soil it. Others wait until the temperature of the bed +has fallen from 80 deg. or 85 deg. at the time of spawning, to 70 deg. +or 60 deg. F. Soiling at this temperature, that is, at 60 deg. or 70 +deg. F., probably prevents the rapid cooling down of the bed, and it is +desirable to soil, at least at this temperature, for that purpose. When +the beds are soiled, they are then left until the crop is ready to +gather. Some operators give no further attention to the beds after +soiling, other than to water the beds, if that becomes necessary. It is +desirable to avoid watering, if the bed can be kept at the right state +of moisture without. In watering the beds while the spawn is running, +there is danger of killing the young spawn with the water. Wherever it +is necessary, however, if the material in the bed becomes too dry, +lukewarm water should be used, and it should be applied through a fine +rose of a watering pot. + +While some operators after soiling the bed give no further care to it +until the bed is bearing, others cover the beds with some litter, in the +form of straw or excelsior. This is done for the purpose of conserving +the moisture in the bed, and especially the moisture on the surface of +the bed. Sometimes where there is a tendency for the material in the bed +to become too dry, this litter on the surface retards the loss of +moisture. Also, the litter itself may be moistened and the bed can +absorb some moisture in this way, if it is desirable to increase the +moisture content of the bed slightly. + +When the spawn has once run well through the bed, watering can be +accomplished with less danger of injury, yet great care must be used +even now. The spawn will run through a bed with a somewhat less moisture +content in the material than is necessary for drawing off the crop of +mushrooms, though, of course, the spawn will not run if the bed is too +dry. The only way to see if the spawn has run satisfactorily is to open +up the bed at one or two points to examine the material, opening it up +slightly. If the spawn has run well, a very delicate white "fiber," the +mycelium, can be seen penetrating all through the material. This handful +can be replaced in the bed, packed down, and the soil covered over and +firmed again at this point. + +When the mushrooms begin to appear, if the bed is a little dry, it +should be watered from time to time through the fine rose of a watering +pot. Lukewarm water should be used. Nearly all growers water the beds +during the picking of the crop, or during the period of gathering the +crop. At the first few waterings, water should not be sprinkled on the +beds to wet them entirely through. Enough water is applied to diffuse a +short distance only through the upper surface of the bed. At the next +watering, several days later, the moisture is carried further down in +the bed, and so on, through the several weeks, or months, over which the +harvesting season extends. The object of thus gradually moistening the +bed from above, is to draw the crop from the spawn at the surface of the +bed first, and then, as the moisture extends downward, to gradually +bring on the crop from the "fiber" below. + +=Gathering the Mushrooms.=--In artificial cultivation, the mushrooms +usually formed are very near, or on, the surface of the bed. In the case +of the meadow or pasture mushrooms, they are formed further below the +surface. This is probably due to the fact that the conditions under +which the mushrooms grow in cultivation are such that the surface of the +bed is more moist, and is less subject to variations in the content of +moisture, than is the surface of the ground in pastures. Although there +may be abundant rains in the fields, the currents of air over the +surface of the ground, at other times, quickly dries out the upper +layers of the soil. But indoors the mycelium often runs to the surface +of the bed, and there forms the numerous pinheads which are the +beginnings of the mushrooms. The beds at this stage often present +numerous clusters of the mycelium and these minute pinheads crowded very +closely together. Hundreds or perhaps thousands of these minute +beginnings of mushrooms occur within a small space. There are very few +of these, however, that reach the point of the mature mushroom. Few only +of the pinheads grow to form the button, and the others abort, or cease +to grow. Others are torn out while the larger ones are being picked. + +The time at which the mushrooms are picked varies within certain limits, +with the different growers. Most cultivators, especially those who grow +the mushrooms in houses, consider 60 deg. F. the desirable temperature for +the growth of mushrooms, that is, at a room temperature of 60 deg. (while +some recommend 57 deg.). The temperature of the beds themselves will be +slightly above this. Under these conditions, that is, where the +mushrooms are grown at a room temperature of about 60 deg., they open very +quickly. It is necessary here to gather the mushrooms before they open, +that is, before the veil on the under surface breaks to expose the gill +surface. This practice is followed, of course, within certain limits. It +is not possible in all cases, to pick every mushroom before the veil +breaks. They are collected once a day usually. At the time of collection +all are taken which are of suitable size. Many of them may not yet have +opened. But in the case of some of the older or more rapidly growing +ones, the veil may have broken, although they have not expanded very +much. + +Some follow the method of having the fireman, on his round at night, +when he looks after the fires in the heating room, gather the mushrooms. +He passes through all parts of the house and picks the mushrooms which +are of suitable size. These are gathered by grasping a single mushroom +by the cap, or where there is a cluster of mushrooms close together, +several are taken in the hand. The plant is twisted slightly to free the +stem from the soil, without tearing it up to any great extent. They are +thrown in this condition into baskets. The collector then takes them to +the packing room, and the following morning the plants are trimmed, +that is, the part of the stems to which the earth is attached is cut +away, the plants are weighed, put in baskets, and prepared for the +markets. In other cases, the mushrooms are gathered early in the +morning, in the same way, taken to the packing room, where the lower +part of the stem is cut away, the plants are weighed, placed into the +baskets and shipped to market. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 237.--View in Packing Room (H. E. Hicks' Mushroom +House, Kennett Square, Pa.) Copyright.] + +In some of the caves, or abandoned mines, which I have visited, where +the mushrooms are grown on a large scale, the practice in picking the +mushrooms varies somewhat from that just described. In the first place, +the mushrooms are allowed to stand on the bed longer, before they are +picked. They are rarely, if ever, picked before they open. Mushrooms may +be quite large, but if they have not opened, they are not picked. Very +frequently, the plant may open, but, the operator says, it is not open +enough. It will grow more yet. The object of the grower, in this case, +is to allow the mushrooms to grow as long as it is possible, before +picking, for the larger the mushroom, the more water it will take from +the bed, and the more it weighs. This may seem an unprofessional thing +for a grower to do, and yet it must be remembered that a large water +content of the mushroom is necessary. The mushrooms grown in these mines +are very firm and solid, qualities which are desired, not only by the +consumer, but are desirable for shipment. These mushrooms are much +thicker through the center of the cap than those usually grown in houses +at a room temperature of 60 deg. F. For this reason, the mushrooms in these +caves spread out more, and the edges do not turn up so soon. Since the +cap is so thick and firm at the center, it continues to grow and expand +for some little time after having opened, without turning up on the +edges, and without becoming black and unsightly underneath. These large +and firm mushrooms are not only desirable for their shipping qualities, +but also, if they are not too large, they are prized because they are of +such a nice size for broiling. + +It is quite likely that one of the important conditions in producing +mushrooms of this character is the low temperature of the mine. The +temperature here, in July and August, rises not higher than 58 deg. F., +that is, the room temperature of the mines; while in the winter it +falls not lower than 52 deg. The growth of mushrooms, under these +conditions, may not be quite so rapid as in a house maintaining a room +temperature of 60 deg. The operator may not be able to grow so many +crops from the same area, during the same length of time; but the very +fact that this low temperature condition retards the growth of the +mushrooms is perhaps an important item in producing the firm and more +marketable product, which can be allowed to grow longer before it is +picked. It is possible, also, that another condition has something to +do with the firmness and other desirable qualities of these mushrooms. +It is, perhaps, to be found in the fact that natural spawn is largely +used in planting the beds, so that the spawn is more vigorous than +that which is ordinarily used in planting, which is several or many +generations distant from the virgin condition. + +The methods of picking in this mine differ, also, from those usually +employed by growers of mushrooms. The mushrooms are pulled from the bed +in the same way, but the operator carries with him two baskets and a +knife. As fast as the mushrooms are pulled, and while they are still in +hand, before the dirt can sift upon the other mushrooms, or fall in upon +the gills of those which are open, the lower part of the stem is cut +off. This stem end is then placed in one basket, while the mushrooms +which have been trimmed are placed in another basket. In cutting off the +stems, just enough is cut to remove the soil, so that the length of the +stem of the mushroom varies. The mushrooms are then taken to the packing +room in the cleanest possible condition, with no soil scattering +therefrom or falling down among the gills, as occurs to a greater or +lesser extent where the mushrooms are picked and thrown +indiscriminately into baskets. + +=Packing the Mushrooms.=--In the packing room the mushrooms are prepared +for shipment to market. The method at present usually employed is to +ship them in baskets. The baskets vary in size, according to the market +to which the mushrooms are to be shipped. They hold from three, to four, +five, six, or ten pounds each. The larger baskets are only used where +the mushrooms are shipped directly to the consumers. When the customer +requires a large number of mushrooms, they can be shipped in these +larger baskets. Where they are shipped to commission merchants, and the +final market is not known to the packer, they are usually packed in +small baskets, three to four or five pounds. The baskets are sometimes +lined with paper; that is, at the time of the packing the paper is +placed in the basket, one or two thicknesses of paper. The number of +layers of paper depends somewhat upon the conditions of transportation. +The greater amount of paper affords some protection from cold, in cold +weather, and some protection from the evaporation of the moisture, in +dry weather. When the basket is filled with the required quantity of +mushrooms, which is usually determined first by weight, the surplus +paper is folded over them. This is covered in most cases by thin board +strips, which are provided for basket shipment of vegetables of this +kind. In some cases, however, where shipped directly to customers so +that the baskets soon reach their destination, additional heavy paper, +instead of the board, may be placed over and around the larger part of +the basket, and then tied down neatly with cord. + +=Placing the Mushrooms in the Basket.=--Some growers do not give any +attention to placing the mushrooms in the baskets. The stems are cut off +in the packing room, they are thrown into the weighing pan, and when the +beam tips at three, or four, or five pounds, as the case may be, the +mushrooms are emptied into the baskets, leveled down, and the baskets +closed for shipment. Others use more care in the packing of the +mushrooms; especially is this the case on the part of those who pick the +mushrooms when they are somewhat larger and more open, though the +practice of placing the mushrooms in a basket is followed even by those +who pick before the mushrooms are open. In placing them, one mushroom is +taken at a time and put stem downward into the basket, until the bottom +is covered with one layer, and then successive layers are placed on top +of these. The upper layers in the basket then present a very neat and +attractive appearance. In thus placing the mushrooms in the basket, if +there are any mushrooms which are quite large, they are placed in the +bottom. The custom of the operator here is different from that of the +grower of apples, or of other fruit, where the larger and finer samples +are often placed on top, the smaller ones being covered below. It is a +curious fact, however, that this practice of placing the largest +mushrooms below in the basket is due to the fact that usually the larger +mushrooms are not considered so marketable. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 238.--View in packing room, Akron "tunnel," N. Y. +Mushroom Co.; placing mushrooms in basket. Copyright.] + +There are several reasons why the larger mushrooms are not considered so +desirable or marketable as the medium-sized or smaller ones. In the +first place, the larger mushrooms, under certain conditions, especially +those grown in house culture at a comparatively high temperature, are +apt to be very ripe, so that the gills are black from over-ripe spores, +and are thus somewhat unsightly. Those grown at a lower temperature, as +is the case in some mines, do not blacken so soon, and are therefore apt +to be free from this objection. Another objection, however, is on the +part of the restaurant owner where mushrooms are served. In serving the +mushrooms broiled on toast, the medium-sized one is more desirable from +the standpoint of the restaurant owner, in that two medium-sized ones +might be sufficient to serve two persons, while one quite large one, +weighing perhaps the same as the two medium ones, would only be +sufficient to serve one person at the same price, unless the large +mushroom was cut in two. If this were done, however, the customer would +object to being served with half a mushroom, and the appearance of a +half mushroom served in this way is not attractive. + +=Resoiling.=--Once or twice a week during the harvesting period all +loose earth, broken bits of spawn, free buttons, etc., should be cleaned +out where the mushrooms have been picked. These places should be filled +with soil and packed down by hand. All young mushrooms that "fog off" +should be gathered up clean. Some persons follow the practice of growing +a second crop on the same bed from which the first crop has been +gathered. The bed is resoiled by placing about two inches of soil over +the old soil. The bed is then watered, sometimes with lukewarm water to +which a small quantity of nitrate of soda has been added. The large +growers, however, usually do not grow a second crop in this way, but +endeavor to exhaust the material in the bed by continuous growth. + +=Use of manure from beds which have failed.=--Manure in which the spawn +has failed to run is sometimes removed from the bed and mixed with fresh +manure, the latter restoring the heat. If the manure was too wet, the +moisture content can now be lessened by the use of dry soil. + +=Cleaning house to prepare for successive crops.=--When the crop is +harvested, all the material is cleaned out to prepare the beds for the +next crop. The material is taken out "clean," and the floors, beds, +walls, etc., swept off very clean. In addition, some growers whitewash +the floors and all wood-work. Some whitewash only the floors, depending +on sweeping the beds and walls very clean. Still others whitewash the +floors and wash the walls with some material to kill out the vermin. +Some trap or poison the cockroaches, wood-lice, etc., when they appear. +Some growers who succeed well for several years, and then fail, believe +that the house "gets tired," as they express it, and that the place must +rest for a few years before mushrooms can be grown there again. Others +grow mushrooms successfully year after year, but employ the best +sanitary methods. + +=Number of crops during a year.=--In caves or mines, where the +temperature is low, the beds are in process of formation and cropping +continuously. So soon as a bed has been exhausted the material is +cleaned out, and new beds are made as fast as the fresh manure is +obtained. In houses where the mushrooms cannot be grown during the +summer, the crops are grown at quite regular periods, the first crop +during fall and early winter, and the second crop during spring. Some +obtain the manure and ferment it during August and September, spawning +the beds in September and October. Others begin work on the fermentation +of the manure in June or July, make up the beds in July and August, +spawn, and begin to draw off the crop somewhat earlier. The second crop +is prepared for whenever the first one is drawn off, and this varies +even in the experience of the same grower, since the rate of the running +of the spawn varies from time to time. Sometimes the crop begins to come +four or five weeks from the time of planting the spawn. At other times +it may be two or three months before the spawn has run sufficiently for +the crop to appear. Usually the crop begins to come on well in six to +eight weeks. The crop usually lasts for six weeks to two months, or +longer. + +=Productivity of the beds.=--One pound of mushrooms from every two +square feet of surface is considered a very good crop. Sometimes it +exceeds this, the beds bearing one pound for every square foot, though +such a heavy yield is rare. Oftener the yield is less than half a pound +for a square foot of surface. + +=Causes of failure.=--The beginner should study very carefully the +conditions under which he grows his crops, and if failure results, he +should attempt to analyze the results in the light of the directions +given for the curing of the manure, its moisture content, "sweetness," +character of the spawn, temperature, ventilation, etc. While there +should be good ventilation, there should not be drafts of air. A +beginner may succeed the first time, the second or third, and then may +fail, and not know the cause of the failure. But given a good spawn, the +right moisture content of the material at time of planting and running +of the spawn, the sweet condition, or proper condition of the curing of +the manure, proper sanitary conditions, there should be no failure. +These are the most important conditions in mushroom culture. After the +spawn has run and the crop has begun to come, the beds have been known +to freeze up during the winter, and in the spring begin and continue to +bear a good crop. After the spawn has run well, beds have accidentally +been flooded with water so that manure water would run out below, and +yet come on and bear as good a crop as adjoining beds. + +=Volunteer mushrooms in greenhouses.=--Volunteer mushrooms sometimes +appear in greenhouses in considerable quantity. These start from natural +spawn in the manure used, or sometimes from the spawn remaining in +"spent" mushroom beds which is mixed with the soil in making lettuce +beds, etc., under glass. One of the market gardeners at Ithaca used old +spawn in this way, and had volunteer mushrooms among lettuce for several +years. In making the lettuce beds in the autumn, a layer of fresh horse +manure six inches deep is placed in the bottom, and on this is placed +the soil mixed with the old, spent mushroom beds. The following year the +soil and the manure at the bottom, which is now rotten, is mixed up, and +a fresh layer of manure is placed below. In this way the lettuce bed is +self-spawned from year to year. About every six years the soil in the +bed is entirely changed. This gardener, during the winter of 1900--1, +sold $30.00 to $40.00 worth of volunteer mushrooms. Another gardener, in +a previous year, sold over $50.00 worth. + +=Planting mushrooms with other vegetables.=--In some cases gardeners +follow the practice of inserting a forkful of manure here and there in +the soil where other vegetables are grown under glass, and planting in +it a bit of spawn. + +=Mushroom and vegetable house combined.=--Some combine a mushroom house +and house for vegetables in one, there being a deep pit where several +tiers of beds for mushrooms can be built up, and above this the glass +house where lettuce, etc., is grown, all at a temperature of about 60 deg. +F. + + +THREE METHODS SUGGESTED FOR GROWING MUSHROOMS IN CELLARS AND SHEDS. + + =First Method.=--Obtain fresh stable horse manure mixed with straw + used in bedding the animals. Shake it out, separating the coarse + material from the droppings. Put the droppings in a pile two to + three feet deep. Pack down firmly. When the heat rises to near 130 + deg. F., turn and shake it out, making a new pile. Make the new pile + by layers of manure and loam soil, or rotted sod, one part of soil + to eight or nine parts of manure. Turn again when the heat rises to + near 130 deg. F., and add the same amount of soil. When the + temperature is about 100 deg. F., the material is ready for the beds. + + =Preparing the beds.=--Make the beds as described under the + paragraph on pages 250--253, or use boxes. Place the coarse litter + in the bottom three to four inches deep. On this place three to + four inches of the cured material, pack it down, and continue + adding material until the bed is ten to fifteen inches deep. Allow + the beds to stand, covering them with straw or excelsior if the air + in the cellar or shed is such as to dry out the surface. + + Test the moisture content according to directions on page 255. + + Watch the temperature. Do not let it rise above 130 deg. F. When it is + down to 90 deg. F. or 70 deg. F., if the manure has a "sweetish" or + "mushroomy" smell it is ready to spawn. + + Spawn according to directions on page 263. + + Soil according to directions on page 266; cover bed with straw or + excelsior. + + =Second Method.=--Use horse droppings freed from the coarser + material. Proceed as in _first_ method. + + =Third Method.=--Use horse droppings freed from coarser material. + Pile and _pack firmly_. Do not let temperature rise above 130 deg. F. + When it has cooled to 100 deg. F., make up the beds, at the same time + mixing in an _equal quantity_ of rich loam or rotted sod. Spawn in + a day or two. + + In beginning, practice on a small scale and study the conditions + thoroughly, as well as the directions given in this chapter. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[D] I have not learned the history of the other kinds of spawn referred +to above. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + +RECIPES FOR COOKING MUSHROOMS. + +By MRS. SARAH TYSON RORER. + + +As varieties of mushrooms differ in analysis, texture and density of +flesh, different methods of cooking give best results. For instance, the +_Coprinus micaceus_, being very delicate, is easily destroyed by +over-cooking; a dry, quick pan of the "mushroom bells" retains the best +flavor; while the more dense _Agaricus campestris_ requires long, slow +cooking to bring out the flavor, and to be tender and digestible. +Simplicity of seasoning, however, must be observed, or the mushroom +flavor will be destroyed. If the mushroom itself has an objectionable +flavor, better let it alone than to add mustard or lemon juice to +overcome it. Mushrooms, like many of the more succulent vegetables, are +largely water, and readily part with their juices on application of salt +or heat; hence it becomes necessary to put the mushroom over the fire +usually without the addition of water, or the juices will be so diluted +that they will lack flavor. They have much better flavor cooked without +peeling, with the exception of puff-balls, which should always be pared. +As they lose their flavor by soaking, wash them quickly, a few at a +time; take the mushroom in the left hand and with the right hand wash +the top or pileus, using either a very soft brush or a piece of flannel; +shake them well and put them into a colander to dry. + + +AGARICUS.[E] + +The wild or uncultivated _Agaricus campestris_, which is usually picked +in open fields, will cook in less time than those grown in caves and +sold in our markets during the winter and spring. Cut the stems close to +the gills; these may be put aside and used for flavoring sauces or +soups. Wash the mushrooms carefully, keeping the gills down; throw them +into a colander until drained. + +=Stewed.=--To each pound, allow two ounces of butter. Put the butter +into a saucepan, and when melted, not brown, throw in the mushrooms +either whole or cut into slices; sprinkle over a teaspoonful of salt; +cover the saucepan closely to keep in the flavor, and cook very slowly +for twenty minutes, or until they are tender. Moisten a rounding +tablespoonful of flour in a little cold milk; when perfectly smooth, add +sufficient milk to make one gill; stir this into the mushrooms, add a +saltspoon of white pepper, stir carefully until boiling, and serve at +once. This makes a fairly thick sauce. Less flour is required when they +are to be served as a sauce over chicken, steak, or made dishes. + +=Broiled.=--Cut the stems close to the gills; wash the mushrooms and dry +them with a soft piece of cheesecloth; put them on the broiler gills up. +Put a piece of butter, the size of a marrowfat pea, in the center of +each; sprinkle lightly with salt and pepper. Put the broiler over the +fire skin side down; in this way, the butter will melt and sort of baste +the mushrooms. Have ready squares of neatly toasted bread; and, as soon +as the mushrooms are hot on the skin side, turn them quickly and broil +about two minutes on the gill side. Five minutes will be sufficient for +the entire cooking. Dish on toast and serve at once. + +=Panned on Cream Toast.=--Cut the stem close to the gills; wash and dry +as directed for broiling. Put them into a pan, and pour over a very +little melted butter, having gill sides up; dust with salt and pepper, +run into a hot oven for twenty minutes. While these are panning, toast +sufficient bread to hold them nicely; put it onto a hot platter, and +just as the mushrooms are done, cover the bread with hot milk, being +careful not to have too much or the bread will be pasty and soft. Dish +the mushrooms on the toast, putting the skin side up, pour over the +juices from the pan, and serve at once. + +These are exceedingly good served on buttered toast without the milk, +and will always take the place of broiled mushrooms. + +=In the Chafing Dish.=--Wash, dry the mushrooms, and cut them into +slices. To each pound allow two ounces of butter. Put the butter in the +chafing dish, when hot put in the mushrooms, sprinkle over a teaspoonful +of salt, cover the dish, and cook slowly for five minutes, stirring the +mushrooms frequently; then add one gill of milk. Cover the dish again, +cook for three minutes longer, add the beaten yolks of two eggs, a dash +of pepper, and serve at once. These must not be boiled after the eggs +are added; but the yolk of egg is by far the most convenient form of +thickening when mushrooms are cooked in the chafing dish. + +=Under the Glass Cover or "Bell" with Cream.=--With a small biscuit +cutter, cut rounds from slices of bread; they should be about two and a +half inches in diameter, and about a half inch in thickness. Cut the +stems close to the gills from fresh mushrooms; wash and wipe the +mushrooms. Put a tablespoonful of butter in a saucepan; when hot, throw +in the mushrooms, skin side down; cook just a moment, and sprinkle them +with salt and pepper. Arrange the rounds of bread, which have been +slightly toasted, in the bottom of your "bell" dish; heap the mushrooms +on these; put a little piece of butter in the center; cover over the +bell, which is either of glass, china, or silver; stand them in a baking +pan, and then in the oven for twenty minutes. While these are cooking, +mix a tablespoonful of butter and one of flour in a saucepan, add a half +pint of milk, or you may add a gill of milk and a gill of chicken stock; +stir until boiling, add a half teaspoonful of salt and a dash of pepper. +When the mushrooms have been in the oven the allotted time, bring them +out; lift the cover, pour over quickly a little of this sauce, cover +again, and send them at once to the table. + +=Another Method.=--Wash and dry the mushrooms; arrange them at once on +the "bell plate." The usual plates will hold six good sized ones. Dust +with pepper and salt; put in the center of the pile a teaspoonful of +butter; pour over six tablespoonfuls of cream or milk; cover with the +bell; stand the dish in a baking pan, and then in a hot oven for twenty +minutes. + +These are arranged for individual bells. Where one large bell is used, +the mushrooms must be dished on toast before they are served. The object +in covering with the bell is to retain every particle of the flavor. The +bell is then lifted at the table, that the eater may get full aroma and +flavor from the mushroom. + +=Puree.=--Wash carefully a half pound of mushrooms; chop them fine, put +them into a saucepan with a tablespoonful of butter, and if you have it, +a cup of chicken stock; if not, a cup of water. Cover the vessel and +cook slowly for thirty minutes. In a double boiler, put one pint of +milk. Rub together one tablespoonful of butter and two tablespoonfuls of +flour; add it to the milk; stir and cook until thick; add the mushrooms, +and press the whole through a sieve; season to taste with salt and +pepper only. + +=Cream of Mushroom Soup.=--This will be made precisely the same as in +the preceding recipe, save that one quart of milk will be used instead +of a pint with the same amount of thickening, and the mushrooms will not +be pressed through a sieve. + + +COPRINUS COMATUS and COPRINUS ATRAMENTARIUS. + +As these varieties usually grow together and are sort of companion +mushrooms, recipes given for one will answer for the cooking of the +other. Being soft and juicy, they must be handled with care, and are +much better cooked with dry heat. Remove the stems, and wash them +carefully; throw them into a colander until dry; arrange them in a +baking pan; dot here and there with bits of butter, allowing a +tablespoonful to each half pound of mushrooms; dust with salt and +pepper, run them into a very hot oven, and bake for thirty minutes; dish +in a heated vegetable dish, pouring over the sauce from the pan. + +The _C. micaceus_ may also be cooked after the same fashion--after +dishing the mushrooms boil down the liquor. + +=Stewed.=--Wash and dry them; put them into a large, flat pan, allowing +a tablespoonful of butter to each half pound of mushrooms; sprinkle at +once with salt and pepper; cover the pan, and stew for fifteen minutes. +Moisten a tablespoonful of flour in a little cold milk; when smooth, add +a half cup of cream, if you have it; if not, a half cup of milk. Push +the mushrooms to one side; turn in this mixture, and stir until boiling. +Do not stir the mushrooms or they will fall apart and become unsightly. +Dish them; pour over the sauce, and serve at once. Or they may be served +on toast, the dish garnished with triangular pieces of toast. + + +COPRINUS MICACEUS. + +Wash and dry the mushrooms; put them into a deep saucepan with a +tablespoonful of butter to each quart; stand over a quick fire, sort of +tossing the saucepan. Do not stir, or you will break the mushrooms. As +soon as they have reached the boiling point, push them to the back part +of the stove for five minutes; serve on toast. These will be exceedingly +dark, are very palatable, and perhaps are the most easily digested of +all the varieties. + + +LEPIOTA. + +These mushrooms, having very thin flesh and deep gills, must be quickly +cooked to be good. Remove the stem, take the mushrooms in your hand, +gill side down, and with a soft rag wash carefully the top, removing all +the little brown scales. Put them into a baking pan, or on a broiler. +Melt a little butter, allow it to settle, take the clear, oily part +from the top and baste lightly the mushrooms, gill sides up; dust with +salt and pepper. Place the serving dish to heat. Put the mushrooms over +a quick fire, skin side down, for just a moment; then turn and boil an +instant on the gill side, and serve at once on the heated plate. + +In this way _Lepiota procera_ is most delicious of all mushrooms; but if +cooked in moist heat, it becomes soft, but tough and unpalatable; if +baked too long, it becomes dry and leathery. It must be cooked quickly +and eaten at once. All the edible forms may be cooked after this recipe. + +These are perhaps the best of all mushrooms for drying. In this +condition they are easily kept, and add so much to an ordinary meat +sauce. + + +OYSTER MUSHROOMS (Pleurotus). + +Wash and dry the mushrooms; cut them into strips crosswise of the gills, +trimming off all the woody portion near the stem side. Throw the +mushrooms into a saucepan, allowing a tablespoonful of butter to each +pint; sprinkle over a half teaspoonful of salt; cover, and cook slowly +for twenty minutes. Moisten a tablespoonful of flour in a half cup of +milk; when perfectly smooth, add another half cup; turn this into the +mushroom mixture; bring to boiling point, add just a grating of nutmeg, +a few drops of onion juice, and a dash of pepper. Serve as you would +stewed oysters. + +To make this into a la poulette, add the yolks of two eggs just as you +take the mixture from the fire, and serve on toast. + +=Mock Oysters.=--Trim the soft gill portion of the _Pleurotus ostreatus_ +into the shape of an oyster; dust with salt and pepper; dip in beaten +egg, then in bread crumbs, and fry in smoking hot fat as you would an +oyster, and serve at once. This is, perhaps, the best method of cooking +this variety. + + +RUSSULA. + +While in this group we have a number of varieties, they may all be +cooked after one recipe. The stems will be removed, the mushrooms +carefully washed, always holding the gill side down in the water, +drained in a colander; and while they apparently do not contain less +water than other mushrooms, the flesh is rather dense, and they do not +so quickly melt upon being exposed to heat. They are nice broiled or +baked, or may be chopped fine and served with mayonnaise dressing, +stuffed into peeled tomatoes, or with mayonnaise dressing on lettuce +leaves, or mixed with cress and served with French dressing, as salads. + +The "green" or _Russula virescens_ may be peeled, cut into thin slices, +mixed with the leaves of water-cress which have been picked carefully +from the stems, covered with French dressing, and served on slices of +tomato. It is well to peel all mushrooms if they are to be served raw. +To bake, follow recipes given for baking _campestris_. In this way they +are exceedingly nice over the ordinary broiled steak. + +One of the nicest ways, however, of preparing them for steak is to wash, +dry and put them, gills up, in a baking pan, having a goodly quantity; +pour over just a little melted butter; dust with salt and pepper, and +put them into the oven for fifteen minutes. While you are broiling the +steak, put the plate upon which it is to be served over hot water to +heat; put on it a tablespoonful of butter, a little salt, pepper, and +some finely chopped parsley. Take the mushrooms from the oven, put some +in the bottom of the plate, dish the steak on top, covering the +remaining quantity over the steak. Add two tablespoonfuls of stock or +water to the pan in which they were baked; allow this to boil, scraping +all the material from the pan; baste this over the steak, and serve at +once. + +_Agaricus campestris_ and many other varieties may also be used in this +same way. + + +LACTARII. + +Remove the stems, and wash the mushrooms. Put them into a saucepan, +allowing a tablespoonful of butter and a half teaspoonful of salt to +each pint. Add four tablespoonfuls of stock to the given quantity; cover +the saucepan, and _cook slowly_ three-quarters of an hour. At the end of +this time you will have a rich, brown sauce to which you may add a +teaspoonful of Worcestershire sauce, and, if you like, a tablespoonful +of sherry. Serve in a vegetable dish. + +=Lactarius deliciosus Stewed.=--Wash the mushrooms; cut them into +slices; put them into a saucepan, allowing a half pint of stock to each +pint of mushrooms; add a half teaspoonful of salt; cover and stew slowly +for three-quarters of an hour. Put a tablespoonful of butter in another +saucepan, mix with it a tablespoonful of flour; add the mushrooms, stir +until they have reached the boiling point; add a teaspoonful of kitchen +bouquet, a dash of pepper, and serve it at once in a heated vegetable +dish. + +A nice combination for a steak sauce is made by using a dozen good sized +_Lactarius deliciosus_ with four "beefsteak" mushrooms, using then the +first recipe. + + +BEEFSTEAK SMOTHERED WITH MUSHROOMS. + +Wash a dozen good sized mushrooms, either _Lactarii_ or _Agarici_, also +wash and remove the spores from half a dozen good sized "beefsteak" +mushrooms, cutting them into slices. Put all these into a baking pan, +sprinkle over a half teaspoonful of salt, add a tablespoonful of butter, +and bake in a moderate oven three-quarters of an hour. Broil the steak +until it is nearly done; then put it into the pan with the mushrooms, +allowing some of the mushrooms to remain under the steak, and cover with +the remaining portion; return it to the oven for ten minutes; dish and +serve at once. + + +BOLETI. + +These are more palatable baked or fried. Wash the caps and remove the +pores. Dip the caps in beaten egg, then in bread crumbs, and fry them in +smoking hot fat; oil is preferable to butter; even suet would make a +drier fry than butter or lard. Serve at once as you would egg plant. + +=Baked.=--Wash and remove the pores; put the mushrooms into a baking +pan; baste them with melted butler, dust with salt and pepper, and bake +in a moderately hot oven three-quarters of an hour; dish in a vegetable +dish. Put into the pan in which they were baked, a tablespoonful of +butter. Mix carefully with a tablespoonful of flour and add a half pint +of stock, a half teaspoonful of kitchen bouquet or browning, the same of +salt, and a dash of pepper; pour this over the mushrooms, and serve. + +=In Fritter Batter.=--Beat the yolk of one egg slightly, and add a half +cup of milk; stir into this two-thirds of a cup of flour; stir in the +well beaten white of the egg and a teaspoonful of olive oil. Wash and +remove the pores from the boleti. Have ready a good sized shallow pan, +the bottom covered with smoking hot oil; dip the mushrooms, one at a +time, into this batter, drain for a moment, and drop them into the hot +fat. When brown on one side, turn and brown on the other. Drain on soft +paper and serve at once. + +=Boleti in Brown Sauce.=--Wash and dry the boleti; remove the pores; cut +them into small pieces. To each pound allow a tablespoonful of butter. +Put the butter into a saucepan with the mushrooms; add a half +teaspoonful of salt; cover the pan, and stew slowly for twenty minutes; +then dust over a tablespoonful of flour; add a half cup of good beef +stock; cook slowly for ten minutes longer, and serve. + + +HYDNUM. + +As these mushrooms are slightly bitter, they must be washed, dried, and +thrown into a little boiling water, to boil for just a moment; drain, +and throw away this water, add a tablespoonful of butter, a teaspoonful +of salt, a dash of pepper, and a half cup of milk or stock; cover the +pan, and cook slowly for twenty minutes. As the milk scorches easily, +cook over a very slow fire, or in a double boiler. Pour the mixture over +slices of toast, and serve at once. A tablespoonful or two of sherry may +be added just as they are removed from the fire. + + +CLAVARIA. + +Wash, separating the bunches, and chop or cut them rather fine, measure, +and to each quart allow a half pint of Supreme sauce. Throw the clavaria +into a saucepan, cover, and allow it to stew gently for fifteen minutes +while you make the sauce. Put a tablespoonful of butter and one of flour +in the saucepan; mix, and add a half pint of milk or chicken stock; or +you may add half of one and half of the other; stir until boiling; take +from the fire, add a half teaspoonful of salt, a saltspoonful of pepper, +and the yolks of two eggs. Take the clavaria from the fire, and when +cool stir it into the sauce. Turn into a baking dish, sprinkle the top +with crumbs, and brown in a quick oven. Do not cook too long, as it will +become watery. + +=Pickled Clavaria.=--Wash the clavaria thoroughly without breaking it +apart; put into a steamer; stand the steamer over a kettle of boiling +water, and steam rapidly, that is, keep the water boiling hard for +fifteen minutes. Take from the fire, and cool. Put over the fire +sufficient vinegar to cover the given quantity; to each quart, allow two +bay leaves, six cloves, a teaspoonful of whole mustard, and a dozen +pepper corns, that is, whole peppers. Put the clavaria into glass jars. +Bring the vinegar to boiling point, and pour it over; seal and put +aside. + +This may be served alone as any other pickle, or on lettuce leaves with +French dressing as a salad. + +=Escalloped Clavaria.=--Wash, separate and cut the clavaria as in first +recipe. To each quart allow a half pint of chicken stock, a teaspoonful +of salt, a tablespoonful of chopped parsley. Put a layer of bread crumbs +in the bottom of the dish, then a layer of chopped clavaria, and so +continue until you have the dish filled. Pour over the stock, which you +have seasoned with salt and pepper; dot bits of butter here and there +over the top, and bake in a moderate oven thirty minutes. + +This recipe is excellent for the young or button _Hypholoma_, except +that the time of baking must be forty-five minutes. + + +PUFF-BALLS. + +To be eatable, the puff-balls must be perfectly white to the very +center. Pare off the skin; cut them into slices; dust with salt and +pepper. Have ready in a large, shallow pan a sufficient quantity of hot +oil to cover the bottom. Throw in the slices and, when brown on one +side, turn and brown on the other; serve at once on a heated dish. + +=A la Poulette.=--Pare the puff-balls; cut them into slices and then +into dice; put them into a saucepan, allowing a tablespoonful of butter +to each pint of blocks. Cover the saucepan; stew gently for fifteen +minutes; lift the lid; sprinkle over a teaspoonful of salt and a dash of +pepper. Beat the yolks of three eggs until light; add a half cup of +cream and a half cup of milk; pour this into the hot mixture, and shake +until smoking hot. Do not allow them to boil. Serve in a heated +vegetable dish, with blocks of toast over the top. + +=Puff-Ball Omelet.=--Pare and cut into blocks sufficient puff-balls to +make a pint. Put a tablespoonful of butter into a saucepan; add the +puff-balls, cover and cook for ten minutes. Beat six eggs without +separating, until thoroughly mixed, but not too light; add the cooked +puff-balls, a level teaspoonful of salt and a dash of pepper. Put a +tablespoonful of butter into your omelet pan; when hot, turn in the egg +mixture; shake over the hot fire until the bottom has thoroughly set, +then with a limber knife lift the edge, allowing the soft portion to run +underneath; continue this operation until the omelet is cooked through; +fold and turn onto a heated dish. Serve at once. + +Other delicate mushrooms may be used in this same manner. + +=Puff-Balls with Agaricus campestris.=--As the _Agaricus campestris_ has +a rather strong flavor and the puff-balls are mild, both are better for +being mixed in the cooking. Take equal quantities of _Agaricus +campestris_ and puff-balls; pare and cut the puff-balls into blocks; to +each half pound allow a tablespoonful of butter. Put the butter in a +saucepan, add the mushrooms, sprinkle over the salt (allowing a half +teaspoonful always to each pint); cover the saucepan and stew slowly for +twenty minutes. Moisten a tablespoonful of flour in a half cup of milk, +add it to the mixture, stir and cook for just a moment, add a dash of +pepper, and serve in a heated dish. + +This recipe may be changed by omitting the flour and adding the yolks of +a couple of eggs; milk is preferable to stock, for all the white or +light-colored varieties. + + +MORCHELLA. + +Select twelve large-sized morels; cut off the stalks, and throw them +into a saucepan of warm water; let them stand for fifteen minutes; then +take them on a skimmer one by one, and drain carefully. Chop fine +sufficient cold boiled tongue or chicken to make one cupful; mix this +with an equal quantity of bread crumbs, and season with just a suspicion +of onion juice, not more than ten drops, and a dash of pepper. Fill this +into the mushrooms, arrange them neatly in a baking pan, put in a half +cup of stock and a tablespoonful of butter, bake in a moderate oven +thirty minutes, basting frequently. When done, dish neatly. Boil down +the sauce that is in the pan until it is just sufficient to baste them +on the dish; serve at once. + +=A Second Method.=--Select large-sized morels; cut off the stalk; wash +well through several waters. Put into a frying pan a little butter, +allowing about a tablespoonful to each dozen mushrooms. When hot, throw +in the mushrooms, and toss until they are thoroughly cooked; then add a +half pint of milk or stock; cover the vessel, and cook slowly twenty +minutes; dust with salt and pepper, and serve in a vegetable dish. This +method gives an exceedingly palatable and very sightly dish if garnished +with sweet Spanish peppers that have been boiled until tender. + +=Another Method.=--Remove the stems, and wash the morels as directed in +the preceding recipe. Make a stuffing of bread crumbs seasoned with +salt, pepper, chopped parsley, and sufficient melted butter to just +moisten. Place them in a baking pan; add a little stock and butter; bake +for thirty minutes. When done, dish. Into the pan in which they were +cooked, turn a cupful of strained tomatoes; boil rapidly for fifteen +minutes until slightly thickened; pour this over the mushrooms; garnish +the dish with triangular pieces of toasted bread, and serve. + + +GENERAL RECIPES. + +In the following recipes one may use _Agaricus campestris_, _silvicola_, +_arvensis_, or _Pleurotus ostreatus_, or _sapidus_, or _Coprinus +comatus_, or any kindred mushrooms. The _Agaricus campestris_, however, +are to be preferred. + +=To Serve with a Boiled Leg of Mutton=, wash well the mushrooms and dry +them; dip each into flour, being careful not to get too much on the gill +side. In a saucepan have a little hot butter or oil; drop these in, skin +side down; dust them lightly with salt and pepper. After they have +browned on this side, turn them quickly and brown the gills; add a half +pint of good stock; let them simmer gently for fifteen minutes. Take +them up with a skimmer, and dish them on a platter around the mutton. +Boil the sauce down until it is the proper consistency; pour it over, +and serve at once. These are also good to serve with roasted beef. + +=Mushroom Sauce for Game.=--Wash well one pound of fresh mushrooms; dry, +and chop them very fine. Put them into a saucepan with one and a half +tablespoonfuls of butter; cover, and cook slowly for eight minutes; then +add a half cup of fresh rubbed bread crumbs, a half teaspoonful of salt, +a saltspoon of white pepper; cover and cook again for five minutes; +stir, add a tablespoonful of chopped parsley, and, if you like, two +tablespoonfuls of sherry; turn into a sauce-boat. + +=A Nice Way to Serve with Fricassee of Chicken.=--Wash and dry the +mushrooms; sprinkle them with salt and pepper. Put some oil or butter in +a shallow pan; when hot, throw in the mushrooms, skin side down; cover +the pan, put in the oven for fifteen minutes; baste them once during the +baking. Lift them carefully and put them on a heated dish. Add to the +fat in the pan two tablespoonfuls of finely chopped mushrooms, a half +cup of good stock; boil carefully for five minutes. Have ready rounds of +bread toasted; dish the mushrooms on these; put on top a good sized +piece of carefully boiled marrow; season the sauce with salt, and strain +it over. Use these as a garnish around the edge of the plate, or you may +simply dish and serve them for breakfast, or as second course at lunch. + +=Oysters and Mushrooms.=--Wash and remove the stems from a half pound of +fresh mushrooms; chop them fine; put them into a saucepan with a +tablespoonful of butter, a half teaspoonful of salt, and a dash of +pepper; cover closely, and cook over a slow fire for ten minutes. Have +ready, washed and drained, twenty-five good sized fat oysters; throw +them perfectly dry into this mushroom mixture. Pull the saucepan over a +bright fire; boil, stirring carefully, for about five minutes. Serve on +squares of carefully toasted bread. + +=Tomatoes Stuffed with Mushrooms.=--Wash perfectly smooth, solid +tomatoes; cut a slice from the stem end, and remove carefully the seeds +and core. To each tomato allow three good sized mushrooms; wash, dry, +chop them fine, and stuff them into the tomatoes; put a half saltspoon +of salt on the top of each and a dusting of pepper. Into a bowl put one +cup of soft bread crumbs; season it with a half teaspoonful of salt and +a dash of pepper; pour over a tablespoonful of melted butter; heap this +over the top of the tomato, forming a sort of pyramid, packing in the +mushrooms; stand the tomatoes in a baking pan and bake in a moderate +oven one hour. Serve at once, lifting them carefully to prevent +breaking. + +Or, the mushrooms may be chopped fine, put with a tablespoonful of +butter into a saucepan and cooked for five minutes before they are +stuffed into the tomatoes; then the bread crumbs packed over the top, +and the whole baked for twenty minutes. Each recipe will give you a +different flavor. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[E] The recipes for Agaricus are intended for the several species of +this genus (Psalliota). + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + +CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY OF MUSHROOMS. + +By J. F. CLARK. + + +Regarding the chemical composition of mushrooms, we have in the past +been limited largely to the work of European chemists. Recently, +however, some very careful analyses of American mushrooms have been +made. The results of these investigations, while in general accord with +the work already done in Europe, have emphasized the fact that mushrooms +are of very variable composition. That different species should vary +greatly was of course to be expected, but we now know that different +specimens of the same species grown under different conditions may be +markedly different in chemical composition. The chief factors causing +this variation are the composition, the moisture content, and the +temperature of the soil in which they grow, together with the maturity +of the plant. The temperature, humidity, and movement of the atmosphere +and other local conditions have a further influence on the amount of +water present. + +The following table, showing the amounts of the more important +constituents in a number of edible American species, has been compiled +chiefly from a paper by L. B. Mendel (Amer. Jour. Phy. =1=: 225--238). +This article is one of the most recent and most valuable contributions +to this important study, and anyone wishing to look into the methods of +research, or desiring more detailed information than is here given, is +referred to the original paper. + + + TABLE I. + + ===================================================================+ + | FRESH | IN WATER-FREE MATERIAL. | + | MATERIAL.| | + -------------------------------------------------------------------| + | W | D M | T N| P N| E E| S I P A| F | A | + | A | R A | O I| R I| T X| O N E L| I | S | + | T | Y T | T T| O T| H T| L R C| B | H | + | E | T | A R| T R| E R| U 8 O| R | | + | R | E | L O| E O| R A| B 5 C H| E | | + | | R | G| I G| C| L E O| | | + | | | E| D E| T| E N L| | | + | | | N| N| | T | | | + -------------------------------------------------------------------| + | % | % | % | % | % | % | % | % | + Coprinus comatus |92.19| 7.81|5.79|1.92| 3.3| 56.3| 7.3|12.5| + | | | | | | | | | + Morchella esculenta |89.54| 0.46|4.66|3.49| 4.8| 29.3| 8.7|10.4| + | | | | | | | | | + Polyporus sulphureus |70.80| 9.20|3.29|2.23| 3.2| 27.8| 3.0| 7.3| + | | | | | | | | | + Pleurotus ostreatus |73.70| 6.30|2.40|1.13| 1.6| 31.5| 7.5| 6.1| + | | | | | | | | | + Clitocybe multiceps |89.61| 0.39|5.36|1.98| 6.0| 57.2| 9.6|11.5| + | | | | | | | | | + Hypholoma |88.97| 1.03|4.28|2.49| 2.5| 44.4|12.1|13.9| + candolleanum | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | + Agaricus campestris | 91.8| 8.2|4.75|3.57|3.72| -- | -- |11.6| + ===================================================================+ + +=Water.=--Like all growing plants, the mushroom contains a very large +proportion of water. The actual amount present varies greatly in +different species. In the above table it will be seen that _Polyporus +sulphureus_, with over 70 per cent. of water, has the least of any +species mentioned, while the species of _Coprinus_ and _Agaricus_ have +usually fully 90 per cent. water. The amount of water present, however, +varies greatly in the same species at different seasons and in different +localities, and with variations in the moisture content of soil and +atmosphere, also with the age and rapidity of development of the +individual plant. + +=Total Nitrogen.=--The proportion of nitrogen in the dry matter of +different species varies from 2 per cent. to 6 per cent. This +comparatively high nitrogen content was formerly taken to indicate an +unusual richness in proteid substances, which in turn led to very +erroneous ideas regarding the nutritive value of these plants. The +nitrogenous substances will be more fully discussed later, when we +consider their nutritive value. + +=Ether Extract.=--This consists of a variety of fatty substances soluble +in ether. It varies greatly in quality and quantity in different +species. The amount is usually from 4 per cent. to 8 per cent. of the +total dry matter. It includes, besides various other substances, several +free fatty acids and their glycerides, the acids of low melting point +being most abundant. These fatty substances occur in the stem, but are +much more abundant in the cap, especially in the fruiting portion. Just +what nutritive value these fatty matters may have has never been +determined. + +=Carbohydrates.=--The largest part of the dry matter of the mushrooms is +made up of various carbohydrates, including cellulose or fungocellulose, +glycogen, mycoinuline, trehalose, mannite, glucose, and other related +substances. The cellulose is present in larger proportion in the stem +than in the cap, and in the upper part of the cap than in the fruiting +surface. This is doubtless related to the sustaining and protective +functions of the stem and the upper part of the cap. Starch, so common +as a reserve food in the higher plants, does not occur in the mushrooms. +As is the case with the fats, no determination of the nutritive value of +these substances has been made, but it may be assumed that the soluble +carbohydrates of the mushrooms do not differ greatly from similar +compounds in other plants. + +=Ash.=--The ash of mushrooms varies greatly. _Polyporus officinalis_ +gives but 1.08 per cent. of ash in dry matter, _Pleurotus ulmarius_ +gives 12.6 per cent., and _Clitopilus prunulus_ gives 15 per cent. The +average of twelve edible species gave 7 per cent. ash in the stem and +8.96 per cent. in the cap. + +In regard to the constituents of the ash, potassium is by far the most +abundant--the oxide averaging about 50 per cent. of the total ash. +Phosphoric acid stands next to potassium in abundance and importance, +constituting, on an average, about one-third of the entire ash. Oxides +of manganese and iron are always present; the former averaging about 3 +per cent. and the latter 5 per cent. to 2 per cent. of the ash. Sodium, +calcium, and chlorine are usually present in small and varying +quantities. Sulphuric acid occurs in the ash of all fungi, and is +remarkable for the great variation in quantity present in different +species; e. g., ash of _Helvella esculenta_ contains 1.58 per cent. +H_2SO_4 while that of _Agaricus campestris_ contains the relatively +enormous amount of 24.29 per cent. + +Any discussion of the bare composition of a food is necessarily +incomplete without a consideration of the nutritive value of the various +constituents. This is especially desirable in the case of the mushrooms, +for while they are frequently overestimated and occasionally +ridiculously overpraised by their friends, they are quite generally +distrusted and sometimes held in veritable abhorrence by those who are +ignorant of their many excellent qualities. On the one hand, we are told +that "gastronomically and chemically considered the flesh of the +mushroom has been proven to be almost identical with meat, and possesses +the same nourishing properties." We frequently hear them referred to as +"vegetable beefsteak," "manna of the poor," and other equally +extravagant and misleading terms. On the other hand, we see vast +quantities of the most delicious food rotting in the fields and woods +because they are regarded by the vast majority of the people as +"toadstools" and as such particularly repulsive and poisonous. + +Foods may be divided into three classes according to the functions they +perform: + +(_a_) To form the material of the body and repair its wastes. + +(_b_) To supply energy for muscular exertion and for the maintenance of +the body heat. + +(_c_) Relishes. + +The formation of the body material and the repair of its wastes is the +function of the proteids of foods. It has been found by careful +experiment that a man at moderately hard muscular exertion requires .28 +lb. of digestible proteids daily. The chief sources of our proteid foods +are meats, fish, beans, etc. It has been as a proteid food that +mushrooms have been most strongly recommended. Referring to Table I, it +will be seen that nitrogen constituted 5.79 per cent. of the total dry +substance of _Coprinus comatus_. This high nitrogen content, which is +common to the mushrooms in general, was formerly taken to indicate a +very unusual richness in proteid materials. It is now known, however, +that there were several sources of error in this assumption. + +Much of the nitrogen is present in the form of non-proteid substances of +a very low food value. Another and very considerable portion enters into +the composition of a substance closely related to cellulose. A third +source of error was the assumption that all the proteid material was +digestible. It is now known that a very considerable portion is not +digestible and hence not available as food. Thus, notwithstanding the +5.79 per cent. of nitrogen in _Coprinus comatus_, we find but .82 per +cent. in the form of actually available (i. e., digestible) proteids, or +approximately one-seventh of what was formerly supposed to be present. + +The digestibility of the proteids varies very greatly with the species. +Moerner found the common field mushroom, _Agaricus campestris_, to have a +larger amount of proteids available than any other species studied by +him. Unfortunately, the digestibility of the American plant has not been +tested. There is great need for further work along this line. Enough has +been done, however, to demonstrate that mushrooms are no longer to be +regarded as a food of the proteid class. + +The energy for the muscular exertion and heat is most economically +derived from the foods in which the carbohydrates and fats predominate. + +The common way of comparing foods of the first two classes +scientifically is to compare their heat-giving powers. The unit of +measurement is termed a _calorie_. It represents the amount of heat +required to raise a kilogram of water 1 deg. Centigrade. (This is +approximately the heat required to raise one pound of water 4 deg. +Fahrenheit.) A man at moderately hard muscular labor requires daily +enough food to give about 3500 _calories_ of heat-units. The major part +of this food may be most economically derived from the foods of the +second class, any deficiency in the .28 lb. of digestible protein being +made up by the addition of some food rich in this substance. + +In the following table the value of ten pounds of several food +substances of the three classes has been worked out. Especial attention +is called to the column headed "proteids" and to the last column where +the number of heat-units which may be purchased for one cent at current +market rates has been worked out. + + + TABLE II. + + NUTRITIVE VALUE OF TEN POUNDS OF SEVERAL FOODS. + + ========================================================================+ + |PROTEIDS.|FATS.| CARBO- |CALORIES.|COST.|CALORIES| + | | |HYDRATES.| | | FOR ONE| + | | | | | | CENT. | + ------------------------------------------------------------------------| + a. {Beef (round) | 1.87| .88| ----| 7200|$1.50| 48.| + | | | | | | | + {Beans (dried) | 2.23| .18| 5.91| 15900| .30| 530.| + | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + b. {Cabbage | .18| .03| .49| 1400| .15| 93.| + | | | | | | | + {Potatoes | .18| .01| 1.53| 3250| .10| 325.| + | | | | | | | + {Flour (roller | 1.13| .11| 7.46| 16450| .25| 658.| + process) | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + c. {Coprinus comatus | .04| .025| .434| 987| 2.50| 3.9| + | | | | | | | + {Pleurotus | .051| .042| .828| 1811| 2.50| 7.2| + ostreatus | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + {Morchella | .094| .05| .306| 955| 2.50| 3.8| + esculenta | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + {Agaricus | .18| .03| .46| 1316| 2.50| 5.3| + campestris | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + {Oysters | .61| .14| .33| 2350| 2.00| 11.7| + ========================================================================+ + +The mushrooms have been valued at 25 cents per pound, which is probably +considerably below the average market price for a good article. It +should also be remarked that the amounts given in this table are the +digestible and hence available constituents of the foods. The only +exception to this is in the case of the fats and carbohydrates of the +mushrooms, no digestion experiments having been reported on these +constituents. In the absence of data we have assumed that they were +entirely digested. + +The beef and beans are typical animal and vegetable foods of the proteid +class. A glance at the table will show how markedly they differ from the +mushrooms. The latter are nearest the cabbage in composition and +nutritive value. The similarity between the cabbage and the _Agaricus +campestris_ here analyzed is very striking. The potato is somewhat +poorer in fat, but very much richer than the mushroom in carbohydrates. + +The figures in the last column will vary of course with fluctuations in +the market price, but such variation will not interfere at any time with +the demonstration that _purchased_ mushrooms are not a poor man's food. +Here we find that one cent invested in cabbage at 1-1/2 cents per pound, +gives 93 _calories_ of nutrition, while the same amount invested in +_Agaricus campestris_--the common mushroom of our markets--would give +but 5.3 _calories_, although they are almost identical so far as +nutritive value is concerned. + +The same sum invested in wheat flour, with its high carbohydrate and +good proteid content, would yield 658 _calories_ or one-sixth the amount +necessary to sustain a man at work for one day. The amount of mushrooms +necessary for the same result is a matter of simple computation. + +Mushrooms, however, have a distinct and very great value as a food of +the third class, that is, as condiments or food accessories, and their +value as such is beyond the computation of the chemist or the +physiologist, and doubtless varies with different individuals. They are +among the most appetizing of table delicacies and add greatly to the +palatability of many foods when cooked with them. It is surely as unfair +to decry the mushroom on account of its low nutritive value, as it is +wrong to attribute to it qualities which are nothing short of absurd in +view of its composition. In some respects its place as a food is not +unlike that of the oyster, celery, berries, and other delicacies. Worked +out on the basis of nutritive value alone they would all be condemned; +the oyster for instance presents a showing but little better than the +mushroom, and vastly inferior, so far as economy is concerned, to the +common potato. This, too, for oysters purchased by the quart. The +nutritive value of one cent's worth of oysters "on the half shell" would +be interesting! + +The question of the toxicology of the higher fungi is one of very great +theoretical and practical interest. But on account of the great +difficulties in the way of such investigations comparatively little has +yet been accomplished. A few toxic compounds belonging chiefly to the +class termed alkaloids have, however, been definitely isolated. + +=Choline.=--This alkaloid is of wide occurrence in the animal and +vegetable kingdoms. It has been isolated from _Amanita muscaria_, _A. +pantherina_, _Boletus luridus_, and _Helvella esculenta_. It is not very +toxic, but on uniting with oxygen it passes over to muscarine. According +to Kobert the substance formed from choline on the decay of the +mushrooms containing it is not muscarine, but a very closely related +alkaloid, _neurin_. This transformation of a comparatively harmless +alkaloid to an extremely deadly one simply by the partial decay of the +plant in which the former is normally found, emphasizes very much the +wisdom of rejecting for table use all specimens which are not entirely +fresh. This advice applies to all kinds of mushrooms, and to worm-eaten +and otherwise injured, as well as decayed ones. Neurin is almost +identical in its physiological effects with muscarine, which is +described below. + +=Muscarine.=--This is the most important because the most dangerous +alkaloid found in the mushrooms. It is most abundant in _Amanita +muscaria_, it is also found in considerable quantity in _Amanita +pantherina_, and to a lesser, but still very dangerous extent in +_Boletus luridus_ and _Russula emetica_. It is quite probably identical +with bulbosine, isolated from _Amanita phalloides_ by Boudier. +_Muscarine_ is an extremely violent poison, .003 to .005 of a gram (.06 +grain) being a very dangerous dose for a man. Like other constituents of +mushrooms, the amount of muscarine present varies very greatly with +varying conditions of soil and climate. This, indeed, may account for +the fact that _Boletus luridus_ is regarded as an edible mushroom in +certain parts of Europe, the environment being such that little or no +muscarine is developed. + +According to Kobert, _Amanita muscaria_ contains, besides choline and +muscarine, a third alkaloid, _pilz-atropin_. This alkaloid, like +ordinary atropin, neutralizes to a greater or less extent the muscarine. +The amount of pilz-atropin present varies, as other constituents of +mushrooms vary, with varying conditions of soil, climate, etc., and it +may be that in those localities where the _Amanita muscaria_ is used for +food the conditions are favorable for a large production of pilz-atropin +which neutralizes the muscarine, thus making the plant harmless. Be +this as it may, _Amanita muscaria_, so deadly as ordinarily found, is +undoubtedly used quite largely as food in parts of France and Russia, +and it has been eaten repeatedly in certain localities in this country +without harm. + +Fortunately muscarine has a very unpleasant taste. It is interesting in +this connection to note that the _Amanita muscaria_ is said to be used +by the inhabitants of Northern Russia--particularly the Koraks--as a +means of inducing intoxication. To overcome the extremely unpleasant +taste of the plant they swallow pieces of the dried cap without chewing +them, or boil them in water and drink the decoction with other +substances which disguise the taste. + +The symptoms of poisoning with muscarine are not at once evident, as is +the case with several of the less virulent poisons. They usually appear +in from one-half to two hours. For the symptoms in detail we shall quote +from Mr. V. K. Chestnut, Dept. of Agr., Washington (Circular No. 13, +Div. of Bot.): "Vomiting and diarrhoea almost always occur, with a +pronounced flow of saliva, suppression of the urine, and various +cerebral phenomena beginning with giddiness, loss of confidence in one's +ability to make ordinary movements, and derangements of vision. This is +succeeded by stupor, cold sweats, and a very marked weakening of the +heart's action. In case of rapid recovery the stupor is short and +usually marked with mild delirium. In fatal cases the stupor continues +from one to two or three days, and death at last ensues from the gradual +weakening and final stoppage of the heart's action." + +The treatment for poisoning by muscarine consists primarily in removing +the unabsorbed portion of the mushroom from the alimentary canal and in +counteracting the effect of muscarine on the heart. The action of this +organ should be fortified at once by the subcutaneous injection, by a +physician, of atropine in doses of from one one-hundredth to +one-fiftieth of a grain. The strongest emetics, such as sulphate of zinc +or apomorphine, should be used, though in case of profound stupor even +these may not produce the desired action. Freshly ignited charcoal or +two grains of a one per cent. alkaline solution of permanganate of +potash may then be administered, in order, in the case of the former +substance, to absorb the poison, or, in the case of the latter, to +decompose it. This should be followed by oils or oleaginous purgatives, +and the intestines should be cleaned and washed out with an enema of +warm water and turpentine. + +Experiments on animals poisoned by _Amanita muscaria_ and with pure +muscarine show very clearly that when the heart has nearly ceased to +beat it may be stimulated to strong action almost instantly by the use +of atropine. Its use as thus demonstrated has been the means of saving +numerous lives. We have in this alkaloid an almost perfect physiological +antidote for muscarine, and therefore in such cases of poisoning its use +should be pushed as heroically as the symptoms of the case will warrant. +The presence of phallin in _Amanita muscaria_ is possible, and its +symptoms should be looked for in the red color of the blood serum +discharged from the intestines. + +=Phallin.=--The exact chemical nature of this extremely toxic substance +is not certainly known, but it is generally conceded to be of an +albuminous nature. That it is an extremely deadly poison is shown by the +fact that .0015 grain per 2 lbs. weight of the animal is a fatal dose +for cats and dogs. It is the active principle of the most deadly of all +mushrooms, the _Amanita phalloides_, or death-cup fungus. We quote again +from Mr. Chestnut's account of phallin and its treatment: "The +fundamental injury is not due, as in the case of muscarine, to a +paralysis of the nerves controlling the action of the heart, but to a +direct effect on the blood corpuscles. These are quickly dissolved by +phallin, the blood serum escaping from the blood vessels into the +alimentary canal, and the whole system being rapidly drained of its +vitality. No bad taste warns the victim, nor do the preliminary symptoms +begin until nine to fourteen hours after the poisonous mushrooms are +eaten. There is then considerable abdominal pain and there may be cramps +in the legs and other nervous phenomena, such as convulsions, and even +lockjaw or other kinds of tetanic spasms. The pulse is weak, the +abdominal pain is rapidly followed by nausea, vomiting, and extreme +diarrhoea, the intestinal discharges assuming the 'rice-water' +condition characteristic of cholera. The latter symptoms are +persistently maintained, generally without loss of consciousness, until +death ensues, which happens in from two to four days. There is no known +antidote by which the effects of phallin can be counteracted. The +undigested material, if not already vomited, should, however, be removed +from the stomach and intestines by methods similar to those given for +cases of poisoning by _Amanita muscaria_. + +"After that the remainder of the poison, if the amount of phallin +already taken up by the system is not too large, may wear itself out on +the blood and the patient may recover. It is suggested that this +wearing-out process may be assisted by transfusing into the veins blood +freshly taken from some warm-blooded animal. The depletion of the blood +serum might be remedied by similar transfusions of salt and warm water." + +=Helvellic Acid.=--This very deadly poison is sometimes found in +_Helvella esculenta_ Persoon (Gyromitra esculenta), particularly in old +or decaying specimens. It has been studied and named by Boehm. It is +quite soluble in hot water, and in some localities this species of +_Helvella_ is always parboiled--the water being thrown away--before it +is prepared for the table. It seems to be quite generally agreed that +young and perfectly fresh specimens are free from the poison. As the +poison is very violent, however, this plant should be carefully avoided. + +The symptoms resemble in a very marked degree those of the deadly +phallin, the dissolution of the red corpuscles of the blood being one of +the most marked and most dangerous; this is accompanied by nausea, +vomiting, jaundice, and stoppage of the kidneys. There is no known +antidote for this poison, hence the little that can be done would be +similar to that mentioned under phallin. + +When poisoning by mushrooms is suspected, one cannot too strongly urge +that the services of a competent physician should be secured with the +least possible delay. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + +DESCRIPTION OF TERMS APPLIED TO CERTAIN STRUCTURAL CHARACTERS OF +MUSHROOMS. + +By H. HASSELBRING. + + +In fungi, as in higher plants, each organ or part of the plant is +subject to a great number of variations which appeal to the eye of the +student, and by which he recognizes relationship among the various +individuals, species, and genera of this group. For the purpose of +systematic studies of mushrooms or even for the recognition of a few +species, it is of primary importance to be acquainted with terms used in +describing different types of variation. Only a few of the more +important terms, such as are employed in this book, together with +diagrams illustrating typical cases to which they are applied, will be +given here. + +=The pileus.=--The _pileus_ or _cap_ is the first part of a mushroom +which attracts the attention of the collector. It is the fleshy fruit +body of the plant. This, like all other parts of the mushroom, is made +up, not of cellular tissue as we find it in flowering plants, but of +numerous interwoven threads, called _hyphae_, which constitute the flesh +or _trama_ of the pileus. Ordinarily, the filamentous structure of the +flesh is very obvious when a thin section of the cap is examined under +the microscope, but in certain genera, as _Russula_ and _Lactarius_, +many branches of the _hyphae_ become greatly enlarged, forming little +vesicles or bladders. These vesicles lie in groups all through the flesh +of the pileus, sometimes forming the greater part of its substance. The +filamentous _hyphae_ pass around and through these groups, filling up the +interstices. In cross section this tissue resembles parenchyma, and +appears as if it were made up of rounded cells. Such a trama is said to +be _vesiculose_ to distinguish it from the ordinary or _floccose_ trama. +The threads on the outer surface of the pileus constitute the cortex or +cuticle. They are thick walled and often contain coloring matter which +gives the plants their characteristic color. In many species their walls +become gelatinized, covering the outside of the pileus with a viscid, +slimy, or glutinous layer, often called _pellicle_. In other instances +the corticle layer ceases to grow with the pileus. It is then torn and +split by the continued expanding of the rest of the plant, and remains +on the surface in the form of hairs, fibers, scales, etc. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 239. Portion of vesiculose trama in the pileus of +a Russula.] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 240. Portion of a floccose trama.] + +As an example of the most usual form of the pileus, we may take that of +the common mushroom (_Agaricus campestris_) when it is nearly expanded. +The pileus is then quite regular in outline and evenly _convex_ (Fig. +243). Many mushrooms during the early stages of their development have +this form, which is variously changed by later growth. The convex +pileus usually becomes _plane_ or _expanded_ as it grows. If the +convexity is greater it is said to be _campanulate_ (Fig. 245), _conical +hemispherical_, etc., terms which need no explanation. The pileus is +_umbilicate_ when it has an abrupt, sharp depression at the center (Fig. +241), _infundibuliform_ when the margin is much higher than the center, +so that the cap resembles a funnel (Fig. 244), and _depressed_ when the +center is less, or irregularly, sunken. When the center of the pileus is +raised in the form of a boss or knob it is _umbonate_ (Fig. 242). The +umbo may have the form of a sharp elevation at the center, or it may be +rounded or obtuse, occupying a larger part of the disc. When it is +irregular or indistinct the pileus is said to be _gibbous_ (Fig. 246). + +[Illustration: FIGURE 241. FIGURE 242. FIGURE 243. + +FIGURE 241.--Omphalia campanella, pileus umbilicate, gills decurrent. + +FIGURE 242.--Lepiota procera, pileus convex, umbonate; annulus free, +movable; gills free. + +FIGURE 243.--Agaricus campestris, pileus convex, gills free.] + +=The gills.=--The _gills_ or _lamellae_ are thin blades on the under +side of the pileus, radiating from the stem to the margin. When the +pileus is cut in halves the general outline of the gills may be +observed. In outline they may be broad, narrow, lanceolate, triangular, +etc. In respect to their ends they are _attenuate_ when gradually +narrowed to a sharp point, _acute_ when they end in a sharp angle, and +_obtuse_ when the ends are rounded. Again, the gills are _arcuate_ when +they arch from the stem to the edge of the pileus, and _ventricose_ when +they are bellied out vertically toward the earth. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 244. + +Clitocybe infundibuliformis, pileus infundibuliform, gills decurrent.] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 245. + +Mycena galericulata, pileus conic to campanulate, gills decurrent by a +tooth, stem fistulose.] + +The terms given above are often used in descriptive works, but the most +important feature to be noted in the section of the plant is the +relation of the gills to the stem. This relation is represented by +several distinct types which are sometimes used to limit genera or +sub-genera, since the mode of attachment is usually constant in all +species of a group. The principal relations of the gills to the stem are +described as follows: _Adnate_ when they reach the stem and are set +squarely against it (Fig. 247); _decurrent_ when they run down the stem +(Fig. 244); _sinuate_ or _emarginate_ when they have a notch or vertical +curve at the posterior end (Fig. 246); and _free_ when they are rounded +off without reaching the stem (Fig. 243). In all cases when the lamellae +reach the stem and are only attached by the upper angle they are said to +be _adnexed_. This term is often used in combination with others, as +_sinuate-adnexed_ (Fig. 248, small figure), or _ascending adnexed_ (Fig. +248, larger plant). Sometimes the lamellae are adnate, adnexed, etc., and +have a slight decurrent process or tooth as in _Mycena galericulata_ +(Fig. 245). In many plants the gills separate very readily from the stem +when the plants are handled. Sometimes merely the expansion of the +pileus tears them away, so that it is necessary to use great caution, +and often to examine plants in different stages of development to +determine the real condition of the lamellae. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 246. FIGURE 247. FIGURE 248. + +FIGURE 246.--Tricholoma, gills sinuate, stipe solid. + +FIGURE 247.--Panaeolus papilionaceus, gills adnate. + +FIGURE 248.--Left-hand small plant, Hygrophorus, gills sinuate, adnexed. +Right-hand plant Panaeolus retirugis, gills ascending adnexed, veil +appendiculate.] + +In certain genera the gills have special characteristics which may be +noted here. Usually the edge of the lamellae is _acute_ or sharp like the +blade of a knife, but in _Cantharellus_ and _Trogia_ the edges are very +blunt or obtuse. In extreme forms the lamellae are reduced to mere veins +or ridges. Again, the edge is generally _entire_, i. e., not noticeably +toothed, but in _Lentinus_ it is often toothed or cut in various ways. +In some other plants the edges are _serrulate_, _crenulate_, etc. In +_Schizophyllum alneum_, a small whitish plant very common on dead +sticks, the gills are split lengthwise along the edge with the halves +revolute, i. e., rolled back. In _Coprinus_ the gills and often a large +part of the pileus melt at maturity into a dark, inky fluid. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 249.--Section of portion of gill of Marasmius +cohaerens. _t_, trama of gill; _sh_, sub-hymenium; _h_, hymenium layer. +The long, dark cells are brown cystidia, termed spicules by some to +distinguish them from the colorless cystidia. The long cells bearing the +oval spores are the basidia.] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 250.--Inocybe repanda (Bull.) Bres. (= Entoloma +repandum Bull.). _t_, trama of pileus; _sh_, sub-hymenium; _h_, the +hymenial layer; the long cells with a drop of moisture at the ends are +cystidia (sing. cystidium).] + +=The hymenium.=--The term _hymenium_ is applied to the spore-bearing +tissue of many fungi. In the _Agaricaceae_ the hymenium covers the entire +surface of the gills and usually the portion of the pileus between the +gills. It originates in the following manner: the threads forming the +trama of the gills grow out from the lower side of the pileus and +perpendicular to its under surface. As growth advances many branches of +the threads turn outward toward either surface of the gill and finally +terminate in club-shaped cells. These cells, therefore, lie side by +side, perpendicular to the surface, forming a pavement, as it were, +over the entire surface of the gills. Some of them put out four little +prongs, on each of which a spore is borne, while others simply remain as +sterile cells (Figs. 249, 250). The spore-bearing cells are _basidia_; +the others are called _paraphyses_. They resemble each other very much, +except that the basidia bear four _sterigmata_ and a spore on each. In a +few species the number of sterigmata is reduced to two and in some low +forms the number is variable. The layer just beneath the basidia is +usually more or less modified, being often composed of small cells +different from the rest of the trama. This is called the _sub-hymenial_ +layer or _sub-hymenium_ (Fig. 250). + +Other cells called _cystidia_ occur in the hymenia of various species +distributed through nearly all the genera of the agarics. Cystidia are +large, usually inflated, cells which project above the rest of the +hymenium (Fig. 250). They originate either like the basidia, from the +sub-hymenial cells (Fig. 250), or from special hyphae deeper down in the +trama of the gill (Fig. 249). They are scattered over the entire surface +of the hymenium, but become more numerous on the edge of the lamellae. +Their number is much smaller than that of the basidia, but in some +species where they are colored they may greatly change the appearance of +the gills. Cystidia often secrete moisture which collects in drops at +their tips, a phenomenon common to all free fungous cells. + +=The stem.=--The stem is usually fixed to the center of the pileus, but +it may be _eccentric_, i. e., fixed to one side of the center, or +entirely lateral. When the stem is wanting the pileus is _sessile_. With +regard to its interior the stem is _solid_, when it is evenly fleshy +throughout (Fig. 246), or _hollow_ when the interior is occupied by a +cavity (Fig. 248). If the cavity is narrow and tubular the stem is +_fistulose_ (Fig. 245); and if the center is filled with a pithy +substance it is _stuffed_ (Fig. 243). These terms apply only to the +natural condition of the stem, and not the condition brought about by +larvae, which eat out the interior of the stem, causing it to be hollow +or fistulose. + +The terms applicable to the consistency of the stem are difficult to +define. In general, stems may be either _fleshy_ or _cartilaginous_. The +meaning of these terms can best be learned by careful study of specimens +of each, but a few general characters can be given here. Fleshy, fibrous +stems occur in the genera _Clitocybe_ and _Tricholoma_, among the +white-spored forms. Their consistency is like that of the pileus, +namely, made up of fleshy, fibrous tissue. They are usually stout, +compared with the size of the plant, and when bent or broken they seem +to be more or less spongy or tough, fibrous, so that they do not snap +readily. Cartilaginous stems have a consistency resembling that of +cartilage. Their texture is always different from that of the pileus, +which is fleshy or membranous. In general such stems are rather slender, +in many genera rather thin, but firm. When bent sufficiently they either +snap suddenly, or break like a green straw, without separating. In +regard to their external appearance some resemble fibrous stems, while +others are smooth and polished as in _Mycena_ and _Omphalia_. + +=The veil.=--In the young stages of development the margin of the pileus +lies in close contact with the stipe, the line of separation being +indicated by a kind of furrow which runs around the young button +mushroom. In many genera, as _Collybia_, _Mycena_, _Omphalia_, etc., the +pileus simply expands without having its margin ever united to the stipe +by any special structure, but in other forms, which include by far the +greater number of genera of the _Agaricaceae_ and some _Boleti_, the +interval between the stem and pileus is bridged over by threads growing +from the margin of the pileus and from the outer layers of the stem. +These threads interlace to form a delicate membrane, known as the +_veil_, which closes the gap between the stem and pileus and covers over +the young hymenium. + +The veil remains firm for a time, but it is finally torn by the +expanding pileus, and its remnants persist on the cap and stem in the +form of various appendages, whose character depends on the character of +the veil. In _Cortinarius_ the veil is made up of delicate threads +extending radially from the stem to the margin of the cap without +forming a true membrane. From its resemblance to a spider's web such a +veil is said to be _arachnoid_. At maturity mere traces of it can be +found on the stem. In many genera the veil consists of a delicate +membrane which tears away from the stem and hangs in flakes to the +margin of the pileus. In these cases the veil is _appendiculate_ (Fig. +248). Frequently it is so delicate that no trace of it remains on the +mature plant. Where the veil is well developed it usually remains on the +stem as a _ring_ or _annulus_ which becomes free and movable in species +of _Lepiota_ (Fig. 242) and _Coprinus_, or forms a hanging annular +curtain in _Amanita_, or a thick, felty ring in _Agaricus_, etc. In some +plants (species of _Lepiota_) the annulus is continuous with the outer +cortex of the stem, which then appears as if it were partially enclosed +in a sheath, with the annulus forming a fringe on the upper end of the +sheath, from which the apex of the stem projects. + +No reference is here made to the _volva_, which encloses the entire +plant, and which is described in connection with the genera in which it +occurs. + +The few typical characters described here will help the student to +become familiar with terms applied to them. In nature, however, typical +cases rarely exist, and it is often necessary to draw distinction +between differences so slight that it is almost impossible to describe +them. Only by patient study and a thorough acquaintance with the +characters of each genus can one hope to become familiar with the many +mushrooms growing in our woods and fields. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + +ANALYTICAL KEYS. + +By the Author. + +CLASS FUNGI. + + +SUB-CLASS BASIDIOMYCETES.[F] + +Plants of large or medium size; fleshy, membranaceous, leathery, woody +or gelatinous; growing on the ground, on wood or decaying organic +matter; usually saprophytic, more rarely parasitic. Fruiting surface, or +hymenium, formed of numerous crowded perpendicular basidia, the apex of +the latter bearing two to six (usually four) basidiospores, or the +basidiospores borne laterally; in many cases cystidia intermingled with +the basidia. Hymenium either free at the beginning, or enclosed either +permanently or temporarily in a more or less perfect peridium or veil. +Basidiospores continuous or rarely septate, globose, obovoid, +ellipsoidal to oblong, smooth or roughened, hyaline or colored, borne +singly at the apex of sterigmata. + +Order _Gasteromycetes_. Plants membranaceous, leathery or fleshy, +furnished with a peridium and gleba, the latter being sometimes +supported on a receptacle. Hymenium on the surface of the gleba which is +enclosed within the peridium up to the maturity of the spores or longer; +spores continuous, sphaeroid or ellipsoid, hyaline or colored. +Puff-balls, etc. + +Order _Hymenomycetes_. Hymenium, at the beginning, borne on the free +outer surface of the compound sporophore, or if at first enclosed by a +pseudo-peridium or veil it soon becomes exposed before the maturity of +the spores; mushrooms, etc. + + HYMENOMYCETES. + + Analytical Key of the Families. + + Plants not gelatinous; basidia continuous. 1 + + Plants gelatinous or sub-gelatinous, + basidia forked, or divided longitudinally + or transversely. 4 + + =1=--Hymenium uneven, i. e., in the form of + radiating plates, or folds; or a + honey-combed surface, or reticulate, + warty, spiny, etc. 2 + + Hymenium smooth (not as in B, though it may + be convolute and irregular, or ribbed, or + veined). 3 + + =2=--Hymenium usually on the under side, + in the form of radiating plates, or strong + folds. The genus Phlebia in the Hydnaceae + has the hymenium on smooth, somewhat + radiating veins which are interrupted and + irregular. One exotic genus has the + hymenium on numerous irregular obtuse + lobes (Rhacophyllus). =Agaricaceae.= 17 + + Hymenium usually below (or on the outer + surface when the plant is spread over the + substratum), honey-combed, porous, tubulose, + or reticulate; in one genus with short, + concentric plates. =Polyporaceae.= 171 + + Hymenium usually below (or on the outer + surface when the plant is spread over the + substratum), warted, tuberculate, or with + stout, spinous processes; or with + interrupted vein-like folds in resupinate + forms. =Hydnaceae.= 195 + + =3=--Plants somewhat corky or + membranaceous, more or less expanded; + hymenium on the under surface (upper + surface sterile), or on the outer or + exposed surface when the plant is spread + over the substratum (margin may then + sometimes be free, but upper surface, + i. e., that toward the substratum, + sterile). (Minute slender spines are + sometimes intermingled with the elements + of the hymenium, and should not be + mistaken for the stouter spinous + processes of the Hydnaceae). =Thelephoraceae.= 208 + + Plants more or less fleshy, upright + (never spread over the surface of the + substratum), simple or branched. Hymenium + covering both sides and the upper + surface. =Clavariaceae.= 200 + + =4=--Basidia forked or longitudinally + divided; or if continuous then globose, + or bearing numerous spores; or if the + plant is leathery, membranous, or + floccose, then basidia as described. + Hymenium covering the entire free + surface or confined to one portion; + smooth, gyrose, folded or lobed; or + hymenium lamellate, porous, reticulate + or toothed forms which are gelatinous + and provided with continuous basidia may + be sought here. =Tremellineae.= 204 + + + +FAMILY AGARICACEAE. + +Pileus more or less expanded, convex, bell-shaped; stipe central or +nearly so; or the point of attachment lateral, when the stipe may be +short or the pileus sessile and shelving. Fruiting surface usually on +the under side and exposed toward the earth, lamellate, or prominently +folded or veined. Lamellae or gills radiating from the point of +attachment of the pileus with the stipe or with the substratum in the +sessile forms; lamellae simple or branched, rarely anastomosing behind, +clothed externally on both surfaces with the basidia, each of which +bears four spores (rarely two), cystidia often present. + +Key to the North American genera. + + +THE WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. + +(Sometimes there is a faint tinge of pink or lilac when the spores are +in bulk, but the color is not seen under the microscope.) + + =Plants= soft, fleshy or nearly so, + usually soon decaying; dried plants do + not revive well when moistened. 1 + + =Plants= tough, either fleshy or + gelatinous, membranaceous, corky or + woody, persistent, reviving when + moistened. 13 + + =1=--=Gills= acute on the edge. 2 + + =Edge= of the gills obtuse, or gills + fold-like, or vein-like, but prominent. 12 + + =2=--=Trama= of the pileus of + interwoven threads, not vesiculose. 3 + + =Trama= of the pileus vesiculose, plants + rigid but quite fragile. 11 + + =3=--=Gills= thin, not much + broadened toward the pileus. 4 + + =Gills= broadened toward the pileus, of + waxy consistency. =Hygrophorus.= 110 + + =4=--=Stipe= central or sub-central. + (Some species of Pleurotus are + sub-central, but the gills are usually + not decurrent.) 5 + + =Stipe= on one side of the pileus, or + none, rarely with the stipe sub-central. + (Some species of Clitocybe are + sub-central.) =Pleurotus.= 102 + + =5=--=Stipe= fleshy, pileus easily separating + from the stipe, gills usually free. 6 + + =Stipe= fleshy or fibrous and elastic, + pileus confluent with the stipe and of + the same texture. 7 + + =Stipe= cartilaginous, pileus confluent + with the stipe, but of a different texture. 9 + + =6=--=Volva= and annulus present on the stipe. =Amanita.= 52 + + =Volva= present, annulus wanting. =Amanitopsis.= 74 + + =Volva= wanting, annulus present. =Lepiota.= 77 + + =7=--=Annulus= and volva wanting. 8 + + =Annulus= usually present (sometimes + vague), volva wanting, gills attached to + the stipe. =Armillaria.= 83 + + =8=--=Gills= sinuate. =Tricholoma.= 87 + + =Gills= decurrent, not sinuate. =Clitocybe.= 89 + + =9=--=Gills= decurrent, pileus umbilicate. =Omphalia.= 100 + + =Gills= not decurrent. 10 + + =10=--=Margin= of pileus at first involute, + pileus flat or nearly so, somewhat fleshy + (some plants rather tough and tending + toward the consistency of Marasmius). =Collybia.= 92 + + =Margin= of the pileus at first straight, + pileus slightly bell-shaped, thin. =Mycena.= 93 + + =Gills= usually free, pileus deeply + plicate so that the gills are split where + they are attached to the pileus, pileus + membranaceous, very tender but not + diffluent. =Hiatula.= + + =11=--=Plants= where bruised exuding a milky + or colored juice. =Lactarius.= 114 + + =Plants= not exuding a juice where + bruised. =Russula.= 125 + + =12=--=Gills= decurrent, dichotomous, edge + blunt. =Cantharellus.= 128 + + =Gills= not decurrent, plants parasitic + on other mushrooms. =Nyctalis.= + + =13=--=Edge= of gills not split into two + laminae. 14 + + =Edge= of gills split into two laminae and + revolute. =Schizophyllum.= 136 + + =14=--=Plants= leathery, either fleshy, + membraneous, or gelatinous. 15 + + =Plants= corky or woody (placed by some + in Polyporaceae). =Lenzites.= + + =15=--=Stipe= separate from the pileus + (hymenophore), easily separating. 16 + + =Stipe= continuous with hymenophore. 17 + + =16=--=Plants= tough and fleshy, + membranaceous or leathery. =Marasmius.= 130 + + =Plants= gelatinous and leathery. =Heliomyces.= + + =17=--=Edge= of the gills acute. 18 + + =Edge= of the gills obtuse. 19 + + =18=--=Edge= of gills usually serrate. =Lentinus.= 134 + + =Edge= of gills entire. =Panus.= 134 + + =19=--=Gills= dichotomous. =Xerotus.= + + =Gills= fold-like, irregular. =Trogia.= 137 + +There are only a few rare species of Hiatula, Nyctalis, Heliomyces and +Xerotus in the United States. None are here described. + + +THE OCHRE-SPORED AGARICS. + +(The spores are yellowish brown or rusty brown.) + + =Gills= not separating readily from 1 + + =Gills= sometimes separating readily + from the pileus, forked or anastomosing + at the base, or connected with vein-like + reticulations. =Paxillus.= 165 + + =1=--=Universal veil= not arachnoid + (i. e., not cobwebby). 2 + + =Universal veil= arachnoid, distinct + from the cuticle of the pileus, gills + powdery from the spores. =Cortinarius.= 161 + + =2=--=Stipe= central. 3 + + =Stipe= eccentric or none. =Crepidotus.= 159 + + =3=--=Volva= or annulus present on stipe. 4 + + =Volva= and annulus wanting. 5 + + =4=--=Stipe= with an annulus. =Pholiota.= 150 + + =Stipe= with a volva. =Locellina= (not + reported in U. S.). + + =5=--=Gills= free from the stem. =Pluteolus.= + + =Gills= attached. 6 + + =6=--=Gills= not dissolving nor becoming + powdery. 7 + + =Gills= dissolving into a gelatinous + or powdery condition, not diffluent as in + Coprinus. =Bolbitius.= 163 + + =7=--=Stipe= fleshy. 8 + + =Stipe= cartilaginous or + sub-cartilaginous. 10 + + =8=--=Gills= somewhat sinuate. 9 + + =Gills= adnate or decurrent. =Flammula.= 156 + + =9=--=Cuticle= of the pileus silky + or bearing fibrils. =Inocybe.= 158 + + =Cuticle= of pileus smooth, viscid. =Hebeloma.= 157 + + =10=--=Gills= decurrent. =Tubaria.= 159 + + =Gills= not decurrent. 11 + + =11=--=Margin= of pileus inflexed. =Naucoria.= 153 + + =Margin= of pileus straight, from + the first. =Galera.= 155 + +No species of Pluteolus are here described. + + +THE ROSY-SPORED AGARICS. + +(The spores are rose color, pink, flesh or salmon color.) + + =Stipe= central. 1 + + =Stipe= eccentric or none and pileus + lateral. =Claudopus.= 149 + + =1=--=Pileus= easily separating from the + stipe, gills free. 2 + + =Pileus= confluent with the stipe and of + the same texture, gills attached, in some + becoming almost free. 3 + + =2=--=Volva= present and distinct, annulus + wanting. =Volvaria.= 140 + + =Volva= and annulus wanting. =Pluteus.= 138 + + =3=--=Stipe= fleshy to fibrous, margin of + pileus at first incurved. 4 + + =Stipe= cartilaginous. 5 + + =4=--=Gills= sinuate. =Entoloma.= 143 + + =Gills= decurrent. =Clitopilus.= 142 + + =5=--=Gills= not decurrent (or if so only by + a minute tooth), easily separating from + the stipe. 6 + + =Gills= decurrent, pileus umbilicate. =Eccilia.= 148 + + =6=--=Pileus= slightly convex, margin at first + incurved. =Leptonia.= 147 + + =Pileus= bell-shaped, margin at first + straight and pressed close against + the stipe. =Nolanea.= + +No species of Nolanea are described here. + + +THE BROWN-SPORED AGARICS. + +(The spores are dark brown or purplish brown.) + + =Pileus= easily separating from the + stem; gills usually free. 1 + + =Pileus= continuous with the stem; + gills attached. 2 + + =1=--=Volva= wanting, annulus + present. (Psalliota Fr.) =Agaricus.= 18 + + =Volva= present, annulus wanting. =Chitonia.= + + =Volva= and annulus wanting. =Pilosace.= + + =2=--=Veil= present. 3 + + =Veil= wanting or obsolete. 4 + + =3=--=Annulus= present, gills + attached. =Stropharia.= 31 + + =Annulus= wanting, veil remaining + attached to margin of pileus. =Hypholoma.= 26 + + =4=--=Stipe= tenacious, margin of pileus first + incurved. 5 + + =Stipe= fragile, margin of pileus at + first straight. =Psathyra.= + + =5=--=Gills= sub-triangularly decurrent. =Deconica.= + + =Gills= not decurrent. =Psilocybe.= + +But few species of Psathyra, Deconica, Chitonia and Pilosace are noted +from the United States. None are here described. + + +THE BLACK-SPORED AGARICS. + + =Pileus= present to which the gills are + attached. 1 + + =Pileus= wanting, gills attached to + a disk at apex of stem from which they + radiate. =Montagnites.=[G] + + =1=--=Gills= more or less + deliquescing, or pileus thin, membranous + and splitting between the laminae of the + gills and becoming more or less plicate. =Coprinus.= 32 + + =Gills= not deliquescing, etc. 2 + + =2=--=Spores= globose, ovoid. 3 + + =Spores= elongate, fusiform (in some + species brown), plants with a slimy + envelope. =Gomphidius.= 49 + + =3=--=Pileus= somewhat fleshy, not striate, + projecting beyond the gills at the + margin; gills variegated in color from + groups of dark spores on the surface. 4 + + =Pileus= somewhat fleshy, margin striate, + gills not variegated. =Psathyrella.= 48 + + =4=--=Annulus= wanting, but veil + often present. =Panaeolus.= 45 + + =Annulus= wanting, veil appendiculate on + margin of cap. =Chalymotta.= 48 + + =Annulus= present. =Anellaria.= + + +GLOSSARY OF THE MORE TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN THIS WORK. + +Abbreviations: + + cm. = centimeter (about 2-1/2 cm. make one inch). + mm. = millimeter (about 25 mm. make 1 inch). + mu = one micron (1000 mu = 1 mm.). + + Adnate, said of the gills when they are attached squarely, or broadly, + to the stem. + + Adnexed, said of gills when they are attached only slightly or only by + the upper angle of the stem. + + Anastomose, running together in a net-like manner. + + Annulus, the ring or collar around the stem formed from the inner or + partial veil. + + Appendiculate, said of the veil when it clings in fragments to the + margin of the pileus. + + Arachnoid, said of the veil when it is cobwebby, that is, formed of + loose threads. + + Ascus, the club-shaped body which bears the spores inside + (characteristic of the Ascomycetes). + + + Basidium (pl. basidia) the club-shaped body which bears the spores in + the Basidiomycetes. These stand parallel, and together make up the + entire or large part of the hymenium or fruiting surface which + covers the gills, etc. Paraphyses (sterile cells) and sometimes + cystidia (longer sterile cells) or spines are intermingled with + the basidia. + + Bulbous, said of the enlarged lower end of the stem in some mushrooms. + + + Circumscissile, splitting transversely across the middle, used to + indicate one of the ways in which the volva ruptures. + + Cortina, a cobwebby veil. + + Cuticle, the skin-like layer on the outside of the pileus. + + + Decurrent, said of the gills when they extend downward on the stem. + + Diffluent, said of the gills when they dissolve into a fluid. + + Dimidiate, halved, said of a sessile pileus semi-circular in form and + attached by the plane edge directly to the wood. + + + Echinulate, term applied to minute spinous processes, on the spores + for example. + + Eccentric, said of a stem when it is attached to some other point than + the center of the pileus. + + + Fimbriate, in the form of a delicate fringe. + + Fistulose, becoming hollow. + + Floccose, term applied to indicate delicate and soft threads, cottony + extensions from the surface of any part of the mushroom. + + Flocculose, minutely floccose. + + Fugacious, disappearing. + + Fuliginous (or fuligineous), dark brown, sooty or smoky. + + Fulvous, tawny, reddish yellow. + + Fusiform, spindle-shaped. + + Fusoid, like a spindle. + + Furfuraceous, with numerous minute scales. + + + Gleba, the chambered tissue forming the hymenium (fruiting surface) in + the puff-balls and their allies. + + + Hygrophanous, appearing to be water soaked. + + Hymenium, the fruiting surface of the mushrooms and other fungi. + + Hymenomycetes, the subdivision of the Basidiomycetes in which the + fruiting surface is exposed before the spores are ripe. + + Hymenophore, the portion of the fruit body which bears the hymenium. + + Hypha (pl. hyphae), a single mycelium thread. + + + Imbricate, overlapping like the shingles on a roof. + + Involute, folded or rolled inward. + + + Lamella (pl. lamellae), the gills of the mushroom. + + + Mycelium, the vegetative or growing portion of the mushrooms, and + other fungi, made up of several or many threads. + + + Ocreate, applied to the volva where it fits the lower part of the + stem, as a stocking does the leg. + + + Pectinate, like the teeth of a comb. + + Peridium, the wall of the puff-balls, etc. + + Pileus (pl. pilei), the cap of the mushroom. + + Plicate, plaited, or folded like a fan. + + Punctate, with minute points. + + Pulverulent, with a minute powdery substance. + + + Repand, wavy. + + Resupinate, spread over the matrix, the fruiting surface external and + the pileus next the wood. + + Revolute, rolled backward. + + Rugose, wrinkled. + + Rugulose, with minute wrinkles. + + + Saprophytic, growing on dead organic matter. + + Sessile, where the pileus is attached directly to the matrix without + any stem. + + Sinuate, said of the gills when they are notched at their junction + with the stem. + + Stipe, the stem. + + Sulcate, furrowed. + + Squamulose, with minute scales. + + Squarrose, with prominent reflexed scales. + + + Tomentose, with a dense, matted, hairy or woolly surface. + + Trama, the interior portion of the gills or pileus. + + + Umbo, with a prominent boss or elevation, in the center of the pileus. + + Umbilicate, with a minute abrupt depression in the center of the cap. + + + Veil, a layer of threads extending from the margin of the cap to the + stem (partial veil or marginal veil). A universal veil envelops + the entire plant. + + Veins, elevated lines or folds running over the surface of the lamellae + in some species, and often connected so as to form reticulations. + + Ventricose, enlarged or broadened at the middle, bellied. + + Vesiculose, full of small rounded vesicles, as the trama of the pileus + of a Russula. + + Volva, a wrapper or envelope, which in the young stage completely + surrounds the plant, same as universal veil. At maturity of the + plant it may be left in the form of a cup at the base of the stem, + or broken up into fragments and distributed over the cap and base + of the stem. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[F] The sub-class Ascomycetes includes the morels, helvellas, cup fungi, +etc., and many microscopic forms, in which the spores are borne inside a +club-shaped body, the ascus. Only a few of the genera are described in +this book, and the technical diagnosis will be omitted. See page 216. + +[G] One American species in Texas. + + + + +INDEX OF GENERA, AND ILLUSTRATIONS. + + + NOTE.--In this index the generic and specific names have been + divided into syllables, and the place of the primary accent has + been indicated, with the single object of securing a uniform + pronunciation in accordance with the established rules of English + orthoepy. + + Agaricus (A-gar'i-cus), 18--26. + arvensis (ar-ven'sis), 21, fig. 18. + campestris (cam-pes'tris), 1--9, 18, figs. 1--7, 12. + comtulus (com'tu-lus), 24, fig. 24. + cretaceus (cre-ta'ce-us), 79. + diminutivus (di-min-u-ti'vus), 26. + echinatus (ech-i-na'tus), 158. + fabaceus (fa-ba'ce-us), 23. + maritimus (ma-rit'i-mus), 142. + placomyces (pla-com'y-ces), 23, pl. 4, 5, figs. 21, 22, 23. + rodmani (rod'ma-ni), 20, fig. 17. + silvaticus (sil-vat'i-cus), 23. + silvicola (sil-vic'o-la), 20, figs. 19, 20. + subrufescens (sub-ru-fes'cens), 23. + + Amanita (Am-a-ni'ta), 52. + caesarea (cae'-sa're-a), 70, pls. 18, 19, fig. 72. + cothurnata (coth-ur-na'ta), 66 69, pl. 17, figs. 68--70. + floccocephala (floc-co-ceph'a-la), 62, fig. 63. + frostiana (fros-ti-a'na), 54, 55, 67, pl. 1. + mappa (map'pa), 58. + muscaria (mus-ca'ri-a), 52--54, pls. 1, 12, 13, figs. 52--54. + pantherina (pan-the-ri'na), 69. + phalloides (phal-loi'des), 3, 14, 55--61, 78, pl. 14, figs. 55--58. + polypyramis (pol-y-pyr'a-mis), 74. + rubescens (ru-bes'cens), 71, 72, pls. 19, 20, figs. 73, 74. + spreta (spre'ta), 69, 70, fig. 71. + solitaria (sol-i-ta'ri-a), 72--74, pls. 21, 22, figs. 75, 76. + strobiliformis (strob-i-li-for'mis), 73. + velatipes (ve-lat'i-pes), 63--66, pls. 15, 16, figs. 64--67. + verna (ver'na), 60, 61, 78, figs. 59--61. + virosa (vi-ro'sa), 61, 62, fig. 62. + + Amanitopsis (A-man-i-top'sis), 74. + farinosa (far-i-no'sa), 76, 77, fig. 78. + livida (liv'i-da), 75. + nivalis (ni-va'lis), 76. + spadicea (spa-dic'e-a), 75. + vaginata (vag-i-na'ta), 74--76, pl. 23, fig. 77. + volvata (vol-va'ta), 76. + + Armillaria (Ar-mil-la'ri-a), 83. + aurantia (au-ran'ti-a), 84--86, fig. 86. + mellea (mel'le-a), 83, 84, pl. 27, fig. 85. + + Annularia laevis (An-nu-la'ri lae'vis), 78. + + Ascomycetes (As-co-my-ce'tes), 216. + + + Basidiomycetes (Ba-sid-i-o-my-ce'tes), 260. + + Black-spored agarics, 32. + + Bolbitius (Bol-bit'i-us), 163. + variicolor (va-ri-ic'o-lor), 164, fig. 158. + + Boletinus (Bo-le-ti'nus), 172. + pictus (pic'tus), 183, fig. 175. + porosus (po-ro'sus), 184, pl. 63, fig. 176. + + Boletus (Bo-le'tus), 172. + americanus (a-mer-i-ca'nus), 178, fig. 171. + brevipes (brev'i-pes), 179. + bulbosus (bul-bo'sus), 172. + chromapes (chro'ma-pes), 176, pl. 59, fig. 168. + edulis (e-du'lis), 172, 173, 176, pls. 55, 56, 57, figs. 164, 165. + felleus (fel'le-us), 173, pl. 58, fig. 166. + flavidus (flav'i-dus), 178. + granulatus (gran-u-la'tus), 178. + luteus (lu'te-us), 181, 182, pl. 62, figs. 173, 174. + obsonium (ob-so'ni-um), 177, pl. 61, fig. 170. + ornatipes (or-nat'i-pes), 174, 176. + punctipes (punc'ti-pes), 179, fig. 172. + retipes (re'ti-pes), 174--176, fig. 167. + scaber (sca'ber), 174. + subluteus (sub-lu'te-us), 181, 182. + subtomentosus (sub-tom-en-to'sus), 167, 168. + vermiculosus (ver-mic-u-lo'sus), 177, pl. 60, fig. 169. + + Bovista (Bo-vis'ta), 209. + + + Calostoma (Ca-los'to-ma), 212. + cinnabarinum (cin-na-ba-ri'num), 212, 213, pl. 82, fig. 211. + lutescens (lu-tes'cens), 212. + + Calvatia (Cal-va'ti-a), 209. + + Cantharellus (Can-tha-rel'lus), 128. + aurantiacus (au-ran-ti'a-cus), 129, 130, pl. 41, figs. 127, 128. + cibarius (ci-ba'ri-us), 128, fig. 126. + + Chalymotta retirugis (Chal-y-mot'ta re-ti-ru'gis), 48. + + Clavaria (Cla-va'ri-a), 201. + botrytes (bo-try'tes), 202, fig. 202. + formosa (for-mo'sa), 201, pl. 80, fig. 201. + mucida (mu'ci-da), 203, fig. 204. + pistillaris (pis-til-la'ris), 203, fig. 203. + + Clavariaceae (Cla-va-ri-a'ce-ae), 200. + + Coral fungi, 200. + + Clitocybe (Cli-toc'y-be), 89. + candida (can'di-da), 89, pls. 28, 29, figs. 90, 91. + cyathiformis (cy-a-thi-for'mis), 90. + illudens (il-lu'dens), 90, fig. 92. + infundibuliformis (in-fun-dib-u-li-for'mis), 90, fig. 244. + laccata (lac-ca'ta), 89. + multiceps (mul'ti-ceps), 91, pl. 30, fig. 93. + pelletieri (pel-let-i-e'ri), 168. + + Clitopilus (Cli-top'i-lus), 142. + orcella (or-cel'la), 143. + prunulus (pru'nu-lus), 142, pl. 44, fig. 138. + + Collybia (Col-lyb'i-a), 92. + dryophila (dry-oph'i-la), 204, fig. 205. + longipes (lon'gi-pes), 93. + lachnophylla (lach-no-phyl'la), 132. + platyphylla (plat-y-phyl'la), 93. + radicata (rad-i-ca'ta), 92, pl. 31, fig. 94. + spinulifera (spin-u-lif'e-ra), 132. + velutipes (ve-lu'ti-pes), 92, pl. 32, fig. 95. + + Coprinus (Co-pri'nus), 32. + atramentarius (a-tra-men-ta'ri-us), 40--42, pl. 10, figs. 39--42. + comatus (co-ma'tus), 33--40, pl. 9, figs. 31--38. + micaceus (mi-ca'ce-us), 15, 42--44, figs. 43, 44. + + Corticium (Cor-tic'i-um), 208. + + Cortinarius (Cor-ti-na'ri-us), 161. + cinnamomeus (cin-na-mo'me-us), 162, fig. 155. + collinitus (col-li-ni'tus), 161. + ochroleucus (och-ro-leu'cus), 163, pls. 50, 51, figs. 156, 157. + violaceus (vi-o-la'ce-us), 161. + + Craterellus (Crat-e-rel'lus), 208. + cantharellus (can-tha-rel'lus), 208. + cornucopioides (cor-nu-co-pi-oi'des), 208. + pistillaris (pis-til-la'ris), 203. + + Crepidotus (Crep-i-do'tus), 159. + applanatus (ap-pla-na'tus), 161. + calolepis (ca-lol'e-pis), 161. + chimonophilus (chi-mo-noph'i-lus), 160. + fulvotomentosus (ful-vo-tom-en-to'sus), 161. + herbarum (her-ba'rum), 160. + versutus (ver-su'tus), 160, fig. 154. + + + Daedalea ambigua (Dae-da'le-a am-big'u-a), 16, 17, pl. 3, fig. 16. + + Dictyophora (Dic-ty-oph'o-ra), 214. + duplicata (du-pli-ca'ta), 214, pl. 83, fig. 212. + ravenelii (rav-e-nel'li-i), 215, 216, pl. 84, figs. 213--215. + + Discomycetes (Dis-co-my-ce'tes), 216. + + + Eccilia (Ec-cil'i-a), 148. + polita (po-li'ta), 148, fig. 143. + + Entoloma (En-to-lo'ma), 143. + grayanum (gray-a'num), 144, 145, fig. 140. + jubatum (ju-ba'tum), 143, 144, fig. 139. + repandum (re-pan'dum), 143, 303, fig. 250. + strictius (stric'ti-us), 145, 146, fig. 141. + + Exidia glandulosa (Ex-id'ia glan-du-lo'sa), 206. + + + Fistulina (Fis-tu-li'na), 171, 186. + firma (fir'ma), 186. + hepatica (he-pat'i-ca), 186, pl. 65. + pallida (pal'li-da), 186, 187, pls. 65, 66, fig. 180. + + Flammula (Flam'mu-la), 156. + paradoxa (par-a-dox'a), 168. + polychroa (po-lych'ro-a), 156, 157, fig. 151. + rhodoxanthus (rhod-o-xan'thus), 168. + sapinea (sa-pin'e-a), 157. + tammii (tam'mi-i), 169. + + Fomes (Fo'mes), 193, 194. + + + Galera (Ga-le'ra), 155. + antipoda (an-tip'o-da), 155. + coprinoides (cop-rin-oi'des), 155. + flava (fla'va), 155. + lateritia (lat-e-ri'ti-a), 155. + tenera (ten'e-ra), 155. + + Geaster (Ge-as'ter), 209. + + Gomphidius (Gom-phid'i-us), 49. + glutinosus (glu-ti-no'sus), 51. + nigricans (nig'ri-cans), 49--51, figs. 50, 51. + rhodoxanthus (rhod-o-xan'thus), 168. + + Gomphus (Gom'phus), 168. + + Gyrocephalus (Gy-ro-ceph'a-lus), 207. + rufus (ru'fus), 207, fig. 208. + + Gyromitra esculenta (Gy-rom'i-tra es-cu-len'ta), 220. + + + Hebeloma (He-be-lo'ma), 157. + crustuliniforme (crus-tu-lin-i-for'me), 158, fig. 152. + + Hedgehog fungi, 195. + + Helvella (Hel-vel'la), 219. + crispa (cris'pa), 219. + lacunosa (lac-u-no'sa), 220, fig. 219. + + Hydnaceae (Hyd-na'ce-ae), 195. + + Hydnum (Hyd'num), 195. + caput-medusae (ca'put--me-du'sae), 198. + caput-ursi (ca'put--ur'si), 197, pl. 77, fig. 196. + coralloides (cor-al-loi'des), 196, fig. 195. + erinaceus (er-i-na'ce-us), 198, fig. 197. + fragile (frag'i-le), 200. + graveolens (gra-ve'o-lens), 200. + imbricatum (im-bri-ca'tum), 198, fig. 200. + repandum (re-pan'dum), 198, pl. 78, fig. 198. + putidum (pu'ti-dum), 199, pl. 79, fig. 199. + velutinum (ve-lu'ti-num), 200. + + Hygrophorus (Hy-groph'o-rus), 110. + chrysodon (chrys'o-don), 111, fig. 115. + coccineus (coc-cin'e-us), 114. + conicus (con'i-cus), 114. + eburneus (e-bur'ne-us), 111, pl. 38, fig. 116. + fuligineus (fu-li-gin'e-us), 113, fig. 117. + hypothejus (hy-po-the'jus), 114. + miniatus (min-i-a'tus), 113, 114. + pratensis (pra-ten'sis), 113. + psittacinus (psit-ta-ci'nus), 114. + + Hymenochaete (Hy-me-no-chae'te), 208. + + Hymenomycetes (Hy-me-no-my-ce'tes), 261. + + Hypholoma (Hyph-o-lo'ma), 26. + appendiculatum (ap-pen-dic-u-la'tum), 27, 28, pl. 7, figs. 26, 27. + candolleanum (can-dol-le-a'num), 28. + lachrymabundum (lach-ry-ma-bun'dum), 28--30, fig. 28. + perplexum (per-plex'um), 27. + rugocephalum (ru-go-ceph'a-lum), 30, pl. 8, fig. 29. + sublateritium (sub-la-te-ri'ti-um), 26, pl. 6, fig. 25. + + + Inocybe (I-noc'y-be), 158. + echinata (ech-i-na'ta), 158. + repanda (re-pan'da), 303, fig. 250. + + Ithyphallus impudicus (Ith-y-phal'lus im-pu-di'cus), 216. + + + Lactarius (Lac-ta'ri-us), 114. + chelidonium (chel-i-do'ni-um), 124, pl. 39. + chrysorrheus (chrys-or'rhe-us), 122, fig. 125. + corrugis (cor-ru'gis), 116, fig. 118. + deliciosus (de-lic-i-o'sus), 123, pl. 39. + fuliginosus (fu-lig-i-no'sus), 118, fig. 120. + gerardii (ge-rar'di-i), 119. + indigo (in'di-go), 125, pl. 39. + lignyotus (lig-ny-o'tus), 117, fig. 119. + pergamenus (per-ga-me'nus), 121. + piperatus (pip-e-ra'tus), 120, fig. 122. + resimus (re-si'mus), 121, figs. 123, 124. + torminosus (tor-mi-no'sus), 119, fig. 121. + volemus (vo-le'mus), 121. + + Lentinus (Len-ti'nus), 134. + lecomtei (le-comt'e-i), 135. + lepideus (le-pid'e-us), 135. + stipticus (stip'ti-cus), 135, 136. + vulpinus (vul-pi'nus), 134, pl. 42, figs. 131, 132. + + Leotia lubrica (Le-o'ti-a lu'bri-ca), 221, fig. 221. + + Lepiota (Lep-i-o'ta), 77. + acutesquamosa (a-cu-te-squa-mo'sa), 81. + americana (a-mer-i-ca'na), 80, 81, fig. 82. + asperula (as-per'u-la), 82, 83, pl. 26, fig. 84. + badhami (bad'ham-i), 81. + cristata (cris-ta'ta), 81, fig. 83. + naucina (nau-ci'na), 13, 77--79, pl. 24, figs. 79, 80. + naucinoides (nau-ci-noi'des), 77. + procera (pro-ce'ra), 79, pl. 25, figs. 81, 242. + rachodes (ra-cho'des), 79. + + Leptonia (Lep-to'ni-a), 147. + asprella (as-prel'la), 147, fig. 142. + incana (in-ca'na), 147. + + Lycoperdaceae (Ly-co-per-da'ce-ae), 209. + + Lycoperdon (Ly-co-per'don), 209. + cyathiforme (cy-a-thi-for'me), 210, pl. 81, fig. 209. + gemmatum (gem-ma'tum), 210, fig. 210. + giganteum (gi-gan'te-um), 210. + pyriforme (pyr-i-for'me), 211. + + + Marasmius (Ma-ras'mi-us), 130. + cohaerens (co-hae'rens), 132, 133, figs. 130, 249. + oreades (o-re'a-des), 131, fig. 129. + rotula (rot'u-la), 131. + + Merulius (Me-ru'li-us), 171, 172, 194. + lacrymans (lac'ry-mans), 194, pl. 73, figs. 189, 190. + tremellosus (trem-el-lo'sus), 194, pl. 74, figs. 191, 192. + + Mitremyces lutescens (Mi-trem'y-ces lu-tes'cens), 213. + + Morchella (Mor-chel'la), 217. + bispora (bis'po-ra), 219. + conica (con'i-ca), 217, fig. 217. + crassipes (cras'si-pes), 219, pl. 86, fig. 218. + deliciosa (de-lic-i-o'sa), 219. + esculenta (es-cu-len'ta), 217, pl. 85, fig. 216. + semilibera (sem-i-lib'e-ra), 219. + + Mucronella (Mu-cro-nel'la), 200. + + Mycena (My-ce'na), 93. + acicula (a-cic'u-la), 97, 98, fig. 100. + cyanothrix (cy-an'o-thrix), 98, fig. 101. + epipterygia (e-pip-te-ryg'i-a), 96, 97, fig. 98. + galericulata (gal-e-ric-u-la'ta), 94, 245. + haematopa (hae-mat'o-pa), 98--100, fig. 102. + polygramma (pol-y-gram'ma), 94, fig. 96. + praelonga (prae-lon'ga), 94, 95. + pura (pu'ra), 95, 96, fig. 97. + succosa (suc-co'sa), 100. + vulgaris (vul-ga'ris), 97, fig. 99. + + Myriostoma (Myr-i-os'to-ma), 209. + + + Naucoria (Nau-co'ri-a), 153. + semiorbicularis (sem-i-or-bic-u-la'ris), 153, 154. + vernalis (ver-na'lis), 154, fig. 150. + + + Ochre-spored agarics, 150. + + Omphalia (Om-pha'li-a), 100. + campanella (cam-pa-nel'la), 101, 254, pl. 33, figs. 103, 241. + epichysium (ep-i-chys'i-um), 101, fig. 104. + + + Panaeolus (Pa-nae'o-lus), 45. + fimicola (fi-mic'o-la), 48. + papilionaceus (pa-pil-i-o-na'ce-us), 48, fig. 247. + retirugis (re-ti-ru'gis), 45--48, pl. 11, figs. 45--48, 248. + solidipes (so-lid'i-pes), 48. + + Panus (Pa'nus), 134. + cyathiformis (cy-a-thi-for'mis), 135. + rudis (ru'dis), 135. + strigosus (stri-go'sus), 135. + stipticus (stip'ti-cus), 135, 136. + + Paxillus (Pax-il'lus) 165. + atro-tomentosus (at-ro-tom-en-to'sus), 169, fig. 161. + corrugatus (cor-ru-ga'tus), 170, pl. 53, fig. 162. + flavidus (flav'i-dus), 168. + involutus (in-vo-lu'tus), 166, 167, fig. 159. + panuoides (pan-u-oi'des), 170, pl. 54, fig. 163. + rhodoxanthus (rhod-o-xan'thus), 167, 168, pl. 52, fig. 160. + + Phalloideae (Phal-loid'e-ae), 213. + + Phlebia (Phle'bi-a), 195. + merismoides (mer-is-moi'des), pls. 75, 76, figs. 193, 194. + + Pholiota (Pho-li-o'ta), 150. + adiposa (ad-i-po'sa), 151, 152, pl. 47, fig. 146. + aurivella (au-ri-vel'la), 152. + cerasina (ce-ras'i-na), 152. + johnsoniana (john-so-ni-a'na), 153, pl. 49, fig. 149. + marginata (mar-gi-na'ta), 151, fig. 147. + praecox (prae'cox), 150, 151, pl. 46, fig. 145. + squarrosa (squar-ro'sa), 152. + squarrosoides (squar-ro-soi'des), 152, pl. 48, fig. 148. + subsquarrosa (sub-squar-ro'sa), 152. + unicolor (u-nic'o-lor), 151. + + Pleurotus (Pleu-ro'tus), 102. + applicatus (ap-pli-ca'tus), 109, 110, fig. 114. + corticatus (cor-ti-ca'tus), 106, pl. 37, fig. 110. + dryinus (dry'i-nus), 105, 106, pl. 36, figs. 109, 110. + ostreatus (os-tre-a'tus), 104, pl. 34, fig. 107. + petaloides (pet-a-loi'des), 107--109, figs. 112, 113. + sapidus (sap'i-dus), 104, 105, pl. 35, fig. 108. + serotinus (se-rot'i-nus), 109. + sulfureoides (sul-fu-re-oi'des), 107, fig. 111. + ulmarius (ul-ma'ri-us), 102--104, figs. 105, 106. + + Pluteus (Plu'te-us), 138. + cervinus (cer-vi'nus), 138, 139, fig. 135. + tomentosulus (to-men-tos'u-lus), 140, fig. 136. + + Polyporaceae (Pol-y-po-ra'ce-ae), 171. + + Polyporus (Po-lyp'o-rus), 171, 188--194. + applanatus (ap-pla-na'tus), 193, fig. 15. + borealis (bo-re-a'lis), 9, 10, figs. 9, 10. + brumalis (bru-ma'lis), 191, pl. 71, fig. 186. + fomentarius (fo-men-ta'rius), 194. + frondosus (fron-do'sus), 188, pls. 67, 68, figs. 181, 182. + igniarius (ig-ni-a'ri-us), 194. + intybaceus (in-ty-ba'ce-us), 184. + leucophaeus (leu-co-phae'us), 194. + lucidus (lu'ci-dus), 193, pl. 72, fig. 188. + sulphureus (sul-phu're-us), 190, pls. 69, 70, figs. 184, 185. + umbellatus (um-bel-la'tus), 189, fig. 183. + + Polystictus (Pol-y-stic'tus), 191. + cinnabarinus (cin-na-ba-ri'nus), 192. + cinnamomeus (cin-na-mo'me-us), 192, fig. 187. + connatus (con-na'tus), 192. + hirsutus (hir-su'tus), 192. + oblectans (ob-lec'tans), 192. + perennis (pe-ren'nis), 192, fig. 187. + pergamenus (per-ga-me'nus), 105, 193. + splendens (splen'dens), 192. + versicolor (ver-sic'o-lor), 192. + + Psalliota (Psal-li-o'ta), 18--26, 158. + + Psathyrella (Psath-y-rel'la), 48. + disseminata (dis-sem-i-na'ta), 48, 49, fig. 49. + + Psilocybe foenisecii (Psi-loc'y-be foe-ni-se'ci-i), 48. + + Purple-brown-spored agarics, 18. + + + Rosy-spored agarics, 138. + + Russula (Rus'su-la), 125. + adusta (ad-us'ta), 127, pl. 40. + alutacea (al-u-ta'ce-a), 125, 126, pl. 40. + emetica (e-met'i-ca), 127, pl. 40. + fragilis (frag'i-lis), 127. + furcata (fur-ca'ta), 127. + lepida (lep'i-da), 126, pl. 40. + nigricans (nig'ri-cans), 127. + virescens (vi-res'cens), 126, pl. 40. + + + Sarcoscypha floccosa (Sar-cos'cy-pha floc-co'sa), 221, 222, fig. 222. + + Schizophyllum (Schiz-o-phyl'lum), 136. + alneum (al'ne-um), 136, 137, fig. 133. + commune (com-mu'ne), 136. + + Scleroderma (Scler-o-der'ma), 212. + verrucosum (ver-ru-co'sum), 212. + vulgare (vul-ga're), 212. + + Spathularia velutipes (Spath-u-la'ri-a ve-lu'ti-pes), 220, fig. 220. + + Spinellus fusiger (Spi-nel'lus fu'si-ger) 95. + macrocarpus (mac-ro-car'pus), 95. + + Sterium (Ste'ri-um), 208. + + Strobilomyces (Strob-i-lom'y-ces), 184. + floccopus (floc'co-pus), 185. + strobilaceus (strob-i-la'ce-us), 184, pl. 64, figs. 177--179. + + Stropharia (Stro-pha'ri-a), 31. + aeruginosa (ae-ru-gi-no'sa), 32. + semiglobata (sem-i-glo-ba'ta), 31, fig. 30. + stercoraria (ster-co-ra'ri-a), 32. + + + Thelephoraceae (Thel-e-pho-ra'ce-ae), 208. + + Trametes (Tra-me'tes), 16, 193. + ambigua (am-big'u-a), 16, 17. + + Trembling fungi, 204. + + Tremellineae (Trem-el-lin'e-ae), 204. + + Tremella (Tre-mel'la), 204. + frondosa (fron-do'sa), 205, fig. 206. + fuciformis (fu-ci-for'mis), 206, fig. 207. + lutescens (lu-tes'cens), 205. + mycetophila (my-ce-toph'i-la), 204, fig. 205. + + Tricholoma (Trich-o-lo'ma), 87. + peckii (peck'i-i), 85, 86. + personatum (per-so-na'tum), 87, figs. 87, 88. + sejunctum (se-junc'tum), 88, fig. 89. + + Trogia (Tro'gi-a), 137. + crispa (cris'pa), 137, pl. 43, fig. 134. + + Tubaria (Tu-ba'ri-a), 159. + pellucida (pel-lu'ci-da), 159, fig. 153. + + Tube-bearing fungi, 171. + + + Verpa bohemica (Ver'pa bo-hem'i-ca), 219. + + Volvaria (vol-va'ri-a), 140. + bombycina (bom-byc'i-na), 140, 141, fig. 137. + speciosa (spe-ci-o'sa), 141, 142. + + + White-spored agarics, 52. + + + + +INDEX TO SPECIES. + + + acicula (Mycena), 97. + acutesquamosa (Lepiota), 81. + adiposa (Pholiota), 151. + adusta (Russula), 127. + aeruginosa (Stropharia), 32. + alneum (Schizophyllum), 136. + alutacea (Russula), 125. + ambigua (Daedalea), 16. + ambigua (Trametes), 16. + americana (Lepiota), 80. + americanus (Boletus), 178. + antipoda (Galera), 155. + applanatus (Crepidotus), 161. + applanatus (Polyporus), 193. + appendiculatum (Hypholoma), 27. + applicatus (Pleurotus), 109. + arvensis (Agaricus), 20. + asperula (Lepiota), 82. + asprella (Leptonia), 147. + atramentarius (Coprinus), 40. + atro-tomentosus (Paxillus), 169. + aurantia (Armillaria), 84. + aurantiacus (Cantharellus), 129. + aurivella (Pholiota), 152. + + badhami (Lepiota), 81. + bispora (Morchella), 219. + bohemica (Verpa), 219. + bombycina (Volvaria), 140. + botrytes (Clavaria), 202. + brevipes (Boletus), 179. + brumalis (Polyporus), 191. + bulbosus (Boletus), 172. + + caesarea (Amanita), 70. + calolepis (Crepidotus), 161. + campestris (Agaricus), 18. + campanella (Omphalia), 101. + candida (Clitocybe), 89. + candolleanum (Hypholoma), 28. + cantharellus (Craterellus), 208. + caput-medusae (Hydnum), 198. + caput-ursi (Hydnum), 197. + caudicinus (Polyporus), 190. + cerasina (Pholiota), 152. + cervinus (Pluteus), 138. + chelidonium (Lactarius), 124. + chimonophilus (Crepidotus), 160. + chromapes (Boletus), 176. + chrysodon (Hygrophorus), 111. + chrysorrheus (Lactarius), 122. + cibarius (Cantharellus), 128. + cinnabarinum (Calostoma), 212. + cinnabarinus (Polystictus), 192. + cinnamomeus (Cortinarius), 162. + cinnamomeus (Polystictus), 192. + coccinea (Sarcoscypha), 222. + coccineus (Hygrophorus), 112. + cohaerens (Marasmius), 132. + cohaerens (Mycena), 132. + collinitus (Cortinarius), 161. + comatus (Coprinus), 33. + commune (Schizophyllum), 136. + comtulus (Agaricus), 24. + conica (Morchella), 217. + conicus (Hygrophorus), 114. + connatus (Polystictus), 192. + coprinoides (Galera), 155. + coralloides (Hydnum), 196. + cornucopioides (Craterellus), 208. + corrugatus (Paxillus), 170. + corrugis (Lactarius), 116. + corticatus (Pleurotus), 106. + cothurnata (Amanita), 66. + cretaceus (Agaricus), 79. + crassipes (Morchella), 219. + crispa (Helvella), 219. + crispa (Trogia), 139. + cristata (Lepiota), 81. + crustuliniforme (Hebeloma), 158. + cyanothrix (Mycena), 98. + cyathiforme (Lycoperdon), 209. + cyathiformis (Clitocybe), 90. + cyathiformis (Panus), 135. + + deliciosa (Morchella), 219. + deliciosus (Lactarius), 123. + diminutivus (Agaricus), 26. + disseminata (Psathyrella), 48. + dryinus (Pleurotus), 105. + dryophila (Collybia), 204. + duplicata (Dictyophora), 214. + + eburneus (Hygrophorous), 111. + echinata (Inocybe), 158. + edulus (Boletus), 172. + emetica (Russula), 127. + epichysium (Omphalia), 101. + epipterygia (Mycena), 96. + erinaceus (Hydnum), 198. + esculenta (Gyromitra), 220. + esculenta (Morchella), 217. + + farinosa (Amanitopsis), 76. + felleus (Boletus), 173. + fimicola (Panaeolus), 48. + firma (Fistulina), 186. + flava (Galera), 155. + flavidus (Boletus), 178. + flavidus (Paxillus), 168. + floccocephala (Amanita), 62. + floccopus (Strobilomyces), 185. + floccosa (Sarcoscypha), 221. + foenisecii (Psilocybe), 48. + fomentarius (Polyporus), 194. + formosa (Clavaria), 201. + fragile (Hydnum), 200. + fragilis (Russula), 127. + frondosa (Tremella), 205. + frondosus (Polyporus), 188. + frostiana (Amanita), 54. + fuciformis (Tremella), 206. + fuligineus (Hygrophorus), 113. + fuliginosus (Lactarius), 118. + fulvotomentosus (Crepidotus), 161. + furcata (Russula), 127. + fusiger (Spinellus), 95. + + galericulata (Mycena), 94. + gemmatum (Lycoperdon), 210. + gerardii (Lactarius), 119. + giganteum (Lycoperdon), 210. + glandulosa (Exidia), 206. + glutinosus (Gomphidius), 51. + granulatus (Boletus), 178. + graveolens (Hydnum), 200. + grayanum (Entoloma), 144. + + haematopa (Mycena), 98. + hepatica (Fistulina), 186. + herbarum (Crepidotus), 160. + hirsutus (Polystictus), 192. + hypothejus (Hygrophorus), 114. + + igniarius (Polyporus), 194. + illudens (Clitocybe), 90. + imbricatum (Hydnum), 198. + impudicus (Ithyphallus), 216. + incana (Leptonia), 147. + indigo (Lactarius), 125. + infundibuliformis (Clitocybe), 90. + intybaceus (Polyporus), 189. + involutus (Paxillus), 166. + + johnsoniana (Pholiota), 153. + jubatum (Entoloma), 143. + + laccata (Clitocybe), 89. + lachnophylla (Collybia), 132. + lachrymabundum (Hypholoma), 28. + lacrymans (Merulius), 194. + lacunosa (Helvella), 220. + laevis (Annularia), 78. + lateritia (Galera), 155. + lecomtei, (Lentinus), 135. + lepida (Russula), 126. + lepideus (Lentinus), 135. + lignyotus (Lactarius), 117. + livida (Amanitopsis), 75. + longipes (Collybia), 93. + lubrica (Leotia), 221. + lucidus (Polyporus), 193. + leucophaeus (Polyporus), 194. + lutescens (Calostoma), 212. + lutescens (Mitremyces), 213. + lutescens (Tremella), 205. + luteus (Boletus), 181. + + macrocarpus (Spinellus), 95. + mappa (Amanita), 58. + marginata (Pholiota), 151. + maritimus (Agaricus), 142. + merismoides (Phlebia), 195. + mellea (Armillaria), 83. + micaceus (Coprinus), 42. + miniatus (Hygrophorus), 113. + morgani (Lepiota), 80. + mucida (Clavaria), 203. + muscaria (Amanita), 52. + mycetophila (Tremella), 205. + + naucina (Lepiota), 77. + nigricans (Gomphidius), 49. + nigricans (Russula), 127. + nivalis (Amanitopsis), 76. + + oblectans (Polystictus), 192. + obsonium (Boletus), 177. + ochroleucus (Cortinarius), 163. + orcella (Clitopilus), 143. + oreades (Marasmius), 131. + ornatipes (Boletus), 174. + ostreatus (Pleurotus), 104. + + pallida (Fistulina), 186. + pantherina (Amanita), 69. + panuoides (Paxillus), 170. + papilionaccus (Panaeolus), 48. + paradoxa (Flammula), 168. + peckii (Tricholoma), 85. + pelletieri (Clitocybe), 168. + pellucida (Tubaria), 159. + perennis (Polystictus), 192. + pergamenus (Lactarius), 121. + pergamenus (Polystictus), 193. + perplexum (Hypholoma), 27. + personatum (Tricholoma), 87. + petaloides (Pleurotus), 107. + phalloides (Amanita), 55. + pictus (Boletinus), 183. + pinicola (Polyporus), 194. + piperatus (Lactarius), 120. + pistillaris (Clavaria), 203. + pistillaris (Craterellus), 203. + placomyces (Agaricus), 19. + platyphylla (Collybia), 93. + polita (Eccilia), 148. + polychroa (Flammula), 156. + polygramma (Mycena), 94. + polypyramis (Amanita), 74. + porosus (Boletinus), 184. + praecox, (Pholiota), 150. + praelonga (Mycena), 94. + pratensis (Hygrophorus), 113. + procera (Lepiota), 79. + prunulus (Clitopilus), 142. + psittacinus (Hygrophorus), 114. + punctipes (Boletus), 179. + pura (Mycena), 95. + putidum (Hydnum), 199. + pyriforme (Lycoperdon), 211. + + rachodes (Lepiota), 79. + radicata (Collybia), 93. + ravenelii (Dictyophora), 215. + repanda (Inocybe), 257. + repandum (Entoloma), 143. + repandum (Hydnum), 198. + resimus (Lactarius), 121. + retirugis (Chalymotta), 48. + retirugis (Panaeolus), 45. + rhodoxanthus (Flammula), 168. + rhodoxanthus (Gomphidius), 168. + rhodoxanthus (Paxillus), 167. + rodmani (Agaricus), 20. + rotula (Marasmius), 130. + rubescens (Amanita), 71. + rudis (Panus), 135. + rufus (Gyrocephalus), 207. + rugocephalum (Hypholoma), 30. + + sapidus (Pleurotus), 104. + sapinea (Flammula), 157. + scaber (Boletus), 174. + sejunctum (Tricholoma), 88. + semiglobata (Stropharia), 31. + semilibera (Morchella), 219. + semiorbicularis (Naucoria), 153. + serotinus (Pleurotus), 109. + silvaticus (Agaricus), 21. + silvicola (Agaricus), 22. + solidipes (Panaeolus), 48. + solitaria (Amanita), 72. + spadicea (Amanitopsis), 75. + speciosa (Volvaria), 141. + spinulifera (Collybia), 132. + splendens (Polystictus), 192. + spreta (Amanita), 69. + squarrosa (Pholiota), 152. + squarrosoides (Pholiota), 152. + stercoraria (Stropharia), 32. + stipticus (Lentinus), 135. + stipticus (Panus), 135. + strictius (Entoloma), 145. + strigosus (Panus), 135. + strobilaceus (Strobilomyces), 184. + strobiliformis (Amanita), 73. + sublateritium (Hypholoma), 26. + subluteus (Boletus), 181. + subrufescens (Agaricus), 23. + subsquarrosa (Pholiota), 152. + subtomentosus (Boletus), 167. + succosa (Mycena), 100. + sulphureus (Polyporus), 190. + sulfureoides (Pleurotus), 107. + + tammii (Flammula), 179. + tenera (Galera), 155. + tomentosulus (Pluteus), 140. + tomninosus (Lactarius), 119. + tremellosus (Merulius), 194. + + ulmarius (Pleurotus), 102. + umbellatus (Polyporus), 189. + unicolor (Pholiota), 151. + + vaginata (Amanitopsis), 74. + variicolor (Bolbitius), 164. + velutinum (Hydnum), 200. + velatipes (Amanita), 63. + velutipes (Collybia), 92. + velutipes (Spathularia), 220. + vermiculosus (Boletus), 177. + verna (Amanita), 60. + vernalis (Naucoria), 154. + verrucosum (Scleroderma), 212. + versicolor (Polystictus), 192. + versutus (Crepidotus), 160. + violacens (Cortinarius), 161. + virescens (Russula), 126. + virosa (Amanita), 61. + volemus (Lactarius), 115. + volvata (Amanitopsis), 76. + vulgare (Scleroderma), 212. + vulgaris (Mycena), 97. + vulpinus (Lentinus), 134. + + + + + * * * * * * + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + + +Page 17 +[A] For analytical keys to the families and genera see Chapter XXII. +Changed Chapter XXII to XXIV. +Apparently Chapters were added making these references outdated. + +Page 18 +[B] For analytical key to the genera see Chapter XXII. +Changed Chapter XXII to XXIV. + +Page 32 +The spores are black in mass, not purple tinged. For analytical keys +to the genera see Chapter XXII. +Changed XXII to XXIV. + +Page 33 +Changed kornos to kopros in accordance with printed correction list. + +Page 52 +The spores are white in mass, or sometimes with a faint yellowish or +lilac tinge. For analytical keys to the genera see Chapter XXII. +Changed XXII to XXIV. + +Page 54 +Figures 52--54 are from plants (No. 2065 C. U. herbarium) collected in +an open woods near Ithaca. For the poisonous property of the plant see +Chapter XX. +Changed Chapter XX to Chapter XXII. + +Page 58 +condition of the circumsissle +Changed to circumscissile. + +Page 60 +as _A. verna_; the pilus convex, the annulus broad and entire, +Changed to pileus. + +Page 69 +a few remnants of the volva, striate on the margin, and 1-.5 cm. +Unchanged, although 1-1.5 cm. may have been intended. + +Page 71 Facing Plate 19 +Fig. 2.--A. caesaria. +Changed to caesarea. + +Page 104 +often in a recticulate fashion. The =spores= are white, oblong, 7--10 mu +Changed to 'reticulate'. + +Page 132 +variations being due to numbers of colored cystida +Changed to cystidia. + +Page 138 +The spores are rosy, pink, salmon colored, flesh colored, or reddish. +For analytical keys to the genera see Chapter XXII. +Changed Chapter XXII to XXIV. + +Page 148 +The =pileus= is convex and umbilcate, somewhat membranaceous, smooth, +Changed to umbilicate. + +Page 150 +The spores are ochre yellow, rusty, rusty-brown, or some shade of +yellow. For analytical keys to the genera see Chapter XXII. +Changed XXII to XXIV. + +Page 155 +membraneous, ovate or companulate +Changed to campanulate. + +Page 164 +during May and June, 1898, in a freshly manured grass plat between +plat = a portion of flat, even ground. + +Page 182 +were found in open woods under Kalmia were the sun had an opportunity +Changed to 'where the sun'. + +Page 209 +giant buff-ball, and the _L. cyathiforme_, where the wall or peridium +Changed to 'puff-ball'. + +Page 220 +Changed Gyromytra to Gyromitra in accordance with the corrections list. + +Page 226 +then the specimen must be covered with a bell-bar or other receiver +Changed to 'bell-jar'. + +Page 265 +or compartment where there is little moisture, until the bricks are +Unchanged. Although, 'a little moisture' seems to make more sense. + +Page 283 +also wash and remove the pores from half a dozen good sized "beefsteak" +Changed to 'spores'. + +Page 290 +made, but it may be assumed that the soluble cabohydrates +Changed to carbohydrates. + +Page 307 +honey-combed surface, or recticulate, +Changed to 'reticulate'. + +Page 309 +=Gills= not decurrent, plants parastic on other mushrooms. +Changed to parasitic. + +Page 310 +=4=--=Stipe= tenaceous, margin of pileus first incurved. +Changed to tenacious. + +Page 320 +carnucopioides (Craterellus), 208. +Changed to cornucopioides. + +Page 322 +spreta (Amanita), 69. +Relocated alphbetically 2 lines up from original. + +Hyphenation +Some hyphenation is inconsistent depending on whether it is used in +text or in an index/glossary. + +Accents +Some accents are inconsistent between text and illustration captions. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI. +MUSHROOMS, EDIBLE, POISONOUS, ETC.*** + + +******* This file should be named 26492.txt or 26492.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/6/4/9/26492 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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