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diff --git a/26638.txt b/26638.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..14087ba --- /dev/null +++ b/26638.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6737 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Pictorial Composition and the Critical +Judgment of Pictures by Henry Rankin Poore + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Pictorial Composition and the Critical Judgment of Pictures + +Author: Henry Rankin Poore + +Release Date: September 16, 2008 [Ebook #26638] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PICTORIAL COMPOSITION AND THE CRITICAL JUDGMENT OF PICTURES*** + + + + + + [Light and Shade--Geo. Inness] + + + + + +Pictorial Composition and the Critical Judgment of Pictures + +A Handbook for Students and Lovers of Art +By H. R. Poore + +New York and London +G. P. Putnam's Sons + +1903 + + + + + +_It is with sincere pleasure that I dedicate this book to my first +teacher, Peter Moran, as an acknowledgment to the interest he inspired in +this important subject_ + + + + + +PREFACE + + +This book has been prepared because, although the student has been +abundantly supplied with aids to decorative art, there is little within +his reach concerning pictorial composition. + +I have added thereto hints on the critical judgment of pictures with the +hope of simplifying to the many the means of knowing pictures, prompted by +the recollection of the topsyturviness of this question as it confronted +my own mind a score of years ago. I was then apt to strain at a Corot +hoping to discover in the employment of some unusual color or method the +secret of its worth, and to think of the old masters as a different order +of beings from the rest of mankind. + +Let me trust that, to a degree at least, these pages may prove +iconoclastic, shattering the images created of superstitious reverence and +allowing, in their stead, the result in art from whatever source to be +substituted as something quite as worthy of this same homage. + +The author acknowledges the courtesies of the publishers of _Scribners,_ +_The Century _and _Munsey's_ magazines, D. Appleton, Manzi, Joyant & Co., +and of the artists giving consent to the use of their pictures for this +book. Acknowledgment is also made to F. A. Beardsley, H. K. Freeman and +L. Lord, for sketches contributed thereto. + + Henry Rankin Poore +Orange, N. J., Feb. 1, 1903. + + + + + +PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION + + +The revision which the text of this book has undergone has clarified +certain parts of it and simplified the original argument by a complete +sequence of page references and an index. The appendix reduces the +contents to a working formula with the purpose of rendering practical the +suggestions of the text. + +In its present form it seeks to meet the requirements of the student who +desires to proceed from the principles of formal and decorative +composition into the range of pictorial construction. + + H. R. P. + + + + + +PREFACE TO TENTH EDITION + + +After twelve years _Pictorial Composition_ continues with a steady demand. +Through the English house it has become "a standard" in the British Isles +and finds a market in India and Australia. + +At the request of a few artists of Holland it has been translated and will +shortly be issued in Dutch. + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Preface +PART I + CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTORY + CHAPTER II - THE SCIENTIFIC SENSE IN PICTURES + CHAPTER III - BALANCE + BALANCE OF THE STEELYARD. + POSTULATES + VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL BALANCE. + THE NATURAL AXIS + APPARENT OR FORMAL BALANCE. + BALANCE BY OPPOSITION OF LINE. + BALANCE BY OPPOSITION OF SPOTS. + TRANSITION OF LINE. + BALANCE BY GRADATION + BALANCE OF PRINCIPALITY OR ISOLATION + BALANCE OF CUBICAL SPACE. + CHAPTER IV - EVOLVING THE PICTURE + CHAPTER V - ENTRANCE AND EXIT + GETTING INTO THE PICTURE + GETTING OUT OF THE PICTURE + CHAPTER VI - THE CIRCULAR OBSERVATION OF PICTURES + CIRCULAR COMPOSITION + RECONSTRUCTION FOR CIRCULAR OBSERVATION. + CHAPTER VII - ANGULAR COMPOSITION, THE LINE OF BEAUTY AND THE RECTANGLE + THE VERTICAL LINE IN ANGULAR COMPOSITION + ANGULAR COMPOSITION BASED ON THE HORIZONTAL + THE LINE OF BEAUTY. + THE RECTANGLE + CHAPTER VIII - THE COMPOSITION OF ONE, TWO, THREE AND MORE UNITS + THE FIGURE IN LANDSCAPE + CHAPTER IX - GROUPS + CHAPTER X - LIGHT AND SHADE + PRINCIPALITY BY EMPHASIS, SACRIFICE, AND CONTRAST. + GRADATION + CHAPTER XI - THE PLACE OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN FINE ART +PART II - THE AESTHETICS OF COMPOSITION + CHAPTER XII - BREADTH VERSUS DETAIL + SUGGESTIVENESS. + MYSTERY. + SIMPLICITY. + RESERVE. + RELIEF. + FINISH. +PART III - THE CRITICAL JUDGEMENT OF PICTURES + CHAPTER XIV - SPECIFIC QUALITIES AND FAULTS + CHAPTER XV - THE PICTURE SENSE + CHAPTER XVI - COLOR, HARMONY, TONE + VALUES. + CHAPTER XVII - ENVELOPMENT AND COLOR PERSPECTIVE + CHAPTER XVIII - THE BIAS OF JUDGMENT + CHAPTER XIX - THE LIVING PRINCIPLE +APPENDIX + + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + +Light and Shade--Geo. Inness +Fundamental Forms of Construction +Why Art Without Composition is Crippled: The Madonna of the Veil--Raphael; +The Last Judgement--Michael Angelo; Birth of the Virgin Mary--Durer; The +Annunciation--Botticelli; In Central Park; The Inn--Teniers +Three Ideas in Pictorial Balance +Pines in Winter (Unbalance); The Connoisseurs--Fortuny (Balance of the +Steelyards) +Portrait of Sara Bernhardt--Clairin (Balance Across the Natrual Axis) +Lady with Muff--Photo A. Hewitt (Steelyard in Perspective) +Lion in the Desert--Gerome (Balance of Isolated Measures); Salute to the +Wounded--Detaille (Balance of Equal Measures) +Indian and Horse--Photo A.C. Bode (Oppposition of Light and Dark +Measures); The Cabaret--L. L'hermitte (Opposition Plus Transition) +Along the Shore--Photo by George Butler (Transitional line); +Pathless--Photo by A. Horsely Hinton (Transitional Line) +Hillside (Graded Light Upon Surfaces; Cloud Shadows); River Fog (Light +Graded by Atmospheric Density); The Chant (Gradation through Values of +Separated Objects) +The View-Metre +Three Pictures Found with the View-Metre +View Taken with a Wide Angle Lens +Photography Nearing the Pictorial +The Path of the Surf--Photo (Triangles Occuring in the leading line); The +Shepherdess--Millet (Composition Exhibiting a Double Exit) +Circular Observation--The Principle; The Slaying of the Unpropitious +Messengers (Triangular Composition--Circular Observation) +Huntsman and Hounds (Triangle with Circular Attraction); Portrait of Van +der Geest--Van Dyck (A sphere within a Circle) +Marriage of Bacchus and Ariadne--Tintoretto (Circle and Radius); +Endymion--Watts (The Circle--Vertical Plane) +The Fight Over the Body of Patroclus--Weirls; 1807--Meissonier; Ville +d'Avray--Corot; The Circle in Perspective +The Hermit--Gerard Dow (Rectangle in Circle); The Forge of Vulcan--Boucher +(Circular Observation by Suppression of Sides and Corners) +Orpheus and Eurydice--Corot (Figures outside the natural line of the +picture's composition); The Holy Family--Andrea del Sarto (The circle +overbalanced) +The Herder--Jaque +Alone--Jacques Israels (Constructive Synthesis upon the Vertical); The +Dance--Carpeaux (The Cross Within the Circle) +Sketches from Landscapes by Henry Ranger; Parity of Horizonatals and +Verticals; Crossings of Horizontals by Spot Diversion +Sketch from the Book of Truth--Claude Lorrain (Rectangle Unbalanced); The +Beautiful Gate--Raphael (Verticals Destroying Pictorial Unity) +Mother and Child--Orchardson (Horizontals opposed or Covered); Stream in +Winter--W. E. Schofield (Verticals and Horizontals vs. Diagonal) +Hogarth's Line of Beauty +Aesthetics of Line; The Altar; Roman Invasion--F. Lamayer (Vertical line +in action; dignified, measured, ponderous); The Flock--P. Moran (The +horizontal, typifying quietude, repose, calm, solemnity); The curved line: +variety, movement; Man with Stone--V. Spitzer (Transitional Line, +Cohesion); The Dance--Rubens (The ellipse: line of continuity and unity); +Swallows--From the Strand (The diagonal: line of action; speed) +Aesthetics of Line, Continued, Where Line is the motive and Decoration is +the Impulse; Winter Landscape--After Photograph (Line of grace, variety, +facile sequence); Line Versus Space (The same impulse with angular energy, +The line more attractive than the plane); Reconciliation--Glackens +(Composition governed by the decorative exterior line); December--After +Photograph (Radial lines with strong focalization) +Unity and its Lack; The Lovers--Gussow; The Poulterers--Wallander +Return of Royal Hunting Party--Isabey; The Night Watch--Rembrandt +Departure for the Chase--Cuyp (Background Compromising Original +Structure); Repose of the Reapers--L. L'hermite (The Curvilinear Line) +The Decorative and Pictorial Group; Allegory of Spring--Botticelli +(Separated concepts expressing separate ideas); Dutch Fisher Folk--F. V. +S. (Separated concepts of one idea); The Cossack's Reply--Repin (Unity +through a cumulative idea) +Fundamental Forms of Chiaroscuro; Whistler's Portrait of his Mother; +Moorland--E. Yon; Charcoal Study--Millet; The Arbor--Ferrier +Fundamental Forms of Chiaroscuro, Continued; Landscape--Geo. Inness; The +Kitchen--Whistler; St. Angela--Robt. Reid; An Annam Tiger--Surrand; The +Shrine--Orchardson; Monastic Life--F. V. DuMond +A Reversible Effect of Light and Shade (The Same Subject Vertically and +Horizontally Presented) +Spots and Masses; Note-book sketches from Rubens, Velasquez, Claude +Lorrain and Murillo +Death of Caesar--Gerome; The Travel of the Soul--After Howard Pyle +Bishop Potter +Decorative Evolving the Pictorial; The North River--Prendergast; An +Intrusion--Bull; Landscape Arrangement--Guerin +Stable Interior--A. Mauve (A simple picture containing all the principles +of composition); Her Last Moorings--From a Photograph +Alice--W.M. Chase (Verticals Diverted); Lady Archibald Campbell--Whistler +(Verticals Obliterated); The Crucifixion--Amie Morot (Verticals Opposed) + + + + + + +PART I + + + + +"The painter is a compound of a poet and a man of science." + + _--Hamerton_ + + + + +"It is working within limits that the artist reveals himself." + + --_Goethe._ + + + + +CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTORY + + +This volume is addressed to three classes of readers; to the layman, to +the amateur photographer, and to the professional artist. To the latter +it speaks more in the temper of the studio discussion than in the spirit +didactic. But, emboldened by the friendliness the profession always +exhibits toward any serious word in art, the writer is moved to believe +that the matters herein discussed may be found worthy of the artist's +attention--perhaps of his question. For that reason the tone here and +there is argumentative. + +The question of balance has never been reduced to a theory or stated as a +set of principles which could be sustained by anything more than example, +which, as a working basis must require reconstruction with every change of +subject. Other forms of construction have been sifted down in a search +for the governing principle,--a substitution for the "rule and example." + +To the student and the amateur, therefore, it must be said this is not a +"how-to-do" book. The number of these is legion, especially in painting, +known to all students, wherein the matter is didactic and usually set +forth with little or no argument. Such volumes are published because of +the great demand and are demanded because the student, in his haste, will +not stop for principles, and think it out. He will have a rule for each +case; and when his direct question has been answered with a principle, he +still inquires, "Well, what shall I do here?" + +Why preach the golden rule of harmony as an abstraction, when inharmony is +the concrete sin to be destroyed. We reach the former by elimination. +Whatever commandments this book contains, therefore, are the shalt nots. + +As the problems to the maker of pictures by photography are the same as +those of the painter and the especial ambition of the former's art is to +be painter-like, separations have been thought unnecessary in the address +of the text. It is the best wish of the author that photography, +following painting in her essential principles as she does, may prove +herself a well met companion along art's highway,--seekers together, at +arm's length, and in defined limits, of the same goal. + +The mention of artists' names has been limited, and a liberal allusion to +many works avoided because to multiply them is both confusing and +unnecessary. + +To the art lover this book may be found of interest as containing the +_reasons_ in picture composition, and through them an aid to critical +judgment. We adapt our education from quaint and curious sources. It is +the apt correlation of the arts which accounts for the acknowledgment by +an English story writer that she got her style from Ruskin's "Principles +of Drawing"; and of a landscape painter that to sculpture he owed his +discernment of the forest secrets, by daily observing the long lines of +statues in the corridor of the Royal Academy; or by the composer of +pictures to the composer of music; or by the preacher that suggestions to +discourse had come to him through the pictorial processes of the painter. + + + + +CHAPTER II - THE SCIENTIFIC SENSE IN PICTURES + + +The poet-philosopher Emerson declared that he studied geology that he +might better write poetry. + +For a moment the two elements of the proposition stand aghast and defiant; +but only for a moment. The poet, who from the top looks down upon the +whole horizon of things can never use the tone of authority if his gaze be +a surface one. He must know things in their depth in order that the +glance may be sufficient. + +The poet leaves his geology and botany, his grammar and rhetoric on the +shelf when he makes his word picture. After he has expressed his thought +however he may have occasion to call on the books of science, the grammar +and rhetoric and _these may very seriously interfere with the spontaneous +product._ So do the sentries posted on the boundary of the painter's art +protect it from the liberties taken in the name of originality. + +"The progressive element in our art," says the author of "The Law of +Progress in Art," "is the scientific element. . . . Artists will not be +any more famous for being scientific, but they are compelled to become +scientific because they have embraced a profession which includes science. +What I desire to enforce is the great truth that _within_ the art of +painting there exists, flourishes and advances a noble and glorious +_science_ which is essential and progressive." + +"Any one who can learn to write can learn to draw;" and every one who can +learn to draw should learn to _compose_ pictures. That all do not is in +evidence in the work of the many accomplished draughtsmen who have +delineated their ideas on canvas and paper from the time of the earliest +masters to the present day, wherein the ability to produce the details of +form is manifest in all parts of the work, but in the combination of those +parts the first intention of their presence has lost force. + +Composition is the science of combination, and the art of the world has +progressed as do the processes of the kindergarten. Artists first +received form; then color; the materials, then the synthesis of the two. +Notable examples of the world's great compositions may be pointed to in +the work of the Renaissance painters, and such examples will be cited; but +the major portion of the art by which these exceptions were surrounded +offers the same proportion of good to bad as the inverse ratio would +to-day. + +Without turning to serious argument at this point, a superficial one, +which will appeal to most art tourists, whether professional or lay, is +found in the relief experienced in passing from the galleries of the old +to those of the new art in Europe, in that one finds repose and +experiences a relief of mental tension, discovering with the latter the +balance of line, of mass and of color, and that general simplicity so +necessary to harmony, which suggests that the weakness of the older art +lay in the last of the three essentials of painting; form, color and +composition. The low-toned harmonies of time-mellowed color we would be +loath to exchange for aught else, except for that element of disturbance +so vague and so difficult of definition, namely, lack of composition. + + [Fundamental Forms of Construction] + +In the single case of portrait composition of two figures (more difficult +than of one, three or more) it is worthy of note how far beyond the older +are the later masters; or in the case of the grouping of landscape +elements, or in the arrangement of figures or animals _in_ landscape, how +a finer sense in such arrangement has come to art. Masterful composition +of many figures however has never been surpassed in certain examples of +Michael Angelo, Rubens, Corregio and the great Venetians, yet while we +laud the successes of these men we should not forget their lapses nor the +errors in composition of their contemporaries. + +Those readers who have been brought up in the creed and catechism of the +old masters, and swallowed them whole, with no questions, I beg will lay +aside traditional prejudice, and regarding every work with reference to +neither name nor date, challenge it only with the countersign "good +composition." This will require an unsentimental view, which need not and +should not be an unsympathetic one, but which would bare the subject of +that which overzealous devotion has bestowed upon it, a compound +accumulation of centuries. + +The most serious work yet written on composition, Burnet's "Light and +Shade," was penned at a time when the influence of old masters held +undisputed sway. The thought of that day in syllogism would run as +follows: The work of the Old Masters in its composition is beyond +reproach. Botticelli, Raphael, Paul Potter, Wouvermans, Cuyp, +Domenichino, Duerer, Teniers et al., are Old Masters. Therefore, we accept +their works as models of good composition, to be followed for all ages. +And under such a creed a work valuable from many points of view has been +crippled by its free use of models, which in some cases compromise the +arguments of the author, and in others, if used by artists of the present +day, would only serve to administer a rebuke to their simple trust, in +that practical manner known to juries, hanging committees and publishers. + + [Why Art Without Composition is Crippled: The Madonna of the + Veil--Raphael; The Last Judgement--Michael Angelo; Birth of the Virgin + Mary--Durer; The Annunciation--Botticelli; In Central Park; The + Inn--Teniers] + +The slight advance made in the field of painting during the past three +centuries has come through this channel, and strange would it seem if the +striving of this long period should show no improvement in any direction. + +Composition is the mortar of the wall, as drawing and color are its rocks +of defence. Without it the stones are of little value, and are but +separate integrals having no unity. If the reader agrees with this, then +he agrees to throw out of the category of _the picture_ all pictorial +representations which show no composition. This classification eliminates +most of the illustrations of scientific work; such illustrations as aim +only at facts of incident, space or topography, photographic reproductions +of groups wherein each individual is shown to be quite as important as +every other, and which, therefore, become a collection of separate +pictures, and such illustrations as are frequently met with in the daily +papers, where opportunities for picture-making have been diverted to show +where the victim fell, and where the murderer escaped, or where the man +drowned--usually designated by a star. These are not pictures, but +perspective maps to locate events. Besides these, in the field of +painting, are to be found now and then products of an artist's skill +which, though interesting in technique and color, give little pleasure to +a well-balanced mind, destitute as they are of the simple principles which +govern the universe of matter. Take from nature the principles of +balance, and you deprive it of harmony; take from it harmony and you have +chaos. + +A picture may have as its component parts a man, a horse, a tree, a fence, +a road and a mountain; but these thrown together upon canvas do not make a +picture; and not, indeed, until they have been arranged or composed. + +The argument, therefore, is that without composition, there can be no +picture; that the composition of pictorial units into a whole _is_ the +picture. + +Simple as its principles are, it is amazing, one might almost say amusing, +to note how easily they eluded many artists of the earlier periods, whose +work technically is valuable, and how the new school of Impressionism or +Naturalism has assumed their non-importance. That all Impressionists do +not agree with the following is evidenced by the good that comes to us +with their mark,--"Opposed to the miserable law of composition, symmetry, +balance, arrangement of parts, filling of space, as though Nature herself +does not do that ten thousand times better in her own pretty way." The +assertion that composition is a part of Nature's law, that it is done by +her and well done we are glad to hear in the same breath of invective that +seeks to annihilate it. When, under this curse we take from our picture +one by one the elements on which it is builded, the result we would be +able to present without offence to the author of "Naturalistic Painting," +Mr. Francis Bate. + +"The artist," says Mr. Whistler, "is born to pick, and choose, and group +with science these elements, that the result may be beautiful--as the +musician gathers his notes and forms his chords until he brings forth from +chaos glorious harmony. To say to the painter that Nature is to be taken, +as she is, is to say to the player that he may sit on the piano. That +Nature is always right is an assertion artistically, as untrue as it is +one whose truth is universally taken for granted. Nature is very rarely +right to such an extent, even, that it might almost be said that Nature is +usually wrong; that is to say, the condition of things that shall bring +about the perfection of harmony worthy a picture is rare, and not common +at all." + +Between the life class, with its model standing in academic pose and the +pictured scene in which the model becomes a factor in the expression of an +idea, there is a great gulf fixed. The precept of the ateliers is paint +the figure; if you can do that, you can paint anything. + +Influenced by this half truth many a student, with years of patient life +school training behind him, has sought to enter the picture-making stage +with a single step. He then discovers that what he had learned to do +cleverly by means of routine practice, was in reality the easiest thing to +do in the manufacture of a picture, and that sterner difficulties awaited +him in his settlement of the figure into its surroundings--background and +foreground.(1) + +Many portrait painters assert that it is the setting of the subject which +gives them the most trouble. The portraitist deals with but a single +figure, yet this, in combination with its scanty support, provokes this +well-known comment. + +The lay community cannot understand this. It seems illogical. It can only +be comprehended by him who paints. + +The figure is tangible and represents the known. The background is a +space opened into the unknown, a place for the expressions of fancy. It +is the tone quality accompanying the song, the subject's reliance for +balance and contrast. An inquiry into the statement that the accessories +of the subject demand a higher degree of artistic skill than the painting +of the subject itself, and that on these accessories depend the carrying +power of the subject, leads directly to the principles of composition. + +"It must of necessity be," says Sir Joshua Reynolds, "that even works of +genius, like every other effect, as they must have their cause, must also +have their rules; it cannot be by chance that excellencies are produced +with any constancy or any certainty, for this is not the nature of chance; +but the rules by which men of extraordinary parts, and such as are called +men of genius, work, are either such as they discover by their own +peculiar observations, or of such a nice texture as not easily to admit +being expressed in words, especially as artists are not very frequently +skillful in that mode of communicating ideas. Unsubstantial, however, as +these rules may seem, and difficult as it may be to convey them in +writing, they are still seen and felt in the mind of the artist; and he +works from them with as much certainty as if they were embodied upon +paper. It is true these refined principles cannot always be made palpable, +as the more gross rules of art; yet it does not follow but that the mind +may be put in such a train that it still perceives by a kind of scientific +sense that propriety which words, particularly words of impractical +writers, such as we are, can but very feebly suggest." + +Science has to do wholly with truth, Art with both truth and beauty; but +in arranging a precedence she puts beauty first. + +Our regard for the science of composition is acknowledged when, after +having enjoyed the painter's work from the art side alone, the science of +its structure begins to appear. Instead of the concealment of art by art +it is the suppression of the science end of art that takes our cunning. + +"The picture which looks most like nature to the uninitiated," says a +clever writer, "will probably show the most attention to the rules of the +artist." + +Ten years ago the writer took part in an after-dinner discussion at the +American Art Association of Paris over the expression "the rules of +composition." A number of artists joined in the debate, all giving their +opinion without premeditation. Some maintained that the principles of +composition were nothing more than aesthetic taste and judgment, applied +by a painter of experience. + +Others, with less beggary of the question, affirmed that the principles +were negative rather than positive. They warned the artist rather than +instructed him; and, if rules were to follow principles, they were rules +concerning what should not be done. The epitome of the debate was that +composition was like salt, in the definition of the small boy, who +declared that salt is what makes things taste bad when you don't put any +on. + + [Three Ideas in Pictorial Balance] + +The Classic Scales--equal weights on even arms, the controlling idea of +decorative composition. + +A later notion of balance--the Steelyard, a small weight on the long arm of +the fulcrum, admitting great range in the placement of balancing measures. + +The Scales or Steelyard in perspective, developing the notion of balance +through the depth of a picture discoverable over a fulcrum or neutral +space. + + + + +CHAPTER III - BALANCE + + +Of all pictorial principles none compares in importance with Unity or +Balance. + +"Why all this intense striving, this struggle to a finish," said George +Inness, as, at the end of a long day, he flung himself exhausted upon his +lounge, "but an effort to obtain unity, unity." + +The observer of an artist at work will notice that he usually stands at +his easel and views his picture at varied distances, that he looks at it +over his shoulder, that he reverses it in a mirror, that he turns it +upside down at times, that he develops it with dots or spots of color here +and there, points of accent carefully placed and oft-times changed. + +What is the meaning of this thoughtful weighing of parts in the +slowly-growing mosaic, but that he labors under the restraint of a law +which he feels compelled to obey and the breaking of which would cause +anguish to his esthetic sense. The law under which his striving proceeds +is the fundamental one of balance, and the critical artist obeys it +whether he be the maker of vignettes for a newspaper, or the painter who +declares for color only, or the man who tries hard to produce naivete by +discarding composition. The test to which the sensitive eye subjects every +picture from whatsoever creed or camp it comes is _balance_ or equipoise, +judgment being rendered without thought of the law. After the picture has +been left as finished, why does an artist often feel impelled to create an +accent on this side or weaken an obtrusive one on the other side of his +canvas if not working under a law of balance? + +Let any picture be taken which has lived long enough before the public to +be considered good by every one; or take a dozen or more such and add +others by artists who declare against composition and yet have produced +good pictures; subject all these to the following simple test: Find the +actual centre of the picture and pass a vertical and horizontal line +through it. _The vertical division is the more important, as the natural +balance is on the lateral sides of a central support._ It will be found +that the actual centre of the canvas is also the actual pivot or centre of +the picture, and around such a point the various components group +themselves, pulling and hauling and warring in their claim for attention, +the _satisfactory_ picture showing as much design of balance on one side +of the centre as the other, and the picture complete in balance displaying +this equipoise above and below the horizontal line. + +Now, in order that what seems at first glance an exclusive statement may +be understood, the reader should realize that every item of a picture has +a _certain positive power,_ as though each object were a magnet of given +potency. Each has attraction for the eye, therefore each, while obtaining +attention for itself, establishes proportional detraction for every other +part. On the principle of _the steelyard,_ the farther from the centre +and more isolated an object is, the greater its weight or attraction. +Therefore, in the balance of a picture it will be found that a very +important object placed but a short distance from the centre may be +balanced by a very small object on the other side of the centre _and +further removed from it._ The whole of the pictorial interest may be on +one side of a picture and the other side be practically useless as far as +picturesqueness or story-telling opportunity is concerned, but which finds +its reason for existing in the _balance,_ and that alone. + +In the emptiness of the opposing half such a picture, when completely in +balance, will have some bit of detail or accent which the eye in its +circular, symmetrical inspection will catch, unconsciously, and weave into +its calculation of balance; or if not an object or accent or line of +attraction, then some technical quality, or spiritual quality, such, for +example, as a strong feeling of gloom, or depth for penetration, light or +dark, a place in fact, for the eye to dwell upon as an important part in +connection with the subject proper, and recognized as such. + +But, the querist demands, if all the subject is on one side of the centre +and the other side depends for its existence on a balancing space or +accent only, why not cut it off? Do so. Then you will have the entire +subject in one-half the space to be sure, but its harmony or balance will +depend on the equipoise when pivoted in the new centre. + + + +BALANCE OF THE STEELYARD. + + +Let the reader make the test upon the _"__Connoisseurs__"_ and cut away +everything on the right beyond a line through the farther support of the +mantel. This will place the statue in the exact centre. In this shape the +picture composes well. In re-adding this space however the centre is +shifted leaving the statue and two figures hanging to one side but close +to the pivot and demanding more balance in this added side. Now the space +alone, with very little in it, has weight enough, and just here the +over-scientific enthusiast might err; but the artist in this case from two +other considerations has here placed a figure. It opposes its vertical to +the horizontal of the table, and catches and turns the line of the shadow +on the wall into the line of the rug. An extended search in pictorial art +gives warrant for a rule, upon this principle, namely: where the subject +is on one side of the centre it must exist close to the centre, or, in +that degree in which it departs from the centre, show positive anchorage +to the other side. + + [Pines in Winter (Unbalance); The Connoisseurs--Fortuny (Balance of the + Steelyards)] + +It is not maintained that every good picture can show _this complete_ +balance; but the claim is made that the striving on the part of its +designer has been in the direction of this balance, and that, had it been +secured, the picture would have been that much better. Let this simple +test be applied by elimination of overweighted parts or addition of items +where needed, _on this principle,_ and it will be found that the +composition will always improve. As a necessary caution it should be +observed that the small balancing weight of the steelyard should not +become a point causing divided interest. + +It is easy to recognize a good composition; to tell why it is good may be +difficult; to tell how it could be made better is what the art worker +desires to know. Let the student when in doubt weight out his picture in +the balances mindful that the principle of the steelyards covers the items +in the depth as well as across the breadth of the picture. + + + +POSTULATES + + +Every picture is a collection of units or items. + +Every unit has a given value. + +The value of a unit depends on its attraction; its attraction varies as to +its placement. + +An isolated unit near the edge has frequently more attraction than at the +centre. + +Every part of the picture space has some attraction. + +Space having no detail may possess attraction by gradation and by +association. + +A unit of attraction in an otherwise empty space has more weight through +isolation than the same when placed with other units. + +A black unit on white or a white on black has more attraction than the +same on gray. + +The value of a black or white unit is proportioned to the size of space +contrasting with it. + +A unit in the foreground may have less weight than a like one in the +distance. + +Two or more associated units may be reckoned as one and their _united +centre_ is the point on which they balance with others. + +There is balance of Line,(2) of Mass,(3) of Light and Dark,(4) of +Measure,(5) which is secured upon a _scale of attraction_ which each +possesses. Many pictures exhibit these in combination. + +The "Lion of the Desert," by Gerome shows three isolated spots and one +line of attraction. The trend of vision on leaving the lion is to the +extreme right and thence back along the pathway of the dark distance into +the picture to the group of trees. Across this is an oppositional balance +from the bushes of the foreground to the mountains of the extreme +distance. The only line in the composition, better seen in the painting +than in the reproduction, counts much in the balance over the centre. The +placement of the important item or subject, has little to do with the +balance scheme of a picture. _This is the starting point, and balance is a +consideration beyond this._ + +In every composition the eye should cross the central division at least +once. This initiates equipoise, for in the survey of a picture the eye +naturally shifts from the centre of interest, which may be on one side, to +the other side of the canvas. If there be something there to receive it, +the balance it seeks is gratified. If it finds nothing, the artist must +create something, with the conclusion that some element of the picture was +lacking. + +In the snow-scene the eye is attracted from the pine-trees to the houses +on the left and rests there, no attraction having been created to move it +to the other half of the picture. + +What is known as divided interest in a picture is nothing more than the +doubt established by a false arrangement of balance, too great an +attraction being used where less weight was needed. The artist must be +the judge of the degree of satisfaction he allows this feeling, but no one +can ignore it and obtain unity. + +The question of degree must have a caution placed before it; for in an +attempt to create a balance on the opposite side of the vertical the +tendency is to use too heavy a weight. The whole of the subject is +sometimes made to take its place well on one side and another item would +seem redundant. Two points will be noticed in all of such cases: that the +opposing half may either be cut off without damage, or greatly elongated, +and in both forms the picture seems to survive.(6) The fact becomes an +argument for the theory of balance across a medial upright line; in the +first instance by shifting the line itself into the centre of the subject, +and in the second by securing more _weight of space_ with which to balance +the subject. + + [Portrait of Sara Bernhardt--Clairin (Balance Across the Natrual Axis)] + +The portrait of _Sarah Bernhardt,_ an excellent composition from many +points of view, finds its most apparent balance on either side of the +sinuous line of light through the centre exhibiting the _axis,_ which many +pictures show in varying degrees. The opposing corners are well balanced, +the plant over against the dog, with a trifle too much importance left to +the dog. Place the finger in observation over the head and forelegs of +the dog, taking this much off and the whole composition gains, not only +because the diagonal corners then balance, but because the heads of both +woman and dog are too important for the same side of the picture. + +It would be perfectly possible in the more complete composition to have +both heads as they are, but this would demand more weight on the other +side; or a shifting of the whole picture very slightly toward the left +side. + +In the painting this is not felt, as the head of the dog is so treated +that it attracts but little, though the object be in the close foreground. + +This picture also balances on the horizontal and vertical lines. + +Here we have the dog and fan balancing the body and plant. The balance +_across the diagonal_ of the figure, by the opposition of the dog with the +plant is very complete. Joined with the hanging lamp above, this sinuous +line effects a letter S or without the dog and leaf Hogarth's line of +beauty. + +In the matter also of the weakening of the necessary foundation lines +which support the figure (the sofa), and cut the picture in two, this +curving figure, the pillow and the large leaf do excellent service. + +When one fills a vase with flowers he aims at both unity and balance, and +if, in either color combination, or in massing and accent, it lacks this, +the result is disturbing. Let the vase become a bowl and let the bowl be +placed on its edge and made to resemble a frame, entirely surrounding the +bouquet; his effort remains the same. To be effective in a frame, balance +and unity are just as necessary. The eye finds repose and delight _in the +perfect equipoise of elements,_ brought into combination and bound +together by the girdle of the frame. + +A picture should be able to hang from its exact centre. Imperfect +composition inflicts upon the beholder the duty of accommodating his head +to the false angle of the picture. Pictures that stand the test of time +do not demand astigmatic glasses. We view them _balanced,_ and they +repeat the countersign--"_balanced._" + +After settling upon this as the great consideration in the subject of +composition and reducing the principle to the above law, I confess I had +not the full courage of my conviction for a six month, for now and then a +picture would appear that at first glance seemed like an unruly colt, to +refuse to be harnessed to the theory and was in danger of kicking it to +pieces. After a number of such apparent exceptions and the ease with +which they submitted to the test of absolute balance from the centre, on +the scheme of the steelyards, I am now entirely convinced that what +writers have termed the "very vague subject of composition," "the +perplexing question of arrangement of parts," etc., yields to this +simplest law, and which, in its directness and clearness, affords the +simplest of working rules. Those whose artistic freedom bids defiance to +the slavery of rule, as applied to an artistic product, and who try to +produce something that shall break all rules, in the hope of being +original, spend the greater part of the time in but covering the surface +so that the principle _may not be too easily seen,_ and the rest of the +time in balancing the unbalanced. + +As the balance of the figure dominates all other considerations in the +statue or painting of the human form, so does the equipoise of the +picture, or its balance of parts, become the chief consideration in its +composition. The figure balances its weight over the point of support, as +the flying Mercury on his toes, the picture upon a fulcrum on which large +and small masses hang with the same delicate adjustment. In Fortuny's +_"__Connoisseurs,__"_ the two men looking at a picture close to the left +of the centre form the subject. The dark mass behind them stops off +further penetration in this direction, but the eye is drawn away into the +light on the right and seeks the man carrying a portfolio. At his +distance, together with the lighted objects he easily balances the +important group on the other side of the centre. Indeed, with the +attractiveness of the clock, vase, plaque, mantel and chest, his face +would have added a grain too much, and this the artist happily avoided by +covering it with the portfolio. + + [Lady with Muff--Photo A. Hewitt (Steelyard in Perspective)] + +In the portrait study of "Lady with Muff," one first receives the +impression that the figure has been carelessly placed and, indeed, it +would go for a one-sided and thoughtless arrangement but for the little +item, almost lost in shadow, on the left side. This bit of detail enables +the eye to penetrate the heavy shadow, and is a good example of the value +of the small weight on the long arm of the steelyard, which balances its +opposing heavy weight. + +This picture is trimmed a little too much on the top to balance across the +horizontal line, and, indeed, this balance is the least important, and, in +some cases, not desirable; but the line of light following down from the +face and across the muff and into the lap not only assists this balance, +but carries the eye into the left half, and for that reason is very +valuable in the _lateral_ balance, which is _all important to the upright +subject._ + +One other consideration regarding this picture, in the matter of balance, +contains a principle: The line of the figure curves in toward the flower +and pot which become the radius of the whole inner contour. This creates +an elliptical line of observation, which being the arc on this radius +receives a pull toward its centre. There is a modicum of balance in the +mere weight of this empty space, but when given force by its isolation, +plus the concession to its centripetal significance, the small item does +great service in settling the equilibrium of the picture. The lines are +precisely those of the Rubens recently added to the Metropolitan Museum, +wherein the figures of Mary, her mother, Christ and John form the arc and +the bending form of the monk its oppositional balance. + +In proof of the fact that the half balance, or that on either side of the +vertical is sufficient in many subjects, see such portraits in which the +head alone is attractive, the rest being suppressed in detail and light, +for the sake of this attraction. + +It is rarely that figure art deals with balance over the horizontal +central line _in conjunction_ with balance over the vertical. + +One may recall photographs of figures in which the positions on the field +of the plate are very much to one side of the centre, but which have the +qualifying element in _leading line_ or _balance by an isolated measure_ +that brings them within the requirements of unity. The "Brother and +Sister" (7) by Miss Kasebier--the boy in sailor cap crowding up to the face +and form of his younger sister,--owes much to the long, strongly-relieved +line of the boy's side and leg which draws the weight to the opposite side +of the picture. In imagination we may see the leg below the knee and know +how far on the opposite side of the central vertical his point of support +really is. The movement in both figures originates from this side of the +picture as the lines of the drapery show. Deprive such a composition of +its balancing line and instead of a picture we would have but two figures +on one side of a plate. + +The significance of the horizontal balance is best understood in +landscape, with its extended perspective. Here the idea becomes +reminiscent of our childhood's "teeter." Conceiving a long space from +foreground to distance, occupied with varied degrees of interest, it is +apparent how easily one end may become too heavy for the other. The +tempering of such a chain of items until the equipoise is attained must be +coordinate with the effort toward the lateral balance. + + + +VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL BALANCE. + + +In the _"__Salute to the Wounded,__"_by Detaille, complete and formal +balance on both the vertical and horizontal line is shown. The chief of +staff is on one side of centre, balanced by the officer on the other, and +the remaining members of staff balance the German infantry. Although the +heads of prisoners are all above the horizontal line, three-fourths of the +body comes below--a just equivalent--and, in the case of the horsemen, the +legs and bodies of the horses draw down the balance toward the bottom of +the canvas, specially aided by the two cuirassiers in the left corner. In +addition to this, note the value of the placement of the gray horse and +rider at left, as a means of interrupting the necessary and objectionable +line of feet across the canvas and leading the eye into the picture and +toward the focus, both by the curve to the left, including the black +horse, and also by the direct jump across the picture, through the white +horse and toward the real subject--i.e., the prisoners. + +[Lion in the Desert--Gerome (Balance of Isolated Measures); Salute to the + Wounded--Detaille (Balance of Equal Measures)] + +Much has been written by way of suggestion in composition dealing with +this picture or that to illustrate a thought which might have been +simplified over the single idea of balance which contains the whole secret +and which if once understood in all of its phases of possible change will +establish procedure with a surety indeed gratifying to him who halts +questioning the next step, or not knowing positively that the one he has +taken is correct. + +These criticisms vaguely named "confusion," "stiffness," "scattered +quantity," etc., all lead in to the root, unbalance, and are to be +corrected there. + +Balance is of importance according to the number of units to be composed. +Much greater license may be taken in settling a single figure into its +picture-space than when the composition involves many. In fact the mind +pays little heed to the consideration of balance until a complication of +many units forces the necessity upon it. The painter who esteems lightly +the subject of composition is usually found to be the painter of simple +subjects--portraits and non-discursive themes, but though these may survive +in antagonism to such principles their authors are demanding more from the +technical quality of their work than is its mission to supply. + +The first two main lines, if they touch or cross, start a composition. +After that it is necessary to work upon the picture as it hangs in the +balances. + +The inutility of considering composition in outline or in solid mass of +tone as a safe first analysis of finished work is evident when we discover +that not until we have brought the picture to the _last_ stage of detail +finish do we fully encompass balance. The conception which looks +acceptable to one's general idea in outline may finish all askew; or the +scheme of Light and Dark in one or two flat tones _minus the balance of +gradation_ will prove false as many times as faithful, as it draws toward +completion. It is because of this that artists when composing roughly in +the presence of nature seldom if ever produce note-book sketches which +lack the unity of gradation. It is the custom of some artists to paint +important pictures from such data which, put down hot when the impression +is compulsory, contain more of the essence of the subject than the +faithful "study" done at leisure. + + [] + +The possibilities of balanced arrangement being so extensive, susceptible +in fact of the most eccentric and fantastic composition, it follows: that +its adaptability to all forms of presentation disarms argument against it. +In almost every case, when the work of an accomplished painter fails to +convince, through that completeness which of all qualities stands first, +when, after the last word has been said by him, when, nature, in short, +has been satisfied and the work still continues in its feeble state of +insurrection, which many artists will confess it frequently requires years +to quell, it is sure proof that way back in the early construction of such +a picture some element of unbalance had been allowed. + + + +THE NATURAL AXIS + + +In varying degrees pictures express what may be termed a _natural axis,_ +on which their components arrange themselves in balanced composition. +This axis is the visible or imaginary line which the eye accepts +connecting the two most prominent measures or such a line which first +arrests the attention. If there be but one figure, group or measure, and +there be an opening or point of attraction through the background +diverting the vision from such to it, then this line of direction becomes +the axis. The axis does not merely connect two points within the picture, +but pierces it, and the near end of the shaft has much to do with this +balance. + +Balance across the centre effects the unity of the picture in its +limitations with its frame. Balance on the axis expresses the natural +balance of the subject as we feel it in nature when it touches us +personally and would connect our spirit with its own. + +We discern the former more readily where the subject confronts us with +little depth of background. We get into the movement of the latter when +the reach is far in, and we feel the subject revolving on its pivot and +stretching one arm toward us while the other penetrates the visible or the +unknown distance. + +Balance constructed over this line will bring the worker to as unified a +result as the use of the steelyard on the central vertical line. + +In this method there is less restraint and when the axis is well marked it +is best to take it. Not every subject develops it however. It is easily +felt in Clairin's portrait of _Sarah Bernhardt,_ the _"__Lady with +Muff,__"_ _"__The Path of the Surf,__"_ and in the line of the _horse, +Indian, and sunset_. When the axis is found, its force should be modified +by opposed lines or measures, on one or both sides. In these four examples +good composition has been effected in proportion as such balance is +indicated; in the first by dog and palm, in the second by flower-pot, in +the third by the light on the stubble and cloud in left hand corner, and +in the last by the rocks and open sea. + +A further search among the accompanying illustrations would reveal it in +the sweeping line of cuirassiers, _1807_ balanced by the group about +Napoleon, the line of the hulk and the light of the sky in _"__Her Last +Moorings,__"_ the central curved line in _"__The Body of Patroclus__"_ the +diagonal line through the arm of _Ariadne_ into the forearm of Bacchus. + + + +APPARENT OR FORMAL BALANCE. + + +Raphael is a covenient point at which to commence a study of composition. +His style was influenced by three considerations: warning by the pitfalls +of composition into which his predecessors had fallen; confidence that the +absolutely formal balance was safe; and lack of experience to know that +anything else was as good. To these may be added the environment for +which most of his works were produced. His was an architectural plan of +arrangement, and this well suited both the dignity of his subject and the +chaste conceptions of a well poised mind. + +Raphael, therefore, stands as the chief exponent of _informal +composition._ His plan was to place the figure of greatest importance in +the centre. This should have its support in balancing figures on either +side; an attempt then often observable was to weaken this set formality by +other objects wherein, though measure responded to measure, there was a +slight change in kind or degree, the whole arrangement resembling that of +an army in battle array; with its centre, flanks and skirmishers. The +balance of equal measures--seen in his "Sistine Madonna," is conspicuous in +most ecclesiastical pictures of that period, notably the "Last Supper of +Leonardo" in which two groups of three persons each are posed on either +side of the pivotal figure. + +This has become the standard arrangement for all classical balanced +composition in pictorial decoration. The doubling of objects on either +side of a central figure not only gives to it importance, but contributes +to the composition that quietude, symmetry and solemnity so compatible +with religious feeling or decorative requirement. The objection to this +plan of balance is that it divides the picture into equal parts, neither +one having precedence, and the subdivisions may be continued indefinitely. +For this reason it has no place in genre art. Its antiphonal responses +belong to the temple. A more objectionable form of balance on the centre +is that in which the centre is of small importance. This cuts the picture +into halves without reason. The _"__Dutch Peasants on the Shore,__"_ +_"__Low Tide,__"_ and _"__The Poulterers,__"_ and David's "Rape of the +Sabine Women," are examples. + +These pictures present three degrees of formal balance. In the first a +lack of sequence impairs the picture's unity. In the second, though the +objects are contiguous there is no subjective union, and in David's +composition the formality of the decorative structure is inapplicable to +the theme. + +The circular group of Dagnan-Bouveret's "Pardon in Brittany," where the +peasants are squatted on the left in the foreground is a daring bit of +balance, finding its justification in the movement of interest toward the +right in the background. + +In all forms, save the classic decoration it should be the artist's effort +to conceal the balance over the centre. + + [] + +In avoiding the equal divisions of the picture plane a practical plan of +construction is based upon the strong points as opposed to the weak ones. +It assumes that the weak point is the centre, and that in all types of +composition where formality is not desired the centre is to be avoided. +Any points equidistant from any two sides are also weak points. The +inequalities in distance should bear a mathematical ratio to each other as +one and two-thirds, two and three-fifths. These points will be strongest +and best adapted for the placement of objects which are distant from the +boundary lines and the corners, _in degrees most varied._ + +If we take a canvas of ordinary proportion, namely, one whose length is +equal to the hypothenuse on the square of its breadth, as 28x36 or 18x24 +and divide it into unequal divisions as three, five or seven, we will +produce points on which good composition will result. + +The reason for this is that the remaining two-thirds becomes a unit as has +the one-third. If the larger is given the precedence it carries the +interest; if not it must be sacrificed to the smaller division. On this +principle it may be seen that a figure could occupy a position in the +centre if it tied itself _in a positive_ way to that division which +carried the remainder of the interest thus becoming unobjectionable as an +element dividing the picture into equal parts. + +The formula is always productive of excellent results. (See Howard's +"Sketcher's Manual.") + +This proportional division of the picture one may find in the best of +Claude Lorraine's landscapes, with him a favorite method of construction. +It suggests the pillars and span for a suspension trestle. When, as is +invariably seen in Claude's works the nearest one is in shadow, the vision +is projected from this through the space intervening to the distant and +more attractive one. A feeling of great depth is inseparable from this +arrangement. + + + +BALANCE BY OPPOSITION OF LINE. + + +A series of oppositional lines has more variety and is therefore more +picturesque than the tangent its equivalent. The simplest definition of +picturesqueness is variety in unity. The lines of the long road in +perspective offer easy conduct for the eye, but it finds a greater +interest in threading its way over a track lost, then found, lost and +found again. In time we as surely arrive from _a_ to _z_ by one route as +by the other, but in one the journey has had the greater interest. + +Imagine a hillside and sky offered as a picture. The hillside is without +detail, the sky a blank. The first item introduced attracts the eye, the +second and third are joined with the first. If they parallel the line of +the hillside they do nothing toward the development of the picture but +rather harm by introducing an element of monotony. If, however, they are +so placed in sky and land as to accomplish opposition to this line they +help to send the eye on its travels. + +No better example of this principle can be cited than Mr. Alfred +Steiglitz's pictorial photograph of two Dutch women on the shore. The +lines of ropes through the foreground connect with others in the middle +distance leading tangentially to the house beyond. + +To one who fences or has used the broad sword a feeling for oppositional +line should come as second nature. A long sweeping stroke must be parried +or opposed frankly; the _riposte_ must also be parried. A bout is a +picturesque composition of two men and two minds in which unity of the +whole and of the parts is preserved by the balance of opposed measures. +The analogy is appropriate. The artist stands off brush in hand and fights +his subject to a finish, the force of one stroke neutralizing and parrying +another. This is as true of linear as color composition, where the scheme +is one producing harmony by opposition of colors. + + [] + [Indian and Horse--Photo A.C. Bode (Oppposition of Light and Dark + Measures); The Cabaret--L. L'hermitte (Opposition Plus Transition)] + +In the photograph of the _Indian and horse_ we have a subject full of fine +quality. The demonstration occurs in the sky at just the right place to +serve as a balance for the heavy measures of the foreground and the +interest is drawn back into the picture and to the upper left hand corner +by the two cloud forms, over which is sharply thrown a barricade of cloud +which turns the vision back into the picture. The simplicity of the three +broad tones is appropriate to the sentiment of vastness which the picture +contains. The figure seated in revery before this expanse supplies the +mental element to the subject, the antithesis of which is the interest of +the horse, earthward. Each one has his way, and in the choice by each is +the definition of man and brute, a separation which the pose of each +figure indicates through physical disunion. The space between them widens +upon the horizon line. To establish the necessary pictorial connection or +at least a hint of it suggests three devices. A lariat in a curving line +might be slightly indicated through the grass: the foreground might be cut +so as to limit the range toward us; or a broken line may be constructed +diagonally from the horse's left foot by a few accents in the light of the +stubble. In the first, the union is effected by transition of line; in +the last by opposition of the spot of the figure to the line of the +horse's shoulder and leg extended by a line through the grass. + +With the coalition of these two figures there would no longer be felt a +procession of three items in a straight perspective line: the horse, the +man, and the distant river. Instead it would be the horse and owner over +against the notion of prairie, river, and sky. + + + +BALANCE BY OPPOSITION OF SPOTS. + + +Spots or accents are in the majority of cases equivalent to a line. The +eye follows the line more easily, but the spot is a potent force of +attraction and we take the artist's hint in his use of it, often finding +that its subtlety is worth more than the line's strength. In the case of +a simple hillside back-stopped by a dense mass of trees, a flat and an +upright plane are presented, but until the vision is carried into and +beyond the line of juncture the opposition of mere planes accomplishes +little, the only thing thus established being a strong effect of light and +shade and not until the eye is coaxed into the sky so that there be +established a union between the pathway or other object on the hill and +the distance, will balance by transition be effected. + +This is one of the subtlest and most necessary principles in landscape +composition. The illustration herewith is of the simplest nature but the +principle may be expanded indefinitely as it has to do both with lateral +and perspective balance. + +In the _"__Death of Caesar,__"_ the perspective line of the statues and the +opposite curve in the floor are continued through the opposing mass of +columns and wall to the court beyond, a positive control of the distance +by the foreground, being thus secured. + + + +TRANSITION OF LINE. + + +More effective than opposition, as the cross bar is more effective for +strength than the bar supported on only one side, is _Transition,_ or the +same item _carried across,_ or _delivered to_ another item which shall +cross a line or space. + +In the group of peasants in the _Cabaret_ note the use of lines of +opposition and transition, in the single figures and when taken in twos. +The laborer (with shovel) in his upper and lower extremities exhibits a +large cross which becomes larger when we add the table on which his +extended arm rests and the figure standing behind him. The ascent of this +vertical is stopped by the line of the mantel and then continued by the +plate and picture. So in minor parts of this group one may think out the +rugged energy of its composition, nor anywhere discover a single curved or +flowing line. Nor does it require an experienced eye to note the +pyramidal structure of the various parts. In the action of the heads and +bodies of the two central figures is another strong example of +oppositional arrangement. The heavily braced table is typical of the +whole. + + [Along the Shore--Photo by George Butler (Transitional line); + Pathless--Photo by A. Horsely Hinton (Transitional Line)] + +In landscape the transitional line from land into sky is often impossible +and objectionable. The sentiment of the subject may deny any attempt at +this union. Here the principle only, should be hinted at. In the case of +a sunset sky where the clouds float as parallel bars above the horizon and +thus show the character of a quiet and windless closing of day, a +transitional line such as a tree, mast or spire may be unavailable. +Oppositional spots or lines attracting the vision into the land and thus +diverting it from the horizontals are the only _recourse_. In the shore +view the sun's rays create a series of lines which admirably unite with +the curve of the wagon tracks. The union of sky and land is thus effected +and meanwhile the subject proper has its ruggedness associated with the +graceful compass of these elements. + +In fact transitional line is so powerful that unless it contains a part of +the subject it should seldom be used. + +In the _"__Annunciation__"_ by Botticelli the introduction of a long +perspective line beyond the figures, continuing the lines of the +foreground, railroads the vision right through the subject, carrying it +out of the picture. If the attention is pinned perforce on the subject, +one feels the interruption and annoyance of this unnecessary landscape. +The whole Italian school of the Renaissance weakened the force of its +portraits and figure pictures by these elaborate settings which they +seemed helpless to govern. In Velasquez we frequently find the +simplification of background which saves the entire interest for the +subject; but even he in his "Spinners" and to a lesser degree in some +other compositions, makes the same error. In the greatest of Rembrandt's +portrait groups, "The Syndics," his problem involved the placement of six +figures. Four are seated at the far side of a table looking toward us, +the fifth, on the near side, rises and looks toward us. His head, higher +than those of the row of four, breaks this line of formality; but the +depth and perspective of the picture is not secured until the figure +standing in the background is added. This produces from the foreground +figure, through one of the seated figures, the transitional line which +pulls the composition forward and backward and makes a circular +composition of what was commenced upon a line sweeping across the entire +canvas. + +The hillside entitled "Pathless," by Horsley Hinton is a subject easily +passed in nature as ordinary, which has been however unified and made +available through the understanding of this principle. So much of an +artist is its author that I can see him down on his knees cutting out the +mass of blackberry stems so that the two or three required in the +foreground should strike as lines across the demi-dark of the lower middle +space. The line of the hill had cut this off from the foreground and +these attractive lines are as cords tying it on. From the light rock in +the lower centre the eye zigzags up to the line of hillside, cutting the +picture from one side to the other. Fortunately nature had supplied a +remedy here in the trees which divert this line. But this is insisted on +in the parallelism of the distant mountains. The artist, however, has the +last word. He has created a powerful diversion in the sky, bringing down +strong lines of light and a sense of illumination over the hill and into +the foreground. The subject, unpromising in its original lines, has thus +been redeemed. This sort of work is in advance of the public, but should +find its reward with the elect. + + + +BALANCE BY GRADATION + + +Gradation will be mentioned in another connection but as a force in +balance it must be noticed here. It matters not whither the tone grades, +from light to dark or the reverse, the eye will be drawn to it very +powerfully because it suggests motion. Gradation is the perspective of +shade; and perspective we recognize as one of the dynamic forces in art. +When the vision is delivered over to a space which contains no detail and +nought but gradation, the original impulse of the line is continued. + + [Hillside (Graded Light Upon Surfaces; Cloud Shadows); River Fog (Light + Graded by Atmospheric Density); The Chant (Gradation through Values of + Separated Objects)] + +Gradation, as an agent of light, exhibits its loveliest effect and becomes +one of the most interesting and useful elements of picture construction. + +As a force in balance it may frequently replace detail when added items +are unnecessary. In "Her Last Moorings" the heavy timbers, black and +positive in the right foreground, attract the eye and divide the interest. +The diversion from the hulk to the sky is easy and direct and forms the +natural axis. A substitution for the foreground item is a simple +gradation, balancing a like gradation in the sky. + +The measure of light and dark when mixed is tonically the same as the gray +of the gradation--but its attraction is weakened. + + + +BALANCE OF PRINCIPALITY OR ISOLATION + + +These qualities are not synonymous but so nearly so that they are +mentioned together. In discussing the principle of the steelyard it was +stated that a small item could balance a very large one whose position in +point of balance was closer to the fulcrum, but to this point must be +added the increase of weight and importance which isolation gives. These +considerations need not be mystifying. + +In the charge to Peter, "Feed my sheep," Raphael has produced something +quite at variance with his ordinary plan of construction. Christ occupies +one side of the canvas, the disciples following along the foreplane toward +him. + +Here is an isolated figure the equivalent of a group. + +The sleeping senator of Gerome's _picture_ effects a like purpose among +the empty benches and pillars. The main group is placed near the centre, +the small item at the extreme edge. Even Caesar in the foreground--covered +by drapery and in half shadow--is less potent as an item of balance, than +this separate figure. + + + +BALANCE OF CUBICAL SPACE. + + +Finally the notion that the picture is a representation of depth as well +as length and height develops the idea of balance in the chain of items +from foreground to distance. A pivotal space then will be found, a +neutral ground in the farther stretch from which may be created so much +attraction as to upend the foreground, or in the nether reach toward us +there may be such attraction as to leave the distance without its weight +in the convention of parts. The group with insufficient attraction back +of it topples toward us, to be sustained within the harmonious circuit of +the picture only by such items of attraction behind it as will recover a +balance which their absence gave proof of. This is a more subtle but none +the less potent influence than the vertical and lateral balance and may +best be apprehended negatively. The "aggressiveness" of many foreground +items which are in themselves essential as form and correct in value is +caused by the lack of their balancing complements in the back planes of +the picture. + +Balance is not of necessity dependent upon objects of attraction. Its +essence lies in the movement from one part of the picture to another, +which the arrangement compels, and this may often be stimulated by the +intention or suggestion of motion in a given direction. + + + + +CHAPTER IV - EVOLVING THE PICTURE + + +The artist gets his picture from two sources. He either goes forth and +finds it, or creates it. If he creates it the work is deliberate, and the +artist assumes responsibility. If he goes to nature, he and nature form a +partnership, she supplying the material and he the experience. In editing +the material thus supplied, the artist discovers how great is the +disparity between art and nature, and what a disproof nature herself is to +the common notion that art is mirrored nature, and that any part of her +drawn or painted will make a picture. + +The first stage of the art collector is that in which his admiration +dwells on imitation such as the still-life painter gives him, but soon his +art sense craves an expression with thought in it, the imitation, +brow-beaten into its proper place and the creative instinct of the artist +visible. In other words, he seeks the constructive sense of the man who +paints the picture. "The work of art is an appeal to another mind, and it +cannot draw out more than that mind contains. But to enjoy is, as it +were, to create; to understand is a form of equality."(8) With the horse +before the cart and the artist holding the reins, he gets a fresh start, +and is in a fair way to comprehend Richard Wagner's assertion that you +cannot have art without the man. In the same manner does the student +usually develop. With the book of nature before him he is eager to sit +down anywhere and read, attracted by each separate item of the vast +pattern, but he finds he has opened nature's dictionary and that to make +poetry or even good prose he must put the separate words and phrases +together. + +After the first roll of films has been printed and brooded over, the kodac +person is apt to ask in a tone of injured and deceived innocence, "_Well, +what does make_ a picture?" + +He with others has supposed it possible to go to nature and, taking +nothing with him, bring something back. Though one does not set out with +the rules of composition, he must at least present himself before nature +with fixed notions of the few requirements which all pictures demand. +Having looked at a counterfeit of her within four sides of a frame and +learned to know why a limited section of her satisfied him by its +completeness he approaches her out of doors with greater prospects of +success than though he had not settled this point. Good art, of the +gallery, is the best guide to a trip afield. Having seen what elements +and what arrangements have proved available in the hands of other men, the +student will not go astray if he seek like forms in nature. Armed with +defininite convictions he will see, through her bewildering meshes the +faithful lines he needs. The star gazer with a quest for the +constellations of the Pleiades or the Great Bear, must close his eyes to +many irrelevant stars which do not fit the figure. Originality does not +require the avoidance of principles used by others. Pictorial forms are +world's property. Originality only demands "the causing to pass into our +own work a _personal_ view of the world and of life."(9) Personality in +ninety-nine cases out of a hundred is a graft. The forms of artistic +expression have been preempted long ago. The men who had the first +chances secured the truest forms of it and in a running glance through a +miscellaneous collection of prints one's attention is invariably arrested +by the force of the pictures by the older masters; so dominating is the +first impression that we concede the case upon the basis of effect before +discovering the many obstacles and omissions counting against their +greater efficiency. But the essence is of the living sort. With this +conceded and the fact that nature's appeal is always strongest when made +through association with man it is for us to cultivate these associations. + +"Study nature attentively," says Reynolds, "but always with the masters in +your company; consider them as models which you are to imitate, and at the +same time as rivals, with whom you are to contend." + +A wise teacher has said the quickest road to originality is through the +absorption of other men's ideas. + +Before going forth therefore with a canvas or plate holder, it behooves us +first to know what art is. Certainly the most logical step from the study +of constructive form is through the practical technique of work which we +would emulate. To copy interpretations of outdoor nature by others is +commendable either at the experimental period, when looking for a +technique, or as an appreciation. + +Besides this mental preparation, the next best equipment for finding +pictures is a Claude Lorraine glass, because, being a convex mirror, it +shows a reduced image of nature _in a frame._ The frame is important not +only because it designates the limitations of a picture, but because it +cuts it free from the abstracting details which surround it. If one has +not such a glass, a series of small pasteboard frames will answer. The +margin should be wide enough to allow the eye to rest without disturbance +upon the open space. Two rectangular pieces that may be pushed together +from top or side is probably the most complete device. The proportion of +the frame is therefore adaptable to the subject and the picture may be cut +off top, bottom or sides as, demanded. + + [The View-Metre] + [Three Pictures Found with the View-Metre] + +Many artists reduce all subjects to two or three sizes, which they +habitually paint. The view-meter may in such cases be further simplified +by using a stiff cardboard with such proportions cut out. By having them +all on a single board a subject may be more rapidly tested than by the +device of the collapsible sides. A light board, the thickness of a +cigar-box cover, 4x5 inches, and easily carried in the pocket, will enable +one to land his subject in his canvas exactly as he wants it, and avoid +the grievance of reconstruction later. By leaving a broad margin about +the openings, one obtains the impression of a picture in its mat or frame, +and may judge of it in nature as he will after regard it when completed +and on exhibition. + + [View Taken with a Wide Angle Lens] + +The accompanying _photograph_ was produced by a revolving camera +encompassing an area of 120 degrees. As a composition it is not bad, but +unfortunate here and there. It has a well-defined centre, and the two +sides balance well, the left clogging the vision and thus giving way to +the right, which allows the eye to pass out of the picture on this side +beyond the fountain and across the stretch of sunlight. At a glance, +however, one may see three complete pictures, and with the aid of the +view-meter a number of other combinations may be developed. Its +construction is that of Hobbema's "Alley near Middelharnes," in the +National Gallery, London, of so pronounced formality that a number of such +construction in a gallery, would prove monotonous. + +Beginning on the left, we may apply the view-meter first to exclude the +unnecessary branch forms and sky space on the top; second, to cut away the +tree on the right, which, in that it parallels the line of the margin, is +objectionable, and is rendered unnecessary as a side for the picture by +the two trees beyond in the middle plane; and, third, to limit the extent +of the picture on the bottom, tending as it does to force the spectator +back and away from the subject proper. The interest is divided between +the white building and rustic bridge and the pivot of this composition +adjusts itself in line with the centre tree. In the next picture the +first tree on left of avenue is cut away for the same reason as in the +previous arrangement, and although one of a line of trees in perspective, +the trunk as an item is unserviceable, as its branches start above the +point where the top line occurs, and can therefore render no assistance in +destroying an absolute vertical as has been done in the left tree by the +bifurcation, and the first on the right by the encroaching masses of +leaves. The eye follows the receding lines of roadway beneath the canopy +and is led out of the picture by the light above the hill. The last +arrangement is more formal than either of the others but gives us the good +old form of composition frequently adopted by Turner, Rousseau, Dupre, and +others, namely of designing an encasement for the subject proper, through +which to view it. For that reason after the arch overhead has been +secured all else above is cut away as useless. The print has been cut a +little on the right, as by this means the foreground tree is placed nearer +that side and also because the extra space allowed too free an escapement +of the eye through this portal, the natural focus of course being the +fountain where the eye should rest at once. It has been cut on the bottom +so as to exclude the line where the road and the grass meet--an especially +bad line, paralleling the bottom of the picture and line of shadow upon +the grass. This shadow is valuable as completing the encasement of the +subject on the bottom and in starting the eye well into the picture toward +its subject. + +Our natural vision always seeks the light. Shadows are the carum cushions +from which the sight recoils in its quest for this. Letting the eye into +the picture over a foreground of subdued interest, or better still, of no +interest is one of the most time-honored articles of the picture-maker's +creed. If the reader will compare the first and last of these three +compositions he will see how in this respect the first loses and the last +gains. The element of the shaded foreground in the first was cut out in +preserving a better placement for the subject proper, which lay beyond. + + [Photography Nearing the Pictorial] + +The photographer comes upon a group of cows. "Trees, cattle, light and +shade--a picture surely!" Fearful of disturbing the cows he exposes at a +distance, then stalks them, trying again with a different point of sight +and, having joined them and waited for their confidence, makes the _third +attempt._ On developing, the first one reveals the string-like line of +road cutting the picture from end to end, the cattle as isolated spots, +the tree dividing the sky space into almost equal parts. In the second, +the lower branch of tree blocks the sky and on the other side there is a +natural window, opening an exit into the distance. This is desirable but +unfortunately the bending roadway on the right accomplishes the same +purpose and so two exits are offered, always objectionable. With this +out, the value of the rock and foreground cow is also better appreciated +as leading spots taking us to the natural focus, the white cow lying close +to the tree. The rock in left corner having no influence in a leading +line should be suppressed. The cattle now swing into the picture from +both sides and one of them opposes the horizontal of her back to the +vertical of the tree, thus easing the force of its descent. + +In the last there is much more concentration. The road does not parallel +the bottom and though passing out of the picture the vision is brought +back again along the distant line of trees. The objection to this +arrangement lies in the equal division of the subject by the tree-trunk. +The white cow focalizes the vision but the sky and the more graceful +branches soon capture it. The cow in the right foreground is only +valuable as an oppositional measure to the _line_ of cows stretching +across the picture which it helps to divert, otherwise she carries too +much attraction to the side. + +The best arrangement for the subject would have been the tree one-third +from the left side, the white cow touching its line, one or two of those +lying on the ground working toward the foreground in a zigzag, little or +no diversion from the distance on the left of tree. The swing of the +picture would then have been from the foreground to the focus, the white +cow and tree, thence to the group under the tree and out through the sky. +This would have divided the picture-plane into thirds instead of halves, +bringing it into the form elsewhere recommended as being the arrangement +of Claude's best pictures. + + [] + + + + +CHAPTER V - ENTRANCE AND EXIT + + + +GETTING INTO THE PICTURE + + +One reason that many pictures are passed in exhibitions is that the +visitor lacks an invitation to enter. Others frankly greet one a long way +off, obliging the wanderer searching for compelling interest to +acknowledge their cordiality, aware of a gesture of welcome in something +which he may later pause to analyse and at length apprehend. + +It may appear in the freedom of an empty foreground, which, like a stage +unadorned, merely supports the action upon it; or, if this foreground be +adorned then happily by items of slight interest leading to the subject; +or it may insist with such an emphatic demand for attention that the +common places of receding perspective have been employed. + +One spot or circumference there should be toward which through the +suppression of other parts the eye is led at once. When there, even +though the vision has passed far into the canvas, one is at the focal +point only, the true goal of the pictorial intention. Any element which +proves too attractive along this avenue of entrance is confusing to the +sight and weakening to the impression. + +One item after another, in sequence, the visitor should then be led to, +and, having made the circuit and paid his respects to the company in the +order of importance with that special care which prevails at a Chinese +court function, the visitor should be shown the exit. Getting out of a +picture is almost as important as getting into it, but of this later. + +If the artist, in the composition of his picture, cannot so arrange a +reception for his guests, he is not a successful host. + +This disposal of the subject matter into which _principality_ enters so +acutely is more patent in the elaborate figure subject than in any other, +with the distinction between an assemblage of, and a crowd of figures, +made plain. + +The writer once called, in company with a friend of the painter, upon the +late Edmond Yon, the French landscapist. We found him in his atelier, and +saw his completed picture, about to be sent to the Salon. He shortly took +us into an adjacent room, where hung his studies, and thence through his +house into the garden, showed us his view of the city, commented on the +few fruit trees, the flowers, as we made the circuit of the little plot, +and, at the porte, we found the servant with our hats. It was a perfectly +logically sequence. We had come to the end; and how complete! + +"He always does it so," said the friend. We had seen the man, his +picture, his studies, his house, caught the inspiration of his view, had +made the circuit of the things which daily surrounded him, and what +more--nothing; except the hats. Bon jour! + +The new picture, like any new acquaintance, we are tempted to sound at +once, in a single glance, judging of the great and apparent planes of +character, seeking the essential affinity. If we pass favorably, our +enjoyment begins leisurely. The picture we are to live with must possess +qualities that will bear close scrutiny, even to analysis. If we are won, +there is a satisfaction in knowing why. + +It must be remembered that the actual picture space in nature is that of a +_funnel,_ its size varying according to the extent of distance +represented. The angle of sixty degrees which the eye commands may widen +into miles. The matter of equipoise or unity therefore applies to most +extended areas and no part of this extent may escape from the calculation. + +The objection of formal balance over the centre is that it produces a +straddle, as, in hopscotch one lands with both feet on either side of a +dividing line. In all pictures of deep perspective the best mode of +entrance is to triangulate in, with a series of zigzags, made easy through +the _habit of the eye to follow lines,_ especially long and receding ones. +It is the long lines we seize upon in pinning the action of a figure, and +the long lines which stretch toward us are those which help most to get us +into a picture. + +The law here is that of perspective recession, and, it being the easiest +of comprehension and the most effective in result, is used extensively by +the scene-painter for his drop-curtain and by the landscapist, whose +subject proper lies often in the middle distance--toward which he would +make the eye travel. + +When the opportunity of line is wanting an arrangement of receding spots, +or accents is an equivalent. + +The same applies, though in less apparent force, to the portrait or +foreground figure subject. + +Where the subject lies directly in the foreground, the eye will find it at +once, but the care of the artist should even then be exercised to avoid +lines which, though they could not block, might at least irritate one's +direct vision of the subject. + +Conceive if you can, for one could rarely find such an example in +pictorial art, of the forespace corrugated with lines paralleling the +bottom line of a frame. It would be as difficult for a bicyclist to +propel his machine across a plowed field as for one to drive his eye over +a foreground thus filled with distracting lines when the goal lay far +beyond. + +Mr. Schilling, in his well-known "Spring Ploughing," has treated this +problem with great discernment. Instead of a multiplicity of lines +crossing the foreplane, the barest suggestion suffices to designate plowed +ground, the absence of detail allowing greater force to the distant +groups. + +In the Marine subject, especially with the sea running toward us, long +lines are created across the foreground, but with respect to these, as may +be noted in nature, there is a breaking and interlacing of lines in the +wave form so that the succession of such accents may lead tangentially +_from_ the direction of the wave. A succession of horizontal lines is +however the character of the marine subject. When the eye is stopped by +these it has found the subject. Only through the sky or by confronting +these forms at an angle can the force of the horizontals be broken. +Successful marines with the camera's lens pointed squarely at the sea have +been produced, but the best of them make use of the modifying lines of the +surf, or oppositional lines or gradations in the sky. + +In a large canvas by Alexander Harrison, its subject a group of bathers on +the shore, one single line, the farthest reach of the sea, proves an +artist's estimate of the leading line. On it the complete union of figures +and ocean depended. Its presence there was simple nature, its strong +enforcement the touch of art. + +The eye's willingness to follow long lines may however become dangerous in +leading away from the subject and out of the picture. What student cannot +show studies (done in his earliest period) of an interesting fence or +stone wall, blocking up his foreground and leading the eye out of the +picture? It is possible to so cleverly treat a stone wall that it would +serve us as an elevation from which to get a good jump into the picture. +Here careful painting with the intent of putting the foreground out of +focus, could perhaps land the eye well over the obstruction, and if so, +our consideration of the picture begins beyond this point. If the +observer could take such a barrier as easily as a cross country +steeple-chaser his fences and stone walls, there would be no objection, +but when the artist forces his guest to climb!--he is unreasonable. For +two years a prominent American landscape painter had constantly on his +easel a very powerful composition. The foreplane of trees, with branches +which interlaced at the top, made, with the addition of a stone wall +below, an encasement for the picture proper, which lay beyond. The lower +line, i.e., the stone wall, was in constant process of change, obliterated +by shadow or despoiled by natural dilapidation, sometimes vine-grown. In +its several stages it showed always the most critical weighing of the +part, and a consummate dodging of the difficulties. + +When finally exhibited, however, the wall had given way to a simple shadow +and a pool of water. The attempt to carry the eye over a cross-line in the +foreground had been a long and conclusive one, and its final abandonment +an admonition on this point. A barrier across the middle distance is +almost as objectionable. In the subject of a river embankment the eye +comes abruptly against its upper line, which is an accented one, and from +this dives off into the fathomless space of the sky, no intermediate +object giving a hint of anything existing between that and the horizon. + +In order to use such a subject it would be necessary to oppose the +horizontal of the bank by an item that would overlap and extend above it, +as a hay wagon with a figure on top of it or the sail of a boat, and if +possible to continue this transitional feeling in the sky by such cloud +forms as would carry the eye up. Attraction in the sky would create a +depth for penetration which the embankment blocked. + +[The Path of the Surf--Photo (Triangles Occuring in the leading line); The + Shepherdess--Millet (Composition Exhibiting a Double Exit)] + +The _"__Path of the Surf__"_ is a splendid leading line ending most +beautifully in a curve. + +Many readers will recall the notable picture by Mr. Picknell, now +deceased, of a white road in Picardie. Here all the lines converged at +the horizon. The perspective was so true as to become fascinating, a +problem of very ordinary deception. More subtle is Turner's "Approach to +Venice," see _Fundamental Forms,_ in which the lines are substituted by +spots--the gondolas--which, in like manner, bear us to the subject. The +graceful arch of the sky also presses us toward the subject. + +One may readily use the placement of the spots and substitute cattle +instead of gondolas and woods for the spired city; or groups of figures, +sheep, rocks, etc. The composition is fundamental, and will accommodate +many subjects. + + + +GETTING OUT OF THE PICTURE + + +This is important because necessary. It is much better to pass out than to +back out. Pictures show many awkward methods of exit. In some there are +too many chances to leave; in others there are none. Pictures in which +there is no opportunity for visual peripatetics require no such provision. +In the portrait we confront a personality, and some painters plainly tell +us by the blank space of the background that there shall be but one idea +to the observer's mind. In this event he has but to bow and withdraw. +But suppose the curtain of the background be drawn and a glimpse is +disclosed of a landscape beyond. This bit of attraction leads us toward +it. Instead therefore of breaking off from the subject we are led away +from it. The associations with the subject are ofttimes interesting and +appropriate and the great majority of portraits include them. As soon +therefore as we begin on any detail in the background we connect the +portrait with the pictorial and the sitter becomes one of a number of +elements in the scheme, the fulcrum on which they balance. A patch of +sky, besides creating an expansion in the diameter of the picture +introduces color, often valuable, as noted later. + +But more than this, these sky spots in a dark background are air holes. +They enable us to breathe in the picture, giving a decided sense of +atmosphere. When well subordinated they offer no distraction to the +subject, but give to the picture a depth. When no other object is +introduced, a gradation is serviceable. Much may be thus suggested and +besides the depth and air properties thus introduced, such variety of +surface excites visual motion. The eye always follows the course of light +from the shadow. The artist may make use of this fact in balancing the +picture and of leading the eye out where he will. As the elaborate +subject is often approached through a curve or zigzag, in like manner it +should be left, though the natural finish of such a series should connect +easily with its start. + +The eye should _never_ be permitted to leave the principal figure or +object and go straight back and out through the centre. If this is +allowed the width of the picture is slighted. Therefore if the attraction +of the natural exit is greater than other objects they exist in vain. + +The exit should be so guarded that after the visitor has moved about and +seen everything, he comes upon it naturally. For example conceive a +subject--figures or cattle--with the principal object in the foreground. +From this the other objects, all placed on the left side, move in a half +circle back and into the picture, this circuit naturally leading to an +opening in the trees or to a point of attraction in the sky or to a +glimpse of distance. If this be not of less interest than any object of +the progression, the unity of the picture disappears, for from the +principal object in the foreground the vision goes direct to the distance. + +Providing two or more exits is a common error of bad composition. This is +the main objection to the form of balance on the centre, which produces +two spaces of equal importance on either side. + +In the drawing of the _"__Shepherdess__"_ by Millet the attraction of two +alleys which the eye might take is largely regulated by the subordination +of one of them by proportional size and a lowering of the tone of the sky. +At best, however, it is a case of divided interest, though the deepest +dark against the highest light helps to control the situation. If for the +balance of the pines in the _snow scene_ a small tree on the right were +added, the objection would then be that from the central point of +attraction, the pines, the vision would go in two directions, toward the +houses and the tree. The visual lines connecting these two points would +cross the first or principal object instead of leading from this to one +and thence to the other as would not be the case if the added tree +appeared in the extreme _distance_ on the right. Under this arrangement +there would be progression into the picture. A still better arrangement +would have been direct movement from the mass of trees to the houses +placed on the right, with the space now occupied by them left vacant. + + + + +CHAPTER VI - THE CIRCULAR OBSERVATION OF PICTURES + + +The entrance into a picture and obstacles thereto, as applied to +landscape, has already been considered, from which it is evident that +wisdom renders this as easy as possible for the vision, not only +negatively, but through positive means as well. An obstruction through +which penetration must be forced, diverting the attention, is like the +person who claims us when we are trying to listen to someone else. + +When in nature we observe a scene that naturally fits a frame and we find +ourselves gazing first at one object and then at another and _returning +again to the first,_ we may be sure it will make a picture. + +But when we are tempted to turn, in the inspection of the whole horizon +(though this be circular observation), it proves we have not found a +picture. Our picture, on canvas, must fit an arc of sixty degrees. The +other thing is a panorama. The principle is contained in the illustration +of the _athletes._ This picture has the fascination of a continuous +performance and so in degree should every picture have. + +In the foreground, or figure subject the same principles apply. The main +point is to capture the observer's interest with the theme, _which to his +mental processes shall unfold according to the artist's plan._ With +twenty objects to present, which one on the chessboard of your picture +shall take precedence and which shall stand next in importance, and which +shall have a limited influence, and which, like the pawns, shall serve as +little more than the added thoughts in the game? + + [Circular Observation--The Principle; The Slaying of the Unpropitious + Messengers (Triangular Composition--Circular Observation)] + +In "The Slaying of the Unpropitious Messengers," a picture of great power +and truly sublime in the simplicity of its dramatic expression, the vision +falls without hesitation on the figure of Pharaoh, easily passing over the +three prostrate forms in the immediate foreground. These might have +diverted the attention and weakened the subject had not they been +skillfully played for second place. Their backs have been turned, their +faces covered, and, though three to one, the single figure reigns supreme. +Note how they are made to guide the eye toward him and into the picture +and discover in the other lines of the picture an intention toward the +same end, the staircase, the river, the mountain, the angular contour of +the portico behind tying with the nearer roof projection and making a +broken stairway from the left-hand upper corner. See, again, the lines of +the canopy composing a special frame for the master figure. + +Suppose a reconstruction of this composition. Behold the slain messengers +shaken into less recumbent and more tragic attitudes, arranged along the +foreplane of the picture; let all the leading lines be reversed; make them +antagonistic to the principles upon which the picture was constructed. +The subject indeed will have been preserved and the story illustrated, but +the following points will be lost and nothing gained: A central dominating +point of interest; the disparity between monarch and slave; the sentiment +of repose and quietude suggested by a starlit night and the coordination +of recumbent lines; the pathos of the lonely vigil, with the gaze of the +single figure strained and fixed upon, the distant horizon whence he may +expect the remnants of his shattered army. + +The artist's first conception of this subject was doubtless that of a +pyramid; the head of Pharaoh is the apex and the slaves the base and side +lines. The other lines were arranged in part to draw away from this +apparent and very common form of composition. One has but to look through +a list of notable pictures to find evidence of the very frequent use of +these concentric lines drawing the vision from the lower corners of the +picture to an apex of the pyramid. + +Now, herein lies the analogy between the simplest form of landscape +construction and the foreground or figure subject. The framework of both +is the pyramid, or what is termed _the structure of physical stability._ +In the landscape the pyramid lies on its side, the apex receding. It is +the custom of some figure painters to construct entirely in pyramids, the +smaller items of the picture resolving themselves into minor pyramids. In +the single figure picture--the portrait, standing or sitting--the pyramidal +form annihilates the spaces on either side of the figure, which, +paralleling both the sides and the frame, would leave long quadrilaterals +in place of diminishing segments. + +Whether the pyramid is in perspective or one described on the foreplane of +a picture, the principle is, _leading lines should carry the eye into the +picture or toward the subject,_ a point touched upon in the preceding +chapter. + +When reverie begins in a picture, one's vision involuntarily makes a +circuit of the items presented, starting at the most interesting and +widening in its review toward the circumference, as ring follows ring when +a stone is thrown into water. The items of a picture may arrange +themselves in elliptical form, and the circuit may bend back into the +picture; or the form may be described on a vertical plane, but the circuit +should be there, and if two circuits may be formed the reverie will +continue that much longer. The outer circuit finished, the vision may +return to the centre again. If in a landscape, for instance, the interest +of the sky dominates that of the land, the vision will centre there and +come out through the foreground, and it is important that the eye have +such a course marked out for it, lest, left to itself, it slip away +through the sides, and the continuous chain of reverie be broken. + +It is interesting to note in what cycles this great wheel of circular +observation revolves, directing the slow revolution of our gaze. + +In one picture it takes us from the corner of the canvas to the extreme +distance and thence in a circuit back; in another it moves on a flat plane +like an ellipse in perspective. Again, first catching the eye in the +centre, it unfolds like a spiral. + +Much of a painter's attention is given to keeping his edges so well +guarded that the vision in its circuit may be kept within the canvas. A +large proportion of the changes which all pictures pass through in process +of construction is stimulated by this consideration--how to stop a wayward +eye from getting too near the edge and escaping from the picture. When +every practical device has been tried, as a last resource the centre may +be strengthened. + +In order to settle this point to the student's satisfaction no better +proof could be suggested than that he paint in black and white a simple +landscape motif, with no attempt to create a focus, with no suppression of +the corners and no circuit of objects--a landscape in which ground and sky +shall equally divide the interest. He may produce a counterfeit of +nature, but the result will rise no higher in the scale of art than a raw +print from the unqualified negative in photography. The art begins _at_ +that point, and consists in the production of unity, in the establishment +of a focus, in the subordination of parts by the establishment of a scale +of relative values, and in a continuity of progression from one part to +another. The procedure will be somewhat as follows: Decision as to +whether the sky or ground shall have right of way; the production of a +centre and a suppression of contiguous parts; the feeling after lines +which shall convey the eye away from the focal centre and lead it through +the picture, a groping for an item, an accent, or something that shall +attract the eye away from the corner or side of the picture, where, in +following the leading lines, it may have been brought, and back toward the +focus again. Here then, will have been described the circuit of which we +speak. In the suppression of the corners the same instinct for the +elliptical line has been followed, for the composition, by avoiding them, +describes itself within the inner space. + +[Huntsman and Hounds (Triangle with Circular Attraction); Portrait of Van + der Geest--Van Dyck (A sphere within a Circle)] + +A composition in an oval or circle is much more easily realized than one +occupying a rectangular space, as the vexing item of the corners has been +disposed of, and the reason why these shapes are not popularly used is +that hanging committees cannot dispose of them with other pictures. The +attempt in the majority of compositions, however, is to fit the picture +proper to the fluent lines of the circle or oval. In "Huntsman and +Hounds," a picture which is introduced because the writer is able to speak +of points in its construction which these principles necessitated, the +pyramidal form of composition is apparent, and around this a circuit is +described by the hand, arm, crop, spot on dog's side, elbow of dog's +foreleg, line of light on the other dog's breast, the light on table and +chair in background--all being points which catch the eye and keep it +moving in a circuit. In the first arrangement of this composition a +buffet occupied the space given to the indication of chair and table. +This did not assist sufficiently in diverting the awkward line from the +left shoulder, down the arm, into the dog's head and out of the picture. +Judgment here lay between filling the space with the dog's head, which +would have separated it too far from the man, or striving to divert it as +noted. The space between this line and the side of the canvas was _the_ +difficult space of the picture. There is always a rebellious member in +every picture, which continues unruly throughout its whole construction, +and this one did not settle itself until several arrangements of the part +were tried. In order to divert the precipitate line a persistence of +horizontals was necessary--the table, the chair and the shadow on the +floor. The shadows and the picture on the wall block the top and sides, +and the shadow from the fender indicated along the lower edge complete the +circuit and weaken the succession of verticals in the legs of dog and man. + + + +CIRCULAR COMPOSITION + + +Circular observation in pictures whose structure was apparently not +circular leads to the consideration of _circular composition,_ or that +class of pictures where the evident intention is to compose under the +influence of circular observation--where the circle expresses the first +thought in the composition. + +This introduces us to the widest reaches of pictorial art, for in this +category lie the greatest of the world's pictures. Slight analysis is +necessary to discover this arrangement in the majority of the strongest +compositions which we encounter. In the Metropolitan and Lenox Galleries +of New York, the following pictures may be looked at for this form of +structure, showing the circle either in the vertical plane or in +perspective. Auguste Bonheur's large cattle-piece, Inness' "Autumn Oaks," +Corot's "Ville d'Avray," Knaus' "Madonna," Cabanel's kneeling female +figure, Koybet's "Card Players," "Jean d'Arc," by Bastian Lepage; "The +Baloon," by Julian Dupre; Wylie's "Death of the Vendean Chief," Leutze's +"Crossing of the Delaware," Meissonier's "1807," the three pictures of +Turner, "Milton Dictating to His Daughters," by Munkacsy, and Knaus' "Bow +at a Peasants' Ball." This list contains the most important works of +these collections, and others might easily be added. + +The head by Van Dyck carries with it the repose which belongs to _the +completeness of the circle._ + +Like Saturn and his ring, this sphere within the circle is typical of +harmony in _unity,_ and for this reason, though detached as we know it to +be, it has a greater completeness than though joined to a body. It is on +this general principle that all circular compositions are based--absorption +of the attention _within the circuit._ + + [Marriage of Bacchus and Ariadne--Tintoretto (Circle and Radius); + Endymion--Watts (The Circle--Vertical Plane)] + +In Tintoretto's "Marriage of Bacchus and Ariadne," the floating figure +offers us a shock not quite relieved when we recall the epoch of its +production or concede the customary license to mythology. At a period in +art when angels were employed through a composition as a stage manager +would scatter supernumeraries--to fill gaps or create masses--in any posture +which the conditions of the picture demanded, it is not strange that the +artist conceived this figure suspended from above in an arc of a circle, +if in these lines it served his purpose. In this shape it completes a +circuit in the figures, fills the space which would otherwise open a wide +escape for the vision, and, by the union of the three heads, joins the +figures in the centre of the canvas, completing, with the legs of Ariadne, +five radial lines from this focus. + +To the mind of a sixteenth century artist, these reasons were more +convincing than the objection to painting a hundred and forty pounds of +recumbent flesh and blood, with the support unseen. To the modern artist +such a conception would be well-nigh impossible, though Mr. Watts gives us +much the same action. Here, however, the movement of the draperies +supplies motion to the figure of Selene, and as a momentary action we know +it to be possible. Were the interpretation of motion by hair and drapery +impossible, and the impression, as in the Tintoretto, that of the +suspended nude model, it would be safe to say that no modern painter would +have employed such a figure. This touch of realism, even among the +transcendental painters, denotes the clean-cut separations between the +modern and mediaeval art sense. + +While these two examples show the "vortex" arrangement with fluent +outlines, the _portrait_(10) by Mr. Whistler expresses the same principles +in an outline almost rectangular, but is to be placed in the same category +as the other two. The chair-back, the curtain, the framed etching, are +all formally placed with respect to the edges of the canvas, and as we +observe them in their order, we return in a circuit to the head. + +The circle in composition is discoverable in many pictures where there is +no direct evidence that the intention was to compose thus, but wherein +analysis on these lines proves that, led by unity, balance and repose +(cardinal beacon-lights to the mind artistic), the painter naturally did +it. + +It is of interest to review this picture through its simple evolution. +The head conceived in its pose, the next line of interest is one from neck +to feet. This, besides being the edge of the black mass of the body, is +the more apparent against the light gray wall and as a line is attractive +in forming Hogarth's "Line of Beauty." But beautiful as it may be, it +commits an unlovely act in cutting a picture diagonally, almost from +corner to corner. Interruption of this is effected by the hands and +increased by the handkerchief. Shortly below the knee this is diverted by +the base-board and at the bottom squarely stopped by the solid rectangle +of the stool. + +Suppose that the picture on the wall were missing; not only would the long +parallelogram of the curtain be unrelieved, but the return of the line to +the subject in the ensemble of the picture would be broken. This, +therefore, becomes the keystone of the composition. Other considerations +besides its diversion from the curtain are, its curtailing of wall space, +and, by its close placement to the curtain, its union therewith as a +balance for head and body--in bulk of light and dark almost identical with +them, though less forcible in tonal value. + +In Wiertz's group about the body of Patroclus, though its contour is more +decidedly circular (and in the use of this term is always meant a line +returning on itself), it fails to prompt circular observation to the same +extent as the foregoing. The eye seesaws back and forth along the lines +of the hammock arrangement of light, and we are conscious of the extreme +balance and the careful parcelling out of the units of force. + +With all its evident abandon the method is painfully present, as though +the artist, given so much Greek, was careful to add the same amount of +Trojan. The level and plummet setting of the group exactly within the +sides of the frame, with no suggestion of anything else existing in the +world, puts it into the class of formal decoration, with which old +masterdom abounds, and whence Wiertz received the inspiration for most of +his great compositions. + + [The Fight Over the Body of Patroclus--Weirls; 1807--Meissonier; Ville + d'Avray--Corot; The Circle in Perspective] + +More studiable is the vortex arrangement of the "1807," with its +magnificent sweep of cavalry, where the tumultuous energy of one part is +augmented by fine antithesis of repose in another. Meissonier's +composition was expanded after the first conception was nearly completed. +The visitor at the Metropolitan Museum may discover a horizontal line in +the sky and a vertical one through the right end. This slight ridge in +the canvas shows the dimensions of the original thought. The added space +gave larger opportunity for the maneuvres of the cuirassiers, and set +Napoleon to the left of the exact centre, where, by the importance of his +figure, he more justly serves as a balance for the heavier side of the +picture. + +As in the Whistler portrait, the keystone was the picture on the wall, in +this composition the group of mounted guardsmen on the left gives a +circle's unity to it, helps to join the middle distance with the +foreground, becomes the third point in the triangle, which gives pyramidal +solidity to the composition and is altogether quite as important to the +picture as the right wing to an army. + +Corot was wont to rely on Nature's gift as she bestowed it, merely +allowing his sensitive picture-sense to lead him where pictures were, +rather than upon any artful reconstruction of the facts of nature. His +"Little Music," as he called it, came for the most part ready-made for +him, and he simply caught it and wrote the score. His art is less +impressive for composite quality, than, for example, that of Mauve, who, +in the same simple range of subject, sought to produce a perfect +composition every time. In the "Lake at Ville d'Avray," we have one of +Corot's happiest subjects, though not especially characteristic. A +considerable part of its charm lies in our opportunity to girdle it with +our eye, and in imagination from any point along its rim to view its +circumference as a page from Nature, complete. + + + +RECONSTRUCTION FOR CIRCULAR OBSERVATION. + + +Circular composition traceable in what has been first conceived as +pyramidal or rectangular, circular composition as the first intention, +expressed either on a vertical plane or in perspective, i.e., circular or +elliptical--and composition _made circular_ not by any arrangement of +parts, but by sacrifice and elimination of edges and corners are the three +forms of composition which produce circular observation. The value of the +circle as a unifying and therefore as a simplifying agent cannot be +overestimated, especially in solving the problems which occur in +composition where the circle has not been a part of the original scheme, +but where, when applied, it seems to bring a relief to confusion and +disorder. In many cases where all essential items are happily arranged, +but, as a whole, refuse to compose, the addition of some element or the +readjustment of a part which will produce circular observation, will +ofttimes prove the solution of the difficulty. + + [The Hermit--Gerard Dow (Rectangle in Circle); The Forge of + Vulcan--Boucher (Circular Observation by Suppression of Sides and + Corners)] + +Just as progression in a straight line will soon carry us out of the +picture, will circular progression keep us within its bounds. If then, +circular observation affords the best means of appreciation, it follows +that circular composition is the most telling form of presentation. There +are many subjects which naturally do not fall in these lines, but which +may ofttimes be reedited into this class. This reediting means +composition, and two examples from a vast number are here given to show +the working out of the problem. In the "Hermit," by Dow, the figure, book +and hour glass compose in a simple left angle, but the head becomes the +centre to a circular composition by the presence of the arch above and the +encircling shadow behind and beneath the arm. The corners sacrifice their +space to strengthen the centre and the vision is thus completely funneled +upon the head. In striking contrast to this is the composition by +Boucher. Here are the elements for two or three pictures thrown into one, +and in some respects well governed as a single composition. Conceive, +however, this subject bereft of the darkened corners, and the gradations +which create a focus. The figures would lie upon the canvas somewhat in +the shape of a letter Z, devoid of essential coherence, with the details +in the foreground hopelessly exposed as padding. + +Another resort in order to secure a vortex, or a centre bounded by a +circle, is to surround the head or figure with flying drapery, branch +forms, a halo or any linear item which may serve both to cut out and to +hem in. It accomplishes something of what the hand does when held as a +tunnel before the eye. Such a device offers ready aid to the decorator +whose figures must often receive a close encasement, fitted as they are +into limited spaces, when many an ungracious line in the subject is made +to disappear through the accommodation of pliant drapery or of varied tree +forms. + +In this class of compositions especially must the background be made the +_complement_ of the subject. What the subject fails to contain may there +be supplied, a sort of auxiliary opportunity. + +The subject, or most interesting part, should lie either _within_ the +circuit or be the most important item _of_ the circle. It should never be +_outside_ the circle. If it appears there, the eye is thrown off of the +elliptical track. If the reader will compare the _"__Lake at Ville +d'Avray__"_ by Corot with his "Orpheus and Eurydice," the charm in the +former may reveal itself more completely through the jar to which the +latter subjects us. The figures of the divine lyrist and his bride +escaping out of one corner of the canvas do not enter at all into the +linear scheme and in their anxiety to flee Hades they are about to leave +art and the spectator. The picture is a strange counterpart of the Apollo +and Daphne of Giorgione at Venice, and since it is known of Corot that he +cared infinitely more for nature than art, it is fair to suppose that he +had never seen this picture either in the original or reproduction. Had +he been governed by the feeling for unity which his works usually display +this pitfall in the borders of plagiarism would not have snared him. + + [Orpheus and Eurydice--Corot (Figures outside the natural line of the + picture's composition); The Holy Family--Andrea del Sarto (The circle + overbalanced)] + +The "Holy Family," by Andrea del Sarto, is a composition in which the good +intention of the artist to make a complete line within the sides of the +canvas seems a matter of greater concern than other principles of +composition, quite as important. The ellipse of the three figures is +beautifully carried out, but it leaves one of them, the most important, in +the least important place. The whole composition sags in this direction, +the weight of Joseph, in half shadow, being insufficient to recover the +balance. With these figures all well drawn and especially adapted in +their contours to the organic lines of composition, several rearrangements +might be made, as well as other arrangements, with any one of the four +figures omitted, its place used for reserved space. No better practice in +linear and mass composition could be suggested than slight modification of +parts by raising or lowering or spacing or by the reconstruction of the +background, of well known pictures in which the composition is confused. + +A common mistake in the use of the circular form is that of making it too +apparent. A list of pictures might be made wherein the formal lines of +construction are very much in evidence. Such could be well headed by +Raphael's "Death of Ananias," where the formality of the arrangement is on +a par with the strain and effort expressed in every one of its figures. +The curved peristyle of kneeling disciples offers a temptation to push the +end man and await the result on the others, more to witness a +rearrangement than create any further commotion in the infant church. The +fact that this work is decorative rather than pictorial in intention +cannot relieve the representation of an actual occurrence of the charge of +being struck off in an oft-used and well worn mold. Compare with this +Rembrandt's famous circular composition, "Christ Healing the Sick," +wherein though the weight on either side of Christ is about evenly +divided, the formality of placement has been most carefully avoided, and +where the impression is merely that the Healer is the centre of a body of +people who surround him. + +With the great principle of linear composition in mind, namely, that the +vision travels in the path of least resistance, no rule need be formulated +and no further examples produced to prove that the various items of a +composition are taken at their required value _to the extent to which they +adhere to and partake of the established plan of observation._ + + + + +CHAPTER VII - ANGULAR COMPOSITION, THE LINE OF BEAUTY AND THE RECTANGLE + + + + The Triangle. + + +In angular composition the return of the eye over its course, as in +circular observation, is practically eliminated. While the circle and +ellipse offer a succession of items and events, one the sequence of the +other, so that the vision concludes like a boomerang, angular composition +sends a shaft direct, with no return. + +Here the pleasure of reverie through an endless chain must be exchanged +for the stimulation of a shock, for force by concentration, for ruggedness +at the expense of elegance. + +Pure triangular composition is a form rarely seen, as, in most cases where +the lines of the triangle are detected as the first conception, other +lines or points have been added to destroy or modify them. + +Jacque has been successful in the management of what is considered a +difficult form. In the herder with cattle although we feel in the next +moment the subject will have passed, while it lasts the artist has kept +the eye upon it by the use of dark figures at either end and a +concentration of light in the centre; also by the presence of the tree in +the distance which turns the eye into the picture as it leaves the cow on +the right. + + [The Herder--Jaque] + +Another example more complete as a composition is his famous _"__Shepherd +and Sheep,__"_(11) in which the angle is formed by the dark dog at the +extreme right, the lines expanding through the figure of the shepherd and +thence above into a group of trees and below along the edge of the flock. +In this example the base line runs into the picture by perspective and +thence back into the picture to the trees. + +The _"__Departure for the Chase,__"_ by Cuyp, shows an unsuccessful use of +this shape. + +In _"__The Path of the Surf,__"_ the main form--the surf--is a triangle and +the two supporting spaces triangles. Such a construction is particularly +stable, as these focalize on the line of interest. Some artists construct +most of their pictures in a series of related triangles. The writer +calling upon Henry Bacon found him painting a group of transatlantic +travellers on a steamer's deck. He pointed out a scheme of triangles +which together formed one great triangle, but said he was looking for the +last point for the base of this. A monthly magazine was suggested, which, +laid open on its face, proved _le dernier clou._ + + + +THE VERTICAL LINE IN ANGULAR COMPOSITION + + +When Giotto was asked for his conception of a perfect building, he +produced a circle. When Michael Angelo was appealed to, he designated the +cross. On both bases may good architecture and good pictures be founded. +If the extremities of the Greek cross be connected by arcs, a circle will +result, and if the Latin cross be so bounded we will have a kite-shape, or +ellipse. The two designs are, therefore, not as dissimilar as may at +first be supposed. In both, from the pictorial standpoint, they are the +framework by means of which the same given space may be filled. + +The simple vertical line is monotonous. Its bisection produces balance; a +cross is the result. Again, two crosses placed together, the arms +touching, and three crosses in like position, will represent the picture +plan of the grouping so frequently used by Raphael--a central figure +balanced by one on either side, the horizon joining them, and behind this +the balance repeated in trees and other figures. + +Pictorially, the vertical line is much more important than any other. It +is the direction of gravity; it represents man upright, in distinction +from the brutes; it also can stand alone, all other lines demanding +supports. Of two equally forcible lines, this would first be seen. In +composition, therefore, it has the right of way. + +Let us start with a subject represented by a vertical line--a tree or +figure. The directness, rigidity, isolation and unqualified force of such +a line demands balance; otherwise, extension is the sole idea. With the +thought of a frame or sides of the picture comes the necessary horizontal +line, bisecting the vertical. Length and breadth have then been +represented, something in two dimensions started, and the four sides of a +frame necessitated. + +In sculpture this consideration weighs nothing. A statue is framed by all +outdoors. The vertical of a single figure pierces the unlimited sky, and +the only consideration to the artist is that the mass looks well from any +point of view. The group by Carpeaux is a sample of plastic art unusually +picturesque, and would easily fit a frame, because in it the vertical +figure is supported by horizontals, both of lines and in the idea of +lateral movement. It is, therefore, solid and complete and sets forth in +its structure the thought of Alexander the Great when he had his artists +represent, in a design painted upon his equipments, lasting power as a +sword within a circuit. + +This piece of sculpture is a cross within a cylinder, but on a flat +plane the principle is just as forcible, as will further be shown in the +picture by Israels. + + [Alone--Jacques Israels (Constructive Synthesis upon the Vertical); The + Dance--Carpeaux (The Cross Within the Circle)] + +"The Crucifixion," by Morot, is more statuesque than picturesque, and +would gain in effect if seen unembarrassed by the limitations of a frame. +Its strength in one situation is its weakness in another. The presence of +the frame creates three spaces, one above the horizontal and one on either +side of the vertical, and these are empty. Therefore, although the single +thought of the dying Saviour is sufficiently great to bear--nay, even, +perhaps, demand--isolation, it unites itself with nothing else within our +compass of vision, and, therefore, cannot be said to compose with its +frame. The reader is now in a position to appreciate the simple mechanics +which underlie the composition by Israels. In "Alone" the artist starts +with the figure of the man--a vertical. The next thought closely allied is +the woman. The two complete a cross. From either end two more verticals +are erected. On the left another horizontal joins the vertical in the top +of the table and unites it with another vertical, the shutter, and so on +to the edge of the picture. On the other side the basket top leads off +from the vertical and thence down the side to the floor and to the edge of +the picture by the lines of fagots. The circuit, which helps to keep the +vision in the picture and serves to render more compact the subject +proper, is developed by the shelf, weights of the clock, basket, cap, +items upon table, shutter and bedpost. For proof that the horizontal lines +in this composition were all placed there for the relief of the verticals, +with the first of which the picture starts, let us remove the table, +basket and bench and see how the arrangement becomes one of quadrangles, +paralleling instead of uniting with the sides. In every case, in the +accompanying illustrations, there has been an effort to reach out toward +the sides and take hold there. Those that have established these points +of contact most fully are the most stable and the most satisfying. + +In the composition of the _"__Beautiful Gate,__"_ by Raphael, the two +pillars, in that they span the whole distance from bottom to top, destroy +all chance for unity. Three pictures result instead of one--a triptych +elaborately framed. Even with these verticals cutting the picture into +sections, had horizontals been introduced between them and in front, or +even behind, some of the necessary unity of pictorial structure could have +been secured. What connection exists between these several parts is all +subjective, but not structural, the impulse to exhibit the wonderful +columns in their remarkable perfection of detail being a temptation to +which the picture was sacrificed. + +Such an exhibition of the uncontrolled vertical produces an effect on a +par with a football carried straight across the field and placed on the +goal line without opposition. All the strategy of the game is left out, +and although the play produces the required effect in the score, a few +repetitions of the procedure would soon clear the benches. The interest +to the spectators and players alike enters in when the touch-down is +accomplished after a series of zigzags toward the outer line, where force +meeting force in a counter direction results in a tangent, when the goal +is reached by the subtlety of a diagonal. A cushion carom is an artistic +thing; a set-up shot is the beginner's delight. In the _"__Allegory of +Spring,__"_ by Botticelli, we have a sample of structure lacking both +circular cohesion and the stability of the cross adhesion. Like separate +figures and groups of a photographic collection, it might be extended +indefinitely on either side or cut into four separate panels. The +accessories of the figures offer no help of union. Besides the lack of +structural unity, no effort toward it appears in the conception of the +subject. Each figure or group is sufficient unto itself, and the whole +represents a group of separate ideas. This is not composition, but +addition. + +But what of the single figure in standing portraiture, when only the +person is presented, and no thought desired but that of personality, when +the outline stands relieved by spaces of nothingness? Though less +apparent, the principle of union with the sides still abides. What is +known as the lost and found outline is a recognition of this, an effort of +the background to become homogeneous with the vertical mass, the line +giving way that the surrounding tone may be let in. Such is the feeling +with which many of the most subtle of Whistler's full-lengths have been +produced. The portraits of Carriere are still more striking examples of +absolute dismissal of outline. + +In the well-known portrait of "Alice," by Mr. Chase, where the crisp edges +of a white dress are relieved against a dark ground, such treatment is +impossible. Here, however, the device of flying ribbons is a most clever +one, which, besides giving the effect of motion, causes an interruption in +these clean-cut outlines, as also in the formal spaces on either side. +The horizontal accent of dark through the centre of the canvas, suggesting +a grand piano in the dim recesses behind, fulfills a like obligation from +the linear as well as tonal standpoint. + + + +ANGULAR COMPOSITION BASED ON THE HORIZONTAL + + +As the vertical may be termed the figure painters' line so the horizontal +becomes the line of the landscape painter. Given these as the necessary +first things, the picture is made by building upon and around them. The +devices which aid the figure painter in disposing of one or many verticals +have been briefly viewed. A consideration of the horizontal will +necessarily take us out of doors to earth and sky, where nature constructs +on surfaces which follow the horizon. + +The problem in composition which each of these lines presents is the same +and the principle governing the solution of each identical; balance by +equalization of forces. _Given a line which coincides with but one side of +the picture it becomes necessary for the poise of the quadrilateral to +cross it with an opposing line._ The rectangular cross, though more +positive and effective, is no more potential in securing this unity than +the crossing of lines _at a long angle._ A series of right angles will in +time arrive at the same point as the _tangent,_ but less quickly. Each +angle in such an ascent produces the parity of both horizontal and +vertical. The tangent expresses their synthesis. In Fortuny's +_"__Connoisseurs,__"_ the right angle formed by the line of the mantel and +the statue takes the eye to the same point as the tangent of the shadow. +Again, the principle allows the modification of any arm of the cross, +maintaining only the fact of the cross itself. When a line passes through +the first or necessary line of construction it has, so to speak, +incorporated itself as a part of the picture, and what it becomes +thereafter is of no great importance. If the reader will make simple line +diagrams of but a few pictures, this point will be made clear, and it will +be found that such diagrams which represent either the actual lines of +direction or lines of suggestion from point to point or mass to mass will +comfortably fill the quadrilateral of the frame _as a linear design._ + +In all analyses of pictures the student should select the first or most +commanding and necessary line of the conception. Having found this thread +the whole composition will unravel and disclose a reason for each stitch. + +Let a horizontal base line be assumed and verticals erected therefrom, +_without crossing it._ The reason why no picture results is because there +is no cross. Such a design would suggest many of Fra Angelico's +decorations of saints and angels; or the plan of the better known +decoration of "The Prophets" at the Boston Library by Sargent. These +groups, it must be remembered, are not pictorial and are not compositions +from the picture point of view. Their homogeneity depends not on +interchange of line or upon other mechanics of composition, but only upon +the unity of associated ideas. In instances, however, where some of +the figures of these groups are _joined_ by horizontal lines or masses +which bisect these verticals the pictorial intention begins to be felt. + + [Sketches from Landscapes by Henry Ranger; Parity of Horizonatals and + Verticals; Crossings of Horizontals by Spot Diversion] + +Of the accompanying _illustrations_ that of the view on the shore with +overhanging clouds shows a most persistent lot of horizontals with nothing +but the lighthouse and the masts of the vessels to serve for reactive +lines. At their great distance they would accomplish little to relieve +this disparity of line were it not for the aid of the vertical pillar of +cloud and the pull downward which the eye received in the pool below the +shore. The most troublesome line in this picture is the shore line, but +an effort is made here to break its monotony by two accents of bushes on +either side. What, therefore, would seem to be a composition "going all +one way," displays, after all, a strong attempt toward the recognition of +the principle of crossed lines. + +The sketch shows the constructive lines of a picture by Henry Hanger, and +lacks the force of color by which these points are emphasized. + +[Sketch from the Book of Truth--Claude Lorrain (Rectangle Unbalanced); The + Beautiful Gate--Raphael (Verticals Destroying Pictorial Unity)] + +In the wood interior the stone wall is the damaging line. Not only does +it parallel the bottom line, always unfortunate, but it cuts the picture +in two from side to side. Above this the bottom line of the distant woods +gives another paralleling line, running the full length of the picture. +Given the verticals together with these, however, their force becomes +weakened until there ensues an almost perfect balance, the crossing lines +weighing out even. The sketch from Claude Lorraine, out of the "Book of +Truth," shows a great left angle composition of line not very +satisfactory, owing to its lack of weight for the long arm of the +steelyard. The principle, however, which this sketch exhibits is correct, +and its balance of composition would be easily effected by the addition of +some small item of interest to the extreme left. It is not, however, a +commendable type of composition, owing to the difficulty of obtaining a +rational balance, but when this is to be had in just its right force the +plan of lines is excellent. In the matter of measures, were the whole +composition pushed to the left we would at once feel a relief in the +spaces. But the impressionist queries why not take it as it stands! So +it might be taken, and a most balanced picture _painted from it;_ but +these considerations apply to the black and white, without the alteration +which color might effect. + +[Mother and Child--Orchardson (Horizontals opposed or Covered); Stream in + Winter--W. E. Schofield (Verticals and Horizontals vs. Diagonal)] + +No less aggravated a case of horizontals is the charming picture of +_mother and child_ by Mr. Orchardson. The long cane sofa and the +recumbent baby are the two unaccommodating lines for which the mother's +figure was especially posed. Howsoever unconscious may appear the +renderings of this figure, plus the fan, the underlying structure of it +conforms absolutely to the requirements of the unthinking half of the +subject. It is an instance of an unpromising start resulting with +especial success through skillful playing to its awkward leads. + +The principle of the diagonal being equivalent as a space filler to the +crossed horizontal and vertical is shown by comparison of the wood +interior with the _winter landscape,_ in which the foreground has been +thus disposed of. The force of a horizontal is more cleverly weakened by +such a line because besides adding variety it accomplishes its intention +with less effort. As a warning of what may happen when these principles +are neglected or overdone one glance at the _equestrian picture by Cuyp_ +is sufficient. His subject, a man on horseback, is an excellent cross of +a horizontal and vertical in itself and simply required to be let alone +and led away from. The background destroys this and, instead of being an +aid to circular observation, persists in _adding_ a line to one in the +subject which should have been parried, and thus cuts the picture in two. + +Cuyp in this as in another similar picture had in mind light and shade +rather than linear composition, but even so, the composition shows little +intelligence. No amount of after manipulation could condone so vicious a +slaughter of space and line opportunities which the background, with its +reduplicating edge, accomplishes. + +Study in that vast and changeful realm the sky offers a greater +opportunity for selection than any other part of nature. + +The sky is but one of two elements in every landscape and in the majority +of cases it is the secondary element. If the sky is to agree with an +interesting landscape it must retire behind it. If it causes divided +interest, its interest must be sacrificed. Drawings, photographs and +color studies of skies with the intention of combining them with landscape +should be made in the range of secondary interest and with the calculation +of their fitting to the linear scheme of landscape. Skies which move away +from the horizon diagonally, suggesting the oppositional feeling, are more +useful in an artist's portfolio than a series of clouds, the bottoms of +which parallel the horizon, especially when these float isolated in the +sky. When the formal terrace of clouds entirely fills the sky space, its +massive structure is felt rather than the horizontal lines, just as a +series of closely paralleled lines becomes a flat tint. + + + +THE LINE OF BEAUTY. + + +The most elastic and variable of the fundamental forms of composition is +the line of beauty, the letter S, or, conceived more angularly, the letter +Z. This is one particularly adapted to upright arrangements and one +largely used by the old masters. We are able to trace this curvilinear +feeling through at least one-third of the great figure compositions of the +Renaissance. Note the page of sketches in the chapter on _Light and +Shade._ Though selected for this quality they show a strong feeling for +the sweeping line of the letter S. "The Descent from the Cross," a most +marked example, can well be considered one of the world's greatest +compositions. Over and over again Rubens has repeated this general form +and always with great effect. Whether the line is traceable upon the +vertical plane or carries the eye into the picture and forms itself into +the graceful union of one object with another, its great pictorial power +is revealed to any who will look for it. + + [Hogarth's Line of Beauty] + +In Hogarth's essay on "The Line of Beauty," he sets forth a series of +seven curves selecting No. 4 as the most perfect. This is duplicated in +nature by the line of a woman's back. If two be joined side by side they +produce the beautiful curve of a mouth and the cupid's bow. Horizontally, +the line becomes a very serviceable one in landscape. As a vertical it +recalls the upward sweep of a flame which, ever moving, is symbolic of +activity and life. To express this line both in the composition of the +single figure and of many figures was the constant effort of Michael +Angelo and, through Marcus de Sciena, his pupil, it has been passed down +to us. By the master it was considered most important advice. "The +greatest grace," he asserts, "that a picture can have is that it express +life and motion, as that of a flame of fire." Yet in the face of such a +statement from the painter of the "Last Judgment" it is difficult to +reconcile the lack of it in this great picture. + +The compound curve which this line contains is one of perfect balance, +traceable in the standing figure. As an element of grace, alone, it +affords the same delight as the interweaving curves of a dance or the +fascination of coiling and waving smoke. Classic landscape, in which many +elements are introduced, or any subject where scattered elements are to be +swept together and controlled is dependent upon this principle. An +absolute line is not of course necessary, but points of attraction, which +the eye easily follows, is an equivalent. Many simple subjects owe their +force and distinction entirely to a good introduction through a bold +sweeping curved line. Thanks to the wagon track of the seashore, which may +be given any required curve, the formality and frequent emptiness of this +subject is made to yield itself into good composition. When the subject +rejects grace and demands a rugged form, the sinuous flow of line may be +exchanged for an abrupt and forcible zigzag. In such an arrangement the +eye is pulled sharply across spaces from one object to another, the space +itself containing little of interest. In the short chapter on Getting out +of the Picture, the use of this zigzag line was emphasized. + +The opportunity offered in the film-like cirrus clouds, which so +frequently lie as the background to the more positive forms of the +cumulous, for securing the oppositional feeling, is one frequently adopted +by sky painters. Besides strengthening the structure pictorially such +arrangement frequently imparts great swing and movement in the lines of a +sky, carrying the eye away from the horizon. When positive cloud motion is +desired these oppositional masses may become very suggestive of wind, +different strata showing a contrasted action of air currents. + +As an adjunct to any other form of composition this line may be profitably +employed. It plays second with graceful effect in the "Path of the Surf," +"The Lovers," "The Stream in Winter," "The Chant," "1807," and is +traceable in many of the best compositions. + + + +THE RECTANGLE + + +The last of the great forms of composition is the rectangle, but this +always in connection with oppositional balance. Such a form attaches +itself to two sides of the picture and the importance of a reacting +measure is obvious. In this lies the warrant for its use, for without it +unity is impossible. Of the six fundamental forms of composition this is +the only one which is dependent, all the others containing within +themselves the element of balance. + +The rectangle plus the isolated measure approaches the completeness of the +cross and in the degree it lacks this completeness it develops +opportunities for originality. + +In the _landscape by Corot_ the letter L is plainly shown. In the diagram +of Fundamental Forms also, the tree-mass, cow and river bank in shadow +serve as a sombre foil for the clump of trees upon the opposite shore +which are bathed in the soft luminous haze of early morning. This is the +real attraction which, grafted upon the heavy structure of the foreground +affects us the more through the contrast. In Mr. Pettie's picture of +_"__James II and the Duke of Monmouth,__"_ we have the opposition of the +two lines, the attraction in the open space being the line of seats along +the wall. These, in the dimly lighted interior, are scarcely assertive +enough to effect the diversion which the open structure demands. + +In perspective this arrangement merges into the triangle which has already +been discussed. The _"__Sheep and Shepherd,__"_ by Jacque is constructed +upon the L reversed and is an unusually strong example of a rare +arrangement. + + + + LINE + + +Structural line, or that which stands for the initial form of the picture +and conjunctive line, or that which joins itself naturally to such form +are the two phases of line which engage the scientific study of the +artist. Line for line's sake is an opportunity offered him quite apart +from structural considerations. Line has a distinct aesthetic value no +less than one contributive to picture mechanics. Thus pictures conceived +in vertical lines bespeak dignity, solemnity, quietude; pillars, trees of +straight shaft, ascending smoke and other vertical forms all voice these +and allied emotions. With slightly less force does a series of +horizontals affect us and with a kindred emotion. But when the line +slants and ceases to support itself, or becomes curved, movement is +suggested and another set of emotions is evoked. The diagonal typifies +the quick darting lightning. The vertical curved line is emblematic of +the tongue of flame; the horizontal curve, of a gliding serpent. In the +circle and ellipse we feel the whirl and fascination of continuity. The +linear impulse in composition therefore plays a part in emotional art +independent of the subject itself. + +[Aesthetics of Line; The Altar; Roman Invasion--F. Lamayer (Vertical line + in action; dignified, measured, ponderous); The Flock--P. Moran (The +horizontal, typifying quietude, repose, calm, solemnity); The curved line: + variety, movement; Man with Stone--V. Spitzer (Transitional Line, +Cohesion); The Dance--Rubens (The ellipse: line of continuity and unity); + Swallows--From the Strand (The diagonal: line of action; speed)] +[Aesthetics of Line, Continued, Where Line is the motive and Decoration is + the Impulse; Winter Landscape--After Photograph (Line of grace, variety, +facile sequence); Line Versus Space (The same impulse with angular energy, + The line more attractive than the plane); Reconciliation--Glackens + (Composition governed by the decorative exterior line); December--After + Photograph (Radial lines with strong focalization)] + +Pictorial art owes a large and increasing debt to decorative art and no +small part of this is its simple beauty of line. It is rare however to +find the painter governed in his first conception by any _positive_ linear +form. The outlines of great compositions only hint of decorative +structure and give no evidence that they were planned as linear designs. +The requirement of linear design that she beautifully fill a space is met +by pictorial composition through the many correlative opportunities which +in her broader range are open to her, by which she _adds_ to the +fundamental forms of construction (which often prove bad space fillers) +such items as connect their outlines with the encasement or frame. With +some ingenuity advocates of pure design as the basis of pictorial +structure, point out the similarity of certain compositions to formal, +ornamental design or type forms of plants, flowers, etc., yet omit to +state how many of the best compositions they reject in their search for +the happy hit or to allow for the fact that in those which they cite, +cruel disturbance of the beautiful scheme could easily be wrought by +slight reconstruction, leaving the work quite as good. The author's +contention is directly opposed to the notion that pictorial art is +dependent on the flat plan of the design, which is only contributory, but +that its essence is known by an apprehension of balance through the depth +of the picture. Pictorial art is not an art of two dimensions but of +three. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII - THE COMPOSITION OF ONE, TWO, THREE AND MORE UNITS + + +Starting with a single idea represented by a single unit the coexistent +thought must be the frame or canvas circumference. Supplying this we may +then think of the unit as a matter of proportion. When the amount of +space allowed the unit has been decided, the space between its +circumference and the dimensions of the canvas, or what may be called the +surplus or contributing area is the only thing that remains to engage us. +Let the unit be a standing figure, or a portrait, head and shoulders. + +The unification of a unit, enclosed in four sides, _with those sides_ can +only be accomplished by either having the mass of the figure touch the +sides of the canvas, or stretch toward them with that intent. According +to the _strength or number_ of such points of attachment will the unit be +found to maintain a stable existence amid its surroundings. In the case +of the single figure standing within the frame where no chance of contact +occurs, the background should show an oppositional mass or line attaching +at some point the vertical sides of the figure to the sides of the canvas. +An equivalent of such a line is a gradation, often the shadow from the +figure serving to effect this union. If the shadow unites the outline +with the background in such a tone as to subdue or destroy this outline, +the attachment becomes stronger and at the same time the positiveness of +outline on the light side finds its contrast and balance in this area of +mystery and envelopment. + +A development by chiaroscuro is a necessity to the pictorial unity of the +single figure. + +In the portrait of Olga Nethersole (see "The Pose in Portraiture"), the +photographer presents the section of a figure; not a picture. The spaces +in the background form no scheme with the figure and have not been used to +relieve the lines of the skirt. The sacrifice in half-tone of the lower +part would have given prominence to the upper and more important part. +Owing to the interest and attraction of the triplicated folds of the dress +the vision is carried all the way to the lower edge, where it is irritated +by the sudden disappearance. The picture has no conclusion. It is simply +cut off, and so ended. + +It is the opinion of some artists that the portrait having for its purpose +the presentation of a personality should contain nothing else. With the +feeling that the background is something that should not be seen, more art +is often expended in painting a space with nothing in it than in putting +_something there_ that may not be seen. In doing nothing with a +background a space may be created that says a great deal that it should +not. + +There is nothing more difficult than the composition of two units +especially when both are of equal prominence. The principle of +Principality sets its face sternly against the attempt. + +One must dominate, either in size, or attraction, either by sentiment or +action. + +Art can show distinguished examples of two figures of equal importance +placed on the same canvas, but pictorially they lack the essential of +complete art,--unity. The critical study of this problem by modern +painters has secured in portraiture and genre much better solutions than +can be found in the field of good painting up to the present. We may +look almost in vain through old masterdom and through the examples of the +golden age of portraiture in England, discovering but few successes of +such combination in the works of Gainsborough, Reynolds and others. + +The foreplacement of one figure over another does not always mean +prominence for it. Light, as an element, is stronger than place. On this +basis where honors are easy with the two subjects one may have precedence +of place and one of lighting. + +The difficulty in the arrangement of two is in their union. If, for +instance, they are opposed in sentiment as markedly as two fencers there +yet must be a union secured in the background. If placed in perspective, +perspective settles most of the difficulty. + + [Unity and its Lack; The Lovers--Gussow; The Poulterers--Wallander ] + +The accompanying pictures are examples at both ends of the scale. _"__The +Lovers,__"_ in construction, shows what all pictures demand, the +centripetal tendency. All the elements consist. As a picture it is +complete; another figure would spoil it for us and them. Not so the +"Poulterers"; persons could come and go in this picture without effecting +it. It is but a section at best. One can imagine a long row of pickers, +or we could cut it through the centre and have two good _studies._ There +is no union. The other contains principality, transition of line, balance +of light and shade, circular observation, opposition of color values and +the principle of sacrifice. + +In Mr. Orchardson's _"__Mother and Child__"_ the first place is given to +the child in white; the background carries the middle tint and the mother +has been reserved in black. Greater sacrifice of one figure to another, +the mother to the child, is seen in Miss Kasebier's picture of a nude +infant held between the knees of the mother whose face is so abased as to +be unseen; or in John Sargent's portrait of a boy seated and gazing toward +us into space while his mother in the half-shadow of the background reads +aloud. The greatest contributing force to contrast is sacrifice. The +subject is known to be important by what is conceded to it. + +The portrait of two gentlemen by Eastman Johnson is one of the most +successful attempts at bringing two figures of equal importance on to one +canvas. They are in conversation, the one talking and active, the other +listening and passive, and the necessary contrast is thus created. + +In the combination of three units the objection of formal balance +disappears. If one be opposed by two, the force gained by the one through +isolation commensurates the two. In such arrangement the two may be +united by overlapping so that though the sense and idea of two be present +it is shown in one mass as a pictorial unit. This general disposition, +experience shows to be the best. Two other good forms are two separated +units joined by other items and opposed to one, or the three joined either +directly or by suggestion, the units balanced like a triangle by +opposition. The _Madonna and St. John with the Infant Christ_ is a sample +of the first. In the "Connoisseurs" by Fortuny we have the second form, +and in the _"__Huntsman and Hounds__"_ the third. A most original and +commendable arrangement of three figures by W. L. Hollinger appears in +"The Pose in Portraiture," the members of a trio, violin, cello and piano. +The pianist is designated by the suggestion of her action which is +completed out of the picture. In her position however she accomplishes +the balancing of two figures against one. + + + +THE FIGURE IN LANDSCAPE + + +A writer on the use of the figure in out-of-door photography after leading +the reader through many pages concludes by saying: after all you had +better leave them out. + +In two works on photography from an English and American press the writer +has seen this article quoted in full and therefore infers that the author +has been taken seriously. + +The relation of Man to Nature, and the sentiment, interchangeable, +proceeding from one to the other, is a link binding the one to the dust +from which he sprang and the other to the moods of man to which she makes +so great an appeal. It is a union of a tender nature to the real lover of +the voiceless influences which surround him: + + "Tears, idle tears," + "I know not what they mean," + "Rise in the heart and gather to the eyes" + "In looking on the happy Autumn fields." + +Can a sentiment so strong in fact, be divorced in art? It is the fulcrum +on which the art of Mauve and Millet and Walker lifts and turns us. It is +not necessary to mention other painters; but to the case in point observe +that at Barbizon a photographer of artistic perceptions has for years +followed in the footprints of Millet. If nature moves us directly she +will move us through our own kind. We feel the vastness of a scene by the +presence of a lone figure. The panoramic grandeur of the sky attracts us +the more if it has also appealed to a figure in the picture. But beyond +this affinity in the subject there are sufficient reasons why the figure +should be included. The figure can be moved about as a knight in the +game, hither and yon as the fixed conditions of topography demand. Many a +landscape which would be entirely useless without such an element is not +only redeemed, but is found to be particularly prepared and waiting for +this keystone. Take for example a picture in which lines are paralleling +one another in their recession from the foreground or where there is a +monotony in any horizontal sequence. The vertical of the figure means the +balance of these. The principle is one already noted, action balancing +action in contrary direction. + +What of the nymphs of Corot, or the laveuses bending at the margin of the +lake, the plowman homeward plodding o'er the lea, the shepherd on the +distant moor, the woodsman in the forest, the farmer among his fields. We +associate our vision of the scene with theirs. When as mere dots they are +discerned, the vastness of their surroundings is realized at their expense +and the exclamation of the psalmist is ours: "What is man that thou art +mindful of him." + +The danger in the use of the figure is that it is so frequently lugged in. +The friends that happen to be along are often made to do. There is no +case where the fitness of things is more compulsory than in the +association of figures with landscape. The haymaker creates a sensation +on Broadway but no more so than Dundreary crossing a plowed field in +Oxford ties. As the poetry of a Corot landscape invites the nymphs to +come and the ruggedness of the Barbizon plain befits the toiling peasants +of Millet, so should our landscape determine the chord in humanity to be +harmoniously played with it. + +A fault in construction is frequently seen in the lack of simplicity of +foreplane and background. It must first be determined whether it is to be +a landscape with figures or figures in landscape. The half one and half +another picture is a sure failure. + +The most serviceable material one may collect in sketching are such +positions which play second or third parts in composition; cattle or other +animals in back or three-quarter view which readily unite with and lead to +their principals. + +In the selection of the subject the main object has most of one's thought. +This however usually "goes" without thought, asserting itself by its own +interest. Figures which are less interesting than this and still less, +such as will combine with the subject proper, are what the painter and +illustrator long for. As with the background, those things which are not +of sufficient interest to be worth while in themselves are, owing to their +lesser significance, of the utmost importance to the composer. Note in +the usual Van Marke cattle picture of five cows, the diminishing interest +in the other four, or the degree of restraint expressed in most of the +figures successfully introduced into landscape. + + + + +CHAPTER IX - GROUPS + + +In the statuesque group the outline is important because this is seen +against the background of wall, or sky, and frequently in silhouette. Any +fault in its contour as a mass is therefore emphasized. This +consideration applies pictorially to groups which are complete in +themselves and have no incorporation with backgrounds, such for instance +as the photographic group of a number of people. Here personality is the +first requirement, but harmony of arrangement and picturesqueness may be +united thereto. The two best shapes are the oval and the pyramid. In +either of these outlines there is opportunity for a focal centre, always +important. In forming such an arrangement the focus should be the first +consideration, item by item being added. As the group approaches the +outline it must be governed according to the form desired. A more +artistic combination of figures will be found to be a separation into a +large and a small group, the principal figure placed in either. If in the +former, the figures of the smaller group must be sacrificed to this +figure, either in pose or lighting. If the principal figure is in the +smaller group or entirely separate, this isolation will prove sufficient +for the distinction. + +Where greater liberties may be taken and the intention is for a purely +artistic composition, the curvilinear S shape will be found a good line to +build upon. When this is too apparent a single oppositional figure will +destroy its formality. + +The possibilities of the single figure as a reserve, kept to be placed at +the last moment where something is necessary, are worth noting. If the +group be too formal in outline, lateral arrangement, or expression, the +reserve may be played as a foil to create a diversion. + +In all successful groups the principle of sacrifice must play havoc. Here +the artist should expect to pay for his art scruples. Rembrandt was the +first painter sacrificed to these instincts. When the order to paint the +_"__Municipal Guard__"_ came to him he saw in it an opportunity toward the +pictorial. Knowing what this entailed he persevered, despite the +mutterings of his sitters, the majority of whom were ill pleased with +their respective positions. When finally the canvas was finished, full of +mystery and suggestiveness and those subtle qualities, such as before had +never been seen in Dutch art, those for whom it had been executed +expressed their opinion by giving an order for the same to a rival. His +picture is a collection of separate individuals, each having an equal +importance. Here was the sudden ending of Rembrandt's career as a painter +of portraits, only one canvas of an important group being painted +thereafter--the "Syndics." A certain reason in this popular criticism +cannot be denied. The composition is unnecessarily scattered and the +placements arbitrary, though through the radial lines of pikes and flag +pole the scattered parts are drawn together. The composition partakes of +the confusion of the scene depicted, yet in its measure of parts one can +doubt not that the comparative values of his sitters have been considered. + +The democracy of man in his freedom and equality is the despair of the +artist who knows that the harmony of the universe is conditional on +kingship and principalities and powers, and the scale of things from the +lowest to the highest. + +Says Mr. Ruskin: "The great object of composition being always to secure +unity--that is, to make many things one whole--the first mode in which this +can be effected is by determining that one feature shall be more important +than all the rest and that others shall group with it in subordinate +position." + +Principality may be secured either by attraction of light as in a white +dress or by placing the figure as the focus of leading lines as are +supplied by the architecture of a building, or such lines as are happily +created by surrounding figures which proceed toward the principal one, or +by including such a figure in the most important line. Again the figure +for such a position may be the only one in a group which exhibits +unconcern or absolute repose, the others by expression or action +acknowledging such sovereignty. + +The summer time out-of-door group which is so frequently interesting only +to "friends," in many cases affords opportunities for pictures attractive +to all. The average photographer is concerned only with his people; the +background is brought to mind when he sees the print. Although little or +no interest may be found in the background it should be appropriate, and +should play a reserve part, serving the chiaroscuro and therefore the +illumination of the subject and creating an opportunity for the exit which +always gives depth and an extended interest. A mass of foliage with +little penetration by the sky except in one or two places and at the side, +not the centre, may always be found safe. If the attraction is too great +the group suffers. Appreciating the importance of his setting for groups +the photographer must select these with three points in view; simplicity, +uninterest and exit in background; simplicity, uninterest and leading line +or balancing mass or spot (if required) in foreground. When looking for +backgrounds he may feel quite sure he has one if it is the sort of thing +he would never dream of photographing on its own account. Besides being +too interesting, most backgrounds are inappropriate and distracting. The +frequent commendations and prizes accorded to good subjects having these +faults and therefore devoid of unity tell how little even photographic +judges and editors think on the appropriate and essential ensemble in +composition. + +With the background in unobjectionable evidence the photographer should +rapidly address his posers a little lecture on compositional requirements +and at the end ask for volunteers for the sacrificial parts, at the same +time reminding them that the back or side _view_ is not only +characteristic of the person but often very interesting. He should +maintain that a unity be evident in the group; of intent, of line, and of +gradation. The first is subjective and must be felt by the posers. The +other two qualifications are for the artist's consideration. At such a +time his acquaintance with examples of pictorial art will come to his aid. +He must be quick to recognize the possibilities of his material which may +be hurriedly swept into one of the forms which have justified confidence. + +When a continuity of movement has been secured, a revisionary glance must +be given to determine if the whole is balanced; background, foreground and +focus, one playing into the other as the lines of a dance, leading, +merging, dissolving, recurring. + +Mindful of the distractions of such occasions, the wise man has done his +thinking beforehand, has counted his figures, has noted the tones of +clothing and has resolved on his focal light. With this much he has a +start and can begin to build at once. His problem is that of the maker of +a bouquet adding flower to flower around the centre. + +To make a rough sketch from the models themselves posed and thought over, +with the opportunity for erasures of revisions before leading them out of +doors, often proves economy of time. + +It is a custom of continental painters to compose extensive groups and +photograph them for study in arrangement. The author has seen numerous +compositions in photography in which artists have posed as characters of +well-known paintings. + +Much can be learned of good grouping from the stage, especially the French +stage. The best managers start with the picturesque in mind and are on +the alert to produce well arranged pictures. The plays of Victorien +Sardou and the classic dramas of the state theatre are studies in the art +of group arrangements. + +It will be noticed in most groups that there is an active and a passive +element, that many figures in their reserve are required to play second to +a few. The active principle is represented by these to whom a single idea +is delivered for expression. + + [Return of Royal Hunting Party--Isabey; The Night Watch--Rembrandt] + +In "The Return of the Hunting Party" the group of hounds, huntsman and +deer is such an element of reserve, contrasting its repose with the bustle +and activity of the visitors. It is a diversion also for the long line +stretching across the picture. This is the more evident through the +repetition of it in the line of the second-story and roof and below in the +line of game which unnecessarily extends the group of hounds. A relief +for the insistent line of the figures could have been supplied by lighter +drapery back of the table. This then would have created a cross tone +connecting the hounds in a curve with the upper centre panel. It is a +picture in five horizontal strips, and is introduced for the warning it +contains in its treatment of a group which is in itself _a line._ The +well-known "Spanish Marriage" by Fortuny also shows the reserve group, but +the contrast is more positive both in repose and color. The main and more +distant group is well centralized and there is a clever diminuendo +expressed in its characters. + + [Departure for the Chase--Cuyp (Background Compromising Original + Structure); Repose of the Reapers--L. L'hermite (The Curvilinear Line)] + +In _"__The Reapers__"_ this idea has apt illustration. The figure in the +foreground is in contrast with the remaining three, both as an +oppositional line and in his action, the three being in repose. The +single figure, though active, does not attract as much as the child who +receives importance from the attention of the two figures. Her position, +opposed to the two, turns the interest back into the group. In all the +compositions by this master one is impressed by the grace and force of the +arrangement. A small portfolio of his charcoal reproductions or a few +photographs of his pictures should be a part of the print collection of +every artist. No better designer of small groups ever lived. + +With the amount of good art now coming from the camera it is strange that +no groups of note have been produced.(12) In the field of _pure +portraiture_ the attempt may as well be abandoned. The photographer can +at best but mitigate conditions. The picture group can only apply when +sacrifice and subordination are possible. + +A study of famous groups will settle this and other points mentioned, +beyond question. In the religious group, where the idea of adoration was +paramount, the principal figure was usually, though not always, given +place in the upper part of the picture toward which by gestures, leading +lines or directed vision our attention is drawn at once. Note the figures +which sacrifice to this effect in the "Transfiguration," "The Immaculate +Conception," "The Sistine Madonna," "The Virgin Enthroned," "The Adoration +of the Magi," and in fact all of the world famous compositions of the old +religious art. + + [The Decorative and Pictorial Group; Allegory of Spring--Botticelli + (Separated concepts expressing separate ideas); Dutch Fisher Folk--F. V. + S. (Separated concepts of one idea); The Cossack's Reply--Repin (Unity + through a cumulative idea)] + +In one of the most famous of modern groups _"__The Cossacks Reply to the +Sultan of Turkey,__"_ by the greatest of Russian painters Elias Repine, +the force given to the hilarious frenzy of the group by the occasional +figure in repose is easily apparent. + +The answer to a summons for surrender is being penned upon a rude table +around which press close the barbaric leaders of the forces gathered in +the distance. Some are lolling on wine casks, others indifferently gaze +at the fingers of the clerk as he carefully pens the document, others +smoke silently, one is looking out of the picture as though unconcerned. +Yet life and movement are instinct in every part, for though the action is +consigned to but a few,--these form a series of small climaxes through the +entire circumference of the group and we feel in another moment that the +passive expressions will in their turn be exchanged for the mad ribaldry +of laughter which has seized their brethren. The group is a triumph for +several aesthetic realities produced and heightened by contrast and +subordination. + +The principality of repose is well illustrated in the group of _"__The +Chant__"_ where the inaction of the woman dominates through its contrast +with the effort expressed by the other members of the group. + +There are three types of group composition; first, where the subject's +interest is centred upon an object or idea within the picture as in "The +Cabaret" or Rembrandt's "Doctors" surrounding a dissecting table; second, +where the attraction lies outside the picture as in the "Syndics" or the +"Night Watch," and third, where absolute repose is expressed and the +sentiment of reverie has dominated the group, as in "The Madonna of the +Chair," and the ordinary family photograph. + +The spiritual or sentimental quality of the theme should have first +consideration and dictate the form of arrangement. A unity between the +idea and its form of expression constitutes the desideratum of refinement +in composition. + + + + +CHAPTER X - LIGHT AND SHADE + + + +In this familiar term in art the importance of the two elements is +suggested in their order. + +The effort of the painter is ever in the direction of light. This is his +thought. Shade is a necessity to the expression of it. + +Chiaroscuro,--from the Italian, _light obscure,_ in its derivation, gives a +hint of the manufacture of a work of light and shade. + +Light is gained by sacrifice. This is one of the first things a student +grasps in the antique class. Given an empty outline he produces an effect +of light by adding darks. So do we get light in the composition of simple +elements, by sacrifice of some one or more, or a mass of them, to the +demands of the lighter parts. "Learn to think in shadows," says Ruskin. +Rembrandt's art entire, is the best case in point. A low toned and much +colored white may be made brilliant by dark opposition. The gain to the +color scheme lies in its power to exhibit great light and at the same time +suggest fullness of color. + +As we have discussed line and mass composition as balanced over the +central vertical line, so is the question of light and shade best +comprehended, as forces balancing, over a broad _middle tint._ The medium +tint is the most important, both for tone and color. This commands the +distribution of measures in both directions; toward light and toward dark. +Drawings in outline upon tinted paper take on a surprising finish with a +few darks added for shadow and the high lights touched in with chalk or +Chinese white. The method in opaque water color, employed by F. Hopkinson +Smith and others, of working over a tinted paper such as the general tone +of the subject suggests, has its warrant in the early art of the Venetian +painters. If a blue day, a blue gray paper is used; if a mellow day, a +yellow paper. + +In pictorial art the science of light and dark is not reducible to working +formulae as in decoration, where the measures of _Notan_ are governed on +the principle of interchange. Through decoration we may touch more +closely the hidden principles of light and shade in pictures than without +the aid of this science, and the artist of decorative knowledge will +always prove able in "effect" in his pictorial work. + +With that clear conception of the power of the light and the dark measure +which is acquired in the practice of "spotting" and filling of spaces, +especially upon a middle tint, the problem of bringing into prominence any +item of the picture is simplified upon the decorative basis. + +Pictorially the light measure is more attractive than the dark, but the +dark in isolation is nearly as powerful. + +With this simple notion in mind the artist proceeds upon his checker-board +opposing force to force. + +With him the work can never be as absorbing as to the decorator whose +items are all of about the same value and of recurring kinds. The subject +dictates to the painter who must play more adroitly to secure an effect of +light and shade by the use of devices such as nature offers. + +As a matter of _brilliancy of light,_ with which painting is concerned, +the effect is greater when a small measure of light is opposed to a large +measure of dark than when much light is opposed to little dark. +Comparison between Whistler's "Woman in White," a white gown relieved +against a white ground, the black of the picture being the woman's hair, +and any one of the manger scenes of the fifteenth century painters with +their concentration of light will prove how much greater the sense of +light is in the latter. + +When much light and little dark produces great brilliancy it is usually by +reason of a gradation in the light, giving it a cumulative power, as is +seen in the sky or upon receding objects on a foggy day. A small dark +added, intensifies the light, not only by contrast of measure, but in +showing the high key of the light measures. + +Accents of dark produce such snappiness as is commended by the publisher +who esteems the brilliancy which a rapid interchange of lights and darks +always yields, a sparkle, running through the whole and easily printed. +The works of Mr. Wenzell as a single example of this quality, or of Mr. +Henry Hutt, in lighter key, will be found to gain much of their force from +a very few accents of dark. On the other hand when the work deals with a +medium tone and darks, with few high lights, these gain such importance as +to control the important items. + +The value of the middle tint, _when not_ used as the under tone of a +picture is apparent as balancing and distributing the light and dark +measures of objects. When, for instance, these three degrees of tone are +used, if the black and white are brought together and the middle tone +opposed a sense of harmony results. The black and white if mixed would +become a middle tone. We feel the balance of measures without synthesis +or inquiry. Many of the compositions of Tolmouche of two and three female +figures are thus disposed, one figure having a gray dress and one a black +dress and white waist, or a black figure and white are placed together and +opposed to a figure in gray. In Munkacsy's "Milton Dictating to His +Daughters," the broad white collar of the poet contrasted with his black +velvet suit, is well balanced and distributed by the medium tones of the +three dresses. + + [Fundamental Forms of Chiaroscuro; Whistler's Portrait of his Mother; + Moorland--E. Yon; Charcoal Study--Millet; The Arbor--Ferrier] +[Fundamental Forms of Chiaroscuro, Continued; Landscape--Geo. Inness; The + Kitchen--Whistler; St. Angela--Robt. Reid; An Annam Tiger--Surrand; The + Shrine--Orchardson; Monastic Life--F. V. DuMond] + +An accent is forcible in proportion as its own unit of intensity is +distributed over the space on which it is placed. Take for instance a +picture in India ink of a misty morning wherein the whole landscape may be +produced with a small drop of ink spread in light gradations upon ten by +fourteen inches square. An object in the foreground one by two inches in +which the same measure of black is used will of course possess powerful +attraction. If, however, this measure be expanded the gain in bulk will +be balanced by the loss in intensity. Less attraction for the object is +given either by increasing the intensity of the surrounding tint or +decreasing its extent. In the two pictures by Gerome of lions, the one in +the midst of the vast space of desert obtains its force from its dark +isolated in a large area. In the other picture the emerald green eyes of +the lion are the attraction of the picture, as points of light relieved by +the great measures of dark of the lion, together with the gloom of the +cave. + +The message of impressionism is _light,_ as the effort of the early +painters was _to secure light,_ the quest of all the philosophies. The +impressionist calls upon every part of his work to speak of light, the +middle tint, the high lights and the shadow all vibrating with it. From +the decorative point of view alone, the picture, as a surface containing +the greatest amount of beauty of which the subject is capable is more +beautiful when varied by many tones, or by few, _in strong contrast,_ than +when this variety or contrast is wanting. Those decorative designs have +the strongest appeal in which the balancing measures are all well defined. +There are schemes of much dark and little light, or the reverse, or an +even division, and in each case the balance of light and dark is +sustained; for when there is little dark its accenting power is enhanced +and when little light is allowed, it, in the same manner, gains in +attraction. But light and dark every work of art must have; for to think +of light without dark is impossible. When, therefore, the artist begins a +picture his first thought is what is to be the scheme of light and shade? +The direction or source of the light helps a decision. The illumination +of the subject is a study most easily proceeded with by induction, from +particular cases to general conclusions. + + [A Reversible Effect of Light and Shade (The Same Subject Vertically and + Horizontally Presented)] + +The effectiveness of the first of the two reversible _photographs_ is as +great as the last and the subject as picturesque though it be discovered +that the first is the second placed on end. It is able to satisfy us not +only because of the happy coincidence that the leaves upon the bridge +represent bark texture and the subdued light upon its near end creates the +rotundity of the trunk or that a distant tree serves as the horizontal +margin of a pool, but because its light and shade is conceived upon the +terms of balance expressing in either position one of the fundamental +forms of light and shade and lineal construction, that of the rectangle in +either light or dark together with an oppositional measure--the light +through the distant trees. + +With the history of art and the world's gallery of painting spread out +before us, we may take a continuous view of the whole field. Leaving out +the painters of the experimental era let us begin with the great masters +of effect. + +Sir Joshua Reynolds tells us it was his habit in looking for the secrets +of the masters of painting to make rough pencil notes of those pictures +that attracted him by their power of effect as he passed from one gallery +to another. He found almost all of them revealed a broad middle tone +which was divided again into half dark and half light tones, and these, +added to the accents of light and dark _made five distinct tones._ The +Venetian painters attracted him most and, he says, speaking of Titian, +Paul Veronese and Tintoret, "they appeared to be the first painters who +reduced to a system what was before practised without any fixed +principle." From these painters he declares Rubens extracted his scheme of +composition which was soon understood and adopted by his countrymen, even +to the minor painters of low life in the Dutch school. + +"When I was in Venice," he says, "the method I took to avail myself of +their principle was this: When I observed an extraordinary effect of light +and shade in any picture I darkened every part of a page in my note-book +in the same gradation of light and shade as the picture, leaving the white +paper untouched to represent light and this without any attention to the +subject or the drawing of the figures. A few trials of this kind will be +sufficient to give the method of their conduct in the management of their +lights. After a few experiments I found the paper blotted nearly alike: +their general practice appeared to be _to allow not above a quarter of the +picture for light, including in this portion both the principal and +secondary lights; another quarter to be as dark as possible and the +remaining half kept in mezzo-tint or half shadow._" + +"Rubens appears to have admitted rather more light than a quarter and +Rembrandt much less, scarce an eighth; by this conduct Rembrandt's light +is extremely brilliant, but it costs too much; the rest of the picture is +sacrificed to this one object. That light will certainly appear the +brightest which is surrounded with the greatest quantity of shade, +supposing equal skill in the artist." + +"By this means you may likewise remark the various forms and shapes of +those lights as well as the objects on which they are flung; whether a +figure, or the sky, a white napkin, animals, or utensils, often introduced +for this purpose only. It may be observed likewise, what a portion is +strongly relieved and how much is united with its ground; for it is +necessary that some part (though a small one is sufficient) should be +sharp and cutting against its ground whether it be light on dark, or dark +on a light ground, in order to give firmness and distinctness to the work. +If, on the other hand, it is relieved on every side, it will appear as if +inlaid on its ground." + +"Such a blotted paper held at a distance from the eye would strike the +spectator as something excellent for the disposition of the light and +shadow though he does not distinguish whether it is history, a portrait, a +landscape, dead game, or anything else; for the same principles extend to +every branch of art. Whether I have given an exact account or made a just +division of the quantity of light admitted into the works of those +painters is of no very great consequence; let every person examine and +judge for himself: it will be sufficient if I have suggested _a mode of +examining pictures this way and one means at least of acquiring the +principles on which they wrought._" + +The accompanying page of sketches has been produced in the spirit of this +recommendation. + +Turning from examples of figure art, to outdoor nature, it will be found +that these principles apply with equal force to landscape composition. No +better advice could be offered the beginner in landscape than to +resolutely select and produce three, four or five distinct and separate +tones in every study. The incoherency of beginner's work out of doors is +largely due to its crumbling into a great number of petty planes, a fault +resulting from observation of detail instead of the larger shapes. For +this reason the choice of subjects having little or no detail should be +insisted on: sky and land, a chance for organic line and a division of +light and shade, such as may be found in an open, rolling country where +the woodland is grouped for distant masses. + + + +PRINCIPALITY BY EMPHASIS, SACRIFICE, AND CONTRAST. + + +Under the discussion of Balance it was shown that a small measure often +became the equivalent of a larger measure by reason of its particular +placement. The sacrifice of many measures to one, also is often the +wisest disposition of forces. Upon the stage, spectacular arrangement is +constructed almost entirely on this principle. The greater the number of +figures supporting, or sacrificing to the central figure, the greater its +importance. The sun setting over fields or through the woods though +covering but a very limited measure of the picture is what we see and +remember, the remaining space serving this by subordination. Note how +masters of landscape reach after such a point either by banking up +abruptly about it as in the wood interior, or by vast gradations toward +it. The muzzle of the cannon is the only place where the fire and smoke +are seen, but how much weight is necessitated back of this for the recoil, +and how much space must be reckoned on for the projectile of the gun. A +terrific explosion takes place; but we do not realize its power until it +is noted that sound reverberated and the earth trembled for miles around. +For its full realization the report of the quiet miles is important. The +lack of this support in the light and shade scheme, whereby the principal +object is made to occupy too much space is one of the commonest of faults +in photography and illustration. + +One familiar with woodland scenery knows well how often a subject is lost +and found as the sun changes in its course. At one moment a striking +composition is present, the highest light giving kingly distinction to one +of the monarchs of the forest. Passing on to return in a few minutes one +looks in vain for the subject. He is sure of the particular spot, but the +king stands sullen in the shadow, robbed of his golden mantle which is now +divided to bedeck two or three striplings in the background. For the +painter the only recourse is to make a pencil note of the original scheme +of light and shade and hold resolutely to it. The photographer must +patiently wait for it. + +Says Reynolds: + +"Every man that can paint at all can execute individual parts; but to keep +these parts in due subordination as relative to a whole, requires a +comprehensive view of art that more strongly implies genius than perhaps +any quality whatever."(13) + +No more forcible examples of this truth may be had than the art of Claude +Lorraine. Claude whose nature painting Ruskin berates but whose +composition is strong, had two distinct arrangements, both based on the +principle of Principality. In the first he created sides for the centre +which were darkened so that the light of the centre might gain by +contrast. It is the formal Raphaelesque idea; the other and much better +one shows a division of the picture into thirds. The first division is +given to the largest mass but usually not the most important. This, if +trees or a building, is shadow covered, reserving the more distant mass, +which is the most attractive, to gain by the sacrifice of the foreground +mass. + + [Spots and Masses; Note-book sketches from Rubens, Velasquez, Claude + Lorrain and Murillo] + +The first of these forms was evidently most esteemed by Claude, for his +greatest works are thus conceived: "Cleopatra Landing at Tarsus," _"__The +Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba,__"_. "The Flight into Egypt," "St. +Paul leaving Ostia," "The Seaport with the Large Tower" and others. In +all of these the light proceeds toward us through an avenue which the +sides create. Under this effect we receive the light as it comes to us. +In the other form the vision is carried into the picture by a series of +mass attractions the balance being less apparent. "The Landscape of the +Dresden Gallery," "The Marriage of Isaac and Rebecca," "The Finding of +Moses," "Egeria and Her Nymphs," and "Driving Cattle to the Meadows," +together with many etchings, are based on the second form. In all these +about one third of the picture is put into shadow, a great right angle +being constructed of the vertical mass and the shadow which it casts, +generally across the entire foreground. + + [Death of Caesar--Gerome; The Travel of the Soul--After Howard Pyle] + +In _"__The Travel of the Soul__"_ by Howard Pyle, reproduced from the +_Century Magazine,_ is remarkably expressed the fullness of quality +resulting from these few principles. The force of the light is increased +first by juxtaposition with the deepest dark merging so gradually into the +darkness behind as to become the end or culmination of the great gradation +of the background. As in many works by the older masters the source of +light is conceived within the picture, so by its issuance from the inward +of the wing, the valuable principle of radiation has resulted, the light +passing upward through the wan face behind to the crescent moon and below +through the sleeve and long fold of the dress to the ground. On the side +it follows the arm disappearing through the fingers into the shadow. + +Beyond this circuit lies the great encasement of another gradation +darkening toward the sides and corners. This has been interrupted by the +tree masses and sky of the upper side, as the idea of radiation was +changed on the left by the oppositional line of branch forms. In the +other pictures of this remarkable series may be found three distinct type +forms of composition. + +Together they set forth the structure of the circle or ellipse, the letter +S or line of beauty, the triangle, and the cross. The one before us +discloses a triangle or letter V, on which the figures compose, within a +triangle formed of the rock fracture and path. + +It must be remembered that the effort of the artist is to secure light _in +the degree_ which his subject demands. There are many degrees of light +and they must not be confounded. The light of a lantern is not sufficient +illumination for an effect under gas and a window on the north side won't +do to call sunlight into a room upon a posed figure. The fault of many +pictures is that the proprieties just here are violated. Some of the +lowest toned interiors of Israels are satisfactory when judged from the +standpoint of light, while out of door attempts in high key fail to +suggest the fact of a sun in nature. The fault is that _the exact degree_ +of illumination which the subject demands is not present. + +There may be a greater feeling of light in a figure sitting in the shadow +than in the same figure next to a window. + +To the painter, light and air are but degrees of the same idea. If the +figure seated in the shadow is well enveloped and relieved by the exact +temper of reflected lights, it takes its place in his scheme of brilliant +lighting as much as any other part. + +The purpose of shadow is first to produce light, second to secure +concentration, third to dismiss space not required and incidentally to +suggest air and relief by the gradation which every shadow must have. + +The idea of _Notan,_ or the Light and Dark combination of Japanese art, +differs from this in its intent, which is merely to set forth an agreeable +interchange of light, dark and medium toned spaces. To the decorative +intentions of the oriental artist natural fact is of small concern and the +fact of shade produced by light is dismissed as are many other notions +which are non-conformable to his purpose. The great value of this +concept, however, should be recognized, and in formulating a scheme of +light and shade for any picture its light and dark masses may be so +arranged as to suggest much of the beauty which its flat translation by +Notan would yield. The practice of laying out the flat light and dark +scheme of every picture which is to be finished in full relief is +therefore most helpful, and directly in line with Sir Joshua's habit with +the old masters. + +It is not sufficient that pictures have lights and darks. The balance +here is quite as important as line and measure. The proportion of light +to dark depends on the importance required by certain parts of the +picture. Effectiveness is given to that end of the scale which is +_reserved in small quantity._ The white spot attracts in the _"__Dead +Warrior,__"_ the dark spot in the _"__Lion of the Desert.__"_ A +comparison of the _"__Night Watch__"_ and the _"__Landscape__"_ by Inness +will show that both are constructed on a medium tone on which strong +relief is secured by contrasts of light and dark. Isolated spots occur +through each contributing an energy opposed to the subtle gradations of +the large spaces. The rich depths of the background and the frequent +opposition of shadow with light in the landscape are very typical of +Inness' art and we know that the "Night Watch" contains the best thought +and richest conclusions of the greatest master of light and shade. + +The type forms in light and shade are less pronounced than those of linear +construction, though through all compositions of effect, certain well +defined schemes of chiaroscuro are traceable. As soon as any one is +selected it rests with the artist to vary its conventional structure and +make it original. + +Lack of a well-defined scheme of light and dark however, is ruinous to any +pictorial or decorative undertaking. + +The accompanying wood interiors are introduced in proof that light and +shade rather than form is the pictorial element of greatest value. In +both pictures the principles of chiaroscuro are strongly expressed, and we +look closely before discovering that the first one is the second placed on +end. + +Analysis of pictures into light, dark, and halftone develops the following +forms. + + + +GRADATION + + +Light being the happy and positive side of art presentation, any form or +modification of it partakes of its quality. The gradation bespeaks its +tenderness, and, much as we may admire light's power, this, by its mere +variety, is more attractive. + +We well endure the shadow if in it can be noticed a movement toward the +light. Technically, an ungraded shadow means mud. One in which +reflection plays a part speaks of the life of light and in it we feel that +promise. We know it to be on its travels, glancing and refracting from +every object which it touches. The shadows which it cannot penetrate +directly, receive its gracious influence in this way and always under a +subtler law which governs its direct shining--by gradation. + +Most good pictures are produced in the medium range and the ends of the +scale are reserved for incisive duty. A series of gradations in which the +grace and flow of line and tone are made to serve the forcible stroke +which we see, presents a combination of subtlety and strength. Again the +art of Inness affords illustration. + +There are three forms of this _quality:_ that in which light shows a +gradual diminution of power, as seen upon a wall near a window, or in +white smoke issuing from a funnel; that in which the color or force of a +group of objects weaken as they recede, as may be observed in fog; and +that in which the arrangement secures, in disconnected objects a regular +succession of graded measures. In each case the pictorial value of this +element is apparent. The landscape painter may avail himself of it as the +figure painter does of his screen, counting on the cloud shadow to temper +and unite disjointed items of his picture. He makes use of it where +leading lines are wanting or are undesirable, or to give an additional +accent to light by such contrast or to introduce a note of dark by +suppressing the tone of an isolated object. Gradation is the sweetening +touch in art, ofttimes making unity of discordant and unartful elements. +The vision will pierce the shadow to find the light beyond. It will dwell +longest on the lightest point and believe this more brilliant than it is +if opposed by an accent of dark which is the lowest note in a dark +gradation. + +Turner and Claude often brought the highest light and deepest dark +together in close opposition through a series of big gradations of +objects, the most light-giving device known in painting. The introduction +of a shadow through the foreground or middle distance, over which the +vision travels to the light beyond, always gives great depth; another of +the devices in landscape painting frequently met with in the work of +Claude, Ruysdael, Corot, Vandevelde, Cuyp, Inness, Wyant, Ranger, and all +painters of landscape who attain light by the use of a graded scale of +contrasts. A cumulative gradation which suddenly stops has the same force +in light and shade as a long line which suddenly changes into a short line +of opposed direction. They are both equivalent to a pause in music, +awakening an attention at such a point, and only to be employed where +there is something important to follow. + + + + + EQUIVALENTS + + +It is the experience of all picture makers that under the limitations +which special subjects impose they are often obliged to search for an +equivalent with which to comply with the requirements of composition. + +If, for instance, in the arrangement of a picture it is found necessary to +move an object--a tree, figure or other item of importance, instead of +obliteration and repainting, the result is attained by creating an +attraction on the side from which it is to be moved. + +By so doing the range of the picture is increased and its space seems to +take in more than its limits presupposed: If an isolated tree standing +against a mass of trees, by opening the sky through that mass or by +creating attraction of color or form therein, the vision is led to the far +side of the object to be moved, which is thereby crowded out of its +position in the balancing scheme. + +An object upon a surface may frequently give place to a dark or light +variation of the surface itself which becomes an equivalent of attraction. + +Several objects may be made to balance without rearrangement though the +marginal proportions of the picture are altered. The _ship and moon_ +compose as an upright, but not in long shape without either the following +line which indicates the ship's course; or an object of attraction in the +opposing half either in the distance or foreground, much less being +required in the latter than the former. The equivalent therefore of the +leading line is the object on the farther shore. + +The necessity of either the one or the other is more clearly shown when +the line from the boat swings in the opposite direction. + +An object may be rendered less important by surrounding it with objects of +its own kind and color. + +An abrupt change in the direction of a line may have attraction equal to +an object on that line. + +With two spaces of equal size, importance may be given to one of them by +increasing its light; by using leading lines toward it, by placing an +accent upon it, by creating a gradation in it. + +Spots often become the equivalent of lines in their attractive value. + +A series of oppositional lines has more picturesqueness than the tangent, +its equivalent. + +A gradation may have the equivalent attraction of an object. + +A line in its continuity is more attractive than a succession of isolated +objects. + +The attractive value of an object in the scale of balance may be weakened +by moving it toward the centre or extending the picture on that side. + +Motion toward, either in intention or by action, is equivalent to +balancing weight in that space of the picture to which the action is +directed. + +Light is increased by deepening contiguous tones; dark, by heightening +contiguous tones. + +A still-life may be constructed on the same lines as any form on the +vertical plane and many of the perspective plane of composition. See +_Fundamental Forms_. + + + + +CHAPTER XI - THE PLACE OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN FINE ART + + +Since the time that photography laid its claim to be reckoned among the +fine arts the attention of artists has been attracted first by the _claim_ +and thereafter, with acknowledgments, to the _performance._ + +The art cry of the newly baptized had the vehement ring of faith and +determination. Like the prophecy of the embryo premier it sounded: "My +lords, you will hear me yet." + +The sustained interest of the "Photographic Salon" and the utterance of +its exhibitors in the language of art, has long since obtained concession +to the claim for _associate membership._ To make this relationship +complete became the effort of many writers of the photographic circle. +"The whole point then," writes Prof. P. H. Emerson, B. A., M. D., of +England, "is that what the painter strives to do is to render, by any +means in his power, as true an impression of any picture which he wishes +to express as possible. A photographic artist strives for the same end +and in two points only does he fall short of the painter--in color and in +the ability to render so accurately the relative values, although this is +to a great extent compensated by the tone of the picture. How then is +photography superior to etching, wood-cutting, charcoal drawing? The +drawing of the lens is not to be equalled by any man. There is ample room +for selection, judgment and posing, and, in a word, in capable hands a +finished photograph is a work of art. Thus we see that the art has at +last found a scientific basis and can be rationally discussed, and I think +I am right in saying that I was the first to base the claims of +photography as a fine art on these grounds and I venture to predict that +the day will come when photographs will be admitted to hang on the walls +of the Royal Academy." + +Since the appearance of the above which comes as close to the real reason +in question as its logic might intimate, but which is worth quoting from +the prophecy which it contained, there have been many expressions of +opinions by photographers. None, however, are more to the point than the +following from the pen of Mr. F. H. Wilson: "When, fifty years ago, the +new baby, photography, was born, Science and Art stood together over her +cradle questioning what they might expect of her, wondering what place she +would take among their other children. Science soon found that she had +come with her hands full of gifts and her bounty to astronomy, microscopy +and chemistry made her name blessed among these, her elder sisters. Art, +always more conservative, hung back. But slowly jealous Art who first +frowned and called the rest of her brood around her, away from the +parvenue, has let her come near, has taken her hand, and is looking her +over with questioning eyes. Soon, without doubt, she will have her on her +lap with the rest." + +"Why has she been kept out so long? Almost from the beginning she claimed +a place in the house beautiful of art. In spite of rebuffs she knocked at +its doors, though the portrait painter and the critic flung stones at her +from the house-top, and the law itself stood at the threshold denying her +entrance. Those early efforts were not untinctured with a fear that if +she should get in she would run the establishment, but the law long since +owned her right, and instead of the crashing boulders of artistic dislike +and critical indignation the volleys they drop at her feet now are mere +mossy pebbles flung by similarly mossy critics or artist-bigots. Still, +the world at large hears them rattle and does not give her the place and +estimation she has won." + +"Art began with the first touch of man to shape things toward his ideal, +be that ideal an agreeable composition, or the loftiest conception of +genius. The higher it is the more it is art. Art is head-and-hand work +and a creation deserves the name of art according to the quality and +quantity of this expended on it. Simply sit down squarely before a thing +and imitate it as an ox would if an ox could draw, with no thought or +intention save imitation and the result will cry from every line, 'I am +not art but machine work,' though its technique be perfection. Toil over +arrangement and meditate over view-point and light, and though the result +be the rudest, it will bear the impress of thought and of art. I tell you +art begins when man with thought, forming a standard of beauty, commences +to shape the raw material toward it. In pure landscape, where +modification is limited, it begins when the artist takes one standpoint in +preference to another. In figure composition, where modification is +infinite, it begins with the first touch to bring the model into pose. +When he bends a twig or turns a fold of drapery the spirit of art has come +and is stirring within him. What matters the process! Surely it is time +that this artistic bigotry was ended." + +The kernel lies in the sentence "when he bends a twig," etc., "the spirit +of art has come." In other words when he exhibits choice and preference, +when, in short, he _composes._ + +Recognizing that composition was the only portal through which the new +candidate for art recognition could gain an entrance into the circle of +Art, the single effort of the past photographer, viz.; the striving for +detail and sharpness of line, has been relegated to its reasonable place. +A comprehension of composition was found to demand the knowledge of a +score of things which then by necessity were rapidly discovered, applied +and installed. Composition means sacrifice, gradation, concentration, +accent, obliteration, replacement, construction of things the plate does +not have, destruction of what it should not have. + +Supplied with such a magician's wand no effect was denied: all things +seemed possible. + +Gratified by recognition in a new realm the new associations should be +strengthened. Whereas photography had been spanned by the simple compass +of Mr. and Mrs. A. and their daughter, in figures; or topographical +accuracies in landscape, revellers in the new art talked of Rembrandt and +Titian, Corot and Diaz. To do something which should put their art in +touch with these, their new-found brethren, was the thing! A noble +ambition, but only a mistaking of the effect for the cause. These men +_composed._ The blurred outline, the vacant shadow, the suppressed +corners, the clipped edges. This all means composition in the subduing of +insistent outline, in the exchange of breadth for detail, in the +centralization of light, in the suppression of the unnecessary. + +But no, the employment of these devices of the painter from the +photographer's point of view of composition is not sufficient. +Photography is now busy complimenting every school of painting under the +sun. Yesterday it was Rembrandt's school. Now that is passed, and +Carriere is better and to-morrow, perchance, it will be Raphael or +Whistler or some Japanese, why not? + +The one and only good sign which marks imitation is that it shows +appreciation, and this of the standards is a good thing. Let each have +its turn. Their synthesis may be _you._ + +But to a man of the professions or business whose time for study in these +vast fields of the classics is so disproportionate to their extent and +who, though supplied with search warrants and summons, still fails to make +a capture, how ineffectual and wearying this chase after +ideals--subjective. Why not shorten your course? Why not produce +Rembrandts and Corots because you apprehend the principles on which _they_ +work and anticipate a surprise in discovering, as by chance, that you have +produced something which _recalls them._ In this way and by these means +there will be meaning in your claim of brotherhood. + +One may scarcely call an estimate in art matters complete without an +opinion from Mr. Ruskin. "In art we look for a record of man's thought +and power, but photography gives that only in quite a secondary degree. +Every touch of a great painting is instinct with feeling, but howsoever +carefully the objects of a picture be chosen and grouped by the +photographer, there his interference ends. It is not a mere matter of +color or no color, but of Invention and Design, of Feeling and +Imagination. Photography is a matter of ingenuity: Art of genius." + +On these lines however the philosopher of Coniston hardly proves his case. + +Invention and design, feeling and imagination, are all a part of the +photographer's suite. He employs them all. And these too are qualities +the most artistic. Technique, which is manual and not spiritual, is the +one point at which art and photography cannot coalesce. To Art's sentient +finger-tips, Photography holds up only steel, wood and glass. Art +therefore holds the winning cards. + +P. G. Hamerton, England's safest and surest critic of art, writing a +generation ago on the "Relation between Photography and Painting," says: +"But all good painting, however literal, however pre-Raphaelite or +topographic, is full of human feeling and emotion. If it has no other +feeling in it than love or admiration for the place depicted, that is much +already, quite enough to carry the picture out of the range of photography +into the regions of real art." + +"And this is the reason why good painting cannot be based on photography. +I find photographic data of less value than hasty sketches. The +photograph renders the form truly, no doubt, as far as it goes, but it by +no means renders feelings and is therefore of no practical use (save for +reference) to a painter who feels habitually and never works, without +emotion." + +It is very much to be questioned if Mr. Hamerton in the face of what has +since been done with the camera by men who _feel_ and are led by the +emotional in art, would claim a distinction to the painter and deny that +the photographic product was unaffected by the emotional temperament. + +A friend shows us a group of his pets, either dogs, horses or children, +done by an "artist photographer." We find it strongly composed, evincing +a clear knowledge of every point to be observed in extracting from the +subject all the picturesqueness there was in it. We notice a soft +painter-like touch, shadows not detailed--simply graded--aerial envelopment +everywhere suggested. + +It would be pedantry for the painter to correct the expression of his +friend and suggest that the man who produced the picture was not an +artist. It is the product of a man who felt exactly as an artist would +have felt; an expression of views upon a subject entirely governed by the +principles of art, and the man who made it, by that sympathy which he +exhibits with those principles, is my brother in art to a greater degree +than the painter who, with youthful arrogance, throws these to the winds +"mistaking," as has been cleverly said, "the will-o'-the-wisp of +eccentricity for the miracle working impulse of genius." In whatsoever +degree more of the _man_ and less of the _mechanics_ appear, _in that +degree_ is the result a work of art. + +The reliance of photography on composition has provoked an earnest search +for its principles. The photographer felt safe in going to the school of +painting for these principles and accepted without question the best book +written for painters, that by John Burnet, penned more than a century ago +at a time when the art of England was at a low imitative ebb, and unduly +influenced by imitation. This has been abundantly quoted by photographic +teachers and evidently accepted, with little challenge, as final. + +The best things, discoverable to the writer, in the field of composition, +have been by the photographers themselves--the best things as well as the +most inane; but in the face of so many results that earnest workers with +the camera produce and continue to put forth, which cannot find a place in +the categories of Art, it would seem that these preachments have been +unheeded, or were not sufficiently clear to afford practical guidance for +whom they were intended. Mr. P. H. Robinson(14)declares most strenuously +for composition. "It is my contention," he says, "that one of the first +things an artist should learn is the _construction_ of a picture." On a +par with this is the opinion of Mr. Arthur Dow, the artist, who declares +that "art education _should begin_ at composition." + +It is for lack of this that the searcher for the picturesque so frequently +returns empty handed. + + + + + +PART II - THE AESTHETICS OF COMPOSITION + + + + +CHAPTER XII - BREADTH VERSUS DETAIL + + +Subjectively the painter and the photographer stretch after the same goal. + +Technically they approach it from opposite directions. + +The painter starts with a bare surface and creates detail, the +photographer is supplied therewith. + +Art lies somewhere between these starting points; for art is a reflection +of an idea and ideas may or may not have to do with detail. + +According to the subject then is the matter of detail to serve us. In the +expression of character a certain amount of detail is indispensable; by +the painter to be produced, by the photographer saved. But detail is +often so beautiful in itself! and is not art a presentation of the +beautiful, pleads the photographer. And the reply in the Socratic method +is: "Look at the _whole_ subject: does the idea of it demand this detail?" + +The untutored mind always sees detail. For this reason most education is +inductive, but though the process is inductive, the goal is the eternal +synthesis. It is the reporter who gathers the facts: the editor winnows +therefrom the moral. + +The artist must--in time--get on top and take this survey. Looking at any +subject with eyes half closed enables him to see it without detail, and +later, with eyes slowly opening, admitting that much only which is +necessary to character. + +The expression of character by masses of black and white proves this. +Bishop Potter is unmistakable, his features bounded by their shadows. +From such a start then it is a question of procedure cautiously to that +point where the greatest character lies, but beyond which point detail +becomes unnecessary to character. + + [Bishop Potter] + +The pen portrait of Thackeray by Robt. Blum is a careful delineation of +the characteristic head of the novelist set on shoulders +characteristically bent forward and the body characteristically tall. +What more can be told of Thackeray's personality? Would the buttons and +the wrinkles of the clothing help matters! No, as facts they would not, +and when art has to do only with character, the simplest statement is the +most forcible. + +Millet, at one time, was known as "the man who painted peasants without +wrinkles in their breeches." Not because wrinkles were too much for him, +nor because they were not thought worth while, but because, in his effort +to prune his picture of the unessentials, the wrinkles were brushed aside. + +When, however, art has to do with filling an entire space with something, +and the clothing occupies a considerable part of it, what shall be done? +This changes the details of the question. Yet all portraits that hit hard +in exhibitions are those conceived in simplicity, those in which the +personality is what stops and holds us. + +There are certain large organic lines of drapery which the character +demands, but beyond this point opinion divides authoritatively from the +complete silence of obliteration to the tumultuous noisiness of "the whole +truth" + +In the portraits by Carriere all detail is swept away, and the millinery +artists are shocked. Simplicity should never compromise texture and +quality. This side of the truth cannot prove objectionable. + +"You have made my broadcloth look like two-fifty a yard and it really cost +four," was a criticism offered by a young lady who posed in a riding +habit. Such practical criticism is frequently necessary to bring the +artist down from the top height observatory where he is absorbed with "the +big things." + +Breath does not signify neglect of detail or neglect of finish; it means +simplification where unity had been threatened. It is seeing the big side +of small things, if the small things cannot be ignored. + +The lighting of a subject has much to do with its breadth. A light may be +selected that will chop such a well organized unit as the body into three +or four separate sections, or one that produces an _equal_ division of +light and shade--seldom good. Shadows are generally the hiding-places for +mystery; and mystery is ever charming. None better than Rembrandt knew +the value of those vague spaces of nothingness, in backgrounds, and in the +figure itself, a sudden pitch from light and positiveness into conjecture. +We hear in photography much of the "Rembrandt-esque effect," which when +produced, proves to be just blackness. There can be no shadow without +light, and Rembrandt's effort was to obtain this, rather than produce +darkness. + +The feeling of light may also be broadly expressed by a direct +illumination. Here the shadow plays a very small part, and the subject is +presented in its outline. Under such an effect we lose variety but gain +simplicity. This brings us close to the region of two dimensions, the +realm of Japanese art and mural decoration. The portraits of Manet, the +decorations of Puvis de Chavannes, and the early Italians, display the +quality of breadth because of the simplicity of lighting which these +subjects received. + +Breadth in the treatment of the figure may be obtained by _graded_ light. +If a shadow be produced at the bottom of the picture sufficiently strong +to obliterate both the light and shade of detail, and thence be made to +weaken as it proceeds upward and finally give place to light, where light +is most needed, great simplicity as well as the element of variety will be +the result. + +Thus, in the most effective treatment in mural decoration, one sees only +the grand forms, the movement, the intention, those things which most +befit the inner surface of the building being also those which bear the +greater importance. The fact is used as an argument for the assumption +that painting should, after all, be an art of two dimensions, length and +breadth, reserving thickness and its representation, for sculpture. This +robs painting of the quality of natural aspect, except under the single +effect of absolutely direct lighting and ignores its development beyond +the flatly colored representations of the ancient Egyptians, our American +Indians and the Japanese, a development inaugurated by the Greeks and +since adhered to by all occidental nations. + +The student who goes to nature and sees mass only, discarding all detail, +will run the chance of being a colorist as well as a painter of breadth, +two of the most important qualifications; for if he refuses to be stopped +by detail his intelligence will crystallize upon that other thing which +attracts him. He will think the harder upon the simple relations of tones +and the exact color. Slowly dexterity will add a facility to his brush +and he will, while aiming at character, through breadth, unconsciously +introduce characteristic detail. This is the hope of the new method which +is now being introduced into the system of public school instruction. + +The scheme as developed by Mr. Dow is decorative rather than naturalistic, +the aesthetic side with "Beauty," as the watchword being in greatest +point. The filling of spaces in agreeable and harmonious arrangement does +not demand strict acknowledgment to natural aspect. Indeed this is denied +in most cases where the limitations of decoration are enjoined. With the +first principle, truth, upon which all education rests, as the basis of +such study, the nature part of this system will fall into its logical +channels. If nature's largeness and simplicity contributes to its value, +then nature should be consulted when she is large and simple. Studies of +trees in gray silhouette, should be made at twilight, either of evening or +early morning, when the detail, which is useless to the decorative scheme, +is not seen. Under such conditions no slight or sacrifice is +necessitated. Nature then contributes her quantity directly and the +student has no warrant in assuming to change her. There are times also +when the face of nature is so varied that the most fantastic schemes of +_Notan_(15) are observed; a harbor filled with sails and sea-gulls, a +crowd of people speckling the shore, the houses of a village dotted over a +hillside. Under a direct light these become legitimate subjects offered by +nature herself to the scheme which, however, she only now and then honors. + +The system therefore accompanies the student but part way and leaves him +still knocking at the door of the complete naturalistic presentation of +pictorial art, a development which stretches into limitless possibilities +by the use of the third dimension. + +Work in two dimensions by reason of its greater simplicity should +naturally precede the complications involved in producing the completely +modelled forms of nature, and therein the argument for its use in the +early stages of the student's development is a strong one. + + + +SUGGESTIVENESS. + + +Breadth, so often accountable for mystery, leads to suggestiveness. It is +at this point that graphic art touches hands with the invisible,--where the +thing merges into the idea. Here we deliver over our little two by four +affair with its specifications all marked, into the keeping of larger +hands which expand its possibilities. If then Imagination carries us +beyond the limits of graphic art let us by all means employ it. Upon this +phase of art the realist can but look with folded arms. The dwellers in +the charmed world of Greek mythological fancy came on tiptoe to the +borders only of the daily life of that age. + +The still-life painter has to do with fact, and for many other subjects +also the fact alone is sufficient. It is generally so in portraiture +where rendition of externals is attempted, but the portrait may suggest +revery and reflection, or, by _intimate accessory,_ provoke a discursive +movement in thought. + +The realist is a man of drawing and how to do it, of paint and putting it +on, of textures and technique; he is a painter; and stops with that. But +the maker of pictures would step to another point of sight. He would so +aim as to shoot over the hilltop. He would hit something which he cannot +see. + +Suggestion is both technical and subjective. There is suggestion of +detail, of act and of fact. In producing the effect, instead of the +detail, of a bunch of grass or a mass of drapery, we substitute suggestion +for literalism. + +Fortuny, as a figure painter, was master of this art, his wonderful +arrangements of figures amongst drapery and in grasses bearing evidence. +Here, out of a fantastic crush of color, will be brought to view a +beautifully modelled hand and wrist which connect by the imagination only, +with the shoulder and body. These however, are ready to receive it and +like other parts of the picture are but points of fact to give +encouragement to the quest for the remainder. The hide and seek of the +subject, the "lost and found" in the line, the subsidizing of the +imagination for tribute, by his magic wand stroke were the artifices by +which Fortuny coquetted with nature and the public, fascinating the art +world of his day. + +Fortuny, however, never took us beyond the bounds of his picture. It was +his doctrine that avoidance of detail was artful; that to carry the whole +burden when imagination could be tricked into shouldering some of it was +fool's drudgery. Millet, who was his antipode as a clumsy handler of his +tools, declared himself fortunate in being able to suggest much more than +he could paint. + +In one of the competitions at the Royal Academy in England, the prize was +awarded to that rendering of the expression of Grief which showed the face +entirely covered, the suggestion being declared stronger than the fact. + +In the realm of suggestion however the landscape artist has much the wider +range. Who has not experienced the fascination of a hilltop? The hill +may be uninteresting--on your side,--but there is another. There is a path +winding over it, telling of the passing of few or many; your feet have +touched it and imagination has you in her train, and you follow eagerly to +the beck of her enchantment. + +Suppose the scene at twilight on one of the great plains of northern +France where beets are the sole crop. A group of carts and oxen shut out +the background and no figures are seen. If however against the sky are +the silhouetted forms of two handfuls of beets, the sight of a figure or +even a part of him would seem unnecessary to a casual observer who wished +to know if there was any one about. These inanimate things moving through +the air mean life. The painter has created one figure and suggested the +likelihood of others by these few touches. Herein we have the suggestion +of a fact. The suggestion of an act, may further be developed by showing +the figure, having already finished with the handful, bending to pick up +others. Such a position would be an actual statement regarding the +present act but a suggested one concerning the former, the effect of which +is still seen. If then the figure were represented as performing +something in any moment of time farther removed from that governing the +position of the beets than natural action could control, he has forced +into his figure an accelerated action which ranges anywhere between the +startling, the amusing, and the impossible. + +The power of implied force or action by suggestion is the basis of the +Greek sculptured art of the highest period. Much of the argument of +Lessing's elaborate essay on the "Laocoon" is aimed at this point, which +is brought out in its completeness in his discussion of Timomachus' +treatment of the raving Ajax. "Ajax was not represented at the moment +when, raging among the herds he captures and slays goats and oxen, +mistaking them for men. The master showed him sitting weary after these +crazy deeds of heroism, and meditating self-destruction. That was really +the raving Ajax, not because he is raving at the moment, but because we +see he has been raving and with what violence his present reaction of +shame and despair vividly portrays. We see the force of the tempest in the +wrecks and the corpses with which it has strewn the beach." + +In the photographic realm of the nude, this quality is compulsory. We +don't want to have offered us so intimate a likeness of a nude figure that +we ask, "Who is she, or he?" The general and not the particular suffices; +the type not the person. The painter's art contains few stronger touches +through this means than the incident of the sleeping senator in Gerome's +_"__Death of Caesar__"_. + +In the suggestion of an idea, graphic and plastic art rise to the highest +levels of poetry. The picture or the poem then becomes the surface, +refracting the idea which stretches on into infinity. + +The dying lion of Lucerne, mortally pierced by the shaft, the wounded lion +of Paris, striking under his forepaw the arrow meant for his destruction +are symbols memorializing the Swiss guard of Louis XVI, and the unequal +struggle of France against Germany in '72. + +At the death of Lorenzo the arts languished and Michel Angelo's supine and +hanging figures in his tomb are there to indicate it. + + + +MYSTERY. + + +Suggestion with its phantom guide-posts leads us through its varied mazes +to the dwelling-place of mystery. Here the artist will do well to tarry +and learn all the oracle may teach him. + +The positive light of day passes to the twilight of the moon and stars. + +What things may be seen and forms created out of the simple mystery of +twilight! + +Its value by suggestion may be known technically to the artist, for +through the elimination of detail, the work is sifted to its essence and +we then see it in its bigness, if it has any, and if not we discover this +lack. When the studio light fails our best critic enters and discloses in +a few moments what we have been looking for all day long. + +There should be in most pictures an opportunity of saying that which shall +be interpreted by each one according to his temperament, a little place +where each may delight in setting free his own imagination. + +To account for the popularity of many pictures in both color and black and +white on any other ground than that of mystery seems ofttimes impossible. +The strong appeal made to all classes by subjects containing mysterious +suggestion is evidenced by the frequency of awards to such in photographic +and other competitions. + +The student of photography asks if blurred edges, empty shadows and +vaporous detail mean quality. They certainly mean mystery, which when +applied to an appropriate subject signifies that the artist has joined his +art with the imagination of the beholder. He has therefore let it out at +large usury. + +A cottage near a wood may be a very ordinary subject at three in the +afternoon, but at eight in the evening, seen in palpitating outline +against the forest blackness or the low toned sky, it becomes an element +in a scheme of far larger dimensions. The difference between the definite +and indefinite article, when coupled with that house, is the difference in +the quality of the art of which we speak. + +Mystery by deception is a misguided use of an art quality. + +In photography one man delights in the etching point and cannot stop until +he has made a net work all over his plate and led us to look at this +instead of his picture, which, if good, would have been let alone--a clever +device of throwing dust into our eyes. Another produces what appears to +be a pencil drawing, and a very good imitation some of them are, but at +best a deception. To make something look like something else is a +perversion of a brilliant discovery in photographic processes, which +offers the means for securing unity (and in this word lies every principle +of composition) by adding to or subtracting from the first product. + +This may involve the destruction of two-thirds or three-fourths of the +plate or it may demand many an accent subtly supplied before unity is +satisfied, before the subject is stripped of its non-essentials or before +it may be regarded complete. Let such good work go on--and the other sort +too, if you will, the stunts, the summersaults and the hoop performances, +but in the dignity of photographic competitions give the deceptions, the +imitations of other things, no standing or quarter. + +No one will deny the interest there is in a sensitive, flexible line and +in the rendition of mass by line. But photography is an art dealing with +finished surfaces of perfect modelling, and workers in this art should +preserve the "nature" of their subject. The man who feels line had better +etch or use a pencil. + + + +SIMPLICITY. + + +Breadth while fostering suggestiveness gives birth to simplicity; a +subjective quality. + +When applied to pictorial art, simplicity's first appeal is a mental one. +We are attracted by neither technique nor color, nor things problematic to +the painter; but by _his_ mental attitude toward his subject. If we +determine that the result has come of elimination, that to produce it, +much has been thrown away and that the artist prefers what he has left at +a sacrifice, to what might have been, acknowledgment for this condensation +is coupled with respect. There is however a type of simplicity, the +Simple Simon sort, or an indisposition to undertake difficult things, +which leads to a selection of the easy subject in nature. Having found +some modest bit of charm, the Simple Simon turns and twists it to +attenuation, with the earnest declaration that there is no greater quality +than simplicity; but purposeful emptiness lifts its hands in vain for the +baptismal sanctification of the poetic spirit. + +Where simplicity really serves the artist in his task is in those cases +demanding the unification of many elements. + +In painting, Rubens and Turner thus wrought, bringing harmony from an +organ of three banks and a score of stops, setting themselves the task of +strong men. + +Whatsoever subject be projected, the quality of principality takes +precedence over all others. This is the first step toward simplicity; +some one thought made chief; therefore some one object in the composition +of quantities and some one light in the scheme of chiaroscuro dominant. +With this determined, the problem which follows is, how shall principality +be maintained and to what degree of sacrifice must all other objects be +submitted. In the rapid examination of many works of art, those that +appeal strongest will be found to be those in which the elements are +simple, or, if complex, are governed by this quality through principality. + + + +RESERVE. + + +Another bifurcation of simplicity is Reserve. In the simple statement of +the returning Roman general: "I came, I saw, I conquered," all that the +senate desired to know was stated and it gained force by virtue of what +was left unsaid. Anything else might have gratified the curiosity of his +auditors, but the man, in holding this secret, made _himself_ an object of +interest. Rembrandt has told us that the legitimate gamut of expression +lies some distance between the deepest dark of our palette and its highest +light. Expression through limitations is dignified, a quality which the +strain to fill all limits sacrifices. It is the force quickly squandered +by the young actor, who "overacts," disturbing the balance of forces in +the other parts. + +Upon the pivot of Reserve the opposing creeds of the Impressionists and +Tonists bear with most contention. The former would lash their coursers +of Phoebus with unsparing hand from start to finish; the latter prefer the +"Waiting Race," every atom of force governed and in control, held for the +opportunity, when increasing strength is necessary. It is the difference +between aiming at the bull's-eye or the whole target. + +The recent tendency of illustration to produce a result in three or four +flat tones is another voice proclaiming for reserve. The new movement in +decorative art may rightly claim this acknowledgment to it. In the work +of Jules Guerin it is interesting to note how the bit and bridle of these +two factors of breadth have been applied to every stroke, now and then +only, detail being allowed its say, and in but a still small voice. + +With the large number of pictorial ideas now being recast in the +decorative formula it is necessary to have a clear notion of the purpose +and the limitations of decorative art, that this new art may not be +misunderstood nor confounded with the purely pictorial. + + [Decorative Evolving the Pictorial; The North River--Prendergast; An + Intrusion--Bull; Landscape Arrangement--Guerin] + +Decoration is essentially flat. It represents length and breadth. It +applies primarily to the flat vertical plane. It deals with the symbols +of form, with fact by suggestion, with color in mass. It substitutes +light and dark for nature's light and shade. Conceptions evolved upon the +flat vertical plane deal with pictorial data as material for heraldic +quartering, with natural fact as secondary to the happy adjustment of +spaces. Nature to the decorative mind presents a variegated pattern from +which to clip any shape which the color design demands. + +The influence on pictorial art of the decorative tendency, has brought +much into the pictorial category which has never been classified. + +The Rose Croix influence has witnessed its seed maturing into the _art +nouveau,_ and what was nurtured under the forcing glass of decoration has +suddenly been transplanted into the garden of pictorial art. In +consequence it would appear that the constitution of the latter required +amendments as being scarce broad enough to accommodate the newer thing. +It is difficult, for instance, to reconcile the crowded and spotted +surfaces in Mr. Maurice Prendergast's pictures, to the requirements of the +balanced conception. It must be recognized however that their first claim +for attraction is their color which is usually a harmony in red, yellow +and blue, and when the crowds of people or buildings do not form balancing +combinations they oft-times so fill the canvas as to leave excellent +spaces, more commanding through their isolation than the groups choking +the limits of the canvas. More often however these crowds may be found to +hang most beautifully to a natural axis and to comply with all the +principles of pictorial structure. + +In his park scene, showing several tiers of equestrians one above the +other, the chief charm is the idea of continuous movement which the scene +conveys. The detail, wisely omitted, if supplied would arrest the +attention and a challenge on this basis would follow. It would then be +found that what we accepted as an impression of natural aspect we would +demand more of as a finished picture. It is because it is more decorative +than pictorial and because its pictorial parts are rendered by suggestion, +that it makes so winning an appeal. + +The quaint and fascinating concepts of Mr. Bull in the range of animal +delineation are all struck in the stamp of this newer mould, and the list +is a constantly increasing one of the illustrators whose work bears this +sign. + + + +RELIEF. + + +The popular notion concerning pictures is that they should stand out; but +as has been aptly said, "they should stand in"; so stand as to keep their +places within the frame and to keep the component parts in control. A +single object straining itself into prominence through the great relief it +exhibits, is just as objectionable as the one voice in a chorus heard +above the rest. + +It is a law of light that all objects of the same plane receive +identically the same illuminations. If then, one seems favored, it must +be by suppression of the rest. Now and then this is necessary, but that +it occurs by this means and not by unnatural forcing must be evident. + +It is not necessary for the artist to lift his sitter off the canvas by a +forced light on the figure and an intense shadow separating him from the +wall behind. + +Correggio knew so well to conserve breadth just here. Instead of this +cheap and easy relief, he almost invariably chose to offset the dark side +with a darker tone in the background, allowing the figure's shadow to melt +inperceptibly into the back space. Breadth and softness was of course the +result. + +Occasionally however a distinct attempt at relief may be witnessed in the +work of good painters. Some of Valesquez' standing portraits are +expressive of the painter's joy in making them "stand out." In all these +pictures however there are no other objects, no items added to the +background from which the figure is separated. The subject simply stands +in air. In other words it is an entity and not a composition. + +The process technically for the subduing of relief is flattening the +shadows, thus rendering the marked roundness of objects less pronounced. +The envelopment of air which all painting should express,--the detachment +of one object from another,--goes as far toward the production of relief as +is necessary. + + + +FINISH. + + +But the enquiry is naturally made, "if deception is undesirable, should +the artist pause before he has brought his work to a complete finish?" +Finish is not dependent upon putting in everything which nature contains, +else would art not be a matter of selection. Finish, though interpreted +singularly by different artists as to degree, is universally understood to +mean the same thing. Finish is the expression of the true relations of +objects or of the parts of one object. When the true relations or +_values_ of shade and color are rendered the work is complete. That ends +it. The student for the first year or so imagines his salvation depends +on detail and prides himself on how much of it he can see. The instructor +insists on his looking at nature with his eyes half closed in the hope +that he will take the big end of things. There is war between them until +the student capitulates, after which the instructor tells him to go as he +pleases knowing with this lesson learned he will not go wrong. + +As a comprehensive example of finish without detail, one may take the +works of Mauve which aim to represent nature as truly as possible in her +exact tints. No one can observe any picture ever painted by this master +and not be drawn down close to the ground that he may walk on it or +elevate his head into the air and breathe it or feel it possible to send a +stone sailing into its liquid depths; but finish! when we look for it +where or what is it? At the Stewart Gallery the attendant was accustomed +to offer the visitor a magnifying glass with which to examine the lustre +of a horse's eye or the buckles upon Napoleon's saddle, in the "Review of +Cuirassiers at the Battle of Friedland" by Meissonier. These items are +what interested the great detailist and they are perfect; but with all the +intense effort of six close years of labor the picture has less real +finish than any work ever signed by Mauve. The big thing in finish has +been missed and I doubt if any artist or connoisseur has ever come upon +this picture, now in the Metropolitan Museum, without a slight gasp at the +false relation of color existing between the green wheat, the horses +trampling through it and the sky above it. The unity of these elements +was the first step in finish and the artist with all his vast knowledge of +little things never knew it. + +If then, perfect finish is a matter beyond detail, it follows it must be +looked for elsewhere than at this end of nature. + +The average man soon takes the artist's intention and accepts the work on +this basis, thinking not of finish nor of its lack, but of nature; +acknowledging through the suggestions of the picture that he has been +touched by her. + +"During these moments," says John La Farge in his "Considerations on +Painting," "are not the spectators excusable who live for the moment a +serene existence, feeling as if they had made the work they admire?" + +The argument then is that the master painter is one who selects the +subject, takes precious care that its foundation quantities and qualities +are furnished and then hands it over to any one _to finish._ That it +falls into sympathetic hands is his single solicitude. + +"It requires two men to paint a picture," says Mr. Hopkinson Smith, "one +to work the brush and the other to kill the artist when he has finished +his picture and doesn't know it." + + + + + +PART III - THE CRITICAL JUDGEMENT OF PICTURES + + + + + "With the critic all depends on the right application of his + principles in particular cases. And since there are fifty + ingenuous critics to one of penetration, it would be a wonder if + the applications were in every case with the caution indispensable + to an exact adjustment of the scales of art."--_Lessing's Laocoeon._ + + + + +CHAPTER XIII - THE MAN IN ART + + +"Art is a middle quality between a thought and a thing--the union of that +which is nature with that which is exclusively human."(16) + +For the every-day critic much of the secret lies in the proposition art is +nature, with the man added; nature seen through a temperament. Nature is +apparent on the surface of pictures. We see this side at a glance. To +find the man in it requires deeper sight. + +If a painter of portraits, has he painted the surface, or the character? +Has he gone halting after it, or has he nailed it: has he won with it +finally? Is he a man whose natural refinement proved a true mirror in +which his sitter was reflected or has the coarse and uneven grain of the +artist become manifest in the false planes of the character presentation? +With respect to portraits less than other subjects, can we expect to find +them reflections of the artist's personality. But some of the ablest, +while interpreting another's character, frequently add somewhere in it +their own. The old masters rarely signed, feeling that they wrote +themselves all through their works. + +The sure thing regarding the great portraitist is that he is a man of +refinement. This all history shows. + +Is our artist a genre painter: then does his mind see small things to +delight _in_ them, or to delight us--if this, he is our servitor or little +better,--does he go at the whole thing with the sincerity of an artistic +purpose and somewhere place a veritable touch of genius, or only represent +one item after another until the whole catalogue of items is complete, +careful that he leave behind no just cause for reproach? Has the man +dignified his subject and raised it to something above imitative art, or +does he clearly state in his treatment of it that imitation is the end of +art? + +Is he a painter of historic incident; then does he convince you that his +data are accurate, or allow you to conjecture that his details are +makeshifts? Is the scene an inspiration or commonplace? Has he been able +to put you into the atmosphere of a bygone day, or do his figures look +like models in hired costume and quite ready to resume their own clothes +and modern life? + +Is he a painter of flowers; then is he an _artist_ or a botanist? Is he a +marinist; then, as a landsman has he made you feel like one, or has he +painted for you water that can be walked on without faith? Has he shown +you the dignity, the vastness, the tone, and above all the movement of the +sea? + +Is he a landscape painter? Then is he in a position to assert himself to +a greater degree than they all? The farther one may remove himself from +his theme, the less of its minutiae will he see. The process of +simplification is individual. What he takes from nature he puts back out +of himself. The landscape painter becomes an interpreter of moods, his +own as well as nature's, and in his selection of these he reveals himself. +Does he show you the kingdoms of the world from some high mount, or make +you believe they may be found if you keep on moving through the air and +over the ground such as he creates? Does he make you listen with him to +the soft low music when nature is kindly and tender and lovable, or is his +stuff of that robust fibre which makes her companionable to him in her +ruggedness and strength? + +As the hidden forces of nature control man yet bend to his +bidding--electricity, air, steam, etc.--so do the open and obvious ones +which the painter deals with. They dictate all the conditions and yet +somehow--he governs. The different ways in which he does this gives to art +its variety and enables us to form a scale of relative values. + +The work of art which attracts us excites two emotions; pleasure in the +subject; admiration for the artist. Exhibitions of strength and skill +claim our interest not so much for the thing done, which often perishes +with the doing, as for the doer. The poet with a hidden longing to +express or a story to tell, who binds himself to the curious limitations +of the Italian sonnet, in giving evidence of his powers, excites greater +admiration than though he had not assumed such conditions. + +It is the personal element which has established photography and given it +art character. Says J. C. Van Dyke, "a picture is but an autobiographical +statement; it is the man and not the facts that may awaken our admiration; +for, unless we feel his presence and know his genius the picture is +nothing but a collection of incidents. It is not the work but the worker, +not the mould but the moulder, not the paint but the painter." + +Witness it in the work of Michel Angelo, in both paint and marble. How we +feel _the man of it_ in Franz Hals, in Rembrandt, in Rubens, Van Dyck, +Valasquez, Ribera and Goya, in Watteau and Teniers, in Millet and Troyon, +in Rousseau and Rico, in Turner, Constable and Gainsborough, in Fildes and +Holl, in Whistler, in Monet, in Rodin and Barnard, in Inness, in Wyant and +Geo. Fuller. + +Like religion, art is not a matter of surfaces. + +Its essence is to be spiritually discerned. It is the spirit of the +artist you must seek;--find the man. + + + Back of the canvas that throbs, the painter is hinted and + hidden; + Into the statue that breathes the soul of the sculptor is + bidden; + Under the joy that is felt lie the infinite issue of feeling; + Crowning the glory revealed is the glory that crowns the + revealing. + Great are the symbols of being, but that which is symboled is + greater; + Vast the create and beheld, but vaster the inward creator; + Back of the sound broods the silence, back of the gift stands + the giving; + Back of the hand that receives thrill the sensitive nerves of + receiving. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV - SPECIFIC QUALITIES AND FAULTS + + +If we recognize the manly qualities in a picture, the work has at least a +favorable introduction. Farther than this point it may not please us, but +if not, it should remain a question of taste between the artist and +yourself; and, concerning taste there is no disputing. It is just at this +point that the superficial critic errs. Dislike for the subject, however +ably expressed, is never cause for condemnation. The fair question to ask +is, what was the artist's intention? Its answer provokes your challenge; +"Is it worth the expression!" If conceded, the real judgment begins. Has +he done it; if not wholly--in what degree? + +The question of degree will demand the patience of good judgment. There +may be much or little sanity in condemning a picture owing to a single +fault. It depends on the kind. There are errors of selection, of +presentation (technique) of natural fact, and of art principle. We can +excuse the first, condone the second, find small palliation for the third, +but he for whom art principles mean nothing, is an art anarchist. + +Errors of selection are errors of judgment. A man may choose a subject +which is unprofitable and which refuses to yield fruit; and yet in his +effort at reediting its elements he may have shown great skill and +knowledge and may have expended upon it his rarest gifts--fine technique +and good color. The critic must read between the lines and blame the +judgment, not the art. Feeble selection and weak composition will be more +easily specified as faults than bad drawing and unworthy color. + +To the profession, the epithet "commonplace" weighs heavily against a work +of art. Selection of what is fitting as an art subject means experience. +The "ungrateful" subject and bad composition are therefore likely to mark +the _nouveau_ in picture making--the student fresh from the atelier with +accurate drawing and true color and who may be full of promise, but who +has become tangled with what the French term the soujet ingrat. Every +artist has studies of this sort which contain sufficient truth to save +them from being painted over as canvas, and most painters know the place +for such--the storeroom. Exhibition of studies is interesting as +disclosing the means to an end, and the public should discern between the +intention of the "study" and of the picture. + +Herein lies the injustice of acquiring the posthumous effects of an artist +and exposing for sale every scrap to be found. The ravenous group of +dealers which made descent upon the Millet cottage at the death of that +artist effected as clean a sweep as an army of ants in an Indian bungalow. +In consequence we see in galleries throughout Europe and this country many +trifles in pastel which are not only incomplete but positively bad as +color. Millet used but a few hard crayons for trials in color suggestion, +to be translated in oil. Some were failures in composition and in most +the color is nothing more than any immature hand could produce with such +restricted means. To allow these to enter into any estimate of Millet or +to take them seriously as containing his own estimate of art, or as +intrinsically valuable, is folly. + +The faults of selection may also be open to difference of opinion. "Who +would want to paint you when no one wants to look at you?" said an old +epigrammatist to a misshapen man. "Not so," says the artist; "I will +paint you though people may not like to look at you and they will look at +my portrait not for your sake but for my art, and find it interesting." + +The cult that declares for anything as a subject, its value dependent upon +that which the artist adds, stands as a healthy balance to that band of +literary painters which affected English art a generation ago, the school +of Rossetti, Burne-Jones, and Maddox-Brown, who strove to present _ideas_ +through art. With them the idea was paramount, and the technical in time +dwindled, the subject with its frequently ramified meaning, proving to be +beyond their art expression. + +Again, the popular attempt to conceive in pictures that which the artist +never expected us to find is as reprehensible in graphic as in musical +art. There is often no literary meaning whatever in some of the best +examples of both. Harmony, tone, color and technique pure and simple are +the full compass of the intention. What this may suggest to the +individual he is welcome to, but the glib dictum of certain preachers on +art as to hidden intentions would indicate that they had effected an +agreement, with the full confidence of the silent partner to exploit him. +Beware of the gilt edged footnote, or the art that depends upon it. A +writer of ordinary imagination and fluent English can put an aureole about +any work of art he desires and much reputation is secured on this wise. + +In the presentation of a subject through given pictorial elements, the +critic will know whether the most has been made of the opportunity. If +the composition prove satisfactory and the theme as presented still fails +to move the critic, he must shift from the scientific analysis to those +qualities governing the artist subjectively. He is lacking in +"temperament," and without temperament who in art has a chance? With +years in the schools and a technique of mechanical perfection he lacks the +divine fire and leaves us cold. It is for the critic to say this, and +herein he becomes a teacher to public and artist. + +The patron who agreed that a picture under discussion had every quality +which the salesman mentioned and patiently heard him through but quietly +remarked, "It hasn't that," as he snapped his finger, is the sort of a +critic who does not need to know the names of things in art. He felt a +picture should have snap, and if it did not, it was lacking. + +But beyond the presentation of a theme having in it the mark of genius, is +that of workmanlike technique. The demand of the present age is for this. +If a subject is _not painted_ it will scarce hold as art. Ideas, +composition, even color and harmony plead in vain; the spirit of the times +sits thus in judgment. + +The presentation also should be individual, the unmistakable sign of +distinction. To be able to tell at a glance by this mark puts us on the +footing of intimate acquaintance. A difference exists between this and +the well-known mannerisms of individuals. The latter applies to special +items in pictures, the former to the individual style of expression. An +artist may have one way of seeing all trees, or the similarity of one +picture with another may be because there is only one sort of tree that +interests him, or one time of day when all trees attract his brush. In +the first case he is a mannerist, in the other a worker in a chosen +groove. It cannot be denied that many artists making a success in a +limited range of subject consent to stop, and go no further, under +pressure of dealers or the public. The demand for specialists has much +more reason in science and mechanics than in art, which is or should be a +result of impulse.(17) + +Corot declared he preferred the low sweet music of early dawn and to him +there was enough variety in it to keep him employed as long as he could +paint; but the thralldom of an artist who follows in the groove of a +bygone success because if he steps out of it the dealer frowns and will +not handle his work, is pitiable, exposing to view year by year the +remonitory canvas with such slight changes as newness demands. It would +be a healthier sign in art if the press and public would applaud new +ventures when it was clear that an artist, thereby, was seeking to do +better things and perhaps find himself in a newer vein. But variety in +art it is maintained need not come of variety in the individual but of a +variety of individuals. So Van Marke must paint cows, and Jacque sheep +and Wouvermanns must be told by the inevitable white horse, and have the +mere mention of the artist's name mean the same sort of picture every +time. This aids the simplification of a many-sided question. The public, +as Mr. Hamerton declares, hates to burden itself with names; to which +might be added that it also hates to differentiate with any single name. +A good portraitist in England one year exhibited at the Royal Academy a +wonderfully painted peacock. The people raved and thereafter he was +allowed to paint nothing else. Occasionally it is shown that this +discrimination is without reason, as many men rise above the restriction. +The Gainsborough portrait and landscape are equally strong, the works of +painters in marble, and sculptors who use color, have proved a surprise to +the critics and an argument against the "specialty." + +There are two degrees in the subversion of the natural fact. + +If, for example, under the rule in physics, the angle of incidence being +equal to the angle of reflection, it be found that a cloud in the sky will +reflect into water too near the bottom of the picture, a painter's license +may move it higher _in its vertical line;_ but if the same cloud is made +to reflect at an angle several degrees to right or left, the artist breaks +the simplest law of optics. The painter's art at best is one of +deception. In the first case the lie was plausible. In the second case +any schoolboy could have "told on" the artist. + +There are good painters who appear to know little and care less for +physical fact. Their business is with the surface of the earth; the whys +and wherefores of the universe they ignore, complacent in their ignorance +until it leads them to place the evening star within the arc of the +crescent moon, when they are annoyed to be told that the moon does not +grow from this shape to the full orb once a month. But ofttimes, though +the artist may not flout the universe, he shows his carelessness of +natural fact and needs the snubbing. It is in this range that the little +critic walks triumphantly posing as a shrewd and a discerning one. He +holds up inconsistencies with his deft thumb and finger and cries, "what a +smart boy am I." And yet in spite of him Rubens, for the sake of a better +line in the foreground of one of his greatest compositions dares to +reconstruct a horse with his head issuing from his hind quarters, allowing +the tail to serve as the mane, and Turner kept on drawing castles all +wrong. + +But these critics have their place. Even Ruskin accepted this as a part of +his work. + +There are occasions, as every artist will admit, when the artless critic +with his crude commonplaces is most welcome. + +As to the violator of _art principles,_ his range in art must perforce be +short, his reward a smile of pity, his finish suicide. Originality may +find all the latitude it requires within the limits of Art Principles. + +Ruskin in his principles of drawing enumerates these as "Principality, +i.e., a chief object in a picture to which others point: Repetition, the +doubling of objects gives quietude: Symmetry develops solemnity, but in +landscape it must be balanced, not formal. Continuity: as in a succession +of pillars or promontories or clouds involving change and relief, or else +it would be mere monotonous repetition. Curvature: all beautiful objects +are bounded by infinite curves, that is to say, of infinitely changing +direction, or else made up of an infinite number of subordinate curves. +Radiation: illustrated in leaves and boughs and in the structure of +organic bodies. Contrast: of shapes and substances and of general lines; +being the complement of the law of continuity, contrast of light and shade +not being enough. Interchange: as in heraldic quartering. Consistency: or +breadth overriding petty contrast and giving the effect of aggregate color +or form. Harmony: art is an abstract and must be harmoniously abstracted, +keeping the relations of values." + +With the above principles of composition Mr. Ruskin aims to cover the +field of architecture, sculpture and painting, and he declares there are +doubtless others which he cannot define "and these the most important and +connected with the deepest powers of art. The best part of every work of +art is inexplicable. It is good because it is good." + +Mr. Hamerton enumerates the duties of the critic as follows; "to utter +unpopular truths; to instruct the public in the theoretical knowledge of +art; to defend true living artists against the malice of the ignorant; to +prevent false living artists from acquiring an influence injurious to the +general interests of art; to exalt the fame of dead artists whose example +may be beneficial; to weaken the fame of dead artists whose names have an +injurious degree of authority; to speak always with absolute sincerity; to +give expression to vicissitudes of opinion, not fearing the imputation of +inconsistency; to make himself as thoroughly informed as his time and +opportunities will allow, about everything concerning the Fine Arts, +whether directly or indirectly; to enlarge his own powers of sympathy; to +resist the formation of prejudices." The above requirements are well +stated for critics who, by reason of the authority of their position as +press writers, are teachers of art. As to the personnel and +qualifications of this Faculty of Instruction, investigation would prove +embarrassing. The shallowness of the average review of current +exhibitions is no more surprising, than that responsible editors of +newspapers place such consignments in the hands of the +all-around-reporter, to whom a picture show is no more important than a +fire or a function. Mr. Hamerton in his essay urges artists to write on +art topics, as their opinions are expert testimony, a suggestion +practically applied by a small group of daily papers in America. Says Mr. +Stillman, "No labor of any human worker is ever subjected to such +degradation as is art to-day under the criticism of the daily paper." +Probably no influence is more responsible for the apathy and distrust of +the public regarding art than these reviews of exhibitions for the daily +press. The reader quotes as authoritative the dictum of a great journal, +seldom reflecting that this is the opinion of one man, who, with rarest +exception, is the least qualified of any writer on the staff to speak on +his theme. Such is the value which the average manager puts upon the +subject. To review the picked efforts of a year, of several hundred men, a +scant column is deemed sufficient. Howsoever honest may be the intention +toward these, the limitations render the task hopeless, for all efforts to +level the scales to a nicety may be foiled by the shears of the managing +editor if perchance another petit larceny should require any part of the +space. + +So the critic gives it up, mounts a pedestal, waves whole walls, aye +galleries, to oblivion, and with the sumptuousness of a Nero, adopts the +magnificent background, in the light of which for a moment he shines +resplendent, as a gilded setting for his oracles. + + + + +CHAPTER XV - THE PICTURE SENSE + + +"Fortunate is he, who at an early age knows what art is."(18) + +Howsoever eloquent may be the artist in his work, it is convincing only in +that degree to which his audience is prepared to understand his language +and comprehend his subject. + +"The artist hangs his brains upon the wall," said the veteran salesman of +the National Academy, and there they remain without explanation or +defense. The crowd as it passes, enjoys or jeers, as the ideas of this +mute language are comprehended or confounded. Art requires no apology and +asks none; all she requests is that those who would affect her must know +the principles upon which she works. An age of altruism should be able to +insure to the artist sufficient culture in his audience so that his +language be understood and that his speech be not reckoned as an uncertain +sound. The public should form with him an industrial partnership, not in +the limited sense of giving and taking, but of something founded on +comprehensibility. + +What proportion of the visitors to an annual exhibition can intelligently +state the purpose of impressionism, or distinguish between this and tonal +art; what proportion think of art only as it exploits a "subject" or +"tells a story"; how many look at but one class of pictures and have no +interest in the rest; how many go through the catalogue with a prayer-book +fidelity, and know nothing of it all when they come out! How many know +enough to hang the pictures in their own houses so that each picture is +helped and none damaged? + +Could it be safely inferred that every collector of pictures knows and +feels to the point of _giving a reason_ for his choice of pictures, or +even _reasonable_ advice to a friend who would also own pictures? Is not +much of what is bought taken on the word of a reliable dealer and owned in +the satisfaction of its being "all right," and perhaps "safe," as an +investment? Is it unreasonable to ask the many sharers in the passing +picture pleasures of a great city to make themselves intelligent in some +other and more practical way than by _contact,_ gleaning only through a +lifetime what should have been theirs without delay _as a foundation_ and +to exchange for the vague impression of pleasure, defended in the simple +comfort of _knowing what one likes,_ the enjoyment of sure authority and a +reason for it. + +The best of all means for acquiring _art sense_ is association; first, +with a personality; second, with the product. The artist's safest method +with the uninitiated is to use the speech which they understand. In +conversation, artists, as a rule, talk freely, and one may get deeper into +art from a fortnight's sojourn with a group of artists than from all the +treatises ever written on the philosophy of art. The most successful +collectors of pictures know this. They study artists as well as pictures. +But on the other hand must it not also be conceded that acquaintance with +fine examples of art is in a fair way of cultivating the keen and +intelligent collector in the pictorial sense to a degree beyond that of +those artists whose associations are altogether with their own works or +with those who think with them, who must of necessity believe most +sincerely in themselves and who are thus obliged to operate in a groove, +and with consequent bias. For this reason association should be varied. +No one has the whole truth. + +Music scores a point beyond painting, in necessitating a personality. We +see the interpreter and this intimacy assists comprehension. But +howsoever potent is association with art and artist, one may thus never +get as closely in touch with art as by working with her. The best and +safest critic is of course one who has performed. Experts are those +persons who have passed through every branch and know the entire +"business." + +The years of toil to students who eventually never arrive are incidentally +spent in gaining the knowledge to thus know pictures, and though the +success of accomplishment be denied, their compensation lies in the +lengthened reach of a new horizon which meantime has been opened to them. +Whether the picture be found in nature and is to be rescued, as is the +bas-relief from its enveloping mould, cut out of its surroundings by the +four sides of the canvas and brought indoors with the same glow of triumph +as the geologist feels in picking a turquoise out of a rock at which +others had stared and found nothing; or whether it be found, as one of +many in a collection of prints or paintings; or whether the recognition be +personal and asks the acceptance of something wrought by one's own hand--to +know a picture when one sees it--this is art _sense._ Backed by a judgment +presenting a defense to the protests of criticism, it becomes art +_knowledge._ + +To find and preserve pictures out of the maze of nature is the labor of +the artist: to recognize them when found, the privilege of the +connoisseur. + +The guileless prostrations which the many affect regarding art judgments +evoke the same degree of pity as the assertion of the beggar that he needs +money for a night's lodging when you and he know that one is awaiting him +for the asking at the Bureau of Charities. The many declare they know +nothing about art, the while having an all around culture in the +humanities, in literature, poetry, prose composition, music, aesthetics, +etc. The principles of all the arts being identical, how simple would it +be to apply those governing the arts which one knows to what is unknown. +The musician and poet make use of contrast, light and shade, gradation, +antithesis, balance, accent, force by opposition, isolation and omission, +rhythm, tone-color, climax, and above all unity and harmony. + +Let the musician and him who knows literature challenge the work of art +for a violation of any of these and the judgment which results may be +accepted seriously; and yet the essence lies beyond--with nature herself. +It is just here that the stock writer of the daily paper misses it. He +may have science enough, but lacks the love, the revelation _through +communion._ + +But, with this omitted, critical judgment is safer in the hands of a +person of broad culture, who knows nothing of the tools of painting and +sculpture, than when wielded by a half-educated student of art with his +development all on one side. Ruskin warns us of young critics. + +As a short cut, the camera fills a place for the many who _feel_ pictures +and wish to create them, but at small cost of time and effort. A little +art school for the public has the small black box become, into which +persons have been looking searchingly and thoughtfully for the past dozen +years. To those who have thus regarded it and exhibit work in +competition, revelations have come. Non-composition ruins their chances. +Good composition is nine-tenths of the plot. When this is conceded the +whole significance of their art is deepened. Then and not until then does +photography become allied with art, for this is the only point at which +_brains may be mixed_ with the photographic product. + +Any one who has experienced a lantern slide exhibition of art, where +picture after picture follows rapidly and the crowd expresses judgment by +applause, will not long be in doubt what pictures make the strongest +appeal. The "crowd" applauds three types; something recognized as +familiar, the "happy hit," especially of title, and, (not knowing why) all +pictures, without regard to subject, _which express unity._ The first two +classes are not a part of this argument, but of the last, the natural, +spontaneous attraction of the healthy mind by what is complete through +unity contains such reason as cannot be ignored. Subjects of equal or +greater interest which antagonize unity fall flat before this jury. + +There is no opportunity more valuable to the amateur photographer than the +lantern slide exhibition, and the fact that even now no more than ten or +twelve per cent. of what is shown is pictorially good should provoke a +search for the remedy. + +For the student, to fill the eye full of good compositions and to know why +good, is of equal value with the study of faulty composition to discover +why bad. + +The challenge of compositions neither good nor bad to discover wherein +they could be improved is better practice than either. + +This is the constant exercise of every artist, the ejection of the sand +grains from his easy running machinery. + +Before photography became a fashion it was the writer's privilege to meet +a county physician who had cultivated for himself a critical picture +sense. The lines of his circuit lay among the pleasantest of pastoral +scenes. Stimulated by their beauty it became his habit, as he travelled, +to mark off the pictures of his route, to note where two ran together, to +decide what details were unnecessary, or where, by leaving the highway and +approaching or retiring he discovered new ones. After a time he bought a +Claude Lorraine glass. It was shortly after this purchase that I met him. +His enthusiasm was delightful. With this _framing of his views_ his +judgment grew sensitive and as he showed these mirrored pictures to +friends who rode with him he was most particular at just what point he +stopped his horse. The man for whom picture galleries were a rarity, +talked as intelligently upon the fundamental structure of pictures as most +artists. + +"I buy the pictures of Mauve," remarked a clergyman in Paris, "because he +puts into them what I try to get into my sermons; simplicity, +suggestiveness and logical sequence." + + + + +CHAPTER XVI - COLOR, HARMONY, TONE + + +In viewing a picture exhibition the average man, woman and child would be +attracted by different aspects of it; the man by the tone of the pictures, +the woman by their color, the child almost wholly by the form or subject. +The distinction is of course epigrammatic, but there is a basis for it in +the daily associations of each of the three, the man with the conventional +appointments of his dress and his business equipment, the woman with her +gowns, her house decorations and flowers, the child with the world of +imagination and fancy in which he dwells. + +The distinction has much to do with the method and the degree of one's +aesthetic development. That a picture must have a subject is the first +pons asinorum to be crossed, the child usually preferring to remain on the +farther side. The delight in color belongs to the lighter, freer or more +barbaric part of the race. Tone best fits the sobriety of man. + +The distinction is the difference in preference for an oak leaf as it +turns to bronze, and a maple as it exchanges its greens for yellow and +scarlet. + +In the latter case two primaries are evolved from a secondary color and in +the other a tertiary from a secondary. In the case of the oak bronze +there is more harmony, for the three primaries are present. + +In the case of the yellow and red, there is contrast and effect, but less +harmony, since but two primaries appear. + +As the walls are studied that sort of color art is found to be most +conspicuously prominent which is in the minority and probably one's +unsophisticated choice, from the point of view of color, would be that +which has the distinction of rarity, as the red haired woman is at a +premium in the South Sea isles. If, however, the tonal and the coloresque +art were in even interchange, the former would have much of its strength +robbed, to the degree of the excessive color of its neighbors. If, +however, the pictures of tone and of color, instead of being hung together +were placed apart, it would be found that the former expressed the greater +unity and presented a front of composure and dignity and that the varied +color combinations would as likely quarrel among themselves as with their +former neighbors. + +That a just distinction may be had between tonal and coloresque and +impressionist art, the purpose of each must be stated. The "tonist" aims +primarily at unified color, to secure which he elects a tone to be +followed, which shall dominate and modify every color of his subject. +This is accomplished by either painting into a thin glaze of color, +administered to the whole canvas so that every brushful partakes of some +of it; or by modifying the painting subsequently by transparent glazes of +the same tone. + +The conscientious impressionist, on the contrary, produces harmony by +juxtapositions of pure color. Harmony results when the three primary +colors are present either as red, yellow and blue or as a combination of a +secondary and primary: green with red, orange with blue or purple with +yellow. + +The impressionist goes farther, knowing that the complementary of a color +will tend to neutralize it, supplying as it does the lacking element to +unity, he creates a vivid scheme of color on this basis. In representing +therefore a gray rock he knows that if red be introduced, a little blue +and yellow will kill it, and the three colors together at a distance will +produce gray. Instead, therefore, of mixing upon his palette three +primaries to produce the tertiary gray, he so places them on the canvas +that at the proper distance (though this consideration is of small concern +to him) the _spectator_ will _mix_ them--which he often does. The +advantage of this method of color presentation lies in the degree of +purity which the pigment retains. Its disadvantage appears in its +frequent distortion of fact and aspect of nature, sacrificed to a +scientific method of representation. An estimate of impressionism is +wholly contained in the reply to the question, "Do you like impressions? +Yes, when they are good;" and in the right hands they are. + +They are good only when the real intention of impressionism has been +expressed, when the synthesis of color has actually produced light and +air, and an impression of nature is quickened. But the voice from the +canvas more frequently cries "nature be hanged--but this is impressionism." + +The little people of impressionism finding it possible to represent more +light than even nature shows in very many of her aspects, delight in +exhibiting the disparity existing between nature and, forsooth, +impressionism. Thus we see attempts to "_knock out_" with these +scientific brass knuckles all those who refuse to fight with them. The +rumpus grows out of the different attitudes in which nature is approached. + +The one, drawn by her beauty, kneels to her, touching her resplendent +garments; the other grasps her with the mailed hand, bedecking her with a +mantle of his own. The knights wooing the same mistress are therefore +lorn rivals. + +For effect, no one can deny that produced by the savage in war paint and +feathers is more startling than the man wearing the conventional garb of +civilization, or that the stars and stripes have greater attraction than +the modified tones of a gobelin tapestry or a Persian rug. We put the +flag outside the building but the daily course of our lives is more easily +spent with the tapestry and rug. + +An "impression"(19) among tonal pictures appears as foolish as a tonal +picture among impressions and the sane conclusion is that the attempt to +combine them should not be made. + +The clear singing tones of the upper register are better rendered under +this formula than by any other, but the feeling of solidity and the tonal +depth of nature are qualities which it compromises. Impressionism +expresses frankly by the use of smaller methods what the tonists attain by +larger and freer ones. The individual must decide whether he prefers to +tell the time as he watches the movement of the works or will take this +for granted if he gets the result. + +For charm in color no one will deny that in the works of old masters this +is found in greater degree than in painting of more recent production, and +the reason is, not because the pigments of the fourteenth century are +better than ours, but it is to be found in the alterative and refining +influences of time and varnish, which have crowned them with the glorious +aureole of the centuries. + +Guided by this fact the modern school of tonists seeks to shorten the +period between the date of production and this final desirable quality, by +setting in motion these factors at once. They therefore paint with +varnish as a medium, multiplying the processes of glazing with pure color +so that under a number of surfaces of varnish the same chemical action may +be precipitated which in the earlier art came about with but few +exceptions as a happening through the simple necessary acts of +preservation. The consequence of this adoption of kindred processes is +that the tonal pictures and the old masters join hands naturally and can +stand side by side in the gallery of the collector. + +This, though a wholly practical reason for the growing popularity of tonal +art is one of the powerful considerations for the trend from that sort +which is liable to create discord. The simplest illustration of harmony, +and unity and tone may be had in nature herself, for though these +qualities have their scientific exposition, the divisions of the color +scale are not so easily comprehended by many people as the chart which may +be conceived in extended landscape. The sky, inasmuch as it spreads +itself over the earth and reflects its light upon it, dictates the _tone_ +of the scene. The surface of the lake reveals this fact beyond dispute, +for the water takes on any tone which the sky may have. The sky's power +of reflection is no less potent in the landscape. + +Reflection is observable in that degree in which the surface, reflected +upon, is rough or smooth. The absorbent surface allows the light to fall +in and disappear and under this condition we see the true or local color. +Note, for example, the effect of light on velvet or the hide of a cow in +winter. When the hair points toward the light the mass is rich and dark, +but when it turns away in any direction its polished surface reflects +light, which like the lake becomes a mirror to it. + +Light falling upon a meadow will influence it by its own color only in +those places where the grass is turned at an angle from its rays. + +From these few observations it becomes obvious that unity of tone is a +simple matter when understood by the painter and that unity, being a most +important part of his color scheme, may be increased by additions of +objects bearing the desirable color which nature fails to supply in any +particular subject. Thus if the day be one in which a warm mellow haze +pervades the air, those tones of the sky repeated upon the backs of +cattle, a roadway, clothing, or what not, may effect a more positive +tonality than the lesser items would give which also reflect it. Herein +then is the principle of Tonality: That all parts of the picture should be +bound together by the dominating color or colors of the picture. + +With the indoor subject the consideration is equally strong. Let the +scheme be one as coloresque as the Venetian school took delight in, vivid +primaries in close juxtaposition (see small reproduction in _Fundamental +forms--The Cross_). The central figure, that of St. Peter is clothed in +dark blue with a yellow mantle. The Virgin's dress is deep red, her +mantle a blue, lighter than that of Peter's robe. Through the pillars is +seen the blue sky of still lighter degree. Thus the sky enters the +picture by graded approaches and focalizes upon the central figure. In +like manner do the light yellow clouds repeat their color in the side of +the building, in the yellow spot in the flag and the mantle of the central +figure. The red of the Virgin's robe and the yellow mantle together form a +combination of a yellow red in the flag, the blue and red of the central +figures become purple and garnet in the surplices of the kneeling +churchmen and doges. The repetition of a given color in different parts +of the figure is pushed still further in the blue gray hair of the +kneeling figures, the red brown tunics of the monks and the yellow bands +upon the draperies. + +In the _picture by Henry Ranger_ (the crossing of horizontals effected +without a line), a canvas in which the color is particularly reserved and +gray, the tone is created by precisely the same means. The cool gray and +warm white clouds are reflected into the water and concentrated with +greater force in the pool in the foreground, the greens and drabs of the +bushes being strikingly modified by both of the tones noted in the sky. +In landscape a cumulative force may be given the progress of the sky tones +by the use of figures, the blue or gray of the sky being brought down in +stronger degree upon the clothing of the peasant, his cart or farm +utensils. Just here inharmony easily insinuates itself through the +introduction of elements having no antiphonal connection. + +Fancy a single spot of red without its echo. Our sense of tonal harmony +is unconsciously active when between two figures observed too far away for +sight of their faces we quickly make our conclusions concerning their +social station, if one be arrayed in a hat trimmed with purple and green, +a garnet waist and a buff skirt, while the other, though dressed in strong +colors expresses the principles of coloration herewith defined. The +purple and green hat may belong to her suit if their colors be repeated by +modification, in it; or the garnet and buff become the foundation for +unity if developed throughout the rest of the costume. + +The purchaser of a picture may be sure of the tone of his new acquisition +if he will hang it for a day or two upside down. This is one of the +simplest tests applied by artists, and many things are revealed thereby. +Form is lost and the only other thing remains--color. + +Harmony being dependent only on the interrelations of colors, their degree +or intensity are immaterial. + +On this basis it is a matter of choice whether our preference be for the +coloresque or the more sober art. + +It must however be borne in mind that the danger lies in the direction of +color. Inharmony is more frequently found here than in the picture of +sober tone. + +Precisely the same palette is used to produce an autumnal scene on a blue +day, when the colors are vivid and the outline on objects is hard and the +form pronounced, as on an overcast day with leaden clouds and much of the +life and color gone from the yellow and scarlet foliage. + +The reason why chances for harmony in the first are less than in the +second is that the synthetic union of the colors is not as obvious or as +simple as in the latter, in which to produce the gray sky, red and yellow +have been added to the blue, and the sky tones are more apparently added +to the bright hues by being mixed into dull colors upon the palette. The +circle of harmony is therefore more easily apparent to our observation. + +It is for this reason that tonality is more easily understood when applied +to the green and copper bronze of the oak tree against a cool gray sky +than the red and yellow hillside and the blue sky. + + + +VALUES. + + +Another important consideration in an estimate of a picture is its truth +of values. The color may be correct and harmonious but the degree of its +light and shade be faulty. This is a consideration more important to the +student than the connoisseur as but few pictures see the light of an +exhibition which carry this fault. It is the one most dwelt upon in the +academies after the form in outline has been mastered. On it depends the +correctness of surface presentation. If, for instance, the values of a +face are false, the character will be disturbed. This point has been made +evident to all in the retouching, which many photographs receive. +Likeness is so dependent on those surfaces connecting the features or upon +the light and shade of the features, that any tampering with them in a +sensitive part is ruinous. + +Values represent the degree of light and shade which the picture demands, +the relations of one part to another on the scale assumed. Thus with the +same light affecting various objects in a room, if one be represented as +though illumined by a different degree of light it is out of value; or, in +a landscape, if an object in the distance is too strong in either color or +degree of light and shade for its particular place in perspective, it is +out of value. There are therefore values of color and of chiaroscuro, +which may be illustrated in a piece of drapery. A light pink silk will be +out of value in its shadow if these are too dark for the degree of light +represented, and out of color value, if, instead of a salmon tone in the +crease which a reflection from the opposing surface of the fold creates, +there be a purplish hue which properly belongs to the outer edge of the +fold in shadow, where, from the sky or a cool reflecting surface near by, +it obtains this change of color by reflection. + +The most objectionable form of false values is the isolated sort, whereby +the over accentuation of a part is made to impress itself unduly; "to +jump" in the technical phraseology of the school. + +The least objectionable and often permitted form is that where a large +section is put out of its value with the intent of accenting the light of +a contiguous part. + +In landscape the whole foreground is frequently lowered in tone beyond the +possibility of any cloud shadow, for the sake of the light beyond, which +may be the color motif of the picture and which thereby is glorified. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII - ENVELOPMENT AND COLOR PERSPECTIVE + + +Allied to values is the idea of envelopment: of a kindred notion to this +is aerial perspective. On these two depends the proper presentation of a +figure _in air._ + +If at any place on the contour of a figure the background seems to stick, +the detachment from its surroundings, which every figure should have, is +wanting. + +The reason for it is to be found in a false value which has deprived it of +rotundity of envelopment. + +The solid object which resists the attempt to put one's hand around it or +to stretch beyond into the background, lacks this quality. A fine +distinction must be here drawn between simple envelopment and relief, +which is a more positive and less important quality. + +However flatly and in mass figures may be conceived, the impression of +aerial envelopment must be unmistakable. Here a nice adjustment of values +or relative tones will accomplish it. + +Naturally, the greater space between the spectator and an object, the more +air will be present. To the painter the color of air is the color of the +sky. This then will be _mixed_ with the local color of the object, giving +it atmosphere. + +Envelopment is unmistakably represented by the out of door Dutch painters, +for in the low countries atmosphere _is seen_ in its density, and at very +short range. Holland is therefore an ideal sketching ground for the +painter and the best in the world for the student, since the ideas of +values and envelopment are ever present. In this saturated air the minute +particles of moisture which, in the case of rain or fog can affect the +obliteration of objects, partially accomplishes it at all times, with the +result that objects seem to _swim in atmosphere._ + +In such a landscape perspective of value and color is easily observed, +making positive the separation of objects. The painter, under these +conditions, is independent of linear perspective to give depth to his +work, which being one of the cheap devices of painting he avoids as much +as possible. + +It is because aerial perspective is paintable and the other sort is not +that artists shun the clear altitudes of Colorado where all the year one +can see for eighty miles and, on the Atlantic border, wait the summer +through for the fuller atmosphere which the fall will bring, that by its +tender envelopment the vividness and detail which is characteristic of the +American landscape may give place to what is serviceable to the purposes +of painting. + +It is because of misunderstanding on this point that we of the Western +Hemisphere may wrongly challenge foreign landscape, judging it upon the +natural aspect of our own country. The untravelled American or he who +has "been there" without seeing things, is not aware that distinctly +different conditions prevail in Europe than with us, especially above +latitude 40 deg.. + +Advantage in the paintability of subject therefore lies distinctly with +the European artist, and it may be because he has to labor against these +odds that the American landscapist has forged to the front and is now +leading his European brethren. It must, however, be acknowledged that he +acquired what he knows concerning landscape from the art and nature of +Europe--from Impressionism with its important legacy of color, which has +been acknowledged in varying degree by all our painters, and from the +"school of 1830," on which is based the tonal movement of the present. + +Other than perspective of values, no importance should be attached to that +which, with the inartistic mind, is regarded so important a quality. The +art instruction which the common school of the past generation offered was +based on perspective, its problems, susceptible of never ending +circumventions, being spread in an interminable maze before the student. +Great respect for this "lion in the path" was a natural result and "at +least a two years' study" of these problems was thought necessary before +practical work in art could commence. (See Appendix.) + +Mr. Ruskin's fling at the perspective labyrinth would have been more +authoritative than it proved, had he not too often lessened our faith by +the cry of wolf when it proved a false alarm. + +There is a single truth which, though simple, was never known to Oriental +art, namely; that in every picture there must be a real or understood +horizon--the level of the painter's eye,--that all lines above this will +descend and all lines below will rise to it as they recede. + +But upon aerial perspective depends the question of detail in the receding +object and this to the painter is of first importance. To temper a local +color so that it shall settle itself to a nicety at any distance, in the +perspective scheme, and to express the exact degree of shadow which a +given color shall have under a given light and at a given distance are +problems which absorb four-fifths of the painter's attention. + +If the features of a man a hundred yards away be painted with the same +fidelity as though he stood but ten yards distant the aerial balance is +disturbed, the man being brought nearer than his place on the perspective +plan allows. + +At a mile's range a tree to the painter is not an object expressing a +combination of leaves and branches, but a solid colored mass having its +light and shade and perhaps perforated by the sky. It is with natural +_aspect_ and not natural _fact_ that the painter deals. + +Pre-Raphaelite art practised this phase of honesty, which, in our own day +was revived in England. In this later coterie of pre-Raphaelite brethren +was but one painter, the others, men of varying artistic perceptions and +impulses. To the painter it in time became evident that he was out of +place in this company and the commentary of his withdrawal proved more +forcible than any to be made by an outsider. + +When, therefore, judgment be applied to a work of painting it must be with +a knowledge of natural aspect in mind, not necessarily related, even +vaguely, to the scene under consideration, but such as has come _by_ the +absorption of nature's moods, whereby, with the cause given, the effect +may be known as a familiar sequence. The public too should be +sufficiently knowing to catch the code signals of each artist whereby +these natural facts are symbolled. + +Herein has now been set forth, as concisely as possible, the few +considerations which are ever present to the painter. The connoisseur who +would judge of his work, either subjectively or technically, must follow +in his footprints and be careful to follow closely. He must appreciate +the differences in the creeds of workers in color and not apply the +formulas of impressionism to works in tone. He must not emphasize the +importance of drawing in the work which clearly speaks of color and by its +technique ignores all else; nor expect the miracle of luscious, +translucent color in a work demanding the minute drawing of detail. He +can, however, be sure that the criteria of judgment which under all +circumstances will apply are: + +Balanced and unified composition, both of line and mass. + +Harmony of color, expressed by the correlation of all colors throughout +the picture. + +Tone, or the unification of all colors upon the basis of a given hue. + +Values, or the relation of the shades of an object to each other and the +degree of relation between one object and another. + +Envelopment, or the sense of air with which objects are surrounded. + +With these five ideas in mind the critic of Philistia may enter the +gallery, constituting himself a jury of one, assured he is armed with +every consideration which influenced the artist in his work and the art +committee in its acceptance thereof. + +Judgment however does not end here. These constitute the tables of the +law, and law finds its true interpretation only in the spirit of the +living principle. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII - THE BIAS OF JUDGMENT + + +If discernment was ours to trace through the maze of fashion and +experimental originality the living principle of true art, the caprice of +taste would have little to do with the comfort of our convictions or the +worth of our investments. + +Fallacy has its short triumphs and the persuasive critic or the creator of +art values may effect real value but for a day. The limit of the +credulity of the public, which Lincoln has immortalized, is the basis of +hope. + +The public in time rights itself. + +Error in discerning this living principle in art is cause for the deepest +contrition at the confessional of modern life. Unsigned and unrecognized +works by modern masters have been rejected by juries to whom in haste the +doors of the _Salon_ or _Society_ have been reopened with apologies. The +nation which assumes the highest degree of aesthetic perception turned its +back on Millet and Corot and Courbet and Manet and Puvis de Chavannes, +rejecting their best, and has honored yesterday what it spurns to-day. The +feverish delirium of the upper culture demands "some new thing," and +Athens, Paris, London and New York concede it. + +But what has lived? What successive generations have believed in may be +believed by us; a thought expressed by the author of "Modern Painters" in +one magnificent sentence, containing 153 words and too long for quotation. +The argument is based on the common sense of mankind. It has however this +objection. Judgment by such agreement is bound to be cumulative. What is +good in the beginning is better to-day, still better to morrow, then +great, then wonderful, then divine. + +This is the Raphaelesque progression, and if fifty persons were asked who +was the greatest painter, forty-nine would say Raphael, without +discrimination. The fiftieth might have observed what all painters know, +that Raphael was not a great painter, either as colorist or technician. +The opinion in this contention of Velasquez that of all painters he +studied at Rome, Raphael pleased him least, is a judgment of a colorist +and a technician, the more valuable because rendered before the +ministrations of oil and granular secretion had enveloped his work in the +mystery from which it speaks to us. As a painter and draughtsman Raphael +is perhaps outclassed by Bouguereau, Cabanel or Lefevre of our own time, +and as a composer of either decorative or pictorial design he has had +superiors. But the work of Raphael possesses the loving unction of real +conviction and nothing to which he put his well trained hand failed of the +baptism of genius. Through this mark, therefore, it will live forever. +Nor should any work require more than this for continuous life. Each age +should be distinctive. + +The bias of judgment through the cumulative regard of successive centuries +is what has created the popular disparity between the old and modern +masters, and it must not be forgotten that the harmony of color and its +glowing quality is largely the gift of these centuries, a fact made +cruelly plain to those who have restored pictures and tampered with their +secrets. + +It will be a surprise to the average man in that realm of perfect truth +which lies beyond, to mark, in the association of artists of all ages, +when the divisions of schools, periods and petty formulas are forgotten, +that Raphael will grasp the hand of Abbott Thayer, saying to him in the +never dying fervor of art enthusiasm and with the acknowledgment of +limitations, which is one of the signs of greatness; + +"O, that I had had thy glorious quality of technical subtlety in place of +the mechanical directness in which I labored!" and he in turn to be +reminded that had he paused for this, the span of his short life were +measured long before he had accomplished half his work. + +A kindred bias is the eventual acceptance of whatever is persisted in. +Almost any form in which a technically good artist may express his idea +will in time find acceptance. It has the persuasion of the advertisement, +offering what we do not want. In time we imagine we do. Duplications of +Cuyp's very puerile arrangement of parts, as in the "Departure for the +Chase" to be found in others of his pictures, work in our minds mitigation +for those faults. The belief in self has the singular magnetic potency of +drawing and turning us. A stronger magnet must then be the living +principle. We find it in unity. Originality compromises this at its +peril. + +And that discrimination against the prophet in his own country! Under its +ban the native artist left his home and dwelt abroad; but the expatriation +which produced pictures of Dutch and French peasants by native painters +was in time condemned. The good of the foreign experience lay in the +medals which were brought back out of banishment. These turned the tide +of thoughtless prejudice, and international competitions have kept it +rising. + +But the worth of the foreign signature is now of the lesser reckonings; +for with the same spirit in which the native artist would annihilate the +tariff on foreign art, have the best painters of Europe declared "there +shall be no nationality in art"; for art is individual and submits to the +government stamp only by courtesy. + +Happy that nation which, when necessary, can believe in its own, not to +exclusion, from clannish pride, but on the basis of that simple canon +adopted by the world of sport; "Let the best win." + +The commonest bias to judgment is also the most vulgar--price. The reply +of the man of wealth to the statement that a recent purchase was an +inferior example of an artist's work; "I paid ten thousand for it. Of +course it's all right," was considered final to the critic. The man whose +first judgment concerning an elaborate picture of roses was turned to +surprise and wonder when told the price, which in time led to respect and +then purchase, may find parallels in most of the collections of Philistia. +"The value of a picture is what some one will pay for it" is a maxim of +the creators of picture values and upon it the "picture business" has its +working basis. And so together with the good of foreign art have the +Meyer Von Bremens and the Verbeckhovens, the creations of the school of +smiles and millinery, and the failures and half successes of +impressionism, together with its good, been cornered, and unloaded upon +the ingenuous collector. + +The most insidious bias of judgment is that developed by the art +historian, the man who really knows. + +Serene and above the petty matters which concern the buyer of art and +perplex the producer, he pours forth his jeremiads upon the age and its +art, subjecting them to indefensible comparisons with the fifteenth +century and deploring the materialism of modern times. + +The argument is that out of the heart the mouth must speak; can men gather +figs from thistles: is it reasonable to expect great art when men and +messages are transported by steam and electricity, in the face of +Emerson's contention that art is antagonistic to hurry? The argument +neglects the fact that this present complex life is such because it has +added one by one these separate interests to those which it has received +as an inheritance, each of which in its own narrowing niche having been +preserved under the guardianship of the specialist. + +The art instinct has never died out; but art, which aforetime was the only +thought of the humanists, has been obliged to move up and become +condensed. But mark, the priests who keep alive her fires can still show +their ordination from the hands of the divine Raphael. The age may be +unsympathetic, but for those who will worship, the fire burns. Whereas +art was once uplifted by the joyous acclaim of the whole people, she must +now fight for space in a jostling competition. But is it not more +reasonable that the prophet lay aside his sackcloth and accept the +conditions of the new era, acknowledging that art has had its day in the +sanctuary and has now come to adorn the home and that of necessity +therefore the conditions of subject and of size must be altered? The +impulse which aforetime expressed itself in ideals is now satisfied to +become reflective of the emotions. The change which has restricted the +range in the grander reaches of the ideal has resulted in the closer and +more intimate friendship with nature. The effort which was primarily +ideal now turns its fervor into the quality of its means. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX - THE LIVING PRINCIPLE + + +If there be a basis of reliance for continuous life and consequent value, +a search for the living principle must be made in those works which the +world will not let die. And this labor will be aided by the exclusion of +such as have had their day and passed. Although the verdict suggested in +the fostering care of the people or in its lack, may be wrong, as future +ages may show, yet for us in our inquiry in the twentieth century this +jury is our only court of appeal and its dictum must be final. + +We command a view of the long line of art unfolding as a river flows, in +winding course from meagre sources, and through untoward obstructions into +a natural bed which awaits it, now deep and swollen, now slender, now +graceful, now turbid, here breaking into smaller threads stretching into +opposed directions, here again uniting and deepening, and we mark in all +of its variety of course and depth, the narrow line of the channel. A +slender line there is touching hands through all generations from the +painters of the twilight of Art to the painters of the present who have +seen all of its light and for whom too much of its brilliancy has proved +bewildering. The history of art is perforce full of the chronicles of +unfruitful effort and the galleries as replete with unprofitable pictures. +Our ardent though rapid quest will, unaided by the catalogue, discover for +us the real, and sift it free of the spurious if we have settled with +ourselves what art _is_ and what its purpose. If we hold to the present +popular notion that art is imitation, the results will come out at +variance with the popular opinion of five centuries. If, on the other +hand, we delegate to its proper place fidelity to the surface of nature, +we must of necessity seek still further for its essence. This is +subjective and not objective. + +To make apparent a statement the edge of which strikes dull from much use +in purely philosophical lingo, let us take the case of a picture +representing a laborer with his horse. The idea for the expression of +which the few elements of field, man and beast, are employed is _Toil._ +Whether then the man and beast be in actual labor or not, the dominant +idea in the artist's mind is that they are or have been laboring; that +that is what they stand for, _that idea_ to be presented in the strongest +possible way. "The strongest possible way" is the question to be debated. +Individual artists interpret this as suits their temperament, the jury +therefore sits in judgment upon the temperament as the exponent of "the +strongest possible way." With the idea of toil in mind one artist is +moved to present its unadorned force, careful not to weaken the conception +by the addition of anything superfluous or extraneous to the idea. Its +force is therefore ideal force and the presentation appeals to and moves +us on this basis. Another will see in the subject of a landscape, a man +and a horse, an opportunity presented of detail and of surfaces and will +delight in expressing what he knows to do cleverly. Under this impulse +the dexterity of his art is poured forth; the long training of the +workshop aids him. He paints the horse and makes it look not only like a +real horse, but a particular one. The bourgeois claps his hands +exclaiming, "See it is unmistakably old Dobbin, the white spot on his +fetlock is there and his tail ragged on the end; and the laborer, I know +him at once. How true to life with side whiskers and that ugly cut across +the forehead and his hat with the hole in it. The field too is all there, +the stones, the weeds, the rows of stubble, nothing slighted. And the +action of the light too, what a relief the figures possess, how like +colored photographs they stand out, clear, sharp and unmistakable." + +A third artist, without sacrificing the individual character of the horse +will yet represent him in such a way that one feels first the idea, of a +laboring horse and afterward notes that he is a particular horse, and in +like manner with the man of the picture. This artist's conception lies +midway between the two extremes and in consequence expresses greater truth +than either. He poises himself on the magic line spanning the chasm +between these opposing walls, supported by the balancing pole of the real +and ideal, lightly gripped in the centre. + +But to return to the first in the spirit of nature-love and truth to prove +if it be worthy. Judged on this scale does it stand? Coordinately with +the idea of toil, does it violate the laws of the universe; do the +surfaces thereof reflect the light of day; is the color probable; is the +action possible? If under this scrutiny the work fails, its acceptable +idealistic expression cannot save it. + +It is here that the idealist pleads in vain for the painters of the +groping periods of art, or for the pre-Raphaelites of the nineteenth +century, who in their spirit beg that we accept their unctuous will for +the deed completely wrought. When however they do fill the condition of +natural aspect in its fundamental essence, in its condition of +non-violation of physical law, when, uncompromised by such discrepancy, +the presentment of the idea is complete and this alone engages us, the +work by virtue of its higher motive takes higher rank in the scale of art +than that in which the idea has been delegated to a place second to the +shell which encloses it. It is the art which fulfills both requirements +_with the idea paramount_ that has survived in all ages. The reverse +order is not sustained by the history of art. Mark the line from the +early masters to the present, do you not find the description includes +"the idealists" _who could paint?_ The list would be a long and involved +one, taking its start in Italy with Botticelli, Giotto, Fra Angelico, +Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, Andrea del Sarto, Fra +Bartolomeo, Titian, Giorgione, and extending thence to our own time +inclusive of Millet, Corot, Watts, Turner, Blake, Rousseau, Mauve, Puvis +de Chavannes and Ryder--men of all complexions in art, and typical of many +more quite as diverse in their subjects and modes of expression but who +place the idea, the motive, the emotion, the type, before the thing +depicted. For them the letter of the law killeth, but the spirit giveth +life. This of course raises issue with the naturalistic school--a school +which believes in rendering Nature as she is, without rearrangement, +addition, substraction or idealization; a school presuming the artist to +be a copyist, and founded not on the _principles of design,_ but the _love +of nature._ + +Says W. J. Stillman in his impassioned polemic on "The Revival of Art": +"The painter whose devotion to nature is such that he never leaves or +varies from her, may be, and likely is, a happier man than if he were a +true artist...To men of the other type, the external image disturbs the +ideal which is so complete that it admits no interference. To them she +may offer suggestions, but lays down no law." + +The complaint of Turner that Nature so frequently _put him out_ contains +for us what it should have expressed to Ruskin, the real attitude which he +held toward nature, but which Ruskin in his enthusiastic love of nature +did not, or would not perceive. What the master artist saw and utilized +in nature were forms for his designs and sentiment for emotional +expression. Yet the recorder of his labors followed after, verifying his +findings with near-sighted scrutiny, lauding him with commendations for +keen observation in noting rock fractures, the bark of trees, grass, or +the precise shape of clouds, undismayed when his hero neglected all these +if they interfered with his art. + +The point of the argument as stated by the idealists can be understood +only save through the element in our nature from which art draws its +vitality. Its deduction is thus bluntly expressed; "the nearest to +nature, the farther from art," an apparent paradox paralleled by the +epigram, "the nearer the church, the farther from God." + +Both of them, out of their hollow clamor, echo back a startling truth: Not +_form,_ but _spirit._ Thus did Rembrandt work for the spirit of the man +and _the art to be got_ from the waiting subject. Thus did Millet reveal +in his representation of a single toiler the type of all labor. Thus did +Corot stop, when he had produced the spirit of the morning, knowing well +his nymphs would have vanished if the mystery of their hiding-places was +entirely laid bare, nor ever come to him again had he exposed the full +truth of form and feature. + +It is the touch of poesy which has glorified these works and those of +their kind, the spring of the unwritten law yielding preeminence to the +emotional arts. Impulse is the life of it: it dies when short tethered by +specific limitations. + +On this basis the way seems opened to settle the changeful formulas of +taste; why the rejection of what for the moment has held the pinnacle of +popular favor; why, for instance, the waning of interest in the detailists +of the brilliant French-Spanish School, the school of Fortuny, Madrazzo, +Villegas, Rico, or of the work of Meissonier, who as a detailist eclipsed +them all. A simple analysis of their work in toto will prove that their +best pictures are those in which a sentiment has dominated and in which +breadth and largeness of effect is strongest. Thus Meissonier's "Return +of Napoleon from Moscow," is a better picture than his "Napoleon III +surrounded by his staff in Sicily," which latter is only a marvellous +achievement at painting detail in the smallest possible size, and lacks +entirely the forceful composition of mass and light and shade of the +former. Thus does the "Spanish Marriage" of Fortuny outclass his +"Academicians Choosing a Model," which besides lacking the reserve force +of the former has its source in flippant imagination; and so may the many +other shifts of time and tide in the graphic arts be measured and +chronicled upon the basis of the emotions and the formative touch of the +poetic, upon the sequence of the artist's regard for the ideal and the +real, and the degree of his approach toward either. The concensus of the +ages regarding finish, dexterity, cleverness, and _chic_ is that in the +scale of art they weigh less than the simple breadth of effect which they +so frequently interrupt. The school of Teniers with all of its detail was +preservative of this. + +It is on the question of detail and the careful anxiety concerning the +surface that the art instinct avoids science, refusing her microscope in +preference for the unaided impression of normal sight. The living art of +the ages is that in which the painter is seen to be greater than his +theme, in which we acknowledge the power first, and afterward the product. +It is the unfettered mode allowing the greatest individualism of +expression; it is, in short, the man end of it which lives, for his is the +immortal life. + + + + + +APPENDIX + + +The argument of the book is here reduced to a working basis. + + + + + The Concept + + +The first point settled in the making of a picture after the subject has +germinated, is the shape into which the items of the concept are to be +edited; the second is the arrangement of those items within the proscribed +limits; the third is the defining of the dark and light masses. This +consideration forces the question whence the light, together with its +answer, hence the shadow. + + + + + The Procedure + + +The detail of the direction of light and the action of the shadows cuts +the pictorial intention clear of the decorative design. Design is a good +basis, its simplicity yielding favorably to the settlement of spaces and +the construction of lines, but its chief purpose ends when it has cleared +the field of little things and reduced the first conception, which usually +comes as a bundle of items, to a broad and dignified foundation into which +these little things are set. + + + + + Design + + +A severe, space-filling design in three tones or four will place the +student in a position of confidence to proceed with detail which, until +the design has settled well into its four sides, should be persistently +excluded. It may, however, be found that the _essence_ of certain +subjects lies in a small item of detail. This, when known, must be allowed +for in the design. + + + + + Line + + +Of first importance in composition is the notion of Light and Dark, to +which Line is second. In the tone design line is but the edge of the +masses. Line as the basis of the form of the design is reduced to a few +forms which with modifications become the framework for all pictorial +structure. (See _Fundamental Forms._) Line as an element of beauty +sufficient of itself to become subjective is rare, an exception in +pictorial art. (See _Line_) + +The aesthetics of Line must be comprehended and felt in its symbolism. The +form into which lines may lead the subject should have the full knowledge +of the composer. + + + + + The Vertical + + +The uplift of the _simple vertical_ is spiritual as well as mechanical. +It may carry the thought to higher levels or may support therewith an +opposed line. In either case its strength is majestic and in so far as +this line dominates does the picture receive its quality. + + + + + The Horizontal + + +A group of pines or the columns of the Greek or Egyptian temple alike +induce solemnity, quietude and dignity. The horizontal is a line less +commanding than the vertical with its upright strength, the symbol of +repose, serenity, and reserved motion. + + + + + The Diagonal + + +The _diagonal_ being an unsupported line naturally suggests instability, +change, motion, transit. Its purpose frequently is to connect the stabler +forms of the composition or lead therefrom. + +The _curvilinear line_ is the basis of variety and graceful movement. As +an adjunct, it assists the sequence of parts. In the latter capacity it +is of great importance to the composer. It is of course the basis of the +circle as well as the important notion of circular construction and +observation. + +Given the subject and means of expression the final labor is the restraint +or enforcement of parts in the degree of their importance. This requires +ingenuity and knowledge and frequently demands a reconstruction of the +original scheme. + + + + + Principality and Sacrifice + + +The most absolute and the most important idea in the production of art is +_Principality,_ that one object or idea shall be supreme. Its correlative +idea contains in it the hardships of composition, namely, Sacrifice. This +forces a graded scale of importance or attraction throughout the entire +work. + +The idea has complete exposition in the vase or baluster in which the +commanding lines of the body find both support and extension through the +lesser associated parts. These stand as types of complete art revealing +the uncompromising principles of domination and subordination. + +[Stable Interior--A. Mauve (A simple picture containing all the principles + of composition); Her Last Moorings--From a Photograph] + +In the picture, complete in its chiaroscuro, these principles are as +easily apprehended as with the more tangible line and space of the solid +form. The _"__Cow in a Stable,__"_ by Mauve, contains by his management +of this rude and simple subject all the possibilities opened to and +demanded by compositions involving many elements. It might stand as the +light and dark scheme for some of the allegories of Rubens, Wiertz or +Correggio, or for many genre interiors, or for an "arrangement" of +flowers. + +When once the importance of this principle is realized many of the +pitfalls into which beginners are so prone to fall are covered, and that +forever. Time and regrets are both saved to the student who will pause +for the absorption of the few principles on which all the arts are +founded. + +This idea may seem to disturb the notion of balance across the centre, +especially when the object which receives our first consideration occupies +one side of the picture. A study of the postulates together with the +principle of the steelyard and the knowledge of picture balance will clear +any apprehension of conflict. + + + + + The Dominant Idea + + +Above and beyond the object which dominates all others is the idea which +dominates the picture. Such may be light, gloom, space, action, passion, +repose, communion, humor, or whatever has stimulated and therefore must +govern the composition. If with the sentiment of Repose as subjective, +the principal object expresses action, there must necessarily be conflict +between the idea and the reality. + +Action, however, may very appropriately be introduced into a conception of +repose, its contrast heightening this emotion; the creeping baby, the +frolicking kitten, the swinging pendulum, the distant toilers observed by +a nearer group at rest. + +The point where a counter emotion weakens and where it strengthens the +idea is determined on a scale of degree, many necessary parts taking +precedence thereto before the opposed sentiment shall attract us. These +ideas, correlative to their principal, have also their scale of +attraction, and only in the formal arrangement of allegory and decoration +may two units be allowed the same degree of attraction. This is one of +the most frequent forms in which weak composition develops, leaving the +mind uncertain as to the sequence, and the eye wavering between the equal +claims of separated parts. The neglect of leading lines, or of forcing a +logical procedure from part to part, so that no part may escape the +continuous inspection of all, produces _decomposition._ The avoidance of +inharmony must of course yield harmony. + + + + + Harmony + + +Harmony, therefore, though a necessary principle in all art, does not push +herself to the front as does Principality. She follows naturally, if +allowed to. + + + + + The Must Be's and May Be's of Composition + + +Of the other _principles_, Consistency or breadth, Continuity and its +complement, Contrast, associate themselves in greater or less degree with +Principality and Harmony, which are the must be's; while Repetition, +Radiation, Curvature and Interchange are reckoned as the may be's of +composition. + + + + + Perspective + + +The basis of all plane presentation is founded on perspective, an absolute +science giving absolute satisfaction to all who would have it. _Knowing_ +that a figure must be of a certain height if it occupy a given space is +often a shorter road to the fact even though it demand a perspective +working plan than _feeling_ for it with the best of artistic intentions. +One may feel all around the spot before finding it, and meanwhile the +scientist has been saving his temper. + +In all compositions demanding architectural environment or many figures, +perspective becomes essential, at least as a time saver. Yet if the +science never existed such art as embraces many figures and architecture +could find adequate expression at the hands of the discerning artist. + +The science of perspective does no more than acquaint the artist with any +given angle. His knowledge of cause and effect in the universe, with an +added art instinct, are equipment sufficient to obtain this. + +No part of art expression commands more of the mysterious reverence of the +_atechnic_ than perspective. It is that universal art term that includes +very much to many people. When, after writing a thorough treatise on the +subject, Mr. Ruskin remarked the essence of the whole thing can be known +in twenty minutes, it was doubtless in rebuke of the unqualified +suppositions of the artless public. + + + + + Balance + + +The conception of balance clearly understood in the length, the height and +the depth of a picture contains the whole truth of pictorial composition. +The elements which war against unity and which we seek to extract, reveal +themselves as the disturbers of balance and are to be found when the +principles of balance are put into motion. + +Does divided interest vex us, the foreground absorbing so much interest +that the background, where the real subject may lie, struggles in vain for +its right; then we may know that the balance through the depth of the +picture has been disturbed. Does the middle distance attract us too much +in passing to the distance where the real subject may lie; then we may +know that its attachment to the foreground or its sacrifice to the +background is insufficient and that its shift in the right direction will +restore balance. Do we feel that one side of the picture attracts our +entire attention and the other side plays no part in the pictorial scheme, +then we may know that the items of the lateral balance are wanting. + +It is rare to find apart from formality a composition which develops to a +finish in an orderly procedure. Once separated from the even balance the +picture becomes a sequence of compromises, the conciliation of each new +element by the reconstruction of what is already there or the introduction +of the added item which unity necessitates. + +The argument reminds the picture maker that he is in like case with the +voyageur who loads his canoe, sensible of the exquisite poise which his +craft demands. Along its keelson he lays the items of his draught, +careful for instance that his light and bulky blanket on one side is +balanced by the smaller items of heavier weight in opposed position. The +bow under its load may be almost submerged and the onlooker ventures a +warning. But again balance is restored when the seat at the other end is +occupied as a final act in the calculation.(20) + +The degree of attraction of objects in the balanced scheme must be a +matter of individual decision as are many other applied principles in +temperamental art. + +Color representing the natural aspect of objects, color containing "tone," +and color containing tone quality or "tonal quality," are three aspects of +color to be met with in accepted art. + + + + + Color + + +As with the sentiment of the art idea, whether it incline toward the real +or the ideal, so the distinction applies between what is reflective only +of nature and what is reflective also of the artist's temperament. It is +a simple proposition in the scale of value and it works as truly when +applied to color as to the art concept: the more of the man the better the +art. Were it not so the color-photograph would have preeminence. + +The first degree in the scale of color is represented by that sort which +applied to canvas to imitate a surface seems satisfying to the artist as +nature-color. The second degree is that in which the color is made to +harmonize with all other colors of the picture on the basis of a given +hue. This tonal harmony may fail to reveal itself in many subjects in +nature or in such arrangements of objects as the still-life painter might +and often does collect, and is therefore clearly a quality with which the +artist endows his work. Such painters as Whistler and his following see +to it that this tonality inheres in all subjects which may be governed in +the composition of color (such as his "arrangements" in the studio), so +that the production of this harmony results naturally by following the +subject. + + + + + Tone + + +The color key is given in that selected hue which influences to a greater +or less degree all the colors, even when these make violent departures in +the scheme of harmony. Solicitous only of the quality of unified color, +the majority of these painters (though this frequently does not include +Mr. Whistler himself) concern themselves wholly with that thought, +employing their pigment so directly that the _vibration_ of color is +sacrificed. + +The production of this vibration is by agreement on the part of all great +colorists impossible through impasted color or that applied flatly to the +surface, which they declare cannot be as powerful, as significant or as +beautiful as that which vibrates, either by reason of the juxtaposition of +color plainly seen, as with the impressionists, or of its broken tone, or +by virtue of the influence of a transparent glaze of color which enables +two colors to be seen at once. + +The last method is that of Titian, the second in combination with the last +that of Rembrandt in his latest and best period, the first that of Monet, +which contains the principle of coloration in its scientific analysis. +The chasm between these men is not known in any such degree as a +superficial notion of their respective arts might presuppose. The real +disparity in color presentation exists between all such painters and those +who paint directly on white canvas, neglecting the influence of the +undertone and the enrichment which enters into color by glazes +(transparent color). + +Such painters may be able to represent most faithfully the true tints of +Nature but not the true impression, for Nature is always expressive of +that depth and strength which lies far in and which the painter of +"quality" insists to render. To him it is that something containing the +last word of a thorough statement, and without it the statement is a +surface one. + +Technically, it may mean the labor of many repaintings, of color glazes, +and of procedure from one process to another, so that the first statement +on the canvas becomes the general but not the final dictum. Through these +the work takes on that unctuousness of depth and strength by which one +experiences the same thrill as through the deep reverberations of a +musical tone from many instruments, simple tone being producible by one +instrument. Practically, it is the pulsation of color in every part of +the picture felt by either the play of one color through another or by +such broken color as may be administered by a single brush stroke loaded +with several colors or by a single color so dragged across another as to +leave some of the under color existent. + + + + + Quality + + +Such technique produces the highest tonal quality. It cannot be +supposed that Rembrandt glazed and repainted on his portraits for a lesser +reason than to supply them with a quality which direct painting denied, +nor that Frank Holl, of our own times, employed a like method _for the +sake of being like Rembrandt._ + +Natural Color; Tonal Color, representing nature; and Tonality plus +"Quality" (the last a vague term denoting depth and fullness of color) are +three grades represented, the first by Meissonier in his _"__1807__"_, a +picture devoid of tone; the second by the portraits of Alice, by Chase, +and _Lady Archibald Campbell_, by Whistler; and the last or tonal quality, +by the later works of George Fuller and Albert Ryder. Under these +specified classes the lists of names in art are now lengthening and +shortening, the indications of our present art pointing to a revival of +the color quality of a former age. + +[Alice--W.M. Chase (Verticals Diverted); Lady Archibald Campbell--Whistler +(Verticals Obliterated); The Crucifixion--Amie Morot (Verticals Opposed)] + + + + + Don'ts + + +It was stated in the introduction that the commandments of this book would +be the "must nots," yet for him who apprehends principles, commandments do +not exist. A few conclusions from the foregoing arguments may, however, +be of service to beginners in the practice of composition. + +Structures to be avoided are:-- + +Those in which the lines all run one way without opposition: + +Those especially in which the bottom of the frame is paralleled: + +Those in which the perspective of a line or the edge of a mass happens to +be a vertical: + +Those in which an opposing plane or attractive mass barricades the +entrance of the picture: + +Those in which two masses in different planes happen to be the same size: + +Those in which objects of equal interest occur in the same picture: + +Those in which an object awkwardly prolongs a line: + +Those in which the line of the background duplicates the lines of the +subject: + +Those in which the picture is cut by lines too long continued in any +direction: + +Those in which radial lines fail to lead to a focal object: + +Those in which the items of a picture fail to present a natural sequence: + +Those in which the subject proper is not dignified by a conspicuous +placement or is swamped by too attractive surroundings: + +Those in which the most energetic forms of construction are not allied to +the principal but to secondary parts of the picture: + +Those formal compositions in which greater interest is shown at the sides +than in the centre: + +Those in which the aesthetic principle of the constructive form is +antagonistic to the sentiment of the subject. + + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PICTORIAL COMPOSITION AND THE CRITICAL JUDGMENT OF PICTURES*** + + + +CREDITS + + +September 9, 2008 + + Project Gutenberg Edition + Martin Schub + + + +A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG + + +This file should be named 26638.txt or 26638.zip. + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + + + http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/6/6/3/26638/ + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one -- the old editions will be +renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one +owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and +you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission +and without paying copyright royalties. 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