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+Project Gutenberg's Bookbinding, and the Care of Books, by Douglas Cockerell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Bookbinding, and the Care of Books
+       A handbook for Amateurs, Bookbinders & Librarians
+
+Author: Douglas Cockerell
+
+Editor: W. R. Lethaby
+
+Illustrator: Noel Rooke
+
+Release Date: September 19, 2008 [EBook #26672]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOOKBINDING, AND THE CARE OF BOOKS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Shell, Irma Spehar and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                      THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES
+                        OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS
+                        EDITED BY W. R. LETHABY
+
+                              BOOKBINDING
+
+            [Illustration: WHITE PIGSKIN.--_Basle_, 1512.]
+
+
+
+
+                           BOOKBINDING, AND
+                           THE CARE OF BOOKS
+
+                        A HANDBOOK FOR AMATEURS
+                       BOOKBINDERS & LIBRARIANS
+                         BY DOUGLAS COCKERELL
+
+                                 WITH
+
+                        DRAWINGS BY NOEL ROOKE
+                        AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+
+                               NEW YORK
+                        D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
+                                 1910
+
+
+                           COPYRIGHT, 1901,
+                      BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
+
+                         _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+                           EDITOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+In issuing this volume of a series of Handbooks on the Artistic
+Crafts, it will be well to state what are our general aims.
+
+In the first place, we wish to provide trustworthy text-books of
+workshop practice, from the points of view of experts who have
+critically examined the methods current in the shops, and putting
+aside vain survivals, are prepared to say what is good workmanship,
+and to set up a standard of quality in the crafts which are more
+especially associated with design. Secondly, in doing this, we hope to
+treat design itself as an essential part of good workmanship. During
+the last century most of the arts, save painting and sculpture of an
+academic kind, were little considered, and there was a tendency to
+look on "design" as a mere matter of _appearance_. Such
+"ornamentation" as there was was usually obtained by following in a
+mechanical way a drawing provided by an artist who often knew little
+of the technical processes involved in production. With the critical
+attention given to the crafts by Ruskin and Morris, it came to be seen
+that it was impossible to detach design from craft in this way, and
+that, in the widest sense, true design is an inseparable element of
+good quality, involving as it does the selection of good and suitable
+material, contrivance for special purpose, expert workmanship, proper
+finish and so on, far more than mere ornament, and indeed, that
+ornamentation itself was rather an exuberance of fine workmanship than
+a matter of merely abstract lines. Workmanship when separated by too
+wide a gulf from fresh thought--that is, from design--inevitably
+decays, and, on the other hand, ornamentation, divorced from
+workmanship, is necessarily unreal, and quickly falls into
+affectation. Proper ornamentation may be defined as a language
+addressed to the eye; it is pleasant thought expressed in the speech
+of the tool.
+
+In the third place, we would have this series put artistic
+craftsmanship before people as furnishing reasonable occupation for
+those who would gain a livelihood. Although within the bounds of
+academic art, the competition, of its kind, is so acute that only a
+very few per cent. can fairly hope to succeed as painters and
+sculptors; yet, as artistic craftsmen, there is every probability that
+nearly every one who would pass through a sufficient period of
+apprenticeship to workmanship and design would reach a measure of
+success.
+
+In the blending of handwork and thought in such arts as we propose to
+deal with, happy careers may be found as far removed from the dreary
+routine of hack labour, as from the terrible uncertainty of academic
+art. It is desirable in every way that men of good education should be
+brought back into the productive crafts: there are more than enough of
+us "in the city," and it is probable that more consideration will be
+given in this century than in the last to Design and Workmanship.
+
+                                                   W. R. LETHABY.
+
+
+
+
+                             AUTHOR'S NOTE
+
+
+It is hoped that this book will help bookbinders and librarians to
+select sound methods of binding books.
+
+It is intended to supplement and not to supplant workshop training for
+bookbinders. No one can become a skilled workman by reading
+text-books, but to a man who has acquired skill and practical
+experience, a text-book, giving perhaps different methods from those
+to which he has been accustomed, may be helpful.
+
+My thanks are due to many friends, including the workmen in my
+workshop, for useful suggestions and other help, and to the Society of
+Arts for permission to quote from the report of their Special
+Committee on leather for bookbinding.
+
+I should also like to express my indebtedness to my master, Mr. T. J.
+Cobden-Sanderson, for it was in his workshop that I learned my craft,
+and anything that may be of value in this book is due to his
+influence.
+
+                                                            D. C.
+
+  _November_ 1901.
+
+
+
+
+                               CONTENTS
+
+
+                                PART I
+
+                               _BINDING_
+
+                                                                   PAGE
+
+Editor's Preface                                                     7
+
+Author's Note                                                       11
+
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+Introduction                                                        17
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+
+Entering--Books in Sheets--Folding--Collating--Pulling
+to Pieces--Refolding--Knocking out Joints                           33
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+Guarding--Throwing Out--Paring Paper--Soaking off India
+Proofs--Mounting very Thin Paper--Splitting
+Paper--Inlaying--Flattening Vellum                                  53
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV
+
+Sizing--Washing--Mending                                            67
+
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+End Papers--Leather Joints--Pressing                                80
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI
+
+Trimming Edges before Sewing--Edge Gilding                          92
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+
+Marking up--Sewing--Materials for Sewing                            98
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VIII
+
+Fraying out Slips--Glueing up--Rounding and Backing                114
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IX
+
+Cutting and Attaching Boards--Cleaning off Back--Pressing          124
+
+
+                               CHAPTER X
+
+Cutting in Boards--Gilding and Colouring Edges                     139
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XI
+
+Headbanding                                                        147
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XII
+
+Preparing for Covering--Paring Leather--Covering--Mitring
+Corners--Filling-in Boards                                         152
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XIII
+
+Library Binding--Binding very Thin Books--Scrap-Books--Binding
+in Vellum--Books covered with Embroidery                           173
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV
+
+Decoration--Tools--Finishing--Tooling on Vellum--Inlaying
+on Leather                                                         188
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XV
+
+Lettering--Blind Tooling--Heraldic Ornament                        215
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVI
+
+Designing for Gold-Tooled Decoration                               230
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XVII
+
+Pasting down End Papers--Opening Books                             254
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XVIII
+
+Clasps and Ties--Metal on Bindings                                 259
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIX
+
+Leather                                                            263
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XX
+
+Paper--Pastes--Glue                                                280
+
+
+                                PART II
+
+                      _CARE OF BOOKS WHEN BOUND_
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXI
+
+Injurious Influences to which Books are Subjected                  291
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XXII
+
+To Preserve Old Bindings--Re-backing                               302
+
+SPECIFICATIONS                                                     307
+
+GLOSSARY                                                           313
+
+REPRODUCTIONS OF BINDINGS (Eight Collotypes)                       319
+
+INDEX                                                              337
+
+
+
+
+                                PART I
+
+                                BINDING
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+                             INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The reasons for binding the leaves of a book are to keep them together
+in their proper order, and to protect them. That bindings can be made,
+that will adequately protect books, can be seen from the large number
+of fifteenth and sixteenth century bindings now existing on books
+still in excellent condition. That bindings are made, that fail to
+protect books, may be seen by visiting any large library, when it will
+be found that many bindings have their boards loose and the leather
+crumbling to dust. Nearly all librarians complain, that they have to
+be continually rebinding books, and this not after four hundred, but
+after only five or ten years.
+
+It is no exaggeration to say that ninety per cent. of the books bound
+in leather during the last thirty years will need rebinding during the
+next thirty. The immense expense involved must be a very serious drag
+on the usefulness of libraries; and as rebinding is always to some
+extent damaging to the leaves of a book, it is not only on account of
+the expense that the necessity for it is to be regretted.
+
+The reasons that have led to the production in modern times of
+bindings that fail to last for a reasonable time, are twofold. The
+materials are badly selected or prepared, and the method of binding is
+faulty. Another factor in the decay of bindings, both old and new, is
+the bad conditions under which they are often kept.
+
+The object of this text-book is to describe the best methods of
+bookbinding, and of keeping books when bound, taking into account the
+present-day conditions. No attempt has been made to describe all
+possible methods, but only such as appear to have answered best on old
+books. The methods described are for binding that can be done by hand
+with the aid of simple appliances. Large editions of books are now
+bound, or rather cased, at an almost incredible speed by the aid of
+machinery, but all work that needs personal care and thought on each
+book, is still done, and probably always will be done, by hand.
+Elaborate machinery can only be economically employed when very large
+numbers of books have to be turned out exactly alike.
+
+The ordinary cloth "binding" of the trade, is better described as
+casing. The methods being different, it is convenient to distinguish
+between casing and binding. In binding, the slips are firmly attached
+to the boards before covering; in casing, the boards are covered
+separately, and afterwards glued on to the book. Very great efforts
+have been made in the decoration of cloth covers, and it is a pity
+that the methods of construction have not been equally considered. If
+cloth cases are to be looked upon as a temporary binding, then it
+seems a pity to waste so much trouble on their decoration; and if they
+are to be looked upon as permanent binding, it is a pity the
+construction is not better.
+
+For books of only temporary interest, the usual cloth cases answer
+well enough; but for books expected to have permanent value, some
+change is desirable.
+
+Valuable books should either be issued in bindings that are obviously
+temporary, or else in bindings that are strong enough to be considered
+permanent. The usual cloth case fails as a temporary binding, because
+the methods employed result in serious damage to the sections of the
+book, often unfitting them for rebinding, and it fails as a permanent
+binding on account of the absence of sound construction.
+
+In a temporary publisher's binding, nothing should be done to the
+sections of a book that would injure them. Plates should be guarded,
+the sewing should be on tapes, without splitting the head and tail, or
+"sawing in" the backs, of the sections; the backs should be glued up
+square without backing. The case may be attached, as is now usual. For
+a permanent publisher's binding, something like that recommended for
+libraries (page 173) is suggested, with either leather or cloth on the
+back.
+
+At the end of the book four specifications are given (page 307). The
+first is suggested for binding books of special interest or value,
+where no restriction as to price is made. A binding under this
+specification may be decorated to any extent that the nature of the
+book justifies. The second is for good binding, for books of reference
+and other heavy books that may have a great deal of wear. All the
+features of the first that make for the strength of the binding are
+retained, while those less essential, that only add to the appearance,
+are omitted. Although the binding under this specification would be
+much cheaper than that carried out under the first, it would still be
+too expensive for the majority of books in most libraries; and as it
+would seem to be impossible to further modify this form of binding,
+without materially reducing its strength, for cheaper work, a somewhat
+different system is recommended. The third specification is
+recommended for the binding of the general run of small books in most
+libraries. The fourth is a modification of this for pamphlets and
+other books of little value, that need to be kept together tidily for
+occasional reference.
+
+Thanks, in a great measure, to the work of Mr. Cobden-Sanderson,
+there is in England the germ of a sound tradition for the best
+binding. The Report of the Committee appointed by the Society of Arts
+to investigate the cause of the decay of modern leather bindings,
+should tend to establish a sound tradition for cheaper work. The third
+specification at the end of this book is practically the same as that
+given in their Report, and was arrived at by selection, after many
+libraries had been examined, and many forms of binding compared.
+
+Up to the end of the eighteenth century the traditional methods of
+binding books had altered very little during three hundred years.
+Books were generally sewn round five cords, the ends of all of these
+laced into the boards, and the leather attached directly to the back.
+At the end of the eighteenth century it became customary to pare down
+leather until it was as thin as paper, and soon afterwards the use of
+hollow backs and false bands became general, and these two things
+together mark the beginning of the modern degradation of binding, so
+far as its utility as a protection is concerned.
+
+The Society of Arts Committee report that the bookbinders must share
+with the leather manufacturers and librarians the blame for the
+premature decay of modern bindings, because--
+
+"1. Books are sewn on too few, and too thin cords, and the slips are
+pared down unduly (for the sake of neatness), and are not in all cases
+firmly laced into the boards. This renders the attachment of the
+boards to the book almost entirely dependent on the strength of the
+leather.
+
+"2. The use of hollow backs throws all the strain of opening and
+shutting on the joints, and renders the back liable to come right off
+if the book is much used.
+
+"3. The leather of the back is apt to become torn through the use of
+insufficiently strong headbands, which are unable to stand the strain
+of the book being taken from the shelf.
+
+"4. It is a common practice to use far too thin leather; especially to
+use large thick skins very much pared down for small books.
+
+"5. The leather is often made very wet and stretched a great deal in
+covering, with the result that on drying it is further strained,
+almost to breaking point, by contraction, leaving a very small margin
+of strength to meet the accidents of use."
+
+The history of the general introduction of hollow backs is probably
+somewhat as follows: Leather was doubtless first chosen for covering
+the backs of books because of its toughness and flexibility; because,
+while protecting the back, it would bend when the book was opened and
+allow the back to "throw up" (see fig. 1, A). When gold tooling became
+common, and the backs of books were elaborately decorated, it was
+found that the creasing of the leather injured the brightness or the
+gold and caused it to crack. To avoid this the binders lined up the
+back until it was as stiff as a block of wood. The back would then not
+"throw up" as the book was opened, the leather would not be creased,
+and the gold would remain uninjured (see fig. 1, B). This was all very
+well for the gold, but a book so treated does not open fully, and
+indeed, if the paper is stiff, can hardly be got to open at all. To
+overcome both difficulties the hollow back was introduced, and as
+projecting bands would have been in the way, the sewing cord was sunk
+in saw cuts made across the back of the book.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+The use of hollow backs was a very ingenious way out of the
+difficulty, as with them the backs could be made to "throw up," and at
+the same time the leather was not disturbed (see fig. 1, C). The
+method of "sawing in" bands was known for a long time before the
+general use of hollow backs. It has been used to avoid the raised
+bands on books covered with embroidered material.
+
+If a book is sewn on tapes, and the back lined with leather, there is
+no serious objection to a carefully-made hollow back without bands.
+The vellum binders use hollow backs made in this way for great account
+books that stand an immense amount of wear. They make the "hollow"
+very stiff, so that it acts as a spring to throw the back up.
+
+But although, if carefully done, satisfactory bindings may be made
+with hollow backs, their use has resulted in the production of
+worthless bindings with little strength, and yet with the appearance
+of better work.
+
+The public having been accustomed to raised bands on the backs of
+books, and the real bands being sunk in the back, the binders put
+false ones over the "hollow." To save money or trouble, the bands
+being out of sight, the book would be sewn on only three or sometimes
+only two cords, the usual five false ones still showing at the back.
+Often only two out of the three bands would be laced into the board,
+and sometimes the slips would not be laced in at all. Again, false
+headbands worked by the yard by machinery would be stuck on at the
+head and tail, and a "hollow" made with brown paper. Then leather so
+thin as to have but little strength, but used because it is easy to
+work and needs no paring, would be stuck on. The back would often be
+full gilt and lettered, and the sides sprinkled or marbled, thus
+further damaging the leather.
+
+In every large library hundreds of books bound somewhat on these lines
+may be seen. When they are received from the binder they have the
+appearance of being well bound, they look smart on the shelf, but in a
+few years, whether they are used or not, the leather will have
+perished and the boards become detached, and they will have to be
+rebound.
+
+As long as librarians expect the appearance of a guinea binding for
+two or three shillings, such shams will be produced. The librarian
+generally gets his money's worth, for it would be impossible for the
+binder to do better work at the price usually paid without materially
+altering the appearance of the binding. The polished calf and
+imitation crushed morocco must go, and in its place a rougher,
+thicker leather must be employed. The full-gilt backs must go, the
+coloured lettering panel must go, the hollow backs must go, but in the
+place of these we may have the books sewn on tapes with the ends
+securely fastened into split boards, and the thick leather attached
+directly to the backs of the sections. (See specification III. page
+307.)
+
+Such a binding would look well and not be more expensive than the
+usual library binding. It should allow the book to open flat, and if
+the materials are well selected, be very durable, and specially strong
+in the joints, the weak place in most bindings. The lettering on the
+back may be damaged in time if the book is much used, but if so it can
+easily be renewed at a fraction of the cost of rebinding, and without
+injury to the book.
+
+While the majority of books in most libraries must be bound at a small
+cost, at most not exceeding a few shillings a volume, there is a large
+demand for good plain bindings, and a limited, but growing, demand for
+more or less decorated bindings for special books.
+
+Any decoration but the simplest should be restricted to books bound as
+well as the binder can do them. The presence of decoration should be
+evidence that the binder, after doing his best with the "forwarding,"
+has had time in which to try to make his work a beautiful, as well as
+a serviceable, production.
+
+Many books, although well bound, are better left plain, or with only a
+little decoration. But occasionally there are books that the binder
+can decorate as lavishly as he is able. As an instance of bindings
+that cannot be over-decorated, those books which are used in important
+ceremonies, such as Altar Books, may be mentioned. Such books may be
+decorated with gold and colour until they seem to be covered in a
+golden material. They will be but spots of gorgeousness in a great
+church or cathedral, and they cannot be said to be over-decorated as
+long as the decoration is good.
+
+So, occasionally some one may have a book to which he is for some
+reason greatly attached, and wishing to enshrine it, give the binder a
+free hand to do his best with it. The binder may wish to make a
+delicate pattern with nicely-balanced spots of ornament, leaving the
+leather for the most part bare, or he may wish to cover the outside
+with some close gold-tooled pattern, giving a richness of texture
+hardly to be got by other means. If he decides on the latter, many
+people will say that the cover is over-decorated. But as a book cover
+can never be seen absolutely alone, it should not be judged as an
+isolated thing covered with ornament without relief, but as a spot of
+brightness and interest among its surroundings. If a room and
+everything in it is covered with elaborate pattern, then anything with
+a plain surface would be welcome as a relief; but in a room which is
+reasonably free from ornament, a spot of rich decoration should be
+welcome.
+
+It is not contended that the only, or necessarily the best, method of
+decorating book covers is by elaborate all-over gold-tooled pattern;
+but it is contended that this is a legitimate method of decoration for
+exceptional books, and that by its use it is possible to get a
+beautiful effect well worth the trouble and expense involved.
+
+Good leather has a beautiful surface, and may sometimes be got of a
+fine colour. The binder may often wish to show this surface and
+colour, and to restrict his decoration to small portions of the
+cover, and this quite rightly, he aiming at, and getting, a totally
+different effect than that got by all-over patterns. Both methods are
+right if well done, and both methods can equally be vulgarised if
+badly done.
+
+A much debated question is, how far the decoration of a binding should
+be influenced by the contents of the book? A certain appropriateness
+there should be, but as a general thing, if the binder aims at making
+the cover beautiful, that is the best he can do. The hints given for
+designing are not intended to stop the development of the student's
+own ideas, but only to encourage their development on right lines.
+
+There should be a certain similarity of treatment between the general
+get-up of a book and its binding. It is a great pity that printers and
+binders have drifted so far apart; they are, or should be, working for
+one end, the production of a book, and some unity of aim should be
+evident in the work of the two.
+
+The binding of manuscripts and early printed books should be strong
+and simple. It should be as strong and durable as the original old
+bindings, and, like them, last with reasonable care for four hundred
+years or more. To this end the old bindings, with their stout sewing
+cord, wooden boards, and clasps, may be taken as models.
+
+The question is constantly asked, especially by women, if a living can
+be made by setting up as bookbinders. Cheap binding can most
+economically be done in large workshops, but probably the best
+bindings can be done more satisfactorily by binders working alone, or
+in very small workshops.
+
+If any one intends to set up as a bookbinder, doing all the work
+without help, it is necessary to charge very high prices to get any
+adequate return after the working expenses have been paid. In order to
+get high prices, the standard of work must be very high; and in order
+to attain a high enough standard of work, a very thorough training is
+necessary. It is desirable that any one hoping to make money at the
+craft should have at least a year's training in a workshop where good
+work is done, and after that, some time will be spent before quite
+satisfactory work can be turned out rapidly enough to pay, supposing
+that orders can be obtained or the books bound can be sold.
+
+There are some successful binders who have had less than a year's
+training, but they are exceptional. Those who have not been accustomed
+to manual work have usually, in addition to the necessary skill, to
+acquire the habit of continuous work. Bookbinding seems to offer an
+opening for well-educated youths who are willing to serve an
+apprenticeship in a good shop, and who have some small amount of
+capital at their command.
+
+In addition to the production of decorated bindings, there is much to
+be done by specialising in certain kinds of work requiring special
+knowledge. Repairing and binding early printed books and manuscripts,
+or the restoration of Parish Registers and Accounts, may be suggested.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+
+       Entering--Books in Sheets--Folding--Collating--Pulling to
+                Pieces--Refolding--Knocking out Joints
+
+
+                               ENTERING
+
+On receiving a book for binding, its title should be entered in a book
+kept for that purpose, with the date of entry, and customer's name
+and address, and any instructions he may have given, written out in
+full underneath, leaving room below to enter the time taken on the
+various operations and cost of the materials used. It is well to
+number the entry, and to give a corresponding number to the book. It
+should be at once collated, and any special features noted, such as
+pages that need washing or mending. If the book should prove to be
+imperfect, or to have any serious defect, the owner should be
+communicated with, before it is pulled to pieces. This is very
+important, as imperfect books that have been "pulled" are not
+returnable to the bookseller. Should defects only be discovered after
+the book has been taken to pieces, the bookbinder is liable to be
+blamed for the loss of any missing leaves.
+
+
+                            BOOKS IN SHEETS
+
+The sheets of a newly printed book are arranged in piles in the
+printer's warehouse, each pile being made up of repetitions of the
+same sheet or "signature." Plates or maps are in piles by themselves
+To make a complete book one sheet is gathered from each pile,
+beginning at the last sheet and working backwards to signature A. When
+a book is ordered from a publisher in sheets, it is such a "gathered"
+copy that the binder receives. Some books are printed "double," that
+is, the type is set up twice, two copies are printed at once at
+different ends of a sheet of paper, and the sheets have to be divided
+down the middle before the copies can be separated. Sometimes the
+title and introduction, or perhaps only the last sheet, will be
+printed in this way. Publishers usually decline to supply in sheets
+fewer than two copies of such double-printed books.
+
+If a book is received unfolded, it is generally advisable at once to
+fold up the sheets and put them in their proper order, with
+half-title, title, introduction, &c., and, if there are plates, to
+compare them with the printed list.
+
+Should there be in a recently published book defects of any kind, such
+as soiled sheets, the publisher will usually replace them on
+application, although they sometimes take a long time to do so. Such
+sheets are called "imperfections," and the printers usually keep a
+number of "overs" in order to make good such imperfections as may
+occur.
+
+
+                                FOLDING
+
+Books received in sheets must be folded. Folding requires care, or the
+margins of different leaves will be unequal, and the lines of printing
+not at right angles to the back.
+
+Books of various sizes are known as "folio," "quarto," "octavo,"
+"duodecimo," &c. These names signify the number of folds, and
+consequently the number of leaves the paper has been folded into.
+Thus, a folio is made up of sheets of paper folded once down the
+centre, forming two leaves and four pages. The sheets of a quarto have
+a second fold, making four leaves and eight pages, and in an octavo
+the sheet has a third fold, forming eight leaves and sixteen pages
+(see fig. 2), and so on. Each sheet of paper when folded constitutes a
+section, except in the case of folios, where it is usual to make up
+the sections by inserting two or more sheets, one within the other.
+
+Paper is made in several named sizes, such as "imperial," "royal,"
+"demy," "crown," "foolscap," &c. (see p. 283), so that the terms
+"imperial folio" or "crown octavo" imply that a sheet of a definite
+size has been folded a definite number of times.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Besides the traditional sizes, paper is now made of almost any length
+and width, resulting in books of odd shape, and the names folio,
+quarto, &c., are rather losing their true meaning, and are often used
+loosely to signify pages of certain sizes, irrespective of the number
+that go to a sheet.
+
+On receipt, for instance, of an octavo book for folding, the pile of
+sheets is laid flat on the table, and collated by the letter or
+signature of each sheet. The first sheet of the book proper will
+probably be signature B, as signature A usually consists of the
+half-title, title, introduction, &c., and often has to be folded up
+rather differently.
+
+The "outer" sides, known by the signature letters B, C, D, &c., should
+be downwards, and the inner sides facing upwards with the second
+signatures, if there are any, B2, C2, D2, &c., at the right-hand
+bottom corner.
+
+The pages of an octave book, commencing at page 1, are shown at fig.
+3. A folder is taken in the right hand, and held at the bottom of the
+sheet at about the centre, and the sheet taken by the left hand at the
+top right-hand corner and bent over until pages 3 and 6 come exactly
+over pages 2 and 7; and when it is seen that the headlines and figures
+exactly match, the paper, while being held in that position, is
+creased down the centre with the folder, and the fold cut up a little
+more than half-way. Pages 4, 13, 5, 12 will now be uppermost; pages 12
+and 5 are now folded over to exactly match pages 13 and 4, and the
+fold creased and cut up a little more than half-way, as before. Pages
+8 and 9 will now be uppermost, and will merely require folding
+together to make the pages of the section follow in their proper
+order. If the folding has been done carefully, and the "register" of
+the printing is good, the headlines should be exactly even throughout.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+The object of cutting past the centre at each fold is to avoid the
+unsightly creasing that results from folding two or more thicknesses
+of paper when joined at the top edge.
+
+A "duodecimo" sheet has the pages arranged as at fig. 4.
+
+The "inset" pages, 10, 15, 14, 11, must be cut off, and the rest of
+the section folded as for an octavo sheet. The inset is folded
+separately and inserted into the centre of the octavo portion.
+
+Other sizes are folded in much the same way, and the principle of
+folding one sheet having been mastered, no difficulty will be found in
+folding any other.
+
+Plates often require trimming, and this must be done with judgment.
+The plates should be trimmed to correspond as far as possible with the
+printing on the opposite page, but if this cannot be done, it is
+desirable that something approaching the proportion of margin shown at
+fig. 2 (folio) should be aimed at. That is to say, the back margin
+should be the smallest, the head margin the next, the fore-edge a
+little wider, and the tail widest of all. When a plate consists of a
+small portrait or diagram in the centre of the page, it looks better
+if it is put a little higher and a little nearer the back than the
+actual centre.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+Plates that have no numbers on them must be put in order by the list
+of printed plates, or "instructions to the binder." The half-title,
+title, dedication, &c., will often be found to be printed on odd
+sheets that have to be made up into section A. This preliminary matter
+is usually placed in the following order: Half-title, title,
+dedication, preface, contents, list of illustrations or other lists.
+If there is an index, it should be put at the end of the book.
+
+All plates should be "guarded," and any "quarter sections," that is,
+sections consisting of two leaves, should have their backs
+strengthened by a "guard," or they may very easily be torn in the
+sewing. Odd, single leaves may be guarded round sections in the same
+way as plates.
+
+When a book has been folded, it should be pressed (see p. 87).
+
+There will sometimes be pages marked by the printer with a star. These
+have some error in them, and are intended to be cut out. The printer
+should supply corrected pages to replace them.
+
+
+                               COLLATING
+
+In addition to the pagination each sheet or section of a printed book
+is lettered or numbered. Each letter or number is called the "sheet's
+signature." Printers usually leave out J W and V in lettering sheets.
+If there are more sections than there are letters in the alphabet, the
+printer doubles the letters, signing the sections A A, B B, and so on,
+after the single letters are exhausted. Some printers use an Arabic
+numeral before the section number to denote the second alphabet, as
+2A, 2B, &c., and others change the character of the letters, perhaps
+using capitals for the first alphabet and italics for the second. If
+the sheets are numbered, the numbers will of course follow
+consecutively. In books of more than one volume, the number of the
+volume is sometimes added in Roman numerals before the signature, as
+II A, II B.
+
+The main pagination of the book usually commences with Chapter I., and
+all before that is independently paged in Roman numerals. It is
+unusual to have actual numbers on the title or half-title, but if the
+pages are counted back from where the first numeral occurs, they
+should come right.
+
+There will sometimes be one or more blank leaves completing sections
+at the beginning or end. Such blank leaves must be retained, as
+without them the volume would be "imperfect."
+
+To collate a modern book the paging must be examined to see that the
+leaves are in order, and that nothing is defective or missing.
+
+The method of doing this is to insert the first finger of the right
+hand at the bottom of about the fiftieth page, crook the finger, and
+turn up the corners of the pages with it. When this is done the thumb
+is placed on page 1, and the hand twisted, so as to fan out the top of
+the pages. They can then be readily turned over by the thumb and first
+finger of the left hand (see fig. 5). This is repeated throughout the
+book, taking about fifty pages at a time. It will of course only be
+necessary to check the odd numbers, as if they are right, the even
+ones on the other side of the leaf must be so. If the pages are
+numbered at the foot, the leaves must be fanned out from the head.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+Plates or maps that are not paged can only be checked from the printed
+list. When checked it will save time if the number of the page which
+each faces is marked on the back in small pencil figures.
+
+In the case of early printed books or manuscripts, which are often not
+paged, special knowledge is needed for their collation. It may roughly
+be said, that if the sections are all complete, that is, if there are
+the same number of leaves at each side of the sewing in all the
+sections, the book may be taken to be perfect, unless of course whole
+sections are missing. All unpaged books should be paged through in
+pencil before they are taken apart; this is best done with a very fine
+pencil, at the bottom left-hand corner; it will only be necessary to
+number the front of each leaf.
+
+
+                           PULLING TO PIECES
+
+After the volume has been collated it must be "pulled," that is to
+say, the sections must be separated, and all plates or maps detached.
+
+If in a bound book there are slips laced in the front cover, they must
+be cut and the back torn off. It will sometimes happen that in tearing
+off the leather nearly all the glue will come too, leaving the backs
+of the pages detached except for the sewing. More usually the back
+will be left covered with a mass of glue and linen, or paper, which it
+is very difficult to remove without injury to the backs of the
+sections. By drawing a sharp knife along the bands, the sewing may be
+cut and the bands removed, leaving the sections only connected by the
+glue. Then the sections of the book can usually be separated with a
+fine folder, after the thread from the centre of each has been
+removed; the point of division being ascertained by finding the first
+signature of each section. In cases where the glue and leather form
+too hard a back to yield to this method, it is advisable to soak the
+glue with paste, and when soft to scrape it off with a folder. As this
+method is apt to injure the backs of the sections, it should not be
+resorted to unless necessary; and when it is, care must be taken not
+to let the damp penetrate into the book, or it will cause very ugly
+stains. The book must be pulled while damp, or else the glue will dry
+up harder than before. The separated sections must be piled up
+carefully to prevent pages being soiled by the damp glue.
+
+All plates or single leaves "pasted on" must be removed. These can
+usually be detached by carefully tearing apart, but if too securely
+pasted they must be soaked off in water, unless of course the plates
+have been painted with water-colour. If the plates must be soaked off,
+the leaf and attached plate should be put into a pan of slightly warm
+water and left to soak until they float apart, then with a soft brush
+any remaining glue or paste can be easily removed while in the water.
+Care must be taken not to soak modern books printed on what is called
+"Art Paper," as this paper will hardly stand ordinary handling, and is
+absolutely ruined if wetted. The growing use of this paper in
+important books is one of the greatest troubles the bookbinder has to
+face. The highly loaded and glazed surface of some of the heavy plate
+papers easily flakes off, so that any guard pasted on these plates is
+apt to come away, taking with it the surface of the paper. Moreover,
+should the plates chance to be fingered or in any way soiled, nothing
+can remove the marks; and should a corner get turned down, the paper
+breaks and the corner will fall off. It is the opinion of experts that
+this heavily loaded Art Paper will not last a reasonable time, and,
+apart from other considerations, this should be ample reason for not
+using it in books that are expected to have a permanent value.
+Printers like this paper, because it enables them to obtain brilliant
+impressions from blocks produced by cheap processes.
+
+In "cased" books, sewn by machinery, the head and tail of the sheets
+will often be found to be split up as far as the "kettle" stitches. If
+such a book is to be expensively bound, it will require mending
+throughout in these places, or the glue may soak into the torn ends,
+and make the book open stiffly.
+
+Some books are put together with staples of tinned iron wire, which
+rapidly rust and disfigure the book by circular brown marks. Such
+marks will usually have to be cut out and the places carefully mended.
+This process is lengthy, and consequently so costly, that it is
+generally cheaper, when possible, to obtain an unbound copy of the
+book from the publishers, than to waste time repairing the damage done
+by the cloth binder.
+
+Generally speaking, the sections of a book cased in cloth by modern
+methods are so injured as to make it unfit for more permanent binding
+unless an unreasonable amount of time is spent on it. It is a great
+pity that publishers do not, in the case of books expected to have a
+permanent literary value, issue a certain number of copies printed on
+good paper, and unbound, for the use of those who require permanent
+bindings; and in such copies it would be a great help if sufficient
+margin were left at the back of the plates for the binder to turn it
+up to form a guard. If the plates were very numerous, guards made of
+the substance of the plates themselves would make the book too thick;
+but in the case of books with not more than a dozen plates, printed on
+comparatively thin paper, it would be a great advantage.
+
+Some books in which there are a large number of plates are cut into
+single leaves, which are held together at the back by a coating of an
+indiarubber solution. For a short time such a volume is pleasant
+enough to handle, and opens freely, but before long the indiarubber
+perishes, and the leaves and plates fall apart. When a book of this
+kind comes to have a permanent binding, all the leaves and plates have
+to be pared at the back and made up into sections with guards--a
+troublesome and expensive business. The custom with binders is to
+overcast the backs of the leaves in sections, and to sew through the
+overcasting thread, but this, though an easy and quick process, makes
+a hopelessly stiff back, and no book so treated can open freely.
+
+
+                               REFOLDING
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Dividers]
+
+When the sheets of books that have to be rebound have been carelessly
+folded, a certain amount of readjustment is often advisable,
+especially in cases where the book has not been previously cut. The
+title-page and the half-title, when found to be out of square, should
+nearly always be put straight. The folding of the whole book may be
+corrected by taking each pair of leaves and holding them up to the
+light and adjusting the fold so that the print on one leaf comes
+exactly over the print on the other, and creasing the fold to make
+them stay in that position. With a pair of dividers (fig. 6) set to
+the height of the shortest top margin, points the same distance above
+the headline of the other leaves can be made. Then against a
+carpenter's square, adjusted to the back of the fold, the head of one
+pair of leaves at a time can be cut square (see fig. 7). If the book
+has been previously cut this process is apt to throw the leaves so far
+out of their original position as to make them unduly uneven.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+Accurate folding is impossible if the "register" of the printing is
+bad, that is to say, if the print on the back of a leaf does not lie
+exactly over that on the front.
+
+Crooked plates should usually be made straight by judicious trimming
+of the margins. It is better to leave a plate short at tail or
+fore-edge than to leave it out of square.
+
+
+                          KNOCKING OUT JOINTS
+
+The old "joints" must be knocked out of the sections of books that
+have been previously backed. To do this, one or two sections at a time
+are held firmly in the left hand, and well hammered on the
+knocking-down iron fixed into the lying press. It is important that
+the hammer face should fall exactly squarely upon the paper, or it may
+cut pieces out. The knocking-down iron should be covered with a piece
+of paper, and the hammer face must be perfectly clean, or the sheets
+may be soiled.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+        Guarding--Throwing Out--Paring Paper--Soaking off India
+              Proofs--Mounting very Thin Paper--Splitting
+                  Paper--Inlaying--Flattening Vellum
+
+
+                               GUARDING
+
+Guards are slips of thin paper or linen used for strengthening the
+fold of leaves that are damaged, or for attaching plates or single
+leaves.
+
+Guards should be of good thin paper. That known as Whatman's Banknote
+paper answers very well. An easy way to cut guards is shown in fig.
+8. Two or three pieces of paper of the height of the required guards
+are folded and pinned to the board by the right-hand corners. A series
+of points are marked at the head and tail with dividers set to the
+width desired for the guards, and with a knife guided by a
+straight-edge, cuts joining the points are made right through the
+paper, but not extending quite to either end. On a transverse cut
+being made near the bottom, the guards are left attached by one end
+only (see fig. 9), and can be torn off as wanted. This method prevents
+the paper from slipping while it is being cut.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+A mount cutter's knife (fig. 10) will be found to be a convenient form
+of knife to use for cutting guards.
+
+In using the knife and straight-edge a good deal of pressure should be
+put on the straight-edge, and comparatively little on the knife.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Mount Cutter's Knife]
+
+To mend the torn back of a pair of leaves, a guard should be selected
+a little longer than the height of the pages and well pasted with
+white paste (see page 288). If the pair of leaves are not quite
+separated, the pasted guard held by its extremities may be simply laid
+along the weak place and rubbed down through blotting-paper. If the
+leaves are quite apart, it is better to lay the pasted guard on a
+piece of glass and put the edges of first one and then the other leaf
+on to it and rub down.
+
+On an outside pair of leaves the guard should be inside, so that the
+glue may catch any ragged edges; while on the inside pair the guard
+should be outside, or it will be found to be troublesome in sewing. In
+handling the pasted guards care is needed not to stretch them, or they
+may cause the sheet to crinkle as they dry.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+Plates must be guarded round the sections next them. When there are a
+great many plates the back margin of each, to which a guard will be
+attached, must be pared (see fig. 11, A), or the additional thickness
+caused by the guards will make the back swell unduly. In guarding
+plates a number can be pasted at once if they are laid one on another,
+with about an eighth of an inch of the back of each exposed, the top
+of the pile being protected by a folded piece of waste paper (see fig.
+12). To paste, the brush is brought from the top to the bottom of the
+pile only, and not the other way, or paste will get between the plates
+and soil them. Guards should usually be attached to the backs of
+plates, and should be wide enough to turn up round the adjoining
+section, so that they may be sewn through. Should a plate come in the
+middle of a section, the guard is best turned back and slightly pasted
+to the inside of the sheet and then sewn through in the ordinary way.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+If plates are very thick, they must be hinged, as shown at fig. 11, B.
+This is done by cutting a strip of about a quarter of an inch off the
+back of the plate, and guarding with a wide guard of linen, leaving a
+small space between the plate and the piece cut off to form a hinge.
+It will save some swelling if the plate is pared and a piece of
+thinner paper substituted for the piece cut off (see fig. 11, C). If
+the plates are of cardboard, they should be guarded on both sides with
+linen, and may even need a second joint.
+
+A book that consists entirely of plates or single leaves must be made
+up into sections with guards, and sewn as usual. In books in which
+there are a great many plates, it is often found that two plates
+either come together in the centre of a section, or come at opposite
+sides of the same pair of leaves. Such plates should be guarded
+together and treated as folded sheets (see fig. 13).
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+In order to be sure that the pages of a book to be guarded throughout
+will come in their proper order, it is well to make a plan of the
+sections as follows, and to check each pair of leaves by it, as they
+are guarded:--
+
+Thus, if the book is to be made up into sections of eight leaves, the
+pairs of leaves to be guarded together can be seen at once if the
+number of the pages are written out--
+
+    1, 3, 5, 7,--9, 11, 13, 15.
+
+First the inside pair, 7 and 9, are guarded together with the guard
+outside, then the next pair, 5 and 11, then 3 and 13, and then the
+outside pair, 1 and 15, which should have the guard outside. A plan
+for the whole book would be more conveniently written thus--
+
+    1-15   17-31   33-47
+    3-13   19-29   35-45
+    5-11   21-27   37-43
+    7-9    23-25   39-41, and so on.
+
+To arrange a book of single leaves for guarding, it is convenient to
+take as many leaves as you intend to go to a section, and opening them
+in the centre, take a pair at a time as they come.
+
+The number of leaves it is advisable to put into a section will depend
+on the thickness of the paper and the size and thickness of the book.
+If the paper is thick, and the backs of the leaves have been pared,
+four leaves to a section will be found to answer. But if the paper is
+thin, and does not allow of much paring, it is better to have a larger
+section, in order to have as little thread in the back as possible.
+
+The sheets of any guarded book should be pressed before sewing, in
+order to reduce the swelling of the back caused by the guards.
+
+
+                             THROWING OUT
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+Maps or diagrams that are frequently referred to in the text of a
+book, should be "thrown out" on a guard as wide as the sheet of the
+book. Such maps, &c., should be placed at the end, so that they may
+lie open for reference while the book is being read (see fig. 14).
+Large folded maps or diagrams should be mounted on linen. To do this
+take a piece of jaconet and pin it out flat on the board, then evenly
+paste the back of the map with thin paste in which there are no lumps,
+and lay it on the linen, rub down through blotting-paper, and leave to
+dry. Unless the pasting is done evenly the marks of the paste-brush
+will show through the linen. If a folded map is printed on very thick
+paper each fold must be cut up, and the separate pieces mounted on the
+linen, with a slight space between them to form a flexible joint.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+A folded map must have in the back of the book sufficient guards to
+equal it in thickness at its thickest part when folded, or the book
+will not shut properly (see fig. 15).
+
+
+                             PARING PAPER
+
+For paring the edge of paper for mending or guarding, take a very
+sharp knife, and holding the blade at right angles to the
+covering-board, draw the edge once or twice along it from left to
+right. This should turn up enough of the edge to form a "burr," which
+causes the knife to cut while being held almost flat on the paper. The
+plate or paper should be laid face downwards on the glass with the
+edge to be pared away from the workman, the knife held in the right
+hand, with the burr downwards. The angle at which to hold the knife
+will depend on its shape and on the thickness and character of the
+paper to be pared, and can only be learned by practice. If the knife
+is in order, and is held at the proper angle, the shaving removed from
+a straight edge of paper should come off in a long spiral. If the
+knife is not in proper order, the paper may be badly jagged or
+creased.
+
+
+                       SOAKING OFF INDIA PROOFS
+
+Place a piece of well-sized paper in a pan of warm water, then lay the
+mounted India proof, face downwards, upon it and leave it to soak
+until the proof floats off. Then carefully take out the old mount, and
+the India proof can be readily removed from the water on the under
+paper, and dried between sheets of blotting-paper.
+
+
+                       MOUNTING VERY THIN PAPER
+
+Very thin paper, such as that of some "India" proofs, may be safely
+mounted as follows:--The mount, ready for use, is laid on a pad of
+blotting-paper. The thin paper to be mounted is laid face downwards on
+a piece of glass and very carefully pasted with thin, white paste. Any
+paste on the glass beyond the edges of the paper is carefully wiped
+off with a clean cloth. The glass may then be turned over, and the
+pasted plate laid on the mount, its exact position being seen through
+the glass.
+
+
+                            SPLITTING PAPER
+
+It is sometimes desirable to split pieces of paper when the matter on
+one side only is needed, or when the matter printed on each side is to
+be used in different places. The paper to be split should be well
+pasted on both sides with a thickish paste, and fine linen or jaconet
+placed on each side. It is then nipped in the press to make the linen
+stick all over, and left to dry.
+
+If the two pieces of jaconet are carefully pulled apart when dry, half
+the paper should be attached to each, unless at any point the paste
+has failed to stick, when the paper will tear. The jaconet and paper
+attached must be put into warm water until the split paper floats off.
+
+
+                       INLAYING LEAVES OR PLATES
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+When a small plate or leaf has to be inserted into a larger book, it
+is best to "inlay it"; that is to say, the plate or leaf is let into a
+sheet of paper the size of the page of the book. To do this, a piece
+of paper as thick as the plate to be inlaid, or a little thicker, is
+selected, and on this is laid the plate, which should have been
+previously squared, and the positions of the corners marked with a
+folder. A point is made about an eighth of an inch inside each corner
+mark, and the paper within these points is cut out (see fig. 16). This
+leaves a frame of paper, the inner edges of which will slightly
+overlap the edges of the plate. The under edge of the plate, and the
+upper edge of the mount, should then be pared and pasted, and the
+plate laid in its place (with the corners corresponding to the folder
+marks). If the edges have been properly pared, the thickness where
+they overlap should not exceed the thickness of the frame paper. If an
+irregular fragment is to be inlaid, it is done in the same way, except
+that the entire outline is traced on the new paper with a folder, and
+the paper cut away, allowing one eighth of an inch inside the indented
+line.
+
+
+                           FLATTENING VELLUM
+
+The leaves of a vellum book that have become cockled from damp or
+other causes may be flattened by damping them, pulling them out
+straight, and allowing them to dry under pressure. To do this take the
+book to pieces, clean out any dirt there may be in the folds of the
+leaves, and spread out each pair of leaves as flatly as possible.
+
+Damp some white blotting-paper by interleaving it with common white
+paper that has been wetted with a sponge. One sheet of wet paper to
+two of blotting-paper will be enough. The pile of blotting-paper and
+wet paper is put in the press and left for an hour or two under
+pressure, then taken out and the common paper removed.
+
+The blotting-paper should now be slightly and evenly damp. To flatten
+the vellum the open pairs of leaves are interleaved with the slightly
+damp blotting-paper, and are left for an hour under the weight of a
+pressing-board. After this time the vellum will have become quite
+soft, and can with care be flattened out and lightly pressed between
+the blotting-paper, and left for a night. The next day the vellum
+leaves should be looked at to see that they lie quite flat, and the
+blotting-paper changed for some that is dry. The vellum must remain
+under pressure until it is quite dry, or it will cockle up worse than
+ever when exposed to the air. The blotting-paper should be changed
+every day or two. The length of time that vellum leaves take to dry
+will vary with the state of the atmosphere, and the thickness of the
+vellum, from one to six weeks.
+
+Almost any manuscript or printed book on vellum can be successfully
+flattened in this way; miniatures should have pieces of waxed paper
+laid over them to prevent the chance of any of the fibres of the
+blotting-paper sticking. The pressure must not be great; only enough
+is needed to keep the vellum flat as it dries.
+
+This process of flattening, although so simple, requires the utmost
+care. If the blotting-paper is used too damp, a manuscript may be
+ruined; and if not damp enough, the pressing will have no effect.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV
+
+                       Sizing--Washing--Mending
+
+
+                                SIZING
+
+The paper in old books is sometimes soft and woolly. This is generally
+because the size has perished, and such paper can often be made
+perfectly sound by resizing.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+For size, an ounce of isinglass or good gelatine is dissolved in a
+quart of water. This should make a clear solution when gently warmed,
+and should be used at about a temperature of 120° F. Care must be
+taken not to heat too quickly, or the solution may burn and turn
+brown. If the size is not quite clear, it should be strained through
+fine muslin or linen before being used. When it is ready it should be
+poured into an open pan (fig. 17), so arranged that it can be kept
+warm by a gas flame or spirit lamp underneath. When this is ready the
+sheets to be sized can be put in one after another and taken out at
+once. The hot size will be found to take out a great many stains, and
+especially those deep brown stains that come from water. If there are
+only a few sheets, they can be placed between blotting-paper as they
+are removed from the size; but if there is a whole book, it is best to
+lay them in a pile one on the other, and when all have been sized to
+squeeze them in the "lying press" between pressing-boards, a pan being
+put underneath to catch the liquid squeezed out. When the sheets have
+been squeezed they can be readily handled, and should be spread out to
+dry on a table upon clean paper. When they are getting dry and firm
+they can be hung on strings stretched across the room, slightly
+overlapping one another. The strings must first be covered with slips
+of clean paper, and the sized sheets should have more paper over them
+to keep them clean.
+
+Before sizing it will be necessary to go through a book and take out
+any pencil or dust marks that can be removed with indiarubber or bread
+crumbs, or the size will fix them, and it will be found exceedingly
+difficult to remove them afterwards.
+
+When the sheets are dry they should be carefully mended in any places
+that may be torn, and folded up into sections and pressed. A long,
+comparatively light pressure will be found to flatten them better and
+with less injury to the surface of the paper than a short, very heavy
+pressure, such as that of the rolling-machine.
+
+In some cases it will be found that sheets of old books are so far
+damaged as to be hardly strong enough to handle. Such sheets must be
+sized in rather a stronger size in the following way:--Take a sheet of
+heavily-sized paper, such as notepaper, and carefully lay your damaged
+sheet on that. Then put another sheet of strong paper on the top, and
+put all three sheets into the size. It will be found that the top
+sheet can then be easily lifted off, and the size be made to flow over
+the face of the damaged sheet. Then, if the top sheet be put on again,
+the three sheets, if handled as one, can be turned over and the
+operation repeated, and size induced to cover the back of the damaged
+leaf. The three sheets must then be taken out and laid between
+blotting-paper to take up the surplus moisture. The top sheet must
+then be carefully peeled off, and the damaged page laid face downwards
+on clean blotting-paper. Then the back sheet can be peeled off as
+well, leaving the damaged sheet to dry.
+
+The following is quoted from "Chambers' Encyclopædia" on Gelatine:--
+
+"Gelatine should never be judged by the eye alone.
+
+"Its purity may be very easily tested thus: Soak it in cold water,
+then pour upon it a small quantity of boiling water. If pure, it will
+form a thickish, clear straw-coloured solution, free from smell; but
+if made of impure materials, it will give off a very offensive odour,
+and have a yellow, gluey consistency."
+
+
+                                WASHING
+
+When there are stains or ink marks on books that cannot be removed by
+the use of hot size or hot water, stronger measures may sometimes have
+to be taken. Many stains will be found to yield readily to hot water
+with a little alum in it, and others can be got out by a judicious
+application of curd soap with a very soft brush and plenty of warm
+water. But some, and especially ink stains, require further treatment.
+There are many ways of washing paper, and most of those in common use
+are extremely dangerous, and have in many cases resulted in the
+absolute destruction of fine books. If it is thought to be absolutely
+necessary that the sheets of a book should be washed, the safest
+method is as follows:--Take an ounce of permanganate of potash
+dissolved in a quart of water, and warmed slightly. In this put the
+sheets to be washed, and leave them until they turn a dark brown. This
+will usually take about an hour, but may take longer for some papers.
+Then turn the sheets out and wash them in running water until all
+trace of purple stain disappears from the water as it comes away. Then
+transfer them to a bath of sulphurous (not sulphuric) acid and water
+in the proportion of one ounce of acid to one pint of water. The
+sheets in this solution will rapidly turn white, and if left for some
+time nearly all stains will be removed. In case any stains refuse to
+come out, the sheets should be put in clear water for a short time,
+and then placed in the permanganate of potash solution again, and left
+there for a longer time than before; then after washing in clear
+water, again transferred to the sulphurous acid. When sheets are
+removed from the sulphurous acid they should be well washed for an
+hour or two in running water, and then may be blotted or squeezed off
+and hung up on lines to dry. Any sheets treated in this way will
+require sizing afterwards. And if, as is often the case, only a few
+sheets at the beginning or end of the book have to be washed, it will
+be necessary to tone down the washed sheets to match the rest of the
+book by putting some stain in the size. For staining there are many
+things used. A weak solution of permanganate of potash gives a
+yellowish stain that will be found to match many papers. Other stains
+are used, such as coffee, chicory, tea, liquorice, &c. Whatever is
+used should be put in the size. To ascertain that the right depth of
+colour has been obtained, a piece of unsized paper, such as white
+blotting-paper, is dipped in the stained size and blotted off and
+dried before the fire. It is impossible to judge of the depth of
+colour in a stain unless the test piece is thoroughly dried. If the
+stain is not right, add more water or more stain as is needed.
+Experience will tell what stain to use to match the paper of any given
+book.
+
+To remove grease or oil stains, ether may be used. Pour it freely in a
+circle round the spot, narrowing the circle gradually until the stain
+is covered. Then apply a warm iron through a piece of blotting-paper.
+
+Ether should only be used in a draught in a well-ventilated room on
+account of its well-known inflammable and anæsthetical properties.
+
+A very dilute (about one per cent.) solution of pure hydrochloric acid
+in cold water will be found to take out some stains if the paper is
+left in it for some hours. When the paper is removed from the
+solution, it must be thoroughly washed in running water. It is
+important that the hydrochloric acid used should be pure, as the
+commercial quality (spirits of salts) often contains sulphuric acid.
+
+The following recipes are quoted from _De l'organisation et de
+l'administration des Bibliothèques, par Jules Cusin_:--
+
+To remove stains from paper:--"_Mud Stains._--To take away these kinds
+of stains, spread some soap jelly very evenly over the stained places,
+and leave it there for thirty or forty minutes, according to the depth
+of the stain. Then dip the sheet in clean water, and then having
+spread it on a perfectly clean table, remove the soap lightly with a
+hog's hair brush or a fine sponge; all the mud will disappear at the
+same time. Put the sheet into the clear water again, to get rid of the
+last trace of soap. Let it drain a little, press it lightly between
+two sheets of blotting-paper, and finish by letting it dry slowly in
+a dry place in the shade.
+
+"_Stains of Tallow, Stearine, or Fat._--To take away these stains
+cover them with blotting-paper and pass over them a warm flat-iron.
+When the paper has soaked up the grease, change it and repeat the
+operation until the stains have been sufficiently removed. After that,
+touch both sides of the sheets where they have been stained with a
+brush dipped in essence of turpentine heated to boiling-point. Then to
+restore the whiteness of the paper, touch the places which were
+stained with a piece of fine linen soaked in purified spirits of wine
+warmed in the water-bath. This method may also be employed to get rid
+of sealing-wax stains.
+
+"_Oil Stains._--Make a mixture of 500 gr. of soap, 300 gr. of clay, 60
+gr. of quicklime, and sufficient water to make it of the right
+consistency, spread a thin layer of this on the stain, and leave it
+there about a quarter of an hour. Then dip the sheet in a bath of hot
+water; take it out, and let it dry slowly.
+
+"You can also use the following method, generally employed for
+finger-marks:--
+
+"_Finger-marks._--These stains are sometimes very obstinate. Still
+they can generally be mastered by the following method:--Spread over
+them a layer of white soap jelly (_savon blanc en gelée_), and leave
+it there for some hours. Then remove this with a fine sponge dipped in
+hot water, and more often than not all the dirt disappears at the same
+time. If this treatment is not sufficient, you might replace the soap
+jelly by soft soap (_savon noir_), but you must be careful not to
+leave it long on the printing, which might decompose and run, and that
+would do more harm than good."
+
+Sheets of very old books are best left with the stains of age upon
+them, excepting, perhaps, such as can be removed with hot water or
+size. Nearly all stains _can_ be removed, but in the process old paper
+is apt to lose more in character than it gains in appearance.
+
+
+                                MENDING
+
+For mending torn sheets of an old book, some paper that matches as
+nearly as possible must be found. For this purpose it is the custom
+for bookbinders to collect quantities of old paper. If a piece of the
+same tone cannot be found, paper of similar texture and substance may
+be stained to match.
+
+Supposing a corner to be missing, and a piece of paper to have been
+found that matches it, the torn page is laid over the new paper in
+such a way that the wire marks on both papers correspond. Then the
+point of a folder should be drawn along the edge of the torn sheet,
+leaving an indented line on the new paper. The new paper should then
+be cut off about an eighth of an inch beyond the indented line, and
+the edge carefully pared up to the line. The edge of the old paper
+must be similarly pared, so that the two edges when laid together will
+not exceed the thickness of the rest of the page. It is well to leave
+a little greater overlap at the edges of the page. Both cut edges must
+then be well pasted with white paste and rubbed down between
+blotting-paper. To ensure a perfectly clean joint the pasted edge
+should not be touched with the hand, and pasting-paper, brushes, and
+paste must be perfectly clean.
+
+In the case of a tear across the page, if there are any overlapping
+edges, they may merely be pasted together and the end of the tear at
+the edge of the paper strengthened by a small piece of pared paper. If
+the tear crosses print, and there are no overlapping edges, either
+tiny pieces of pared paper may be cut and laid across the tear between
+the lines of print, or else a piece of the thinnest Japanese paper,
+which is nearly transparent, may be pasted right along the tear over
+the print; in either case the mend should be strengthened at the edge
+of the page by an additional thickness of paper. In cases where the
+backs of the sections have been much damaged, it will be necessary to
+put a guard the entire length, or in the case of small holes, to fill
+them in with pieces of torn paper. The edges of any mend may, with
+great care, be scraped with a sharp knife having a slight burr on the
+under side, and then rubbed lightly with a piece of worn fine
+sand-paper, or a fragment of cuttle-fish bone. Care must be taken not
+to pare away too much, and especially not to weaken the mend at the
+edges of the sheet. As a general rule, the new mending paper should go
+on the back of a sheet.
+
+Sometimes it is thought necessary to fill up worm-holes in the paper.
+This may be done by boiling down some paper in size until it is of a
+pulpy consistency, and a little of this filled into the worm-holes
+will re-make the paper in those places. It is a very tedious
+operation, and seldom worth doing.
+
+Mending vellum is done in much the same way as mending paper,
+excepting that a little greater overlap must be left. It is well to
+put a stitch of silk at each end of a vellum patch, as you cannot
+depend on paste alone holding vellum securely. The overlapping edges
+must be well roughed up with a knife to make sure that the paste will
+stick. A cut in a vellum page is best mended with fine silk with a
+lacing stitch (see fig. 18).
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+Mending is most easily done on a sheet of plate-glass, of which the
+edges and corners have been rubbed down.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+                 End Papers--Leather Joints--Pressing
+
+
+                              END PAPERS
+
+If an old book that has had much wear is examined, it will generally
+be found that the leaves at the beginning and the end have suffered
+more than the rest of the book. On this ground, and also to enable
+people who must write notes in books to do so with the least injury to
+the book, it is advisable to put a good number of blank papers at each
+end. As these papers are part of the binding, and have an important
+protective function to perform, they should be of good quality. At all
+times difficulty has been found in preventing the first and last
+section of the book, whether end papers or not, from dragging away
+when the cover is opened, and various devices have been tried to
+overcome this defect. In the fifteenth century strips of vellum
+(usually cut from manuscripts) were pasted on to the back of the book
+and on the inside of the boards, or in some cases were merely folded
+round the first and last section and pasted on to the covers. The
+modern, and far less efficient, practice is to "overcast" the first
+and last sections. This is objectionable, because it prevents the
+leaves from opening right to the back, and it fails in the object
+aimed at, by merely transferring the strain to the back of the
+overcast section.
+
+In order to make provision for any strain there may be in opening the
+cover, it is better to adopt some such arrangement as shown in fig.
+19. In this end paper the zigzag opens slightly in response to any
+strain.
+
+The way to make this end paper is to take a folded sheet of paper a
+little larger than the book. Then with dividers mark two points an
+eighth of an inch from the back for the fold, and paste your
+paste-down paper, B B, up to these points (see fig. 19, II). When the
+paste is dry, fold back the sheet (A1) over the paste-down paper, and
+A2 the reverse way, leaving the form seen in fig. 19, III. A folded
+sheet of paper similar to A is inserted at C (fig. 19, V, H), and the
+sewing passes through this. When the book is pasted down the leaf A1
+is torn off, and B1 pasted down on the board. If marbled paper is
+desired, the marble should be "made," that is, pasted on to B1.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 19.]
+
+There are considerable disadvantages in using marbled papers, as if
+they are of thick enough paper to help the strength of the binding,
+the "made" sheet is very stiff, and in a small book is troublesome. On
+no account should any marble paper be used, unless it is tough and
+durable. The quality of the paper of which most marbled papers are
+made is so poor, that it is unsuitable for use as end papers. For most
+books a self-coloured paper of good quality answers well for the
+paste-down sheets.
+
+It is a mistake to leave end papers to be pasted on after the book has
+been forwarded, as in that case they have little constructive value.
+Every leaf of such an end paper as is described above will open right
+to the back, and the zigzag allows play for the drag of the board.
+
+Paper with a conventional pattern painted or printed on it may be used
+for end papers. If such a design is simple, such as a sprig repeated
+all over, or an arrangement of stars or dots, it may look very well;
+but over elaborate end papers, and especially those that aim at
+pictorial effect, are seldom successful.
+
+Ends may be made of thin vellum. If so, unless the board is very
+heavy, it is best to have leather joints.
+
+A single leaf of vellum (in the place of B1 and 2, II, fig. 19) should
+have an edge turned up into the zigzag with the leather joint, and
+sewn through. Vellum ends must always be sewn, as it is not safe to
+rely upon paste to hold them. They look well, and may be enriched by
+tooling. The disadvantage of vellum is, that it has a tendency to curl
+up if subjected to heat, and when it contracts it unduly draws the
+boards of the book. For large manuscripts, or printed books on vellum,
+which are bound in wooden or other thick boards and are clasped,
+thicker vellum may be used for the ends; that with a slightly brown
+surface looks best. The part that will come into the joint should be
+scraped thin with a knife, and a zigzag made of Japanese paper.
+
+Silk or other fine woven material may be used for ends. It is best
+used with a leather joint, and may be stuck on to the first paper of
+the end papers (B1, No. 2, fig. 19), and cut with the book. The
+glaire of the edge gilding will help to stop the edges fraying out. In
+attaching silk to paper, thin glue is the best thing to use; the
+paper, not the silk, being glued. Some little practice is needed to
+get sufficient glue on the paper to make the silk stick all over, and
+yet not to soil it. When the silk has been glued to the paper, it
+should be left under a light weight to dry. If put in the press, the
+glue may be squeezed through and the silk soiled.
+
+If the silk is very thin, or delicate in colour, or if it seems likely
+that it will fray out at the edges, it is better to turn the edges in
+over a piece of paper cut a little smaller than the page of the book
+and stick them down. This forms a pad, which may be attached to the
+first leaf of the end papers; a similar pad may be made for filling in
+the board.
+
+Before using, the silk should be damped and ironed flat on the wrong
+side.
+
+Silk ends give a book a rich finish, but seldom look altogether
+satisfactory. If the silk is merely stuck on to the first end paper,
+the edges will generally fray out if the book is much used. If the
+edges are turned in, an unpleasantly thick end is made.
+
+
+                            LEATHER JOINTS
+
+Leather joints are pieces of thin leather that are used to cover the
+joints on the inside (for paring, see page 154). They add very little
+strength to the book, but give a pleasant finish to the inside of the
+board.
+
+If there are to be leather joints, the end papers are made up without
+A 1, and the edge of the leather pasted and inserted at D, with a
+piece of common paper as a protection (see fig. 19, IV). When the
+paste is dry, the leather is folded over at E.
+
+A piece of blotting-paper may be pasted on to the inside of the waste
+leaf, leaving enough of it loose to go between the leather joint and
+the first sheet of the end paper. This will avoid any chance of the
+leather joint staining or marking the ends while the book is being
+bound. The blotting-paper, of course, is taken out with the waste
+sheet before the joint is pasted down.
+
+Joints may also be made of linen or cloth inserted in the same way. A
+cloth joint has greater strength than a leather one, as the latter has
+to be very thin in order that the board may shut properly.
+
+With leather or cloth joints, the sewing should go through both E and
+F.
+
+
+                               PRESSING
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 20.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Standing Press]
+
+While the end papers are being made, the sections of the book should
+be pressed. To do this a pressing-board is taken which is a little
+larger than the book, and a tin, covered with common paper, placed on
+that, then a few sections of the book, then another tin covered with
+paper, and then more sections, and so on, taking care that the
+sections are exactly over one another (see fig. 20). A second
+pressing-board having been placed on the last tin, the pile of
+sections, tins, and pressing-boards can be put into the standing-press
+and left under pressure till next day. Newly printed plates should be
+protected by thin tissue paper while being pressed. Any folded plates
+or maps, &c., or inserted letters, must either not be pressed, or have
+tins placed on each side of them to prevent them from indenting the
+adjoining leaves.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 22.--French Standing Press]
+
+Hand-printed books, such as the publications of the Kelmscott Press,
+should have very little pressure, or the "impression" of the print and
+the surface of the paper may be injured. Books newly printed on vellum
+or heavily coloured illustrations should not be pressed at all, or the
+print may "set off."
+
+The protecting tissues on the plates of a book that has been printed
+for more than a year can generally be left out, unless the titles of
+the plates are printed on them, as they are a nuisance to readers and
+often get crumpled up and mark the book.
+
+In order to make books solid, that is, to make the leaves lie evenly
+and closely to one another, it was formerly the custom to beat books
+on a "stone" with a heavy hammer. This process has been superseded by
+the rolling-press; but with the admirable presses that are now to be
+had, simple pressing will be found to be sufficient for the "extra"
+binder.
+
+At fig. 21 is shown an iron standing-press. This is screwed down first
+with a short bar, and finally with a long bar. This form of press is
+effective and simple, but needs a good deal of room for the long bar,
+and must have very firm supports, or it may be pulled over.
+
+At fig. 22 is shown a French standing-press, in which the pressure is
+applied by a weighted wheel, which will, in the first place, by being
+spun round, turn the screw until it is tight, and give additional
+pressure by a hammering action. This press I have found to answer for
+all ordinary purposes, and to give as great pressure as can be got by
+the iron standing-press, without any undue strain on supports or
+workmen.
+
+There are many other forms of press by which great pressure can be
+applied, some working by various arrangements of cog-wheels, screws,
+and levers, others by hydraulic pressure.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI
+
+              Trimming Edges before Sewing--Edge Gilding
+
+
+                        TRIMMING BEFORE SEWING
+
+When the sheets come from the press the treatment of the edges must be
+decided upon, that is, whether they are to be entirely uncut, trimmed
+before sewing, or cut in boards.
+
+Early printed books and manuscripts should on no account have their
+edges cut at all, and any modern books of value are better only
+slightly trimmed and gilt before sewing. But for books of reference
+that need good bindings, on account of the wear they have to
+withstand, cutting in boards is best, as the smooth edge so obtained
+makes the leaves easier to turn over. Gilt tops and rough edges give a
+book a look of unequal finish.
+
+If the edges are to remain uncut, or be cut "in boards" with the
+plough, the book will be ready for "marking up" as soon as it comes
+from the press; but if it is to be gilt before sewing, it must be
+first trimmed.
+
+    [Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+The sheets for trimming with end papers and all plates inserted must
+first be cut square at the head against a carpenter's square (see fig.
+7). Then a piece of mill-board may be cut to the size, it is desired
+to leave the leaves, and the sections trimmed to it. To do this three
+nails should be put into the covering board through a piece of
+straw-board, and the back of the section slid along nails 1 and 2
+until it touches No. 3 (see fig. 23). The board is slid in the same
+way, and anything projecting beyond it cut off. When the under
+straw-board has become inconveniently scored in the first position, by
+shifting the lower nail (1) a fresh surface will receive the cuts.
+Fig. 24 is a representation of a simple machine that I use in my
+workshop for trimming. The slides A A are adjustable to any width
+required, and are fixed by the screws B B. The brass-bound straight
+edge C fits on to slots in A A, and as this, by the adjustment of the
+slides, can be fixed at any distance from B B, all sizes of books can
+be trimmed. As by this machine several sections can be cut at once,
+the time taken is not very much greater than if the book were cut in
+the plough.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 24.]
+
+Considerable judgment is required in trimming. The edges of the larger
+pages only, on a previously uncut book, should be cut, leaving the
+smaller pages untouched. Such uncut pages are called "proof," and the
+existence of proof in a bound book is evidence that it has not been
+unduly cut.
+
+Before gilding the edges of the trimmed sections, any uncut folds
+that may remain should be opened with a folder, as if opened after
+gilding, they will show a ragged white edge.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 25.]
+
+
+                             EDGE GILDING
+
+To gild the edges of trimmed sections, the book must be "knocked up"
+to the fore-edge, getting as many of the short leaves as possible to
+the front. It is then put into the "lying press," with gilding boards
+on each side (see fig. No. 25), and screwed up tightly. Very little
+scraping will be necessary, and usually if well rubbed with fine
+sand-paper, to remove any chance finger-marks or loose fragments of
+paper, the edge will be smooth enough to gild. If the paper is very
+absorbent, the edges must be washed over with vellum size and left to
+dry.
+
+The next process is an application of red chalk. For this a piece of
+gilder's red chalk is rubbed down on a stone with water, making a
+thickish paste, and the edges are well brushed with a hard brush
+dipped in this mixture, care being taken not to have it wet enough to
+run between the leaves. Some gilders prefer to use blacklead or a
+mixture of chalk and blacklead. A further brushing with a dry brush
+will to some extent polish the leaves. It will then be ready for an
+application of glaire. Before glairing, the gold must be cut on the
+cushion to the width required (see p. 200), and may be either taken up
+on very slightly greased paper, a gilder's tip, or with a piece of net
+stretched on a little frame (see fig. 26). The gold leaf will adhere
+sufficiently to the net, and can be readily released by a light breath
+when it is exactly over the proper place on the edge.
+
+When the gold is ready, the glaire should be floated on to the edge
+with a soft brush, and the gold spread evenly over it and left until
+dry; that is, in a workshop of ordinary temperature, for about an
+hour. The edge is then lightly rubbed with a piece of leather that has
+been previously rubbed on beeswax, and is ready for burnishing. It is
+best to commence burnishing through a piece of thin slightly waxed
+paper to set the gold, and afterwards the burnisher can be used
+directly on the edge. A piece of bloodstone ground so as to have no
+sharp edges (see fig. 27) makes a good burnisher.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 26]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 27.]
+
+There are several different preparations used for gilding edges. One
+part of beaten up white of egg with four parts of water left to stand
+for a day and strained will be found to answer well.
+
+After the fore-edge is gilt the same operation is repeated at the head
+and tail. As it is desirable to have the gilding at the head as solid
+as possible, rather more scraping is advisable here, or the head may
+be left to be cut with a plough and gilt in boards.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+
+               Marking up--Sewing--Materials for Sewing
+
+
+                              MARKING UP
+
+This is drawing lines across the back of the sections to show the
+sewer the position of the sewing cords.
+
+Marking up for flexible sewing needs care and judgment, as on it
+depends the position of the bands on the back of the bound book.
+Nearly all books look best with five bands, but very large, thinnish
+folios may have six, and a very small, thick book may look better with
+four. Generally speaking, five is the best number. In marking up
+trimmed sheets for flexible sewing, the length of the back should be
+divided from the head into six portions, five equal, and one at the
+tail slightly longer. From the points so arrived at, strong pencil
+lines should be made across the back with a carpenter's square as
+guide, the book having been previously knocked up between
+pressing-boards, and placed in the lying press. It is important that
+the head should be knocked up exactly square, as otherwise the bands
+will be found to slope when the book is bound. In the case of a book
+which is to be cut and gilt in boards, before marking up it will be
+necessary to decide how much is to be cut off, and allowance made, or
+the head and tail division of the back will, when cut, be too small.
+It must also be remembered that to the height of the pages the amount
+of the "squares" will be added.
+
+About a quarter of an inch from either end of the back of a trimmed
+book, and a little more in the case of one that is to be cut in
+boards, a mark should be made for the "kettle" or "catch" stitch. This
+may be slightly sawn in, but before using the saw, the end papers are
+removed. If these were sawn, the holes would show in the joint when
+the ends are pasted down.
+
+If the book is to be sewn on double cords, or on slips of vellum or
+tape, two lines will be necessary for each band.
+
+It has become the custom to saw in the backs of books, and to sink the
+bands into the saw cuts, using "hollow backs," and putting false bands
+to appear when bound. This is a degenerate form, to which is due much
+of the want of durability of modern bindings. If the bands are not to
+show on the back, it is better to sew on tapes or strips of vellum
+than to use sawn-in string bands.
+
+
+                                SEWING
+
+The sewing-frame need by bookbinders is practically the same now as is
+shown in prints of the early sixteenth century, and probably dates
+from still earlier times. It consists of a bed with two uprights and a
+crossbar, which can be heightened or lowered by the turning of wooden
+nuts working on a screw thread cut in the uprights (see fig. 29).
+
+To set up for sewing, as many loops of cord, called "lay cords," as
+there are to be bands, are threaded on to the cross piece, and to
+these, by a simple knot, shown at fig. 28, cords are fastened to form
+the bands. The "lay cords" can be used again and again until worn
+out.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 28.]
+
+To fasten the cord below, a key is taken (see fig. 28) and held below
+the press by the right hand; the cord is then pulled up round it by
+the left, and held in position on the key by the first finger of the
+right hand. The key is then turned over, winding up a little of the
+string, and the prongs slipped over the main cord. It is then put
+through the slit in the bed of the sewing-press, with the prongs away
+from the front. The cord is then cut off, and the same operation
+repeated for each band. When all the bands have been set up, the book
+is laid against them, and they are moved to correspond with the marks
+previously made on the back of the book, care being taken that they
+are quite perpendicular. If they are of the same length and evenly set
+up, on screwing up the crossbar they should all tighten equally.
+
+It will be found to be convenient to set up the cords as far to the
+right hand of the press as possible, as then there will be room for
+the sewer's left arm on the inner side of the left hand upright.
+
+A roll of paper that will exactly fill the slot in the sewing-frame is
+pushed in in front of the upright cords to steady them and ensure
+that they are all in the same plane.
+
+When the sewing-frame is ready, with the cords set up and adjusted,
+the book must be collated to make sure that neither sheets nor plates
+have been lost or misplaced during the previous operations. Plates
+need special care to see that the guards go properly round the sheets
+next them.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 29.]
+
+The top back corner, on front and back waste end paper, should be
+marked. When this has been done, and all is found to be in order, the
+book is laid on a pressing-board behind the sewing-frame, the
+fore-edge towards the sewer, and the front end paper uppermost. As it
+is difficult to insert the needle into a section placed on the bed of
+the sewing-frame, it will be found convenient to sew upon a largish
+pressing-board, which will lie on the bed of the frame, and may have
+small catches to prevent it from shifting. When the board is in place,
+the first section (end paper) is taken in the left hand and turned
+over, so that the marks on the back come in the proper places against
+the strings. The left hand is inserted into the place where the sewing
+is to be, and with the right hand a needle and thread is passed
+through the kettle stitch mark (see fig. 29). It is grasped by the
+fingers of the left hand, is passed out through the back at the first
+mark on the left-hand side of the first upright cord, and pulled
+tight, leaving a loose end of thread at the kettle stitch. Then with
+the right hand it is inserted again in the same place, but from the
+other side of the cord, and so on round all five bands, and out again
+at the kettle stitch mark at the tail, using right and left hands
+alternately. The centre of the next section is then found, and it is
+sewn in the same way from tail to head, the thread being tied to the
+loose end hanging from the first kettle stitch. Another section is
+laid on and sewn, but when the kettle stitch is reached, the under
+thread is caught up in the way shown in fig. 30. These operations are
+repeated throughout the whole book. If the back seems likely to swell
+too much, the sections can be lightly tapped down with a loaded stick
+made for the purpose, care being taken not to drive the sections
+inwards, as it is difficult to get such sections out again. When all
+the sheets and the last end paper have been sewn on, a double catch
+stitch is made, and the end cut off. This method is known as flexible
+sewing "all along."
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 30.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 31.]
+
+When one needle full of thread is exhausted, another is tied on,
+making practically a continuous length of thread going all along each
+section and round every band. The weaver's knot is the best for
+joining the lengths of thread. A simple way of tying it is shown at
+fig. 31. A simple slip knot is made in the end of the new thread and
+put over the end of the old, and, on being pulled tight, the old
+thread should slip through, as shewn at B. The convenience of this
+knot is, that by its use a firm attachment can be made quite close up
+to the back of the book. This is a great advantage, as if the knot is
+made at some distance from the back, it will have to be dragged
+through the section two or three times, instead of only once. The
+knot, after having been made, must be pulled inside the section, and
+remain there. Considerable judgment is required in sewing. If a book
+is sewn too loosely, it is almost impossible to bind it firmly; and if
+too tightly, especially if the kettle stitches have been drawn too
+tight, the thread may break in "backing," and the book have to be
+resewn.
+
+One way to avoid having too much swelling in the back of a book
+consisting of a great many very thin sections is to sew "two sheets
+on." In this form of sewing two sections at a time are laid on the
+sewing-frame. The thread is inserted at the "kettle stitch" of the
+lower section, and brought out as usual at the first cord, but instead
+of being reinserted into the lower section, it is passed into the
+upper one, and so on, alternately passing into the upper and lower
+sections. This will give, if there are five bands, three stitches in
+each section instead of six, as there would be if the sewing were
+"all along," lessening the thread, consequently the swelling by half.
+It is usual to sew the first and last few sections "all along."
+
+The common method of sewing is to make saw cuts in the back, in which
+thin cords can be sunk, and the thread merely passes behind them and
+not round them, as in flexible sewing. This method, although very
+quick and cheap, is not to be recommended, on account of the injury
+done to the backs of the sections by the saw, and because the glue
+running into the saw cuts is apt to make the back stiff, and to
+prevent the book from opening right to the back. Indeed, were a
+sawn-in book to open right to the back, as it is expected a
+flexibly-sewn book will do, showing the sewing along the centre of
+each section, the saw marks with the band inserted would show, and be
+a serious disfigurement.
+
+Mediæval books were usually sewn on double cords or strips of leather,
+and the headband was often sewn at the same time, as shown at fig. 32,
+A. This is an excellent method for very large books with heavy
+sections, and is specially suitable for large vellum manuscripts, in
+many of which the sections are very thick. An advantage of this
+method is, that the twist round the double cord virtually makes a knot
+at every band, and should a thread at any place break, there is no
+danger of the rest of the thread coming loose. This is the only mode
+of sewing by which a thread runs absolutely from end to end of the
+sections. The headband sewn at the same time, and so tied down in
+every section, is firmer and stronger than if worked on in the way now
+usual. In the fifteenth century it was the custom to lace the ends of
+the headbands into the boards in the same way as the other bands. This
+method, while giving additional strength at the head and tail, and
+avoiding the somewhat unfinished look of the cut-off ends of the
+modern headband, is, on the whole, of doubtful advantage, as it is
+necessary to cut the "turn in" at the point where strength in the
+leather is much wanted.
+
+At fig. 32 is shown in section the three methods of sewing mentioned.
+A is the old sewing round double bands; with the headbands worked at
+the same time with the same thread; B is the modern flexible sewing,
+and C the common sawn-in method.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 32.]
+
+Books that are very thin or are to be bound in vellum, are best sewn
+on tapes or vellum slips. The easiest way to set up the sewing-frame
+for such sewing is to sling a piece of wood through two of the lay
+cords, and to pin one end of the vellum or tape band round this, pull
+the other end tight, and secure it with a drawing-pin underneath the
+frame. The sewing, in the case of such flat bands, would not go round,
+but only across them. To avoid undue looseness, every three or four
+threads may be caught up at the back of the band, as shown in fig. 33.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 33.]
+
+
+                         MATERIALS FOR SEWING
+
+The cord used should be of the best hemp, specially made with only two
+strands of very long fibres to facilitate fraying out. For very large
+books where a double cord is to be used, the best water line will be
+found to answer, care being taken to select that which can be frayed
+out. If tape is used it should be unbleached, such as the sailmakers
+use. Thread should also be unbleached, as the unnecessary bleaching of
+most bookbinder's sewing-thread seems to cause it to rot in a
+comparatively short time. Silk of the best quality is better than any
+thread. The ligature silk, undyed, as used by surgeons, is perhaps the
+strongest material, and can be had in various thicknesses. It is
+impossible to pay too great attention to the selection of sewing
+materials, as the permanency of the binding depends on their
+durability. The rebinding of valuable books is at best a necessary
+evil, and anything that makes frequent rebinding necessary, is not
+only objectionable on account of the cost involved, but because it
+seriously shortens the life of the book.
+
+Experience is required to judge what thickness of thread to use for
+any given book. If the sections are very thin, a thin thread must be
+used, or the "swelling" of the back caused by the additional thickness
+of the thread in that part will be excessive, and make the book
+unmanageable in "backing." On the other hand, if the sections are
+large, and a too thin thread is used, there will not be enough
+swelling to make a firm "joint." Broadly speaking, when there are a
+great many very thin sections, the thinnest thread may be used; and
+coarser thread may be used when the sections are thicker, or fewer in
+number. In the case of large manuscripts on vellum it is best to use
+very thick silk, or even catgut. Vellum is so tough and durable, that
+any binding of a vellum book should be made as if it were expected to
+last for hundreds of years.
+
+In selecting the thickness of cord for a book, some judgment is
+required. On an old book the bands are best made rather prominent by
+the use of thick cord, but the exact thickness to be used is a matter
+for taste and experience to decide.
+
+A very thick band on a small book is clumsy, while a very thin band on
+the back of a heavy book suggests weakness, and is therefore
+unsightly.
+
+In bindings of early printed books and manuscripts an appearance of
+great strength is better than extreme neatness.
+
+When the sewing is completed, the cords are cut off close to the lay
+cords, and then the keys will be loose enough to be easily removed.
+The knots remaining on the lay bands are removed, and the keys slung
+through one of them.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VIII
+
+          Fraying out Slips--Glueing up--Rounding and Backing
+
+
+                   FRAYING OUT SLIPS AND GLUEING UP
+
+After sewing, the book should be looked through to see that all sheets
+and plates have been caught by the thread, and special attention
+should be given to end papers to see that the sewing lies evenly.
+
+The ends of the cords should next be cut off to within about two
+inches of the book on each side, and the free portions frayed out. If
+proper sewing cord is used, this will be found to be very easily done,
+if a binder's bodkin is first inserted between the two strands,
+separating them, and then again in the centre of each separated strand
+to still further straighten the fibres (see fig. 34).
+
+The fraying out of the thick cord recommended for heavy books is a
+more difficult operation, but with a little trouble the fibres of any
+good cord can be frayed out. Vellum or tape bands will only require
+cutting off, leaving about two inches free on each side. The free
+parts of the bands are called slips.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 34.]
+
+The book is now ready for glueing up. A piece of waste mill-board or
+an old cloth cover is put on each side over the slips, and the book
+knocked up squarely at the back and head. Then it is lowered into the
+lying press and screwed up, leaving the back with the protecting
+boards projecting about three-quarters of an inch. If the back has too
+much swelling in it or is spongy, it is better to leave the slips on
+one side free and to pull them as tight as possible while the book is
+held in the press, or a knocking-down iron may be placed on one side
+of the projecting back and the other side tapped with the backing
+hammer to make the sections lie close to one another, and then the
+slips pulled straight (fig. 35). The back must now be glued. The glue
+for this operation must be hot, and not too thick. It is very
+important that it should be worked well between the sections with the
+brush, and it is well after it has been applied to rub the back with a
+finger or folder to make quite sure that the glue goes between every
+section for its entire length. If the book is too tightly screwed up
+in the press, the glue is apt to remain too much on the surface; and
+if not tightly enough, it may penetrate too deeply between the
+sections. If the glue is thick, or stringy, it may be diluted with hot
+water and the glue-brush rapidly spun round in the glue-pot to break
+it up and to make it work freely.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 35.]
+
+Very great care is needed to see that the head of a previously trimmed
+book is knocked up exactly square before the back is glued, for if it
+is not, it will be very difficult to get it even afterwards.
+
+
+                         ROUNDING AND BACKING
+
+The amount of rounding on the back of a book should be determined by
+the necessities of the case; that is to say, a back that has, through
+guarding, or excess of sewing, a tendency to be round, is best not
+forced to be flat, and a back that would naturally be flat, is best
+not forced to be unduly round. A very round back is objectionable
+where it can be avoided, because it takes up so much of the back
+margins of the sheets, and is apt to make the book stiff in opening.
+On the other hand, a back that is quite flat has to be lined up
+stiffly, or it may become concave with use.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 36.]
+
+The method of rounding is to place the book with the back projecting a
+little over the edge of the press or table, then to draw the back over
+towards the workman, and, while in this position, to tap it carefully
+with a hammer (see fig. 36). This is repeated on the other side of the
+book, and, if properly done, will give the back an even, convex form
+that should be in section, a portion of a circle. Rounding and backing
+are best done after the glue has ceased to be tacky, but before it has
+set hard.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 37.]
+
+Backing is perhaps the most difficult and important operation in
+forwarding. The sewing threads in the back cause that part to be
+thicker than the rest of the book. Thus in a book with twenty sections
+there will be in the back, in addition to the thickness of the paper,
+twenty thicknesses of thread.
+
+If the boards were laced on to the book without rounding or backing,
+and the book were pressed, the additional thickness of the back,
+having to go somewhere, would cause it to go either convex or concave,
+or else perhaps to crease up (see fig. 37). The object of rounding is
+to control the distribution of this swelling, and to make the back
+take an even and permanently convex form.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 38.]
+
+If the boards were merely laced on after rounding, there would be a
+gap between the square ends of the board and the edge of the back (see
+fig. 38), though the convexity and even curve of the back would be to
+some extent assured. What is done in backing is to make a groove, into
+which the edges of the board will fit neatly, and to hammer the backs
+of the sections over one another from the centre outwards on both
+sides to form the "groove," to ensure that the back shall return to
+the same form after the book has been opened.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 39.]
+
+To back the book, backing boards are placed on each side (leaving the
+slips outside) a short distance below the edge of the back (fig. 39).
+The amount to leave here must be decided by the thickness of the
+boards to be used. When the backing boards are in position, the book
+and boards must be carefully lowered into the lying press and screwed
+up very tight, great care being taken to see that the boards do not
+slip, and that the book is put in evenly. Even the most experienced
+forwarder will sometimes have to take a book out of the press two or
+three times before he gets it in quite evenly and without allowing the
+boards to slip. Unless the back has a perfectly even curve when put in
+the press for backing, no amount of subsequent hammering will put it
+permanently right.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 40.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 41.]
+
+The backs of the sections should be evenly fanned out one over the
+other from the centre outwards on both sides. This is done by side
+strokes of the hammer, in fact by a sort of "riveting" blow, and not
+by a directly crushing blow (see fig. 41, in which the arrows show the
+direction of the hammer strokes). If the sections are not evenly
+fanned out from the centre, but are either zigzagged by being crushed
+by direct blows of the hammer, as shown in fig. 42, A, or are unevenly
+fanned over more to one side than the other, as shown in fig. 42, B,
+the back, although it may be even enough when first done, will
+probably become uneven with use. A book in which the sections have
+been crushed down, as at fig. 42, A, will be disfigured inside by
+creases in the paper.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 42.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 43.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 44.]
+
+It is a mistake to suppose that a very heavy hammer is necessary for
+backing any but the largest books. For flexible books a hammer with a
+comparatively small face should be used, as by its use the book can be
+backed without flattening the bands. It is well to have a hammer head
+of the shape shown in fig. 43. By using the thin end, the force of a
+comparatively light blow, because concentrated on a small surface, is
+effective.
+
+At fig. 44 is shown an ordinary backing hammer.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IX
+
+       Cutting and Attaching Boards--Cleaning off Back--Pressing
+
+
+                     CUTTING AND ATTACHING BOARDS
+
+The first quality of the best black board made from old rope is the
+best to use for "extra" binding. It will be found to be very hard, and
+not easily broken or bent at the corners. In selecting the thickness
+suitable for any given book, the size and thickness of the volume
+should be taken into account. The tendency of most modern binders is
+to use a rather over thick board, perhaps with a view to bulk out the
+volume. For manuscripts, or other books on vellum, it is best to use
+wooden boards, which should be clasped. From their stability they form
+a kind of permanent press, in which the vellum leaves are kept flat.
+In a damp climate like that of England, vellum, absorbing moisture
+from the atmosphere, soon cockles up unless it is held tightly in some
+way; and when it is once cockled, the book cannot be made to shut
+properly, except with very special treatment. Then also dust and damp
+have ready access to the interstices of the crinkled pages, resulting
+in the disfigurement so well known and so deplored by all lovers of
+fine books.
+
+For large books a "made" board, that is, two boards pasted together,
+is better than a single board of the same thickness. In making boards
+a thin and a thick board should be pasted together, the thin board to
+go nearest the book. It will not be necessary to put a double lining
+on the inside of such boards, as a thin board will always draw a thick
+one.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 45.]
+
+If mill-boards are used they are first cut roughly to size with the
+mill-board shears, screwed up in the "lying" press. The straight arm
+of the shears is the one to fix in the press, for if the bent arm be
+undermost, the knuckles are apt to be severely bruised against the
+end. A better way of fixing the shears is shown at fig. 45. Any
+blacksmith will bend the arm of the shears and make the necessary
+clips. This method saves trouble and considerable wear and tear to
+the "lying" press. Where a great many boards are needed, they may be
+quickly cut in a board machine, but for "extra" work they should be
+further trimmed in the plough, in the same way as those cut by the
+shears. After the boards have been roughly cut to size, they should
+have one edge cut straight with the plough. To do this one or two
+pairs of boards are knocked up to the back and inserted in the cutting
+side of the press, with those edges projecting which are to be cut
+off, and behind them, as a "cut against," a board protected by a waste
+piece of mill-board.
+
+The plough, held by the screw and handle, and guided by the runners on
+the press, is moved backwards and forwards. A slight turn of the screw
+at each movement brings the knife forward. In cutting mill-boards
+which are very hard, the screw should be turned very little each time.
+If press and plough are in proper order, that part of the board which
+projects above the cheek of the press should be cut off, leaving the
+edges perfectly square and straight. If the edge of the press has been
+damaged, or is out of "truth," a cutting board may be used between
+the cheek of the press and the board to be cut, making a true edge for
+the knife to run on.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 46.--Lying or Cutting Press]
+
+The position of the plough on the press is shown at fig. 46. The side
+of the press with runners should be reserved for cutting, the other
+side used for all other work.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 47.]
+
+The plough knife for mill-boards should not be ground at too acute an
+angle, or the edge will most likely break away at the first cut. The
+shape shown at fig. 47 is suitable. The knife should be very
+frequently ground, as it soon gets blunt, which adds greatly to the
+labour of cutting.
+
+After an edge has been cut, each side should be well rubbed with a
+folder to smooth down any burr left by the plough knife. Then a piece
+of common paper with one edge cut straight is pasted on to one side of
+the board, with the straight edge exactly up to the cut edge of the
+board. Then a piece of paper large enough to cover both sides of the
+board is pasted round it, and well rubbed down at the cut edge. After
+having been lined, the boards are nipped in the press to ensure that
+the lining paper shall stick. They are stood up to dry, with the
+doubly lined side outwards. The double paper is intended to warp the
+board slightly to that side, to compensate for the pull of the leather
+when the book is covered. If the board is a double one, a single
+lining paper will be sufficient, the thinner board helping to draw the
+thicker. The paste for lining boards must be fairly thin, and very
+well beaten up so as to be free from lumps. It is of the utmost
+importance that the lining papers should stick properly, for unless
+they stick, no subsequent covering of leather or paper can be made to
+lie flat.
+
+When the lined boards are quite dry, they should be paired with the
+doubly lined sides together, and the top back corner marked to
+correspond with the marks on the top back corners of the book. Then
+near the top edge, with the aid of a carpenter's square, two points
+are marked in a line at right angles to the cut edge. The pair of
+boards is then knocked up to the back and lowered into the press as
+before, so that the plough knife will exactly cut through the points.
+The same operation is repeated on the two remaining uncut edges. In
+marking out those for the fore-edge, the measurement is taken with a
+pair of compasses (fig. 48) from the joint of the book to the
+fore-edge of the first section. If the book has been trimmed, or is to
+remain uncut, a little more must be allowed for the "squares," and if
+it is to be cut in the plough, it must be now decided how much is to
+be cut off, remembering that it is much better to have the boards a
+little too large, and so have to reduce them after the book is cut,
+than to have them too small, and either be obliged to get out a new
+pair of boards, or unduly cut down the book.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 49.]
+
+The height of the boards for a book that has been trimmed, or is to
+remain uncut, will be the height of the page with a small allowance at
+each end for the squares. When a pair of boards has been cut all
+round, it can be tested for squareness by reversing one board, when
+any inequality that there may be will appear doubled. If the boards
+are out of truth they should generally be put on one side, to be used
+for a smaller book, and new boards got out. To correct a badly cut
+pair of boards, it is necessary to reduce them in size, and the book
+consequently suffers in proportion. If the boards have been found to
+be truly cut, they are laid on the book, and the position of the slips
+marked on them by lines at right angles to the back. A line is then
+made parallel to the back, about half an inch in (see fig. 49). At the
+points where the lines cross, a series of holes is punched from the
+front with a binder's bodkin on a lead plate, then the board is turned
+over, and a second series is punched from the back about half an inch
+from the first. If the groove of the back is shallower than the
+thickness of the board, the top back edge of the board should be
+bevelled off with a file. This will not be necessary if the groove is
+the exact depth. When the holes have been punched, it is well to cut a
+series of V-shaped depressions from the first series of holes to the
+back to receive the slips, or they may be too prominent when the book
+is bound. It will now be necessary to considerably reduce the slips
+that were frayed out after sewing, and to remove all glue or any other
+matter attached to them. The extent to which they may be reduced is a
+matter of nice judgment. In the desire to ensure absolute neatness in
+the covering, modern binders often reduce the slips to almost nothing.
+On the other hand, some go to the other extreme, and leave the cord
+entire, making great ridges on the sides of the book where it is laced
+in. It should be possible with the aid of the depressions, cut as
+described, to use slips with sufficient margin of strength, and yet to
+have no undue projection on the cover. A slight projection is not
+unsightly, as it gives an assurance of sound construction and
+strength, and, moreover, makes an excellent starting-point for any
+pattern that may be used. When the slips have been scraped and
+reduced, the portion left should consist of long straight silky
+fibres. These must be well pasted, and the ends very slightly twisted.
+The pointed ends are then threaded through the first series of holes
+in the front of the board, and back again through the second (fig.
+50). In lacing-in the slips must not be pulled so tight as to prevent
+the board from shutting freely, nor left so loose as to make a
+perceptible interval in the joint of the book. The pasted slips having
+been laced in, their ends are cut off with a sharp knife, flush with
+the surface of the board. The laced-in slips are then well hammered on
+a knocking-down iron (see fig. 51), first from the front and then from
+the back, care being taken that the hammer face should fall squarely,
+or the slips may be cut. This should rivet them into the board,
+leaving little or no projection. If in lacing in the fibres should
+get twisted, no amount of hammering will make them flat, so that it is
+important in pointing the ends for lacing in, that only the points are
+twisted just sufficiently to facilitate the threading through the
+holes, and not enough to twist the whole slip.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 50.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 51.]
+
+To lace slips into wooden boards, holes are made with a brace and fine
+twist bit, and the ends of the frayed out slips may be secured with a
+wooden plug (see fig. 52).
+
+Old books were sometimes sewn on bands of leather, but as those sewn
+on cord seem to have lasted on the whole much better, and as,
+moreover, modern cord is a far more trustworthy material than modern
+leather, it is better to use cord for any books bound now.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 52.]
+
+
+                  CLEANING OFF THE BACK AND PRESSING
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 53.]
+
+When the boards have been laced on and the slips hammered down, the
+book should be pressed. Before pressing, a tin is put on each side of
+both boards, one being pushed right up into the joint on the inside,
+and the other up to the joint, or a little over it, on the outside.
+While in the press, the back should be covered with paste and left to
+soak for a few minutes. When the glue is soft the surplus on the
+surface can be scraped off with a piece of wood shaped as shown in
+fig. 53. For important books it is best to do this in the lying press,
+but some binders prefer first to build up the books in the standing
+press, and then to paste the backs and clean them off there. This has
+the advantage of being a quicker method, and will, in many cases,
+answer quite well. But for books that require nice adjustment it will
+be found better to clean off each volume separately in the lying
+press, and afterwards to build up the books and boards in the
+standing press, putting the larger books at the bottom. It must be
+seen that the entire pile is exactly in the centre under the screw, or
+the pressure will be uneven. To ascertain if the books are built up
+truly, the pile must be examined from both the front and side of the
+press. Each volume must also be looked at carefully to see that it
+lies evenly, and that the back is not twisted or out of shape. This is
+important, as any form given to the book when it is pressed at this
+stage will be permanent.
+
+Any coloured or newly printed plates will need tissues, as in the
+former pressing; and any folded plates or diagrams or inserted letters
+will need a thin tin on each side of them to prevent them from marking
+the book.
+
+Again, the pressure on hand-printed books must not be excessive.
+
+The books should be left in the press at least a night. When taken out
+they will be ready for headbanding, unless the edges are to be cut in
+boards.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER X
+
+            Cutting in Boards--Gilding and Colouring Edges
+
+
+                           CUTTING IN BOARDS
+
+The knife for cutting edges may be ground more acutely than for
+cutting boards, and should be very sharp, or the paper may be torn.
+The plough knife should never be ground on the under side, as if the
+under side is not quite flat, it will tend to run up instead of
+cutting straight across. Before beginning to cut edges, the position
+of the knife should be tested carefully by screwing the plough up,
+with the press a little open, and noting whereabouts on the left-hand
+cheek the point of the knife comes. In a press that is true the knife
+should just clear the edge of the press. If there is too much packing
+the knife will cut below the edge of the press, and if too little, it
+will cut above.
+
+"Packing" is paper inserted between the knife and the metal plate on
+the plough, to correct the position of the knife. When by experiment
+the exact thickness of paper necessary for any given knife is found,
+the packing should be carefully kept when the knife is taken out for
+grinding, and put back with it into the plough.
+
+The first edge to be cut is the top, and the first thing to do is to
+place the boards in the position they will hold when the book is
+bound. The front board is then dropped the depth of the square
+required, care being taken that the back edge of the board remains
+evenly in the joint. A piece of cardboard, or two or three thicknesses
+of paper, are then slipped in between the end paper and the back board
+to prevent the latter from being cut by the knife. The book is then
+carefully lowered into the press, with the back towards the workman,
+until the top edge of the front board is exactly even with the
+right-hand cheek, and the press screwed up evenly. The back board
+should show the depth of the square above the left-hand cheek. It is
+very important that the edge of the back board should be exactly
+parallel with the press, and if at first it is not so, the book must
+be twisted until it is right.
+
+The edges can now be cut with the plough as in cutting mill-boards.
+The tail of the book is cut in the same way, still keeping the back
+of the book towards the workman, but cutting from the back board.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 54.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 55.]
+
+Cutting the fore-edge is more difficult. The waste sheets at each end
+of the book should be cut off flush with the edge of the board, and
+marks made on them below the edge showing the amount of the square,
+and consequently how much is to be cut off. The curve of the back, and
+consequent curve of the fore-edge, must first be got rid of, by
+inserting a pair of pieces of flat steel called "trindles" (fig. 54)
+across the back, from the inside of the boards. When these are
+inserted the back must be knocked quite flat, and, in the case of a
+heavy book, a piece of tape may be tied round the leaves (see fig. 55)
+to keep them in position. A pair of cutting boards is placed one on
+each side of the leaves, the back one exactly up to the point that the
+edge of the board came to, and the front one as much below that point
+as it is desired the square of the fore-edge should be. The trindles
+are removed while the book is held firmly between the cutting boards
+by the finger and thumb; book and boards are then lowered very
+carefully into the press. The top edge of the front cutting board
+should be flush with the right-hand cheek of the press, and that of
+the back a square above the left-hand cheek (see fig. 56). A further
+test is to look along the surface of the right-hand cheek, when, if
+the book has been inserted truly, the amount of the back cutting board
+in sight should exactly correspond with the amount of the paper to be
+cut showing above the front board. It will also be necessary before
+cutting to look at the back, and to see that it has remained flat. If
+it has gone back to its old curve, or the book has been put into the
+press crookedly, it must be taken right out again and the trindles
+inserted afresh, as it is usually a waste of time to try to adjust the
+book when it is in the press. The leaves are cut in the same way as
+those of the head and tail.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 56.]
+
+
+             GILDING OR COLOURING THE EDGES OF A CUT BOOK
+
+Gilding the edges of a book cut in boards is much the same process as
+that described for the trimmed book, excepting that when gilt in
+boards the edges can be scraped and slightly sand-papered. It is the
+custom to admire a perfectly solid gilt edge, looking more like a
+solid sheet of metal, than the leaves of a book. As the essential
+characteristic of a book is, that it is composed of leaves, this fact
+is better accepted and emphasised by leaving the edges a little rough,
+so that even when gilt they are evidently the edges of leaves of
+paper, and not the sides of a block, or of something solid.
+
+To gild the edges of a cut book the boards should be turned back, and
+cutting boards put on each side of the book flush with the edge to be
+gilt. For the fore-edge the book must be thrown up with trindles
+first, unless it is desired to gild in the round, a process which
+gives the objectionable solid metallic edge.
+
+After the edges have been gilt they may be decorated by tooling,
+called "gauffering."
+
+This may be done, either by tooling with hot tools directly on the
+gold while the leaves are screwed up tightly in the press, or by
+laying another coloured gold on the top of the first and tooling over
+that, leaving the pattern in the new gold on the original colour. But,
+to my mind, edges are best left undecorated, except for plain gold or
+colour.
+
+If the edges are to be coloured, they should be slightly scraped, and
+the colour put on with a sponge, commencing with the fore-edge, which
+should be slightly fanned out, and held firmly, by placing a
+pressing-board above it, and pressing with the hand on this. The
+colour must be put on very thinly, commencing from the centre of the
+fore-edge and working to either end, and as many coats put on as are
+necessary to get the depth of colour required. The head and tail are
+treated in the same way, excepting that they cannot be fanned out, and
+the colour should be applied from the back to the fore-edge. If in the
+fore-edge an attempt is made to colour from one end to the other, and
+if in the head or tail from the fore-edge to the back, the result will
+almost certainly be that the sponge will leave a thick deposit of
+colour round the corner from which it starts.
+
+For colouring edges almost any stain will answer, or ordinary
+water-colours may be used if moistened with size.
+
+When the colour is dry the edge should be lightly rubbed over with a
+little beeswax, and burnished with a tooth burnisher (see fig. 57).
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 57.]
+
+In addition to plain colour and gilding, the edges of a book may be
+decorated in a variety of ways. The fore-edge may be fanned out and
+painted in any device in water-colour and afterwards gilded; the
+painting will only show when the book is open. The fore-edge for this
+must be cut very solid, and if the paper is at all absorbent, must be
+sized with vellum size before being painted. The paints used must be
+simple water-colour, and the edge must not be touched with the hand
+before gilding, as if there is any grease or finger-mark on it, the
+gold will not stick evenly. Painting on the fore-edge should only be
+attempted when the paper of the book is thin and of good quality. More
+common methods of decorating edges are by marbling and sprinkling, but
+they are both inferior to plain colouring. Some pleasant effects are
+sometimes obtained by marbling edges and then gilding over the
+marbling.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XI
+
+                              Headbanding
+
+
+                               HEADBANDS
+
+Modern headbands are small pieces of vellum, gut, or cord sewn on to
+the head and tail of a book with silk or thread. They resist the
+strain on the book when it is taken from the shelf. The vellum slip or
+cord must be of such a depth, that when covered with silk it will be
+slightly lower than the square of the boards. The cut edge of the
+vellum always slants, and the slip must be placed in position so that
+it tilts back rather than forward on the book.
+
+To start, ease the boards slightly on the slips and pull them down
+with the top edges flush with the top edge of the leaves. If this is
+not done the silk catches on the projecting edges as the band is
+worked. Stand the book in a finishing press, fore-edge to the worker,
+and tilted forward so as to give a good view of the headband as it is
+worked. The light must come from the left, and well on to the work. A
+needle threaded with silk is put in at the head of the book, and
+through the centre of the first section after the end papers, and
+drawn out at the back below the kettle stitch with about two-thirds of
+the silk. The needle is again inserted in the same place, and drawn
+through until a loop of silk is left. The vellum slip is placed in the
+loop, with the end projecting slightly to the left. It must be held
+steady by a needle placed vertically behind it, with its point between
+the leaves of the first section. The needle end of silk is then behind
+the headband, and the shorter end in front. The needle end is brought
+over from the back with the right hand, passed into the left hand, and
+held taut. The short end is picked up with the right hand, brought
+over the needle end under the vellum, and pulled tight from the back.
+This is repeated; the back thread is again drawn up and over the band
+to the front, the needle end crosses it, and is drawn behind under the
+vellum slip, and so on. The crossing of the threads form a "bead,"
+which must be watched, and kept as tight as possible, and well down on
+the leaves of the book. Whenever the vellum or string begins to shift
+in position, it must be tied down. This is done when the needle end of
+silk is at the back. A finger of the left hand is placed on the thread
+of silk at the back, and holds it firmly just below the slip. The
+needle end is then brought up and over the slip, but instead of
+crossing it with the front thread, the needle is passed between the
+leaves and out at the back of the book, below the kettle stitch, and
+the thread gradually drawn tight, and from under the left-hand finger.
+The loop so made will hold the band firmly, and the silk can then be
+brought up and over the slip and crossed in the usual way. The band
+should be worked as far as the end papers, and should be finished with
+a double "tie down," after which the front thread is drawn under the
+slip to the back. Both the ends of silk are then cut off to about half
+an inch, frayed out, and pasted down as flatly as possible on the back
+of the book.
+
+The band should be tied down frequently. It is not too much to tie
+down every third time the needle end of the silk comes to the back.
+To make good headbands the pull on the silk must be even throughout.
+
+When the ends of the silk are pasted down, the ends of the vellum slip
+are cut off as near the silk as possible. The correct length of the
+headband is best judged by pressing the boards together with thumb and
+finger at the opposite ends of the band, so as to compress the
+sections into their final compass. If the band then buckles in the
+least, it is too long and must be shortened.
+
+The mediæval headbands were sewn with the other bands (see fig. 32),
+and were very strong, as they were tied down at every section. Modern
+worked headbands, although not so strong, are, if frequently tied
+down, strong enough to resist any reasonable strain. There are many
+other ways of headbanding, but if the one described is mastered, the
+various other patterns will suggest themselves if variety is needed.
+For very large books a double headband may be worked on two pieces of
+gut or string--a thick piece with a thin piece in front. The string
+should first be soaked in thin glue and left to dry. Such a band is
+worked with a figure of eight stitch. Headbands may also be worked
+with two or three shades of silk. As vellum is apt to get hard and to
+break when it is used for headbanding, it is well to paste two pieces
+together with linen in between, and to cut into strips as required.
+
+Machine-made headbands can be bought by the yard. Such bands are
+merely glued on, but as they have but little strength, should not be
+used.
+
+Where leather joints are used, the headbands may be worked on pieces
+of soft leather sized and screwed up. If the ends are left long and
+tied in front while the book is being covered, they may be
+conveniently let into grooves in the boards before the leather joint
+is pasted down. This method, I think, has little constructive value,
+but it certainly avoids the rather unfinished look of the cut-off
+headband.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XII
+
+       Preparing for Covering--Paring Leather--Covering--Mitring
+                      Corners--Filling-in Boards
+
+
+                        PREPARING FOR COVERING
+
+After the headband is worked, a piece of brown or other stout paper
+should be well glued on at the head and tail, care being taken that it
+is firmly attached to the back and the headband. When dry, the part
+projecting above the headband is neatly cut off, and the part on the
+back well sand-papered, to remove any irregularity caused by the
+tie-downs attaching the headband. For most books this will be quite
+sufficient lining up, but very heavy books are best further lined up
+between the bands with linen, or thin leather. This can be put on by
+pasting the linen or leather and giving the back a very thin coat of
+glue.
+
+The only thing now left to do before covering will be to set the
+squares and to cut off a small piece of the back corner of each board
+at the head and tail, to make it possible for the boards to open and
+shut without dragging the head-cap out of place. The form of the
+little piece to be cut off varies with each individual binder, but I
+have found for an octavo book that a cut slightly sloping from the
+inside cutting off the corner about an eighth of an inch each way,
+gives the best result (see fig. 58). When the corner has been cut off,
+the boards should be thrown back, and the slips between the book and
+the board well pasted. When these have soaked a little, the squares of
+the boards are set; that is, the boards are fixed so that exactly the
+same square shows on each board above head and tail. A little larger
+square is sometimes an advantage at the tail to keep the head-cap well
+off the shelf, the essential thing being that both head and both tail
+squares should be the same. In the case of an old book that has not
+been recut, the edges will often be found to be uneven. In such cases
+the boards must be made square, and so set that the book stands up
+straight.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 58.]
+
+When the slips have been pasted and the squares set, tins can be put
+inside and outside the boards, and the book given a slight nip in the
+press to flatten the slips. Only a comparatively light pressure should
+be given, or the lining up of the headbands or back will become
+cockled and detached.
+
+
+                            PARING LEATHER
+
+While the slips are being set in the press the cover can be got out.
+Judgment is necessary in cutting out covers. One workman will be able,
+by careful cutting, to get six covers out of a skin where another will
+only get four. The firm part of the skin is the back and sides, and
+this only should be used for the best books. The fleshy parts on the
+flanks and belly will not wear sufficiently well to be suitable for
+good bookbinding.
+
+The skin should be cut out leaving about an inch all round for turning
+in when the book is covered, and when cut out it must be pared. If the
+leather is of European manufacture most of the paring will have been
+done before it is sold, and the leather manufacturer will have shaved
+it to any thickness required. This is a convenience that is partly
+responsible for the unduly thin leather that is commonly used. The
+better plan is to get the leather rather thick, and for the binder to
+pare it down where necessary. For small books it is essential, in
+order that the covers may open freely, and the boards not look clumsy,
+that the leather should be very thin at the joint and round the edges
+of the boards. For such books it is very important that a small,
+naturally thin skin should be used that will not have to be unduly
+pared down, and that the large and thicker skins should be kept for
+large books.
+
+Binders like using large skins because there is much less waste, but
+if these skins are used for small books, so much of the leather
+substance has to be pared away, that only the comparatively brittle
+grained surface remains. By the modern process of dyeing this surface
+is often to some extent injured, and its strength sometimes totally
+destroyed.
+
+When the cover has been cut to size the book is laid on it with the
+boards open, and a pencil line drawn round them, a mark being made to
+show where the back comes. The skin is then pared, making it thin
+where the edge of the boards will come. Great care must be taken that
+the thinning does not commence too abruptly, or a ridge will be
+apparent when the leather is on the book.
+
+The paring must be done quite smoothly and evenly. Every unevenness
+shows when the cover is polished and pressed. Care is needed in
+estimating the amount that will have to be pared off that part of the
+leather that covers the back and joints. The object of the binder
+should be to leave these portions as thick as he can consistently with
+the free opening of the boards. The leather at the head-caps must be
+pared quite thin, as the double thickness on the top of the headband
+is apt to make this part project above the edges of the board. This is
+a great trouble, especially at the tail, where, if the head-cap
+projects beyond the boards, the whole weight of the book rests on it,
+and it is certain to be rubbed off when the book is put on the shelf.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 59.]
+
+The method of paring with a French knife (fig. 60, A)--the only form
+of knife in use by binders that gives sufficient control over the
+leather--is shown at fig. 59. To use this knife properly, practice is
+required. The main thing to learn is that the knife must be used quite
+flat, and made to cut by having a very slight burr on the under
+side. This burr is got by rubbing the knife on the lithographic stone
+on which the paring is done. The handle of the knife should never be
+raised to such a height above the surface of the stone that it is
+possible to get the under fingers of the right hand over the edge of
+the stone. Another form of knife suitable for paring the edges of
+leather is shown at fig. 60, B.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 60.]
+
+To test if the leather has been sufficiently pared, fold it over where
+the edge of the board will come, and run the finger along the folded
+leather. If the paring has been done properly it will feel quite even
+the whole length of the fold; but if there are any irregularities,
+they will be very apparent, and the paring must be gone over again
+till they have disappeared. When even, the book must be again laid on
+the leather with the boards open, and a pencil line drawn round as
+before. If there are leather joints they will have been pared before
+the book was sewn, and care must be taken in paring the turn-in of the
+cover that it is of the same thickness as the leather joint, or it
+will be impossible to make a neat mitre at the back corners.
+
+
+                               COVERING
+
+Before covering, the book must be looked at to see that the bands are
+quite square and at equal distances apart. Any slight errors in this
+respect can be corrected by holding the book in the lying press
+between backing boards and gently tapping the bands from one side or
+the other with a piece of wood struck with a hammer. This is best done
+when the back is cleaned off, but by damping the bands slightly it may
+be done just before covering. The squares must be looked to, and the
+edges of the board well rubbed with a folder, or tapped with a hammer,
+to remove any burr that may have been caused by the plough knife, or
+any chance blow. The back is then moistened with paste, or, in the
+case of a very large book, with thin glue, and left to soak. The cover
+can then be well pasted with thickish paste, that has been previously
+well beaten up. When the cover is pasted, it can be folded with the
+pasted sides together and left to soak for a few minutes while the
+back is again looked to, and any roughness smoothed down with the
+folder. Before covering, the bands should be nipped up with band
+nippers (see fig. 61) to make sure that they are sharp. The coverer
+should have ready before covering a clean paring stone, one or two
+folders, a pair of nickeled-band nippers, a clean sponge, a little
+water in a saucer, a piece of thread, and a strip of smooth wood
+(boxwood for preference), called a band stick, used for smoothing the
+leather between the bands, a pair of scissors, and a small sharp
+knife, a pair of waterproof sheets the size of the book, and, if the
+book is a large one, a pair of tying up boards, with tying up string,
+and two strips of wood covered in blotting-paper or leather. It is
+best to have the band nippers for covering nickeled to prevent the
+iron from staining the leather. The waterproof sheets recommended are
+thin sheets of celluloid, such as are used by photographers.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 61.]
+
+When these things are ready, the pasted cover should be examined and
+repasted if it has dried in any place. The amount of paste to be used
+for covering can only be learned by experience. A thick leather will
+take more than a thin one, but, provided the cover sticks tight at
+every point, the less paste used the better. If there is too much, it
+will rub up and make very ugly, uneven places under the leather; and
+if there is too little, the cover will not stick.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 62.]
+
+Take the pasted cover and look to see which is the better side of the
+leather. Lay the front of the book down on this exactly up to the
+marks that show the beginning of the turn-in. Then draw the leather
+over the back and on to the other side, pulling it slightly, but not
+dragging it. Then stand the book on its fore-edge on a piece of waste
+paper, with the leather turned out on either side, as shown at fig.
+62, and nip up the bands with nickeled band nippers (see fig. 63).
+After this is done there will probably be a good deal of loose leather
+on the back. This can be got rid of by dragging the leather on to the
+side; but by far the better plan, when the back is large enough to
+allow it, is to work up the surplus leather on to the back between the
+panels. This requires a good deal of practice, and is very seldom
+done; but it can be done with most satisfactory results. The book
+should now have the leather on the back stretched lengthways to make
+it cover the bands, but not stretched the other way, and the leather
+on the boards should lie perfectly flat and not be stretched at all.
+The leather on the fore-edge of the board is then rubbed with the hand
+on the outside, and then on to the edge, and then on the inside. The
+edge and the inside are smoothed down with a folder, and any excessive
+paste on the inside squeezed out and removed. When the fore-edge of
+both boards has been turned in, the head and tail must also be turned
+in. A little paste is put on to that part of the leather that will
+turn in below the headband, and this portion is neatly tucked in
+between the boards and the back. The turned-in edge must lie quite
+evenly, or it will result in a ridge on the back. The leather is
+turned in on the two boards in the same way as described for the
+fore-edge, and the edge rubbed square with a folder. At fig. 64 is
+shown a convenient form of folder for covering. At the corners the
+leather must be pulled over as far as possible with two folders
+meeting at the extreme point, the object being to avoid a cut in the
+leather at the corner of the board. The folds so formed must be cut
+off with the scissors (see fig. 65, A), then one edge tucked neatly
+under the other, (B). Care must be taken throughout not to soil the
+edges of the leaves.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 63.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 64.]
+
+At the headband the fold of leather, pared thin for the purpose, must
+be squeezed together with a folder and pulled out a little to leave an
+even projection that can be turned over to form a head-cap. When both
+ends have been turned in, in this way, the boards must each be opened
+and pressed against a straight-edge held in the joint (fig. 66) to
+ensure that there is enough leather in the turn-in of the joint to
+allow the cover to open freely; and the leather of the turn-in at the
+head and tail must be carefully smoothed down with a folder.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 65.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 66.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 67.]
+
+The book may now be shut up if a waterproof sheet is put at each end
+to prevent the damp of the cover from cockling the paper. It must then
+be stood on its fore-edge and the bands again nipped up with a pair of
+nickeled band nippers, and the panels between the bands well pressed
+down with the band stick to cause the leather to stick at every point.
+A piece of thread is tied round the back from head to tail, squeezing
+the leather in the gap caused by the corners of the board having been
+cut off. The book is then turned up on end, resting the tail on a
+folder or anything that will keep the projecting leather for the
+head-cap from being prematurely flattened. The head-caps (fig. 67)
+must now be set. To do this the first finger of the left hand is
+placed behind it, and a sharp folder is pressed into the corners of
+the head-cap between the headband and the thread. The leather is then
+tapped over the headband, and the whole turned over on the stone and
+rubbed at the back with a folder. This operation requires great
+nicety. The shape of head-cap is shown at fig. 67. The nice adjustment
+of head-caps and corners, although of no constructional value, are the
+points by which the forwarding of a book is generally valued.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 68.]
+
+If the book is a large one, it will be best to tie it up. The method
+of tying up is shown in fig. 68. The tying up cords will make marks at
+the side of the bands, that are not unpleasant on a large book. If
+they are objected to, it is best to tie the book up for about
+half-an-hour, and then to untie it, and smooth out the marks with the
+band stick. Even with small books, if the leather seems inclined to
+give trouble, it is well to tie them up for a short time, then to
+untie them, to smooth out any marks or inequalities, and to tie them
+up again.
+
+
+                    MITRING CORNERS AND FILLING IN
+
+A book that has been covered should be left under a light weight until
+the next day, with waterproof sheets between the damp cover and the
+end paper to prevent the sheets of the book from cockling through the
+damp. When the cover is thoroughly set the boards should be carefully
+opened, pressing them slightly to the joint to ensure a square and
+even joint. If, as is sometimes the case, the turn-in of the leather
+over the joint seems to be inclined to bind, the cover should be
+merely opened half-way, and the leather of the turns-in of the joint
+damped with a sponge, and left to soak for a short time, and then the
+cover can usually be opened without any dragging. A section of a good
+joint is shown at fig. 69, A, and a bad one at B.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 69.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 70.]
+
+The next operation will be to fill in the board and mitre the corners.
+To fill in the boards, a piece of paper as thick as the turn-in of the
+leather (engineer's cartridge paper answers very well) should be cut a
+little smaller than the board, with one edge cut straight; then with
+the straight edge adjusted to the back of the board, and a weight
+placed on the centre, the paper is marked round with dividers set to
+the intended width of the turn-in of the leather. Then with a sharp
+knife, paper and leather may be cut through together. The paper should
+then be marked to show its position on the board, and the ragged edges
+of the leather trimmed off. This will leave an even margin of leather
+on three sides of the inside of the board, and a piece of paper that
+will exactly fit the remaining space. The corners must next be
+mitred. To do this, both thicknesses of leather are cut through from
+the corner of the board to the corner of the inside margin. The knife
+should be held slightly slanting to make a cut, as shown at fig. 70.
+The corners should then be thoroughly damped, and the overlapping
+leather from both sides removed, leaving what should be a neat and
+straight join. If the leather at the extreme corner should prove to
+be, as is often the case, too thick to turn in neatly, the corners
+should be opened out and the leather pared against the thumb nail, and
+then well pasted and turned back again. The extreme corner may be
+slightly tapped on the stone with a hammer, and the sides rubbed with
+a folder, to ensure squareness and sharpness. When all four corners
+have been mitred, the filling in papers can be pasted in. As they will
+probably stretch a little with the paste, it will be well to cut off a
+slight shaving, and they should then fit exactly. When the boards have
+been filled in and well rubbed down, the book should be left for some
+hours with the boards standing open to enable the filling-in papers to
+draw the boards slightly inwards to overcome the pull of the leather.
+
+In cases where there are leather joints the operation is as follows:
+The waste end paper is removed, and the edge of the board and joint
+carefully cleaned from glue and all irregularities, and if, as is most
+likely, it is curved from the pull of the leather, the board must be
+tapped or ironed down until it is perfectly straight. If there is
+difficulty in making the board lie straight along the joint before
+pasting down, it will be well first to fill in with a well pasted and
+stretched thin paper, which, if the boards are left open, will draw
+them inwards. If the leather joint is pasted down while the board is
+curved, the result will be a most unsightly projection on the outside.
+When the joint has been cleaned out, and the board made to lie flat,
+the leather should be pasted down and mitred. The whole depth of the
+turn-in of the covering leather in the joint must not be removed, or
+it will be unduly weakened. The mitring line should not come from the
+extreme corner, but rather farther down, and there it is well to
+leave a certain amount of overlap in the joint, for which purpose the
+edge of the turn-in leather and the edge of the leather joint should
+be pared thin. After pasting down the leather joints the boards should
+be left open till they are dry (see fig. 71). The turn-in and leather
+joint are then trimmed out, leaving an even margin of leather all
+round the inside of the board, and the panel in the centre filled in
+with a piece of thick paper.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 71.]
+
+When corners and filling in are dry, the boards may be shut up, and
+the book is ready for finishing.
+
+It is a common practice to wash up the covers of books that have
+become stained with a solution of oxalic acid in water. This is a
+dangerous thing to do, and is likely to seriously injure the leather.
+Leather, when damp, must not be brought in contact with iron or steel
+tools, or it may be badly stained.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XIII
+
+   Library Binding--Binding very Thin Books--Scrap-Books--Binding on
+                 Vellum--Books covered with Embroidery
+
+
+                            LIBRARY BINDING
+
+                      _Specifications III and IV_
+
+To produce cheaper bindings, as must be done in the case of large
+libraries, some alteration of design is necessary. Appearance must to
+some extent be sacrificed to strength and durability, and not, as is
+too often the case, strength and durability sacrificed to appearance.
+The essentials of any good binding are, that the sections should be
+sound in themselves, and that there should be no plates or odd sheets
+"pasted on," or anything that would prevent any leaf from opening
+right to the back; the sewing must be thoroughly sound; the sewing
+materials of good quality; the slips firmly attached to the boards;
+and the leather fairly thick and of a durable kind, although for the
+sake of cheapness it may be necessary to use skins with flaws on the
+surface. Such flawed skins cost half, or less than half, the price of
+perfect skins, and surface flaws do not injure the strength of the
+leather. By sewing on tape, great flexibility of the back is obtained,
+and much time, and consequent expense, in covering is saved. By using
+a French joint much thicker leather than usual can be used, with
+corresponding gain in strength.
+
+To bind an octavo or smaller book according to the specification given
+(III, page 307); first make all sections sound, and guard all plates
+or maps. Make end papers with zigzags. After the sections have been
+thoroughly pressed, the book will be ready for marking up and sewing.
+In marking up for sewing on tapes, two marks will be necessary for
+each tape. When there are several books of the same size to be sewn,
+they may be placed one above the other in the sewing press, and sewn
+on to the same tapes. It will be found that the volumes when sewn can
+easily be slid along the tapes, which must be long enough to provide
+sufficient for the slips of each. The split boards may be "made" of a
+thin black mill-board with a thicker straw-board. To "make" a pair of
+split boards the pieces of straw-and mill-board large enough to make
+the two are got out, and the straw-board well glued, except in the
+centre, which should previously be covered with a strip of thin
+mill-board or tin about four inches wide. The strip is then removed,
+and the thin black board laid on the glued straw-board and nipped in
+the press. When dry, the made board is cut down the centre, which will
+leave two boards glued together all over except for two inches on one
+side of each. The boards then are squared to the book in a mill-board
+machine. The back of the book is glued up, and in the ordinary way
+rounded and backed. The edges may be cut with a guillotine. The ends
+of the tapes are glued on the waste end paper, which should be cut off
+about an inch and a half from the back. The split boards are then
+opened and glued, and the waste end papers with slips attached are
+placed in them (see fig. 72), and the book nipped in the press. To
+form a "French joint" the boards should be kept about an eighth of an
+inch from the back of the book. The book is then ready for covering.
+The leather must not be pared too thin, as the French joint will give
+plenty of play and allow the use of much thicker leather than usual.
+If time and money can be spared, headbands can be worked, but they are
+not absolutely necessary, and a piece of string may be inserted into
+the turning of the leather at head and tail in the place of them. When
+the book is covered, a piece of string should be tied round the
+joints, and the whole given a nip in the press. The corners of the
+boards should be protected by small tips of vellum or parchment. The
+sides may be covered with good paper, which will wear quite as well as
+cloth, look better, and cost less.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 72.]
+
+The lettering of library books is very important (see Chapter XV).
+
+
+                        BINDING VERY THIN BOOKS
+
+Books consisting of only one section may be bound as follows:--A sheet
+of paper to match the book, and two coloured sheets for end papers,
+are folded round the section, and a "waste" paper put over all. A
+strip of linen is pasted to the back of the waste, and the whole sewn
+together by stitching through the fold. The waste may be cut off and
+inserted with the linen in a split board, as for library bindings. The
+back edges of the board should be filed thin, and should not be placed
+quite up to the back, to allow for a little play in the joints.
+
+The leather is put on in the ordinary way, except that the linen at
+the head and tail must be slit a little to allow for the turn in. If
+waterproof sheets are first inserted, the ends may be pasted, the
+boards shut, and the book nipped in the press. By substituting a piece
+of thin leather for the outside coloured paper, a leather joint can be
+made.
+
+
+                              SCRAP-BOOKS
+
+Scrap-books, into which autograph letters, sketches, or other papers
+can be pasted, may be made as follows:--Enough paper of good quality
+is folded up to the size desired, and pieces of the same paper, of the
+same height, and about two inches wide, are folded down the centre and
+inserted between the backs of the larger sheets, as shown at fig. 73.
+It is best not to insert these smaller pieces in the centre of the
+section, as they would be troublesome in sewing. If, after sewing, the
+book is filled up with waste paper laid between the leaves, it will
+make it manageable while being forwarded.
+
+It is best to use a rather darkly-toned or coloured paper, as, if a
+quite white paper is used, any letters or papers that have become
+soiled, will look unduly dirty.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 73.]
+
+Autograph letters may be mounted in the following ways:--If the letter
+is written upon both sides of a single leaf, it may be either
+"inlaid," or guarded, as shown at fig. 74, A. A letter on a folded
+sheet of notepaper should have the folds strengthened with a guard of
+strong thin paper, and be attached by a guard made, as shown at fig.
+74, B; or if on very heavy paper, by a double guard, as shown at fig.
+74, C. Torn edges of letters may be strengthened with thin Japanese
+paper.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 74.]
+
+Thin paper, written or printed only on one side, may be mounted on a
+page of the book. It is better to attach these by their extreme edges
+only, as if pasted down all over they may cause the leaves to curl up.
+
+Letters or any writing or drawing in lead pencil should be fixed with
+size before being inserted.
+
+Silver prints of photographs are best mounted with some very
+quick-drying paste, such as that sold for the purpose by the
+photographic dealers. If the leaf on which they are mounted is
+slightly damped before the photograph is pasted down, it will be less
+likely to cockle. If this is done, waterproof sheets should be put on
+each side of the leaf while it dries. If photographs are attached by
+the edges only, they will not be so liable to draw the paper on which
+they are mounted; but sometimes they will not lie flat themselves.
+
+In cases where very thick letters or papers have to be pasted in, a
+few more leaves of the book should be cut out, to make a corresponding
+thickness at the back.
+
+
+                            VELLUM BINDINGS
+
+Vellum covers may be limp without boards, and merely held in place by
+the slips being laced through them, or they may be pasted down on
+boards in much the same way as leather.
+
+If the edges of a book for limp vellum binding are to be trimmed or
+gilt, that should be done before sewing. For the ends a folded piece
+of thin vellum may replace the paste-down paper. The sewing should be
+on strips of vellum. The back is left square after glueing, and
+headbands are worked as for leather binding, or may be worked on
+strips of leather, with ends left long enough to lace into the vellum
+(see p. 151). The back and headbands are lined with leather, and the
+book is ready for the cover.
+
+A piece of vellum should be cut out large enough to cover the book,
+and to leave a margin of an inch and a half all round. This is marked
+with a folder on the under side, as shown at fig. 75, A. Spaces 1 and
+2 are the size of the sides of the book with surrounding squares;
+space 3 is the width of the back, and space 4 the width for the
+overlaps on the fore-edge. The corners are cut, as shown at 5, and the
+edges are folded over, as at B. The overlap 4 is then turned over, and
+the back folded, as at C. The slips are now laced through slits made
+in the vellum.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 75.]
+
+A piece of loose, toned paper may be put inside the cover to prevent
+any marks on the book from showing through; and pieces of silk ribbon
+of good quality are laced in as shown, going through both cover and
+vellum ends, if there are any, and are left with ends long enough to
+tie (see fig. 76).
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 76.]
+
+If paper ends are used, the silk tape need only be laced through the
+cover, and the end paper pasted over it on the inside.
+
+Another simple way of keeping a vellum book shut is shown at fig. 77.
+A bead is attached to a piece of gut laced into the vellum, and a loop
+of catgut is laced in the other side, and looped over the bead as
+shown.
+
+If the book is to have stiff boards, and the vellum is to be pasted
+to them, it is best to sew the sections on tapes or vellum slips, to
+back the book as for leather, and to insert the ends of the slips in a
+split board, leaving a French joint, as described for library
+bindings. Vellum is very stiff, and, if it is pasted directly to the
+back, the book would be hard to open. It is best in this case to use
+what is known as a hollow back.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 77.]
+
+To make a hollow back, a piece of stout paper is taken which measures
+once the length of the back and three times the width. This is folded
+in three. The centre portion is glued to the back and well rubbed
+down, and the overlapping edges turned back and glued one to the other
+(fig. 78). This will leave a flat, hollow casing, formed by the single
+paper glued to the back of the book and the double paper to which the
+vellum may be attached. Or it is better to line up the back with
+leather, and to place a piece of thick paper the size of the back on
+to the pasted vellum where the back will be when the book is covered.
+
+When the book is ready for covering, the vellum should be cut out and
+lined with paper. In lining vellum the paste must be free from lumps,
+and great care must be taken not to leave brush marks. To avoid this,
+when the lining paper has been pasted it can be laid, paste downwards,
+on a piece of waste paper and quickly pulled up again; this should
+remove surplus paste and get rid of any marks left by the brush. When
+the vellum has been lined with paper, it should be given a light nip
+in the press between blotting-paper, and while still damp it is
+pasted, the book covered, and the corners mitred. A piece of thin
+string is tied round the head-caps and pressed into the French joint.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 78.]
+
+Waterproof sheets are placed inside the covers, and the book then
+nipped in the press and left to dry under a light weight. If the
+vellum is very stiff and difficult to turn in, it may be moistened
+with a little warm water to soften it.
+
+Books with raised bands have sometimes been covered with vellum, but
+the back becomes so stiff and hard, that this method, though it looks
+well enough, cannot be recommended. Vellum is a durable material, and
+can be had of good quality, but it is so easily influenced by changes
+of temperature, that it is rather an unsuitable material for most
+bindings.
+
+
+           BOOKS COVERED WITH EMBROIDERY AND WOVEN MATERIAL
+
+To cover a book with embroidered material bind it with split boards, a
+French joint, and a hollow back, as described for vellum (see fig.
+78). Glue the back of the book with thin glue well worked up, and
+turning in the head and tail of the embroidery, put the book down on
+it so that the back will come exactly in the right place. Press down
+the embroidery with the hand to make sure that it sticks. When it is
+firmly attached to the back, first one board and then the other should
+be glued, and the embroidery laid down on it. Lastly, the edges are
+glued and stuck down on the inside of the board, and the corners
+mitred. Velvet or any other thick material can be put down in the same
+way. For very thin material that the glue would penetrate and soil,
+the cover should be left loose, and only attached where it turns in. A
+loose lining of good paper may be put between the book and the cover.
+
+The inside corners where the cover has been cut should be neatly sewn
+up. The edges of the boards and head-caps may be protected all round
+with some edging worked in metal thread. It is well in embroidering
+book covers to arrange for some portion of the pattern to be of raised
+metal stitches, forming bosses that will protect the surface from
+wear.
+
+Should any glue chance to get on the surface, the cover should be held
+in the steam of a kettle and the glue wiped off, and the cover again
+steamed.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV
+
+               Decoration--Tools--Finishing--Tooling on
+                      Vellum--Inlaying on Leather
+
+
+                     DECORATION OF BINDING--TOOLS
+
+The most usual, and perhaps the most characteristic, way of decorating
+book covers is by "tooling." Tooling is the impression of heated
+(finishing) tools. Finishing tools are stamps of metal that have a
+device cut on the face, and are held in wooden handles (fig. 79).
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 79.]
+
+Tooling may either be blind tooling, that is, a simple impression of
+the hot tools, or gold tooling, in which the impression of the tool is
+left in gold on the leather.
+
+Tools for blind tooling are best "die-sunk," that is, cut like a seal.
+The "sunk" part of the face of the tool, which may be more or less
+modelled, forms the pattern, and the higher part depresses the
+leather to form a ground. In tools for gold tooling, the surface of
+the tool gives the pattern.
+
+Tools may be either complex or simple in design, that is to say, each
+tool may form a complete design with enclosing border, as the lower
+ones on page 323, or it may be only one element of a design, as at
+fig. 100. Lines may be run with a fillet (see fig. 88), or made with
+gouges or pallets.
+
+Gouges are curved line tools. They are made in sets of arcs of
+concentric circles (see fig. 80, A). The portion of the curves cut off
+by the dotted line C will make a second set with flatter curves.
+Gouges are used for tooling curved lines.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 80.]
+
+A "pallet" may be described as a segment of a roll or fillet set in a
+handle, and used chiefly for putting lines or other ornaments across
+the backs of books (see fig. 81). A set of one-line pallets is shown
+at fig. 80, B.
+
+Fillets are cut with two or more lines on the edge. Although the use
+of double-line fillets saves time, I have found that a few single-line
+fillets with edges of different gauges are sufficient for running all
+straight lines, and that the advantage of being able to alter the
+distances between any parallel lines is ample compensation for the
+extra trouble involved by their use. In addition to the rigid stamps,
+an endless pattern for either blind or gold tooling may be engraved on
+the circumference of a roll, and impressed on the leather by wheeling.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 81.]
+
+The use of a roll in finishing dates from the end of the fifteenth
+century, and some satisfactory bindings were decorated with its aid.
+The ease with which it can be used has led in modern times to its
+abuse, and I hardly know of a single instance of a modern binding on
+which rolls have been used for the decoration with satisfactory
+results. The gain in time and trouble is at the expense of freedom and
+life in the design; and for extra binding it is better to build up a
+pattern out of small tools of simple design, which can be arranged in
+endless variety, than to use rolls.
+
+Tools for hand-tooling must not be too large, or it will be impossible
+to obtain clear impressions. One inch square for blind tools, or
+three-quarters of an inch for gold tools, is about the maximum size
+for use with any certainty and comfort. Tools much larger than this
+have to be worked with the aid of a press, and are called blocks.
+
+
+                               FINISHING
+
+The first thing the finisher does to a book is to go over the back
+with a polisher and smooth out any irregularities.
+
+Two forms of polisher are shown at fig. 82. The lower one is suitable
+for polishing backs and inside margins, and the upper for sides.
+Polishers must be used warm, but not too hot, or the leather may be
+scorched, and they must be kept moving on the leather. Before using
+they should be rubbed bright on a piece of the finest emery paper, and
+polished on a piece of leather. New polishers often have sharp edges
+that would mark the leather. These must be rubbed down with files and
+emery-paper.
+
+Leathers with a prominent grained surface, such as morocco, seal or
+pig skin, may either have the grain rough or crushed flat. If there is
+to be much finishing, the grain had better be crushed, but for large
+books that are to have only a small amount of finishing, the grain is
+best left unflattened.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 82.]
+
+If the grain of the leather is to be "crushed," it may be done at this
+stage. To do this, one board at a time is damped with a sponge and put
+in the standing-press, with a pressing plate on the grained side, and
+a pad of blotting-paper, or some such yielding substance, on the other
+(see fig. 83). The press is then screwed up tight, and the board left
+for a short time. For some leathers this operation is best done after
+the binding has been finished and varnished, in which case, of course,
+the boards cannot be damped before pressing. No flexibly sewn book
+should be subject to great pressure after it has been covered, or the
+leather on the back may crinkle up and become detached.
+
+The next thing will be to decide what lettering and what decoration,
+if any, is to be put on the volume. The lettering should be made out
+first (see page 215). If the book is to be at all elaborately
+decorated, paper patterns must be made out, as described in Chapter
+XVI.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 83.]
+
+For tooling the back, the book is held in the finishing press between
+a pair of backing boards lined with leather (see fig. 84), and the
+paper pattern put across the back, with the ends either slightly
+pasted to the backing boards, or caught between them and the book.
+
+For the sides, the pattern is very slightly pasted on to the leather
+at the four corners. The book is then put in the finishing press,
+with the board to be tooled open and flat on the cheek of the press,
+unless the book is a large one, when it is easier to tool the sides
+out of the press.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 84.]
+
+The selected tools, which should be ready on the stove (see fig. 85),
+are one at a time cooled on a wet pad, and then pressed in their
+former impressions upon the paper. The degree of heat required varies
+a good deal with the leather used, and will only be learned by
+experience. It is better to have the tool too cool than too hot, as it
+is easy to deepen impressions after the paper is removed; but if they
+are already too deep, or are burnt, it will be impossible to finish
+clearly. Generally speaking, tools should hiss very slightly when put
+on the cooling pad. In cooling, care must be taken to put the shank
+of the tools on to the wet pad, as, if the end only is cooled, the
+heat is apt to run down again, and the tool will still be too hot.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 85.--Finishing Stove]
+
+Before removing the paper, one corner at a time should be lifted up,
+and the leather examined to see that no part of the pattern has been
+missed.
+
+In some patterns where the design is close, or in which the background
+is dotted in, it will not be necessary to blind in every leaf and dot
+through the paper. If the lines with perhaps the terminal leaves are
+blinded in, the rest can be better worked directly through the gold.
+This method implies the "glairing in" of the whole surface. It is not
+suitable for open patterns, where the glaire might show on the surface
+of the leather.
+
+If the book is only to have lines, or some simple straight line
+pattern, it is often easier to mark it up without the paper, with a
+straight-edge and folder. In panelling a back, the side lines of all
+the panels should be marked in at the same time with a folder, working
+against the straight-edge, held firmly at the side of the back. If the
+panels are worked separately, it is difficult to get the side lines
+squarely above each other. The lines at the top and bottom of the
+panel may be marked in with a folder, guided by a piece of stiff
+vellum held squarely across the back. If there are lines to be run
+round the board, they can be marked in with a pair of dividers guided
+by the edge of the board, except those at the back. These must be
+measured from the fore-edge of the board and run in with straight-edge
+and folder.
+
+When straight lines occur in patterns that are blinded through the
+paper, it will be enough if the ends only are marked through with a
+small piece of straight line, and the lines completed with
+straight-edge and folder, after the paper has been removed.
+
+Unless the finisher has had considerable experience, it is best to
+deepen all folder lines by going over them in blind with a fillet or
+piece of straight line.
+
+When the pattern has been worked in blind, either through a paper
+pattern or directly on to the leather with the tools, and any inlays
+stuck on (see page 213), the cover should be well washed with clean
+water. Some finishers prefer to use common vinegar or diluted acetic
+acid for washing up books. If vinegar is used it must be of the best
+quality, and must not contain any sulphuric acid. Cheap, crude vinegar
+is certain to be injurious to the leather. Porous leather, such as
+calf or sheep skin, will need to be washed over with paste-water, and
+then sized.
+
+Paste-water is paste and water well beaten up to form a milky liquid,
+and is applied to the leather as evenly as possible with a sponge.
+When the paste-water is dry, the leather should be washed with size.
+Size can be made by boiling down vellum cuttings, or by dissolving
+gelatine or isinglass in warm water.
+
+For the less porous leathers, such as morocco, seal, or pig skin, no
+paste-water or size is necessary, unless the skin happens to be a
+specially open one, or the cover has been cut from the flank or belly.
+Then it is best to put a little paste in the vinegar or water used for
+washing up. When the leather is nearly, but not quite, dry the
+impressions of the tools must be painted with glaire. Finishers'
+glaire may be made from the white of eggs well beaten up, diluted with
+about half as much vinegar, and allowed to settle. Some finishers
+prefer to use old, evil-smelling glaire, but provided it is a day old,
+and has been well beaten up, fresh glaire will work quite well.
+
+The impressions of any heavy or solid tools should be given a second
+coat of glaire when the first has ceased to be "tacky," and if the
+leather is at all porous, all impressions had better have a second
+coat.
+
+As glaire is apt to show and disfigure the leather when dry, it is
+best to use it as sparingly as possible, and, excepting where the
+pattern is very close, to confine it to the impressions of the tools.
+It is not at all an uncommon thing to see the effect of an otherwise
+admirably tooled binding spoilt by a dark margin round the tools,
+caused by the careless use of glaire. Glaire should not be used unless
+it is quite liquid and clean. Directly it begins to get thick it
+should be strained or thrown away.
+
+The finisher should not glaire in more than he can tool the same day.
+When the glaire has ceased to be "tacky," the gold is laid on.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 86.]
+
+At first it will be found difficult to manage gold leaf. The essential
+conditions are, that there should be no draught, and that the cushion
+and knife should be quite free from grease. The gold cushion and
+knife are shown at fig. 86. A little powdered bath-brick rubbed into
+the cushion will make it easier to cut the gold cleanly. The blade of
+the gold knife should never be touched with the hand, and before using
+it, both sides should be rubbed on the cushion. A book of gold is laid
+open on the cushion, and a leaf of gold is lifted up on the gold
+knife, which is slipped under it, and turned over on to the cushion. A
+light breath exactly in the centre of the sheet should make it lie
+flat, when it may be cut into pieces of any size with a slightly
+sawing motion of the knife. The book with the pattern ready prepared,
+and the glaire sufficiently dry (not sticky), is rubbed lightly with a
+small piece of cotton-wool greased with a little cocoanut oil. The
+back of the hand is greased in the same way, and a pad of clean
+cotton-wool is held in the right hand, and having been made as flat as
+possible by being pressed on the table, is drawn over the back of the
+hand. This should make it just greasy enough to pick up the gold, but
+not too greasy to part with it readily when pressed on the book. As
+little grease as possible should be used on the book, as an excess is
+apt to stain the leather and to make the gold dull. After experiment
+it has been found that cocoanut oil stains the leather less than any
+other grease in common use by bookbinders, and is more readily washed
+out by benzine.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 87.]
+
+If the gold cracks, or is not solid when pressed on the book, a second
+thickness should be used. This will stay down if the under piece is
+lightly breathed upon.
+
+For narrow strips of gold for lines, a little pad covered with soft
+leather may be made, as in fig. 87.
+
+It will be found of advantage to first use the bottom leaf of gold in
+the book and then to begin at the top and work through, or else the
+bottom leaf will almost certainly be found to be damaged by the time
+it is reached. The gold used should be as nearly pure as it can be
+got. The gold-beaters say that they are unable to beat pure gold as
+thin as is usual for gold leaf; but the quite pure gold is a better
+colour than when alloyed, and the additional thickness, although
+costly, results in a more solid impression of the tools.
+
+The cost of a book of twenty-four leaves three and a half inches
+square of English gold leaf of good ordinary quality is from 1s. 3d.
+to 1s. 6d., whereas the cost of a book of double thick pure gold leaf
+is 3s. to 3s. 6d. For tooled work it is worth paying the increased
+price for the sake of the advantages in colour and solidity; but for
+lines and edges, which use up an immense amount of gold, the thinner
+and cheaper gold may quite well be used.
+
+Besides pure gold leaf, gold alloyed with various metals to change its
+colour can be had. None of the alloys keep their colour as well as
+pure gold, and some of them, such as those alloyed with copper for red
+gold, and with silver for pale gold, tarnish very quickly. These last
+are not to be recommended.
+
+For silver tooling aluminium leaf may be used, as silver leaf
+tarnishes very quickly.
+
+When the gold is pressed into the impressions of the tools with the
+pad of cotton-wool, they should be plainly visible through it.
+
+The pattern must now be worked through the gold with the hot tools.
+The tools are taken from the stove, and if too hot cooled on a pad as
+for blinding-in. The heat required to leave the gold tooling solid and
+bright and the impressions clear will vary for different leathers, and
+even for different skins of the same leather. For trial a tool may be
+laid on the pad until it ceases to hiss, and one or two impressions
+worked with it. If the gold fails to stick, the heat may be slightly
+increased.
+
+If the leather is slightly damp from the preparation the tools will
+usually work better, and less heat is required than if it has been
+prepared for some time and has got dry.
+
+Before using, the faces of all tools must be rubbed bright on the
+flesh side of a piece of leather. It is impossible to tool brightly
+with dirty tools. A tool should be held in the right hand, with the
+thumb on the top of the handle, and steadied with the thumb or first
+finger of the left hand. The shoulder should be brought well over the
+tool, and the upper part of the body used as a press. If the weight of
+the body is used in finishing, the tools can be worked with far
+greater firmness and certainty, and with less fatigue, than if the
+whole work is done with the muscles of the arms.
+
+Large and solid tools will require all the weight that can be put on
+them, and even then the gold will often fail to stick with one
+impression. Tools with small surfaces, such as gouges and dots, must
+not be worked too heavily, or the surface of the leather may be cut.
+
+To strike a large or solid tool, it should first be put down flat, and
+then slightly rocked from side to side and from top to bottom, but
+must not be twisted on the gold.
+
+A tool may be struck from whichever side the best "sight" can be got,
+and press and book turned round to the most convenient position.
+
+It is difficult to impress some tools, such as circular flower tools,
+twice in exactly the same place. Such tools should have a mark on one
+side as a guide. This should always be kept in the same position when
+blinding-in and tooling, and so make it possible to impress a second
+time without "doubling." An impression is said to be "doubled" when
+the tool has been twisted in striking, or one impression does not fall
+exactly over the other.
+
+The hot tool should not be held hovering over the impression long, or
+the preparation will be dried up before the tool is struck. Tooling
+will generally be brighter if the tools are struck fairly sharply, and
+at once removed from the leather, than if they are kept down a long
+time.
+
+To "strike" dots, the book should be turned with the head to the
+worker, and the tool held with the handle inclining slightly towards
+him. This will make them appear bright when the book is held the right
+way up.
+
+Gouges must be "sighted" from the inside of the curve, and struck
+evenly, or the points may cut into the leather. Short straight lines
+may be put in with pieces of line, and longer ones with a fillet.
+
+A one line fillet is shown at fig. 88; the space filed out of the
+circumference is to enable lines to be joined neatly at the corners.
+That the lines may be clearly visible through the gold, the book
+should be placed so that the light comes from the left hand of the
+worker and across the line. It is well to have a basin of water in
+which to cool fillets, as there is so much metal in them, that the
+damp sponge or cotton used for cooling tools would very rapidly be
+dried up. When the fillet has been cooled, the edge should be rubbed
+on the cleaning pad, and the point exactly adjusted to the corner of
+the line to be run (see fig. 88). The fillet is then run along the
+line with even pressure.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 88.]
+
+For slightly curved lines, a very small fillet may be used.
+
+When all the prepared part of a pattern has been tooled, it is well
+rubbed to remove the loose gold with a slightly greasy rag, or with a
+piece of bottle indiarubber which has been softened in paraffin. After
+a time the rubber or rag may be sold to the gold-beater, who recovers
+the gold. To prepare indiarubber for cleaning off gold, a piece of
+bottle rubber is cut into small pieces and soaked in paraffin for some
+hours. This should cause the pieces to reunite into a soft lump. This
+can be used until it is yellow with gold throughout.
+
+When all free gold is rubbed off, the finisher can see where the
+tooling is imperfect. Impressions which are not "solid" must be
+reglaired, have fresh gold laid on, and be retooled. But if, as will
+sometimes happen with the best finishers, the gold has failed to stick
+properly anywhere, it is best to wash the whole with water or vinegar,
+and prepare afresh.
+
+As an excess of grease is apt to dull the gold and soil the leather,
+it is better to use it very sparingly when laying on fresh gold for
+mending. For patching, benzine may be used instead of grease. When the
+gold is picked up on the cotton-wool pad, rapidly go over the leather
+with wool soaked in benzine, and at once lay down the gold. Benzine
+will not hold the gold long enough for much tooling, but it will
+answer for about half-an-hour, and give plenty of time for patching.
+
+Imperfect tooling arises from a variety of causes. If an impression is
+clear, but the gold not solid, it is probably because the tool was not
+hot enough, or was not put down firmly. If only one side of an
+impression fails to stick, it is usually because the tool was unevenly
+impressed. If an impression is blurred, and the gold has a frosted
+look, it is because the leather has been burned, either because the
+tool was too hot, or kept down too long, or the preparation was too
+fresh.
+
+To mend double or burnt impressions the leather should be wetted and
+left to soak a short time, and the gold can be picked out with a
+wooden point. When nearly dry the impressions should be put in again
+with a cool tool, reglaired and retooled.
+
+It is very difficult to mend neatly if the leather is badly burnt.
+Sometimes it may be advisable to paste a piece of new leather over a
+burnt impression before retooling.
+
+If a tool is put down in the wrong place by mistake, it is difficult
+to get the impression out entirely. The best thing to do is to damp
+the leather thoroughly, leave it to soak for a little while, and pick
+up the impression with the point of a pin. It is best not to use an
+iron point for this, as iron is apt to blacken the leather.
+
+Leather is difficult to tool if it has not a firm surface, or if it is
+too thin to give a little when the tool is struck.
+
+When the tooling is finished, and the loose gold removed with the
+rubber, the leather should be washed with benzine, to remove any
+grease and any fragments of gold that may be adhering by the grease
+only.
+
+The inside margins of the boards are next polished and varnished, and
+the end papers pasted down. Or if there is a leather joint, the panel
+left on the board may be filled in (see Chapter XVII).
+
+When the end papers are dry, the sides and back may be polished and
+varnished.
+
+It is important that the varnish should be of good quality, and not
+too thick, or it will in time turn brown and cause the gold to look
+dirty. Some of the light French spirit varnishes prepared for
+bookbinders answer well. Varnish must be used sparingly, and is best
+applied with a pad of cotton-wool. A little varnish is poured on to
+the pad, which is rubbed on a piece of paper until it is seen that the
+varnish comes out thinly and evenly. It is then rubbed on the book
+with a spiral motion. The quicker the surface is gone over, provided
+every part is covered, the better. Varnish will not work well if it is
+very cold, and in cold weather both the book and varnish bottle should
+be slightly warmed before use. Should an excess of varnish be put on
+in error, or should it be necessary to retool part of the book after
+it has been varnished, the varnish can be removed with spirits of
+wine. Varnish acts as a preservative to the leather, but has the
+disadvantage, if used in excess, of making it rather brittle on the
+surface. It must, therefore, be used very sparingly at the joints. It
+is to be hoped that a perfectly elastic varnish, that will not tarnish
+the gold, will soon be discovered.
+
+As soon as the varnish is dry the boards may be pressed, one at a
+time, to give the leather a smooth surface (see fig. 83), leaving each
+board in the press for some hours.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 89.]
+
+After each board has been pressed separately the book should be shut,
+and pressed again with pressing plates on each side of it, and with
+tins covered with paper placed inside each board. Light pressure
+should be given to books with tight backs, or the leather may become
+detached.
+
+If, on removing from the press, the boards will not keep shut, the
+book should be pressed again with a folded sheet of blotting-paper in
+each end. The blotting-paper should have the folded edge turned up,
+and be placed so that this turned-up edge will be in the joint behind
+the back edge of the board when the book is shut.
+
+A small nipping-press suitable for giving comparatively light
+pressure, is shown at fig. 89.
+
+
+                           TOOLING ON VELLUM
+
+Most covering vellum has a sticky surface, that marks if it is
+handled. This should be washed off with clean water before tooling.
+The pattern is blinded in through the paper as for leather, excepting
+that the paper must not be pasted directly to the vellum, but may be
+held with a band going right round the board or book. It is best to
+glaire twice, and to lay on a small portion of gold at a time with
+benzine. As vellum burns very readily, the tools must not be too hot,
+and some skill is needed to prevent them from slipping on the hard
+surface.
+
+Vellum must not be polished or varnished.
+
+
+                          INLAYING ON LEATHER
+
+Inlaying or onlaying is adding a different leather from that of the
+cover, as decoration. Thus on a red book, a panel or a border, or
+other portion, may be covered with thin green leather, or only flowers
+or leaves may be inlaid, while a jewel-like effect may be obtained by
+dots, leaves, and flowers, tooled over inlays of various colours.
+Leather for inlaying should be pared very thin. To do this the leather
+is cut into strips, wetted, and pared on a stone with a knife shaped
+somewhat as at fig. 60, B. When the thin leather is dry the inlays of
+the leaves and flowers, &c., may be stamped out with steel punches cut
+to the shape of the tools; or if only a few inlays are needed, the
+tools may be impressed on the thin leather, and the inlays cut out
+with a sharp knife. The edges of the larger inlays should be pared
+round carefully. For inlaying a panel or other large surface, the
+leather is pared very thin and evenly with a French knife, and a piece
+of paper pasted on to the grained side and left to dry. When dry, the
+shape of the panel, or other space to be inlaid, is marked on it
+through the paper pattern, and leather and paper cut through to the
+shape required. The edges must then be carefully pared, and the piece
+attached with paste, and nipped in the press to make it stick. When
+the paste is dry, the paper may be damped and washed off. The object
+of the paper is to prevent the thin leather from stretching when it is
+pasted.
+
+For white inlays it is better to use Japanese paper than leather, as
+white leather, when pared very thin, will show the colours of the
+under leather through, and look dirty. If paper is used, it should be
+sized with vellum size before tooling.
+
+When many dots or leaves are to be inlaid, the pieces of leather, cut
+out with the punch, may be laid face downwards on a paring stone, and
+a piece of paper, thickly covered with paste, laid on it. This, on
+being taken up, will carry with it the "inlays," and they can be
+picked up one at a time on the point of a fine folder, and stuck on
+the book.
+
+"Inlays" of tools are attached after the pattern has been "blinded"
+in, and must be again worked over with the tool, in blind, when the
+paste is nearly dry.
+
+On vellum an effect, similar to that of inlays on leather, can be
+obtained by the use of stains.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XV
+
+              Lettering--Blind Tooling--Heraldic Ornament
+
+
+                         LETTERING ON THE BACK
+
+Lettering may be done either with separate letters, each on its own
+handle, or with type set in a type-holder and worked across the back
+as a pallet. Although by the use of type great regularity is ensured,
+and some time saved, the use of handle letters gives so much more
+freedom of arrangement, that their use is advocated for extra binding.
+Where a great many copies of the same work have to be lettered, the
+use of type has obvious advantages.
+
+A great deal depends on the design of the letters used. Nearly all
+bookbinders' letters are made too narrow, and with too great
+difference between the thick and thin strokes. At fig. 90 is shown an
+alphabet, for which I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Emery Walker.
+The long tail of the Q is meant to go under the U. It might be well to
+have a second R cut, with a shorter tail, to avoid the great space
+left when an A happens to follow it. I have found that four sizes of
+letters are sufficient for all books.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 90.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 91.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 92.]
+
+To make out a lettering paper for the back of a book, cut a strip of
+good thin paper as wide as the height of the panel to be lettered.
+Fold it near the centre, and mark the fold with a pencil. This should
+give a line exactly at right angles to the top and bottom of the
+strip. Then make another fold the distance from the first of the width
+of the back; then bring the two folds together, and make a third fold
+in the exact centre. The paper should then be as shown at fig. 91.
+Supposing the lettering to be THE WORKS OF ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON,
+select the size of letter you desire to use, and take an E and mark on
+a piece of spare paper a line of E's, and laying your folded paper
+against it, see how many letters will go in comfortably. Supposing you
+find that four lines of five letters of the selected size can be put
+in, you must see if your title can be conveniently cut up into four
+lines of five letters, or less. It might be done as shown at fig. 93.
+But if you prefer not to split the name STEVENSON, a smaller letter
+must be employed, and then the lettering may be as at fig. 94.
+
+To find out the position of the lines of lettering on a panel, the
+letter E is again taken and impressed five times at the side of the
+panel, as shown at fig. 92, leaving a little greater distance between
+the lowest letter and the bottom of the panel, than between the
+letters. The paper is then folded on the centre fold, and, with
+dividers set to the average distance between the head of one letter
+and the head of the next, five points are made through the folded
+paper. The paper is opened, turned over, and the points joined with a
+fine folder worked against the straight-edge. It should leave on the
+front five raised lines, up to which the head of the letters must be
+put.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 93.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 94.]
+
+The letters in the top line are counted, and the centre letter marked.
+Spaces between words are counted as a letter; thus in "THE WORKS," "W"
+will be the centre letter, and should be put on the paper first, and
+the others added on each side of it. Some thought is needed in judging
+where to put the centre, as the difference in the width of such
+letters as "M" and "W" and "I" and "J" have to be taken into account.
+
+As a general rule, lettering looks best if it comfortably fills the
+panel, but of course it cannot always be made to do this. The greatest
+difficulty will be found in making titles of books that consist of a
+single word, look well. Thus if you have "CORIOLANUS" to place on a
+back which is not more than 5/8-inch wide, if it is put across as one
+word, as at fig. 95 (1), it will be illegible from the smallness of
+the type, and will tell merely as a gold line at a little distance. If
+a reasonably large type is used, the word must be broken up somewhat,
+as at (2), which is perhaps better, but still not at all satisfactory.
+The word may be put straight along the back, as at fig. (3), but this
+hardly looks well on a book with raised bands, and should be avoided
+unless necessary.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 95.]
+
+The use of type of different sizes in lettering a book should be
+avoided when possible, and on no account whatever should letters of
+different design be introduced. Occasionally, when the reason for it
+is obvious, it may be allowable to make a word shorter by putting in a
+small letter, supposing that only thus could reasonably large type be
+used. It is especially allowable in cases where, in a set of volumes,
+there is one much thinner than the others. It is generally better to
+make some compromise with the lettering of the thin volume, than to
+spoil the lettering of the whole set by using too small a letter
+throughout (see fig. 115).
+
+On very thin books it is sometimes hardly possible to get any
+lettering at all on the back. In such cases the lettering is best put
+on the side.
+
+In the case of some special books that are to have elaborately
+decorated bindings, and are on that account sufficiently distinct from
+their neighbours, a certain amount of freedom is permissible with the
+lettering, and a little mystery is not perhaps out of place. But in
+most cases books have to be recognised by their titles, and it is of
+the utmost importance that the lettering should be as clear as
+possible, and should fully identify the volume.
+
+For lettering half-bindings and other books on which much time cannot
+be spared, it would take too long to make out a paper, as described
+for extra bindings, nor is there on such work much occasion for it.
+For such books the lettering should be written out carefully, the
+whole panel prepared and glaired in, and the gold laid on. Then with a
+piece of fine silk or thread lines may be marked across the gold as a
+guide to the finisher, and the letters worked from the centre
+outward, as described for making out the paper pattern. Of course this
+method does not allow of such nice calculation and adjustment as when
+a paper pattern is made out; but if a general principle of clear
+lettering is recognised and accepted, very good results may be
+obtained.
+
+
+                             BLIND TOOLING
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 96.]
+
+At the end of the book characteristic examples of blind-tooled books
+are given (pages 321-25). It will be seen that most of the tools form
+complete designs in themselves. Although the use of detached die-sunk
+tools was general, there were also simple tools used, which, when
+combined, made up more or less organic designs, and allowed more
+freedom to the finisher (see figs. 96 and 97).
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 97.]
+
+Some use may also be made of interlaced strap-work designs, either
+worked with gouges, or a small fillet. A book bound in oaken boards,
+with a leather back with knotted decoration, is shown at page 330. I
+have found that such binding and decoration is more satisfactory in
+scheme for old books, than most forms of modern binding.
+
+If a design is simple, the cover is marked up with dividers, and the
+tools impressed direct upon the leather; or, if it is elaborate, a
+paper pattern is made out, and the tools blinded through the paper, as
+described for gold tooling. The leather is then damped with water, and
+the impressions retooled.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 98.]
+
+The panel lines on most of the bindings before 1500 show evidence of
+having been put in with a tool which has been pushed along the
+leather, and not with a wheel. I have found that a tool guided by a
+straight-edge, and "jiggered" backwards and forwards, makes by far the
+best lines for blind-tool work. It should be borne in mind that the
+line is formed by the raised portion of leather, and so the tool
+should be cut somewhat as at fig. 98. This should leave three ridges
+on the leather. Blind tooling may be gone over and over until it is
+deep enough, and may be combined with various other methods of
+working. For instance, in tooling such a spray as is shown at fig. 99,
+the leaf would be formed by five impressions of the second tool, shown
+at A, the extremity of the impressions could be joined with gouges,
+the stalk and veining could either be run in with a fillet or worked
+with gouges. The grapes would best be worked with a tool cut for the
+purpose. One edge of all gouge or fillet impressions can be smoothed
+down with some such tool as shown in section at B. This has to be
+worked round the gouge lines with a steady hand, and may be fairly hot
+if it is kept moving. At C is shown a section of a gouge impression
+before and after the use of this tool. The ground can be dotted in, or
+otherwise gone over with some small tool to throw up the pattern.
+
+Blind tooling can sometimes be used in combination with gold tooling.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 99.]
+
+In the fifteenth century the Venetian binders used little roundels of
+some gesso-like substance, that were brightly coloured or gilt, in
+combination with blind tooling (see p. 325). This is a method that
+might be revived.
+
+What is known as "leather work" is a further development of blind
+tooling. This method of decoration has been revived lately, but not
+generally with success. "Leather work" may be divided into two
+branches; in one the surface of the leather is cut to outline the
+pattern, and in the other the leather is embossed from the back, while
+wet, and the pattern outlined by an indented line. Sometimes the two
+methods are combined. As embossing from the back necessitates the work
+being done before the leather is on the book, it is not very suitable
+for decorating books. Leather first decorated and then stuck on the
+book, never looks as if it was an integral part of the binding. The
+cut leather work, which may be done after the book is bound, and
+leaves the surface comparatively flat, is a better method to employ
+for books, provided the cuts are not too deep, and are restricted to
+the boards, so as not to weaken the leather at the back and joints.
+Much of the leather used for "leather work" is of very poor quality,
+and will not last; for modelling it must be thick on the side of the
+book, and for the book to open it must be pared thin at the joint,
+thus making it necessary to use a thick skin very much pared down, and
+consequently weakened (see p. 155). Another very common fault in
+modelled "leather work" is, that the two sides and the back are often
+worked separately and stuck together on the book, necessitating a
+join, and consequently a weak place in the hinge, where strength is
+most wanted. Again, in most modern "leather work," those who do the
+decoration do not, as a rule, do the binding, and often do not
+understand enough of the craft to do suitable work.
+
+All those engaged in leather work are advised to learn to bind their
+own books, and to only use such methods of decoration, as can be
+carried out on the bound book.
+
+
+                        HERALDRY ON BOOK COVERS
+
+It is an old and good custom to put the arms of the owner of a library
+on the covers of the books he has bound. The traditional, and
+certainly one of the best ways to do this, is to have an arms block
+designed and cut. To design an arms block, knowledge of heraldry is
+needed, and also some clear idea of the effect to be aimed at. A very
+common mistake in designing blocks is to try and get the effect of
+hand tooling. Blocks should be and look something entirely different.
+In hand tooling much of the effect is got from the impressions of
+small tools reflecting the light at slightly different angles, giving
+the work life and interest. Blocked gold being all in one plane, has
+no such lights in it, and depends entirely on its design for its
+effect.
+
+Provided the heraldry identifies the owner, it should be as simply
+drawn as it can be; the custom of indicating the tinctures by lines
+and dots on the charges, generally makes a design confused, obscuring
+the coat it is intended to make clear. In designing heraldic blocks it
+is well to get a good deal of solid flat surface of gold to make the
+blocked design stand out from any gold-tooled work on the cover.
+
+Another way of putting armorial bearings on covers, is to paint them
+in oil paint. In the early sixteenth century the Venetians copied the
+Eastern custom of sinking panels in their book covers, and painted
+coats of arms on these sunk portions very successfully. The groundwork
+of the shield itself was usually raised a little, either by something
+under the leather, or by some gesso-like substance on its surface.
+
+Arms blocks should be placed a little above the centre of the cover.
+Generally, if the centre of the block is in a line with the centre
+band of a book with five bands, it will look right.
+
+Blocks are struck with the aid of an arming or blocking press. The
+block is attached to the movable plate of the press called the
+"platen." To do this some stout brown paper is first glued to the
+platen, and the block glued to this, and the platen fixed in its place
+at the bottom of the heating-box. In blocking arms on a number of
+books of different sizes, some nice adjustment of the movable bed is
+needed to get the blocks to fall in exactly the right place.
+
+For blocking, one coat of glaire will be enough for most leathers. The
+gold is laid on as for hand tooling. The block should be brought down
+and up again fairly sharply. The heat needed is about the same as for
+hand tooling.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVI
+
+                 Designing for Gold-Tooled Decoration
+
+
+                            DESIGNING TOOLS
+
+For gold tooling, such tools as gouges, dots, pieces of straight line,
+and fillets are to be had ready-made at most dealers. Other tools are
+best designed and cut to order. At first only a few simple forms will
+be needed, such as one or two flowers of different sizes, and one or
+two sets of leaves (see fig. 100).
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 100 (reduced)]
+
+In designing tools, it must be borne in mind that they may appear on
+the book many times repeated, and so must be simple in outline and
+much conventionalised. A more or less naturalistic drawing of a
+flower, showing the natural irregularities, may look charming, but if
+a tool is cut from it, any marked irregularity becomes extremely
+annoying when repeated several times on a cover. So with leaves,
+unless they are perfectly symmetrical, there should be three of each
+shape cut, two curving in different directions, and the third quite
+straight (see fig. 101). To have only one leaf, and to have that
+curved, produces very restless patterns. The essence of gold-tool
+design, is that patterns are made up of repeats of impressions of
+tools, and that being so, the tools must be so designed that they will
+repeat pleasantly, and in practice it will be found that any but
+simple forms will become aggressive in repetition.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 101.]
+
+Designs for tools should be made out with Indian ink on white paper,
+and they may be larger than the size of the required tool. The
+tool-cutter will reduce any drawing to any desired size, and will,
+from one drawing, cut any number of tools of different sizes. Thus, if
+a set of five leaves of the same shape is wanted, it will only be
+necessary to draw one, and to indicate the sizes the others are to be
+in some such way as shown at fig. 102.
+
+It is not suggested that special tools should be cut for each pattern,
+but the need of new tools will naturally arise from time to time, and
+so the stock be gradually increased. It is better to begin with a very
+few, and add a tool or two as occasion arises, than to try to design a
+complete set when starting.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 102.]
+
+Tools may be solid or in outline. If in outline they may be used as
+"inlay" tools, and in ordering them the tool-cutter should be asked to
+provide steel punches for cutting the inlays.
+
+
+                   COMBINING TOOLS TO FORM PATTERNS
+
+It is well for the student to begin with patterns arranged on some
+very simple plan, making slight changes in each succeeding pattern.
+In this way an individual style may be established. The usual plan of
+studying the perfected styles of the old binders, and trying to begin
+where they left off, in practice only leads to the production of exact
+imitations, or poor lifeless parodies, of the old designs. Whereas a
+pattern developed by the student by slow degrees, through a series of
+designs, each slightly different from the one before it, will, if
+eccentricities are avoided, probably have life and individual
+interest.
+
+Perhaps the easiest way to decorate a binding is to cover it with some
+small repeating pattern. A simple form of diaper as a beginning is
+shown at fig. 104. To make such a pattern cut a piece of good, thin
+paper to the size of the board of a book, and with a pencil rule a
+line about an eighth of an inch inside the margin all round. Then with
+the point of a fine folder that will indent, but not cut the paper,
+mark up as shown in fig. 103. The position of the lines A A and B B
+are found by simply folding the paper, first side to side, and then
+head to tail. The other lines can be put in without any measurement
+by simply joining all points where lines cross. By continual
+re-crossing, the spaces into which the paper is divided can be reduced
+to any desired size. If the construction lines are accurately put in,
+the spaces will all be of the same size and shape. It is then evident
+that a repeating design to fill any one of the spaces can be made to
+cover the whole surface.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 103.]
+
+In fig. 104, it is the diagonal lines only that are utilised for the
+pattern. To avoid confusion, the cross lines that helped to determine
+the position of the diagonals are not shown.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 104 (reduced)]
+
+The advantage of using the point of a folder to mark up the
+constructional lines of a pattern instead of a pencil, is that the
+lines so made are much finer, do not rub out, and do not cause
+confusion by interfering with the pattern. Any lines that will appear
+on the book, such as the marginal lines, may be put in with a pencil
+to distinguish them.
+
+Having marked up the paper, select a flower tool and impress it at the
+points where the diagonal lines cross, holding it in the smoke of a
+candle between every two or three impressions. When the flower has
+been impressed all over, select a small piece of straight line, and
+put a stalk in below each flower; then a leaf put in on each side of
+the straight line will complete the pattern.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 105 (reduced)]
+
+A development of the same principle is shown at fig. 105, in which
+some gouges are introduced. Any number of other combinations will
+occur to any one using the tools. Frequently questions will arise as
+to whether a tool is to be put this way or that way, and whether a
+line is to curve up or down. Whenever there is such an alternative
+open, there is the germ of another pattern. All-over diaper patterns
+may be varied in any number of ways. One way is to vary the design in
+alternate spaces. If this is done one of the designs should be such
+that it will divide down the centre both ways and so finish off the
+pattern comfortably at the edges. The pattern may be based on the
+upright and the cross-lines of the marking up, or the marking up may
+be on a different principle altogether. The designer, after a little
+practice, will be bewildered by the infinite number of combinations
+that occur to him.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 106 (reduced)]
+
+The diaper is selected for a beginning, because it is the easiest form
+of pattern to make, as there is no question of getting round corners,
+and very little of studying proportion. It is selected also because it
+teaches the student the decorative value of simple forms repeated on
+some orderly system. When he has grasped this, he has grasped the
+underlying principle of nearly all successful tooled ornament. Diapers
+are good practice, because in a close, all-over pattern the tools must
+be put down in definite places, or an appalling muddle will result. In
+tooling; a repeat of the same few tools, is the best possible
+practice, giving as it does the same work over and over again under
+precisely the same conditions, and concentrating, on one book cover,
+the practice that might be spread over several backs and sides more
+sparingly decorated, when variety of conditions would confuse the
+student.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 107.]
+
+When the principles of the diaper have been mastered, and the student
+has become familiar with the limitations of his tools, other schemes
+of decoration may be attempted, such as borders, centres, or panels.
+
+A form of border connected with cross-lines is shown at fig. 106. This
+is made up of a repeat of the spray built up of three tools and four
+gouges shown at fig. 107, with slight modification at the corners.
+Other schemes for borders are those in which flowers grow inwards from
+the edge of the boards, or outwards from a panel at the centre, or on
+both sides of a line about half an inch from the edge. A pattern may
+also be made to grow all round the centre panel. Borders will be found
+more difficult to manage than simple diapers, and at first, are best
+built up on the same principle--the repeat of some simple element.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 108 (reduced)]
+
+The decoration may be concentrated on parts of the cover, such as the
+centre or corners. A design for a centre is shown at fig. 108, and
+below is shown the way to construct it. A piece of paper is folded, as
+shown by the dotted lines, and an eighth of the pattern drawn with a
+soft pencil and folded over on the line A, and transferred by being
+rubbed at the back with a folder. This is lined in with a pencil, and
+folded over on the line B and rubbed off. This is lined in and folded
+over on A and C, rubbed off as before, and the whole lined in. The
+overs and unders of the lines are then marked, and gouges selected to
+fit. Of course it will take several trials before the lines will
+interlace pleasantly, and the tools fit in. Another centre, in which a
+spray is repeated three times, is shown at fig. 109, and any number of
+others will occur to the student after a little practice. A change of
+tools, or the slight alteration of a line, will give an entirely new
+aspect to a pattern. At page 334 is shown an all-over pattern growing
+from the bottom centre of the board. In this design the leather was
+dark green, with a lighter green panel in the centre. The berries were
+inlaid in bright red. Although at first glance it seems an intricate
+design, it is made up like the others of repetitions of simple forms.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 109 (reduced)]
+
+When the student has become proficient in the arrangement of tools in
+combination with lines, a design consisting entirely, or almost
+entirely, of lines may be tried. This is more difficult, because the
+limitations are not so obvious; but here again the principle of
+repetition, and even distribution, should be followed. At fig. 110 is
+shown a design almost entirely composed of lines, built up on the same
+principle as the centre at fig. 108.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 110 (reduced)]
+
+The ends of the bands form a very pleasant starting-place for
+patterns. At pp. 330, 332-6 are shown ways of utilising this method.
+To look right, a pattern must be consistent throughout. The tools and
+their arrangement must have about the same amount of convention. Gold
+tooling, dealing, as it does, with flat forms in silhouette only,
+necessitates very considerable formality in the design of the tools
+and of their arrangement on the cover. Modern finishers have become so
+skilful, that they are able to produce in gold tooling almost any
+design that can be drawn in lines with a pencil, and some truly
+marvellous results are obtained by the use of inlays, and specially
+cut gouges. As a rule, such patterns simply serve to show the skill of
+the finisher, and to make one wonder who could have been foolish
+enough to select so limited and laborious a method as gold tooling for
+carrying them out.
+
+Generally speaking, successful gold-tooled patterns show evidence of
+having been designed with the tools; of being, in fact, mere
+arrangements of the tools, and not of having been first designed with
+a pencil, and then worked with tools cut to fit the drawing. This does
+not of course apply to patterns composed entirely of lines, or to
+patterns composed of lines of dots.
+
+If artists wish to design for gold tooling without first mastering the
+details, probably the safest way will be for them to design in lines
+of gold dots. Some successful patterns carried out in this way were
+shown at the Arts and Crafts Exhibition some years ago.
+
+Designs for gold-tooled binding should always be constructed on some
+geometrical plan, and whatever pattern there is, symmetrically
+distributed over the cover.
+
+If lettering can be introduced, it will be found to be most useful
+when arranging a pattern. It gives dignity and purpose to a design,
+and is also highly decorative. Lettering may be arranged in panels, as
+at page 332, or in a border round the edge of the board, and in many
+other ways. It may either consist of the title of the book, or some
+line or verse from it or connected with it, or may refer to its
+history, or to the owner. Anything that gives a personal interest to a
+book, such as the arms of the owner, the initials or name of the giver
+or receiver of a present, with perhaps the date of the gift, is of
+value.
+
+The use of the small fillet makes it possible to employ long,
+slightly-curved lines. Gold-tooled lines have in themselves such
+great beauty, that designers are often tempted to make them meander
+about the cover in a weak and aimless way. As the limitations enforced
+by the use of gouges tend to keep the curves strong and small, and as
+the use of the small fillet tends to the production of long, weak
+curves, students are advised at first to restrict the curved lines in
+their patterns to such as can be readily worked with gouges.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 111.]
+
+It must be remembered that a gouge or fillet line is very thin, and
+will look weak if it goes far without support. For this reason
+interlaced lines are advocated.
+
+Gouge lines are easier to work, and look better, if a small space is
+left where the gouges end. This is especially the case where lines
+bearing leaves or flowers branch from the main stem (see fig. 111).
+
+Gouges and fillets need not always be of the same thickness of line,
+and two or three sets of different gauges may be kept. A finisher can
+always alter the thickness of a gouge with emery paper.
+
+One method of arranging gold-tooled lines is to treat them in design
+as if they were wires in tension, and knot and twist them together.
+Provided the idea is consistently adhered to throughout, such a
+pattern is often very successful.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 112.]
+
+A simple arrangement of straight lines will be sufficient
+ornamentation for most books. Three schemes for such ornamentation are
+shown. In fig. 112 the "tie-downs" may be in "blind" and the lines in
+gold. The arrangement shown at fig. 113 leaves a panel at the top
+which may be utilised for lettering.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 113.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 114.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 115.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 115.]
+
+
+                          DESIGNING FOR BACKS
+
+The decoration of the back of a book is difficult owing to the very
+small space usually available in the panels. The first consideration
+must be the lettering, and when that has been arranged, as described
+in Chapter XV, a second paper is got out for the pattern. The back
+panel should generally be treated in the same style and, if possible,
+with the same tools as the sides, if they are decorated. It will often
+be found far easier to design a full-gilt side than a satisfactory
+back.
+
+A design may be made to fit one panel of the book and repeated on all
+those not required for lettering (see pages 332-34), or it may be made
+to grow up from panel to panel (see fig. 115). In the case of sets of
+books in which the volumes vary very much in thickness, some pattern
+must be made that can be contracted and expanded without altering the
+general look of the back (see fig. 115).
+
+
+                    DESIGNING FOR INSIDE OF BOARDS
+
+The inside margins of the board permit of a little delicate
+decoration. At fig. 116 are shown two ways of treating this part of
+the binding. The inside of the board is sometimes covered all over
+with leather, and tooled as elaborately, or more elaborately, than the
+outside. If there are vellum ends, they may be enriched with a little
+tooling.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 116.]
+
+The edges of the boards may have a gold line run on them, and the
+head-cap may be decorated with a few dots.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XVII
+
+                Pasting down End Papers--Opening Books
+
+
+                        PASTING DOWN END PAPERS
+
+When the finishing is done, the end papers should be pasted down on to
+the board; or if there is a leather joint, the panel left should be
+filled in to match the end paper.
+
+To paste down end papers, the book is placed on the block with the
+board open (see fig. 117, A), the waste sheets are torn off, the
+joints cleared of any glue or paste, and the boards flattened, as
+described at page 171 for pasting down leather joints. One of the
+paste-down papers is then stretched over the board and rubbed down in
+the joint, and the amount to be cut off to make it fit into the space
+left by the turn-in of the leather is marked on it with dividers,
+measuring from the edge of the board. A cutting tin is then placed on
+the book, the paste-down paper turned over it, and the edges trimmed
+off to the divider points with a knife and straight-edge, leaving
+small pieces to cover the ends of the joint (fig. 117, A, c).
+
+The cutting and pasting down of these small pieces in the joint are
+rather difficult; they should come exactly to the edges of the board.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 117.]
+
+When both paste-down papers are trimmed to size, one of them is well
+pasted with thin paste in which there are no lumps, with a piece of
+waste paper under it to protect the book. The joints should also be
+pasted, and the paste rubbed in with the finger and any surplus
+removed.
+
+The pasted paper is then brought over on to the board, the edges
+adjusted exactly to their places, and rubbed down. The joint must next
+be rubbed down through paper. It is difficult to get the paper to
+stick evenly in the joint, and great nicety is needed here. All
+rubbing down must be done through paper, or the "paste-down" will be
+soiled or made shiny.
+
+Some papers stretch very much when pasted, and will need to be cut a
+little smaller than needed, and put down promptly after pasting. Thin
+vellum may be put down with paste in which there is a very little
+glue, but thicker vellum is better put down with thin glue. In pasting
+vellum, very great care is needed to prevent the brush-marks from
+showing through. If the vellum is thin, the board must be lined with
+white or toned paper with a smooth surface. This paper must be quite
+clean, as any marks will show through the vellum, and make it look
+dirty.
+
+When one side is pasted down the book can be turned over without
+shutting the board, and the other board opened and pasted down in the
+same way (see fig. 117, B). In turning over a book, a piece of white
+paper should be put under the newly-pasted side, as, being damp, it
+will soil very readily. When both ends have been pasted down the
+joints should be examined and rubbed down again, and the book stood up
+on end with the boards open until the end papers are dry. The boards
+may be held open with a piece of cardboard cut as shown at fig. 71.
+
+If there are cloth joints they are put down with glue, and the board
+paper is placed nearly to the edge of the joint, leaving very little
+cloth visible.
+
+In the process of finishing, the boards of a book will nearly always
+be warped a little outward, but the pasted end papers should draw the
+boards a little as they dry, causing them to curve slightly towards
+the book. With vellum ends there is a danger that the boards will be
+warped too much.
+
+
+                       OPENING NEWLY BOUND BOOKS
+
+Before sending out a newly bound book the binder should go through it,
+opening it here and there to ease the back. The volume is laid on a
+table, and the leaves opened a short distance from the front, and then
+at an equal distance from the back, and then in one or two places
+nearer the centre of the book, the leaves being pressed down with the
+hand at each opening. If the book is a valuable one, every leaf should
+then be turned over separately and each opening pressed down,
+beginning from the centre and working first one way and then the
+other. In this way the back will be bent evenly at all points. When a
+book has been opened, it should be lightly pressed for a short time
+without anything in the joints.
+
+If a book is sent out unopened, the first person into whose hand it
+falls will probably open it somewhere in the centre, bending the
+covers back and "breaking" the back; and if any leaves chance to have
+been stuck together in edge-gilding, they are likely to be torn if
+carelessly opened. A book with a "broken" back will always have a
+tendency to open in the same place, and will not keep its shape. It
+would be worth while for librarians to have newly bound books
+carefully opened. An assistant could "open" a large number of books
+in a day, and the benefit to the bindings would amply compensate for
+the small trouble and cost involved.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XVIII
+
+                  Clasps and Ties--Metal on Bindings
+
+
+                            CLASPS AND TIES
+
+Some books need to be clasped to keep the leaves flat. All books
+written or printed on vellum should have clasps. Vellum unless kept
+flat is apt to cockle, and this in a book will force the leaves apart
+and admit dust. If a book is tightly wedged in a shelf the leaves will
+be kept flat, but as the chance removal of any other book from the row
+will remove the pressure, it is much better to provide clasps for
+vellum books.
+
+Very thick books, and those with a great many folded plates, are
+better for having clasps to prevent the leaves from sagging. As nearly
+all books are now kept in bookshelves, and as any projection on the
+side of a book is likely to injure the neighbouring volume, a form of
+clasp should be used that has no raised parts on the boards.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 118.]
+
+At fig. 118 is shown a simple clasp suitable for small books with
+mill-board sides, with details of the metal parts, made of thick
+silver wire below. Double boards must be "made," and the flattened
+ends of the silver catch inserted between the two thicknesses, and
+glued in place. About one-eighth of an inch of the end should project.
+In covering, the leather must be pierced and carefully worked round
+the catch. To make the plait, three strips of thin leather are slipped
+through the ring, and the ends of each strip pasted together. The
+three doubled strips are then plaited and the end of the plait put
+through a hole in the lower board of the book about half an inch from
+the edge, and glued down inside. A groove may be cut in the mill-board
+from the hole to the edge before covering, to make a depression in
+which the plait will lie, and a depression may be scooped out of the
+inner surface of the board to receive the ends.
+
+At fig. 119 is a somewhat similar clasp with three plaits suitable for
+large books. The metal end and the method of inserting it into wooden
+boards are shown below. The turned-down end should go right through
+the board, and be riveted on the inside. When the three plaits are
+worked, a little band of silver may be riveted on just below the ring.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 119.]
+
+A very simple fastening that is sometimes useful is shown at fig. 77.
+A very small bead is threaded on to a piece of catgut, and the two
+ends of the gut brought together and put through a larger bead. The
+ends of the gut with the beads on them are laced into the top board
+of the book, with the bead projecting over the edge, and a loop of gut
+is laced into the bottom board. If the loop can be made exactly the
+right length, this is a serviceable method.
+
+Silk or leather ties may be used to keep books shut, but they are apt
+to be in the way when the book is read, and as hardly anybody troubles
+to tie them, they are generally of very little use.
+
+
+                           METAL ON BINDINGS
+
+Metal corners and bosses are a great protection to bindings, but if
+the books are to go into shelves, the metal must be quite smooth and
+flat. A metal shoe on the lower edge of the boards is an excellent
+thing for preserving the binding of heavy books.
+
+Bosses and other raised metal work should be restricted to books that
+will be used on lecterns or reading desks. The frontispiece is from a
+drawing of an early sixteenth-century book, bound in white pigskin,
+and ornamented with brass corners, centres, and clasps; and at page
+323 is shown a fifteenth-century binding with plain protecting bosses.
+On this book there were originally five bosses on each board, but the
+centre ones have been lost.
+
+Bindings may be entirely covered with metal, but the connection
+between the binding and the book is in that case seldom quite
+satisfactory. The most satisfactory metal-covered bindings that I have
+seen are those in which the metal is restricted to the boards. The
+book is bound in wooden boards, with thick leather at the back, and
+plaques of metal nailed to the wood. The metal may be set with jewels
+or decorated with enamel, and embossed or chased in various ways.
+
+Jewels are sometimes set in invisible settings below the leather of
+bindings, giving them the appearance of being set in the leather. This
+gives them an insecure look, and it is better to frankly show the
+metal settings and make a decorative feature of them.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIX
+
+                                Leather
+
+
+                                LEATHER
+
+Of all the materials used by the bookbinders, leather is the most
+important and the most difficult to select wisely. It is extremely
+difficult to judge a leather by its appearance.
+
+"We find now, that instead of leather made from sheep, calf, goat, and
+pigskins, each having, when finished, its own characteristic surface,
+that sheepskins are got up to look like calf, morocco, or pigskin;
+that calf is grained to resemble morocco, or so polished and flattened
+as to have but little character left; while goatskins are grained in
+any number of ways, and pigskin is often grained like levant morocco.
+So clever are some of these imitations, that it takes a skilled expert
+to identify a leather when it is on a book."
+
+There have been complaints for a long time of the want of durability
+of modern bookbinding leather, but there has not been until lately any
+systematic investigation into the causes of its premature decay.
+
+By permission, I shall quote largely from the report of the committee
+appointed by the Society of Arts to inquire into the subject. There
+are on this special committee leather manufacturers, bookbinders,
+librarians, and owners of libraries. The report issued is the result
+of an immense amount of work done. Many libraries were visited, and
+hundreds of experiments and tests were carried out by the
+sub-committees. There is much useful information in the report that
+all bookbinders and librarians should read. The work of the committee
+is not yet finished, but its findings may be accepted as conclusive as
+far as they go.
+
+The committee first set themselves to ascertain if the complaints of
+the premature decay of modern bookbinding leather are justified by
+facts, and on this point report that:--
+
+"As regards the common belief that modern binding leather does decay
+prematurely, the sub-committee satisfied themselves that books bound
+during the last eighty or hundred years showed far greater evidence of
+deterioration than those of an earlier date. Many recent bindings
+showed evidence of decay after so short a period as ten, or even five
+years. The sub-committee came to the conclusion that there is ample
+justification for the general complaint that modern leather is not so
+durable as that formerly used. To fix the date of the commencement of
+this deterioration was a difficult matter; but they came to the
+conclusion that while leather of all periods showed some signs of
+decay, the deterioration becomes more general on books bound after
+1830, while some leathers seem to be generally good until about 1860,
+after which date nearly all leathers seem to get worse. The
+deterioration of calf bindings at the latter end of the 19th century
+may be attributed as much to the excessive thinness as to the poor
+quality of the material."
+
+The committee endeavoured to ascertain the relative durability of the
+leathers used for bookbinding, and after visiting many libraries, and
+comparing bindings, they report as follows:--
+
+"As to the suitability of various leathers, the sub-committee came to
+the conclusion that of the old leathers (15th and 16th century), white
+pigskin, probably alum 'tanned,' is the most durable, but its
+excessive hardness and want of flexibility renders this leather
+unsuitable for most modern work. Old brown calf has lasted fairly
+well, but loses its flexibility, and becomes stiff and brittle when
+exposed to light and air. Some of the white tawed skins of the 15th
+and 16th century, other than white pigskin, and probably deerskin,
+have lasted very well. Some 15th and 16th century sheepskin bindings
+have remained soft and flexible, but the surface is soft, and usually
+much damaged by friction. Vellum seems to have lasted fairly well, but
+is easily influenced by atmospheric changes, and is much affected by
+light. Early specimens of red morocco from the 16th to the end of the
+18th century were found in good condition, and of all the leathers
+noticed, this seems to be the least affected by the various conditions
+to which it had been subjected. In the opinion of the committee, most
+of this leather has been tanned with sumach or some closely allied
+tanning material. Morocco bindings earlier than 1860 were generally
+found to be in fairly good condition, but morocco after that date
+seems to be much less reliable, and in many cases has become utterly
+rotten. During the latter part of the 18th century it became customary
+to pare down calf until it was as thin as paper. Since about 1830
+hardly any really sound calf seems to have been used, as, whether
+thick or thin, it appears generally to have perished. Sheepskin
+bindings of the early part of the century are many of them still in
+good condition. Since about 1860 sheepskin as sheepskin is hardly to
+be found. Sheepskins are grained in imitation of other leathers, and
+these imitation-grained leathers are generally found to be in a worse
+condition than any of the other bindings, except, perhaps, some of the
+very thin calfskin. Undyed modern pigskin seems to last well, but some
+coloured pigskin bindings had entirely perished. Modern leathers dyed
+with the aid of sulphuric acid are all to be condemned. In nearly
+every case Russia leather was found to have become rotten, at least in
+bindings of the last fifty years."
+
+On the question of the causes of the decay noticed and the best
+methods of preparing leather in the future, I may quote the
+following:--
+
+"The work of a sub-committee, which was composed of chemists specially
+conversant with the treatment of leather, was directed specially to
+the elucidation of the following points: an investigation of the
+nature of the decay of leather used for bookbinding; an examination of
+the causes which produced this decay; a research into the best
+methods of preparing leather for bookbinding; and a consideration of
+the points required to be dealt with in the preservation of books.
+
+"Taking these points in order, the first one dealt with is the
+question of the nature of the decay of leather. To arrive at their
+conclusions on this subject, the sub-committee made a number of tests
+and analyses of samples of decayed leather bookbindings, as well as of
+leathers used for binding. The committee found that the most prevalent
+decay was what they term a red decay, and this they think may be
+differentiated into old and new, the old red decay being noticeable up
+to about 1830, and the new decay since that date. In the old decay,
+the leather becomes hard and brittle, the surface not being easily
+abraded by friction. The older form is specially noticeable in
+calf-bound books, tanned presumably with oak bark. The new form
+affects nearly all leathers, and in extreme cases seems absolutely to
+destroy the fibres. Another form of deterioration, more noticeable in
+the newer books, renders the grain of the leather liable to peel off
+when exposed to the slightest friction. This is the most common form
+of decay noted in the more recent leathers. In nearly all samples of
+Russia leather a very violent form of red decay was noticed. In many
+cases the leather was found to be absolutely rotten in all parts
+exposed to light and air, so that on the very slightest rubbing with a
+blunt instrument the leather fell into fine dust....
+
+"The second point is the cause of the decay. An extensive series of
+experiments was carried out with a view of determining the causes of
+the decay of bindings. The sub-committee find that this is caused by
+both mechanical and by chemical influences. Of the latter, some are
+due to mistakes of the leather manufacturer and the bookbinder, others
+to the want of ventilation, and to improper heating and lighting of
+libraries. In some cases inferior leathers are finished (by methods in
+themselves injurious) so as to imitate the better class leathers, and
+of course where these are used durability cannot be expected. But in
+the main the injury for which the manufacturer and bookbinder are
+responsible must be attributed rather to ignorance of the effect of
+the means employed to give the leather the outward qualities required
+for binding, than to the intentional production of an inferior
+article.... Leathers produced by different tanning materials, although
+they may be equally sound and durable mechanically, vary very much in
+their resistance to other influences, such as light, heat, and gas
+fumes.
+
+"For bookbinding purposes, the sub-committee generally condemn the use
+of tanning materials belonging to the catechol group, although the
+leathers produced by the use of these materials are for many purposes
+excellent, and indeed superior. The class of tanning materials which
+produce the most suitable leather for this particular purpose belong
+to the pyrogallol group, of which a well known and important example
+is sumach. East Indian or 'Persian' tanned sheep and goat skins, which
+are suitable for many purposes, and are now used largely for cheap
+bookbinding purposes, are considered extremely bad. Books bound in
+these materials have been found to show signs of decay in less than
+twelve months, and the sub-committee are inclined to believe that no
+book bound in these leathers, exposed on a shelf to sunlight or gas
+fumes, can ever be expected to last more than five or six years.
+Embossing leather under heavy pressure to imitate a grain has a very
+injurious effect, while the shaving of thick skins greatly reduces the
+strength of the leather by cutting away the tough fibres of the inner
+part of the skin. The use of mineral acids in brightening the colour
+of leather, and in the process of dyeing, has a serious effect in
+lessening its resistance to decay. A good deal yet remains to be
+learned about the relative permanency of the different dyes."
+
+On analysis free sulphuric acid was found to be present in nearly all
+bookbinding leather, and it is the opinion of the committee that even
+a small quantity of this acid materially lessens the durability of the
+leather.
+
+"It has been shown by careful experiment, that even a minute quantity
+of sulphuric acid used in the dye bath to liberate the colour is at
+once absorbed by the leather, and that no amount of subsequent washing
+will remove it. In a very large proportion of cases the decay of
+modern sumach-tanned leather has been due to the sulphuric acid used
+in the dye bath, and retained in the skin. We have examined very many
+samples of leather manufactured and sold specially for bookbinding
+purposes, from different factories, bought from different dealers, or
+kindly supplied by bookbinders and by librarians, and have found them
+to contain, in a large number of cases, free sulphuric acid, from 0.5
+up to 1.6 per cent."
+
+The publication of the report should tend to fix a standard for
+bookbinding leather. Hitherto there has been no recognised standard.
+Bookbinders have selected leather almost entirely by its appearance.
+It has now been shown that appearance is no test of durability, and
+the mechanical test of tearing the leather is insufficient. Sound
+leather should tear with difficulty, and the torn edges should be
+fringed with long, silky fibres, and any leather which tears very
+easily, and shows short, curled-up fibres at the torn edges, should be
+discarded. But though good bookbinding leather will tear with
+difficulty, and show long fibres where torn, that is in itself not a
+sufficient test; because it has been shown that the leather that is
+mechanically the strongest, is not necessarily the most durable and
+the best able to resist the adverse influences to which books are
+subject in libraries.
+
+The report shows that bookbinders and librarians are not, as a general
+rule, qualified to select leather for bookbinding. In the old days,
+when the manufacture of leather was comparatively simple, a bookbinder
+might reasonably be expected to know enough of the processes employed
+to be able to select his leather. But now so complicated is the
+manufacture, and so many are the factors to be considered, that an
+expert should be employed.
+
+"The committee have satisfied themselves that it is possible to test
+any leather in such a way as to guarantee its suitability for
+bookbinding. They have not come to any decision as to the desirability
+of establishing any formal or official standard, though they consider
+that this is a point which well deserves future consideration."
+
+It is to be hoped that some system of examining and hall-marking
+leather by some recognised body, may be instituted. If librarians will
+specify that the leather to be employed must be certified to be
+manufactured according to the recommendations of the Society of Arts
+Committee, there is no reason why leathers should not be obtained as
+durable as any ever produced. This would necessitate the examining and
+testing of batches of leather by experts. At present this can be done
+more or less privately at various places, such as the Yorkshire
+College, Leeds, or the Herolds' Institute, Bermondsey. In the near
+future it is to be hoped that some recognised public body, such as one
+of the great City Companies interested in leather, may be induced to
+establish a standard, and to test such leathers as are submitted to
+them, hall-marking those that come up to the standard. This would
+enable bookbinders and librarians, in ordering leather, to be sure
+that it had not been injured in its manufacture. The testing, if done
+by batches, should not add greatly to the cost of the leather.
+
+On the question of the qualities of an ideal bookbinding leather the
+committee report:--
+
+"It is the opinion of the committee, that the ideal bookbinding
+leather must have, and retain, great flexibility.... (It) must have a
+firm grain surface, not easily damaged by friction, and should not be
+artificially grained.... The committee is of opinion that a pure
+sumach tannage will answer all these conditions, and that leather can,
+and will, be now produced that will prove to be as durable as any made
+in the past."
+
+The committee has so far only dealt with vegetable-tanned leather. I
+have used, with some success, chrome-tanned calfskin. Chrome leather
+is difficult to pare, and to work, as it does not become soft when
+wet, like vegetable-tanned leather. It will stand any reasonable
+degree of heat, and so might perhaps be useful for top-shelf bindings
+and for shelf edging. It is extremely strong mechanically, but without
+further tests I cannot positively recommend it except for trial.
+
+While the strength and probable durability of leather can only be
+judged by a trained leather chemist, there remains for the binders
+selection, the kind of leather to use, and its colour.
+
+Most of the leather prepared for bookbinding is too highly finished.
+The finishing processes add a good deal to the cost of the leather,
+and are apt to be injurious to it, and as much of the high finish is
+lost in covering, it would be better for the bookbinder to get rougher
+leather and finish it himself when it is on the book.
+
+The leathers in common use for bookbinding are:--
+
+    Goatskin, known as morocco.
+    Calf, known as calf and russia.
+    Sheepskin, known as roan, basil, skiver, &c.
+    Pigskin, known as pigskin.
+    Sealskin, known as seal.
+
+_Morocco_ is probably the best leather for extra binding if properly
+prepared, but experiment has shown that the expensive Levant moroccos
+are nearly always ruined in their manufacture. A great many samples of
+the most expensive Levant morocco were tested, with the result that
+they were all found to contain free sulphuric acid.
+
+_Calf._--Modern vegetable-tanned calf has become a highly
+unsatisfactory material, and until some radical changes are made in
+the methods of manufacturing it, it should not be used for
+bookbinding.
+
+_Sheepskin._--A properly tanned sheepskin makes a very durable, though
+rather soft and woolly, leather. Much of the bookbinding leather now
+made from sheepskin is quite worthless. Bookbinders should refuse to
+have anything to do with any leather that has been artificially
+grained, as the process is apt to be highly injurious to the skin.
+
+_Pigskin._--Pigskin is a thoroughly good leather naturally, and very
+strong, especially the alumed skins; but many of the dyed pigskins are
+found to be improperly tanned and dyed, and worthless for bookbinding.
+
+_Sealskin_ is highly recommended by one eminent librarian, but I have
+not yet had any experience of its use for bookbinding.
+
+The leather that I have found most useful is the Niger goatskin,
+brought from Africa by the Royal Niger Company; it is a very beautiful
+colour and texture, and has stood all the tests tried, without serious
+deterioration. The difficulty with this leather is that, being a
+native production, it is somewhat carelessly prepared, and is much
+spoiled by flaws and stains on the surface, and many skins are quite
+worthless. It is to be hoped that before long some of the
+manufacturers interested will produce skins as good in quality and
+colour as the best Niger morocco, and with fewer flaws.
+
+Much leather is ruined in order to obtain an absolutely even colour. A
+slight unevenness of colours is very pleasing, and should rather be
+encouraged than objected to. That the want of interest in absolutely
+flat colours has been felt, is shown by the frequency with which the
+binders get rid of flat, even colours by sprinkling and marbling.
+
+On this point I may quote from the committee: "The sprinkling of
+leather, either for the production of 'sprinkled' calf or 'tree' calf,
+with ferrous sulphate (green vitriol) must be most strongly condemned,
+as the iron combines with and destroys the tan in the leather, and
+free sulphuric acid is liberated, which is still more destructive.
+Iron acetate or lactate is somewhat less objectionable, but probably
+the same effects may be obtained with aniline colours without risk to
+the leather."
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XX
+
+                          Paper--Pastes--Glue
+
+
+                                 PAPER
+
+Paper may be made by hand or machinery, and either "laid" or "wove."
+"Laid" papers are distinguished by wire marks, which are absent in
+"wove" paper.
+
+A sheet of hand-made paper has all round it a rough uneven edge called
+the "deckle," that is a necessary result of its method of manufacture.
+The early printers looked upon this ragged edge as a defect, and
+almost invariably trimmed most of it off before putting books into
+permanent bindings. Book-lovers quite rightly like to find traces of
+the "deckle" edge, as evidence that a volume has not been unduly
+reduced by the binder. But it has now become the fashion to admire the
+"deckle" for its own sake, and to leave books on hand-made paper
+absolutely untrimmed, with ragged edges that collect the dirt, are
+unsightly, and troublesome to turn over. So far has this craze gone,
+that machine-made paper is often put through an extra process to give
+it a sham deckle edge.
+
+Roughly speaking, paper varies in quality according to the proportion
+of fibrous material, such as rag, used in the manufacture. To make
+paper satisfactorily by hand, a large proportion of such fibrous
+material is necessary, so that the fact that the paper is hand-made is
+to some extent a guarantee of its quality. There are various qualities
+of hand-made paper, made from different materials, chiefly linen and
+cotton rags. The best paper is made from pure linen rag, and poorer
+hand-made paper from cotton rag, while other qualities contain a
+mixture of the two or other substances.
+
+It is possible to make a thoroughly good paper by machinery if good
+materials are used. Some excellent papers are made by machinery; but
+the enormous demand for paper, together with the fact that now almost
+any fibrous material can be made into paper, has resulted in the
+production, in recent years, of, perhaps, the worst papers that have
+ever been seen.
+
+This would not matter if the use of the poor papers were restricted to
+newspapers and other ephemeral literature, but when, as is often the
+case, paper of very poor quality is used for books of permanent
+literary interest, the matter is serious enough.
+
+Among the worst papers made are the heavily loaded "Art" papers that
+are prepared for the printing of half-toned process blocks. It is to
+be hoped that before long the paper makers will produce a paper that,
+while suitable for printing half-toned blocks, will be more
+serviceable, and will have a less unpleasant surface.
+
+Several makers produce coloured handmade papers suitable for end
+papers. Machine-made papers can be had in endless variety from any
+number of makers.
+
+The paper known as "Japanese Vellum" is a very tough material, and
+will be found useful for repairing vellum books; the thinnest variety
+of it is very suitable for mending the backs of broken sections, or
+for strengthening weak places in paper.
+
+The following delightful account of paper making by hand is quoted
+from "Evelyn's Diary, 1641-1706."
+
+"I went to see my Lord of St. Alban's house at Byflete, an old large
+building. Thence to the paper mills, where I found them making a
+coarse white paper. They cull the raggs, which are linnen, for white
+paper, woollen for brown, then they stamp them in troughs to a papp
+with pestles or hammers like the powder-mills, then put it into a
+vessell of water, in which they dip a frame closely wyred with a wyre
+as small as a haire, and as close as a weaver's reede; on this they
+take up the papp, the superfluous water draining thro' the wyre; this
+they dextrously turning, shake out like a pancake on a smooth board
+between two pieces of flannell, then press it between a greate presse,
+the flannell sucking out the moisture; then taking it out they ply and
+dry it on strings, as they dry linnen in the laundry; then dip it in
+alum-water, lastly polish and make it up in quires. They put some gum
+in the water in which they macerate the raggs. The mark we find on the
+sheets is formed in the wyre."
+
+The following are the more usual sizes of printing papers--
+
+                      Inches.
+
+    Foolscap          17  × 13½
+    Crown             20  × 15
+    Post              19¼ × 15½
+    Demy              22½ × 17½
+    Medium             24 × 19
+    Royal              25 × 20
+    Double Pott        25 × 15
+      "    Foolscap    27 × 17
+    Super Royal        27 × 21
+    Double Crown       30 × 20
+    Imperial           30 × 22
+    Double Post       31½ × 19½
+
+The corresponding sizes of hand-made papers may differ slightly from
+the above.
+
+Although the above are the principal sizes named, almost any size can
+be made to order.
+
+The following is an extract from the report of the Committee of the
+Society of Arts on the deterioration of paper, published in 1898: "The
+committee find that the paper-making fibres may be ranged into four
+classes:--
+
+    A. Cotton, flax, and hemp.
+    B. Wood, celluloses (_a_) sulphite process,
+       and (_b_) soda and sulphate process.
+    C. Esparto and straw celluloses.
+    D. Mechanical wood pulp.
+
+In regard, therefore, to papers for books and documents of permanent
+value, the selection must be taken in this order, and always with due
+regard to the fulfilment of the conditions of normal treatment above
+dealt with as common to all papers."
+
+"The committee have been desirous of bringing their investigations to
+a practical conclusion in specific terms, viz. by the suggestion of
+standards of quality. It is evident that in the majority of cases,
+there is little fault to find with the practical adjustments which
+rule the trade. They are, therefore, satisfied to limit their specific
+findings to the following, viz., _Normal standard of quality for book
+papers required for publications of permanent value._ For such papers
+they would specify as follows:--
+
+"_Fibres._ Not less than 70 per cent. of fibres of Class A.
+
+"_Sizing._ Not more than 2 per cent. rosin, and finished with the
+normal acidity of pure alum.
+
+"_Loading._ Not more than 10 per cent. total mineral matter (ash).
+
+"With regard to written documents, it must be evident that the proper
+materials are those of Class A, and that the paper should be pure,
+and sized with gelatine, and not with rosin. All imitations of
+high-class writing papers, which are, in fact, merely disguised
+printing papers, should be carefully avoided."
+
+
+                                PASTES
+
+To make paste for covering books, &c., take 2 oz. of flour, and ¼
+oz. of powdered alum, and well mix with enough water to form a thin
+paste, taking care to break up any lumps. Add a pint of cold water,
+and heat gently in an enamelled saucepan. As it becomes warm, it
+should be stirred from time to time, and when it begins to boil it
+should be continually stirred for about five minutes. It should then
+form a thick paste that can be thinned with warm water. Of course any
+quantity can be made if the proportions are the same.
+
+Paste for use is best kept in a wooden trough, called a "paste tub."
+The paste tub will need to be cleaned out from time to time, and all
+fragments of dry paste removed. This can easily be done if it is left,
+overnight, filled with water. Before using, the paste should be well
+beaten up with a flat stick.
+
+For pasting paper, it should have about the consistency and smoothness
+of cream; for leather, it can be thicker. For very thick leather a
+little thin glue may be added. Paste made with alum will keep about a
+fortnight, but can be kept longer by the addition of corrosive
+sublimate in the proportion of one part of corrosive sublimate to a
+thousand parts of paste. Corrosive sublimate, being a deadly poison,
+will prevent the attack of bookworms or other insects, but for the
+same reason must only be used by responsible people, and paste in
+which it is used must be kept out of the way of domestic animals.
+
+Several makes of excellent prepared paste can be bought in London.
+These pastes are as cheap as can be made, and keep good a long time.
+
+Paste that has become sour should never be used, as there is danger
+that the products of its acid fermentation may injure the leather.
+
+Paste tubs as sold often have an iron bar across them to wipe the
+brush on. This should be removed, and replaced by a piece of twisted
+cord. Paste brushes should be bound with string or zinc; copper or
+iron will stain the paste.
+
+
+                        WHITE PASTE FOR MENDING
+
+A good paste for mending is made from a teaspoonful of ordinary flour,
+two teaspoonsful of cornflour, half a teaspoonful of alum, and three
+ounces of water. These should be carefully mixed, breaking up all
+lumps, and then should be heated in a clean saucepan, and stirred all
+the time with a wooden or bone spoon. The paste should boil for about
+five minutes, but not too fast, or it will burn and turn brown.
+Rice-flour or starch may be substituted for cornflour, and for very
+white paper the wheaten flour may be omitted. Ordinary paste is not
+nearly white enough for mending, and is apt to leave unsightly stains.
+
+Cornflour paste may be used directly after it is made, and will keep
+good under ordinary circumstances for about a week. Directly it gets
+hard or goes watery, a new batch must be made.
+
+
+                                 GLUE
+
+It is important for bookbinders that the glue used should be of good
+quality, and the best hide glue will be found to answer well. To
+prepare it for use, the glue should be broken up into small pieces and
+left to soak overnight in water. In the morning it should be soft and
+greatly swollen, but not melted, and can then be put in the glue-pot
+and gently simmered until it is fluid. It is then ready for use. Glue
+loses in quality by being frequently heated, so that it is well not to
+make a great quantity at a time. The glue-pot should be thoroughly
+cleaned out before new glue is put into it, and the old glue sticking
+round the sides taken out.
+
+Glue should be used hot and not too thick. If it is stringy and
+difficult to work, it can be broken up by rapidly twisting the brush
+in the glue-pot. For paper the glue should be very thin and well
+worked up with the brush before using.
+
+The following is quoted from "Chambers' Encyclopædia" article on
+Glue:--
+
+"While England does not excel in the manufacture, it is a recognised
+fact that Scottish glue ... ranks in the front of the glues of all
+countries. A light-coloured glue is not necessarily good, nor a
+dark-coloured glue necessarily bad. A bright, clear, claret colour is
+the natural colour of hide glue, which is the best and most
+economical.
+
+"Light-coloured glues (as distinguished from gelatine) are made either
+from bones or sheepskins. The glue yielded by these materials cannot
+compare with the strength of that yielded by hides.
+
+"A great quantity is now made in France and Germany from bones. It is
+got as a by-product in the manufacture of animal charcoal. Although
+beautiful to look at, it is found when used to be far inferior to
+Scottish hide glue."
+
+
+
+
+                                PART II
+
+                       CARE OF BOOKS WHEN BOUND
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXI
+
+           Injurious Influences to which Books are Subjected
+
+
+_Gas Fumes._--The investigation of the Society of Arts Committee shows
+that--
+
+"Of all the influences to which books are exposed in libraries, gas
+fumes--no doubt because of the sulphuric and sulphurous acid which
+they contain--are shown to be the most injurious."
+
+The injurious effects of gas fumes on leather have been recognised for
+a long time, and gas is being, very generally, given up in libraries
+in consequence. If books must be kept where gas is used, they should
+not be put high up in the room, and great attention should be paid to
+ventilation. It is far better, where possible, to avoid the use of gas
+at all in libraries.
+
+_Light._--The committee also report that "light, and especially direct
+sunlight and hot air, are shown to possess deleterious influences
+which had scarcely been suspected previously, and the importance of
+moderate temperature and thorough ventilation of libraries cannot be
+too much insisted on."
+
+The action of light on leather has a disintegrating effect, very
+plainly seen when books have stood for long periods on shelves placed
+at right angles to windows. At Oxford and Cambridge and at the British
+Museum Library the same thing was noticed. The leather on that side,
+of the backs of books, next to the light, was absolutely rotten,
+crumbling to dust at the slightest friction, while at the side away
+from the light it was comparatively sound. Vellum bindings were even
+more affected than those of leather.
+
+The committee advise that library windows exposed to the direct
+sunlight should be glazed with tinted glass.
+
+"Some attempts have been made to determine the effect of light
+transmitted through glasses of different colours, and they point to
+the fact that blue and violet glass pass light of nearly as
+deleterious quality as white glass; while leathers under red, green,
+and yellow glasses were almost completely protected. There can be no
+doubt that the use of pale yellow or olive-green glass in library
+windows exposed to direct sunlight is desirable. A large number of
+experiments have been made on the tinted 'cathedral' glasses of
+Messrs. Pilkington Bros., Limited, with the result that Nos. 812 and
+712 afforded almost complete protection during two months' exposure to
+sunlight, while Nos. 704 and 804 may be recommended where only very
+pale shades are permissible. The glasses employed were subjected to
+careful spectroscopic examination, and to colour-measurement by the
+tintometer, but neither were found to give precise indications as to
+the protective power of the glasses, which is no doubt due to the
+absorption of the violet, and especially of the invisible ultra-violet
+rays. An easy method of comparing glasses is to expose under them to
+sunlight the ordinary sensitised albumenised photographic paper.
+Those glasses under which this is least darkened are also most
+protective to leather."
+
+_Tobacco._--Smoking was found to be injurious, and it is certainly a
+mistake to allow it in libraries.
+
+"The effect of ammonia vapour, and tobacco fumes, of which ammonia is
+one of the active ingredients, was also examined. The effect of
+ammonia fumes was very marked, darkening every description of leather,
+and it is known that in extreme cases it causes a rapid form of decay.
+Tobacco smoke had a very similar darkening and deleterious effect
+(least marked in the case of sumach tanned leathers), and there can be
+no doubt that the deterioration of bindings in a library where smoking
+was permitted and the rooms much used, must have been partly due to
+this cause."
+
+_Damp._--Books kept in damp places will develop mildew, and both
+leather and paper will be ruined.
+
+Where possible, naturally dry rooms should be used for libraries, and
+if not naturally dry, every means possible should be taken to render
+them so. It will sometimes be found that the only way to keep the
+walls of an old house dry is to put in a proper dampcourse. There are
+various other methods employed, such as lining the walls with thin
+lead, or painting them inside and out with some waterproofing
+preparation: but as long as a wall remains in itself damp, it is
+doubtful if any of these things will permanently keep the damp from
+penetrating.
+
+Bookshelves should never be put against the wall, nor the books on the
+floor. There should always be space for air to circulate on all sides
+of the bookshelves. Damp is specially injurious if books are kept
+behind closely-fitting doors. The doors of bookcases should be left
+open from time to time on warm days.
+
+Should mildew make its appearance, the books should be taken out,
+dried and aired, and the bookshelves thoroughly cleaned. The cause of
+the damp should be sought for, and measures taken to remedy it.
+Library windows should not be left open at night, nor during damp
+weather, but in warm fine weather the more ventilation there is, the
+better.
+
+_Heat._--While damp is very injurious to books on account of the
+development of mildew, unduly hot dry air is almost as bad, causing
+leather to dry up and lose its flexibility. On this point the Chairman
+of the Society of Arts Committee says:--
+
+"Rooms in which books are kept should not be subject to extremes,
+whether of heat or cold, of moisture or dryness. It may be said that
+the better adapted a room is for human occupation, the better for the
+books it contains. Damp is, of course, most mischievous, but
+over-dryness induced by heated air, especially when the pipes are in
+close proximity to the bookcases, is also very injurious."
+
+_Dust._--Books should be taken from the shelves at least once a year,
+dusted and aired, and the bindings rubbed with a preservative.
+
+To dust a book, it should be removed from the shelf, and without being
+opened, turned upside down and flicked with a feather duster. If a
+book with the dust on the top is held loosely in the hand, and dusted
+right way up, dust may fall between the leaves. Dusting should be done
+in warm, dry weather; and afterwards, the books may be stood on the
+table slightly open, to air, with their leaves loose. Before being
+returned to the shelves, the bindings should be lightly rubbed with
+some preservative preparation (see chap. XXII). Any bindings that are
+broken, or any leaves that are loose should be noted, and the books
+put on one side to be sent to the binder. It would be best when the
+library is large enough to warrant it, to employ a working bookbinder
+to do this work; such a man would be useful in many ways. He could
+stick on labels, repair bindings, and do many other odd jobs to keep
+the books in good repair.
+
+A bookbinder could be kept fully employed, binding and repairing the
+books of a comparatively small library under the direction of the
+librarian.
+
+
+                               BOOKWORMS
+
+The insects known as bookworms are the larvæ of several sorts of
+beetles, most commonly perhaps of _Antobium domesticum_ and _Niptus
+hololencus_. They are not in any way peculiar to books and will infest
+the wood of bookshelves, walls, or floors. A good deal can be done to
+keep "worms" away by using such substances as camphor or naphthaline
+in the bookcase. Bookworms do not attack modern books very much;
+probably they dislike the alum put in the paste and the mill-boards
+made of old tarred rope.
+
+In old books, especially such as come from Italy, it is often found
+that the ravages of the bookworms are almost entirely confined to the
+glue on the backs of the books, and it generally seems that the glue
+and paste attract them. Probably if corrosive sublimate were put in
+the glue and paste used it would stop their attacks. Alum is said to
+be a preventive, but I have known bookworms to eat their way through
+leather pasted on with paste containing alum, when, in recovering, the
+old wooden boards containing bookworms have been utilised in error.
+
+When on shaking the boards of an old book dust flies out, or when
+little heaps of dust are found on the shelf on which an old book has
+been standing, it may be considered likely that there are bookworms
+present. It is easy to kill any that may be hatched, by putting the
+book in an air-tight box surrounded with cotton wool soaked in ether;
+but that will not kill the eggs, and the treatment must be repeated
+from time to time at intervals of a few weeks.
+
+Any book that is found to contain bookworms should be isolated and at
+once treated. Tins may be put inside the boards to prevent the "worms"
+eating into the leaves.
+
+Speaking of bookworms, Jules Cousin says:--
+
+"One of the simplest means to be employed (to get rid of bookworms) is
+to place behind the books, especially in the place where the insects
+show their presence most, pieces of linen soaked with essence of
+turpentine, camphor, or an infusion of tobacco, and to renew them when
+the smell goes off. A little fine pepper might also be scattered on
+the shelf, the penetrating smell of which would produce the same
+effect."
+
+Possibly Keating's Insect Powder would answer as well or better than
+pepper.
+
+
+                             RATS AND MICE
+
+Rats and mice will gnaw the backs of books to get at the glue, so,
+means should be taken to get rid of these vermin if they should
+appear. Mice especially will nibble vellum binding or the edges of
+vellum books that have become greasy with much handling.
+
+
+                              COCKROACHES
+
+Cockroaches are very troublesome in libraries, eating the bindings.
+Keating's Insect Powder will keep them away from books, but only so
+long as it is renewed at short intervals.
+
+
+                   PLACING THE BOOKS IN THE SHELVES
+
+The Chairman of the Society of Arts Special Committee says on this
+point:--
+
+"It is important that a just medium should be observed between the
+close and loose disposition of books in the shelves. Tight packing
+causes the pulling off of the tops of book-backs, injurious friction
+between their sides, and undue pressure, which tends to force off
+their backs. But books should not stand loosely on the shelves. They
+require support and moderate lateral pressure, otherwise the leaves
+are apt to open and admit dust, damp, and mildew. The weight of the
+leaves also in good-sized volumes loosely placed will often be found
+to be resting on the shelf, making the backs concave, and spoiling the
+shape and cohesion of the books.
+
+"In libraries where classification is attempted there must be a
+certain number of partially filled shelves. The books in these should
+be kept in place by some such device as that in use in the British
+Museum, namely, a simple flat angle piece of galvanised iron, on the
+lower flange of which the end books rest, keeping it down, the upright
+flange keeping the books close and preventing them from spreading."
+
+He also speaks of the danger to bindings of rough or badly-painted
+bookshelves:--
+
+"Great care should be exercised when bookcases are painted or
+varnished that the surface should be left hard, smooth, and dry.
+Bindings, especially those of delicate texture, may be irreparably
+rubbed if brought in contact with rough or coarsely-painted surfaces,
+while the paint itself, years after its original application, is
+liable to come off upon the books, leaving indelible marks. In such
+cases pasteboard guards against the ends of the shelves are the only
+remedy."
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XXII
+
+                 To Preserve Old Bindings--Re-backing
+
+
+                       TO PRESERVE OLD BINDINGS
+
+It is a well-known fact that the leather of bindings that are much
+handled lasts very much better than that on books which remain
+untouched on the shelves. There is little doubt that the reason for
+this is that the slight amount of grease the leather receives from the
+hands nourishes it and keeps it flexible. A coating of glair or
+varnish is found to some extent to protect leather from adverse
+outside influences, but, unfortunately, both glair and varnish tend
+rather to harden leather than to keep it flexible, and they fail just
+where failure is most serious, that is at the joints. In opening and
+shutting, any coat of glair or varnish that has become hard will
+crack, and expose the leather of the joint and back. Flexibility is an
+essential quality in bookbinding leather, for as soon as the leather
+at the joint of a binding becomes stiff it breaks away when the boards
+are opened.
+
+It would add immensely to the life of old leather bindings if
+librarians would have them treated, say once a year, with some
+preservative. The consequent expense would be saved many times over by
+the reduction of the cost of rebinding. Such a preservative must not
+stain, must not evaporate, must not become hard, and must not be
+sticky. Vaseline has been recommended, and answers fairly well, but
+will evaporate, although slowly. I have found that a solution of
+paraffin wax in castor oil answers well. It is cheap and very simple
+to prepare. To prepare it, some castor oil is put into an earthenware
+jar, and about half its weight of paraffin wax shredded into it. On
+warming, the wax will melt, and the preparation is ready for use.
+
+A little of the preparation is well worked into a piece of flannel,
+and the books rubbed with it, special attention being paid to the back
+and joints. They may be further rubbed with the hand, and finally gone
+over with a clean, soft cloth. Very little of the preparation need be
+used on each book.
+
+If bindings have projecting metal corners or clasps that are likely to
+scratch the neighbouring books, pieces of mill-board, which may be
+lined with leather or good paper, should be placed next them, or they
+may have a cover made of a piece of mill-board bent round as shown at
+fig. 120, and strengthened at the folds with linen. This may be
+slipped into the shelf with the book with the open end outwards, and
+will then hardly be seen.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 120.]
+
+Bindings which have previously had metal clasps, &c., often have
+projecting fragments of the old nails. These should be sought for and
+carefully removed or driven in, as they may seriously damage any
+bindings with which they come in contact.
+
+To protect valuable old bindings, cases may be made and lettered on
+the back with the title of the book.
+
+Loose covers that necessitate the bending back of the boards for their
+removal are not recommended.
+
+
+                              RE-BACKING
+
+Bindings that have broken joints may be re-backed. Any of the leather
+of the back that remains should be carefully removed and preserved. It
+is impossible to get some leathers off tight backs without destroying
+them, but with care and by the use of a thin folder, many backs can be
+saved. The leather on the boards is cut a little back from the joint
+with a slanting cut, that will leave a thin edge, and is then lifted
+up with a folder. New leather, of the same colour is pasted on the
+back, and tucked in under the old leather on the board. The leather
+from the old back should have its edges pared and any lumps of glue or
+paper removed and be pasted on to the new leather and bound tightly
+with tape to make sure that it sticks.
+
+When the leather at the corners of the board needs repairing, the
+corner is glued and tapped with a hammer to make it hard and square,
+and when it is dry a little piece of new leather is slipped under the
+old and the corner covered.
+
+When the sewing cords or thread of a book have perished it should be
+rebound, but if there are any remains of the original binding they
+should be preserved and utilised. If the old boards have quite
+perished, new boards of the same nature and thickness should be got
+out and the old cover pasted over them. Such places as the old leather
+will not cover, must first be covered with new of the same colour.
+Generally speaking, it is desirable that the characteristics of an old
+book should be preserved, and that the new work should be as little in
+evidence as possible. It is far more pleasant to see an old book in a
+patched contemporary binding, than smug and tidy in the most
+immaculate modern cover.
+
+Part of the interest of any old book is its individual history, which
+can be gathered from the binding, book-plates, marginal notes, names
+of former owners, &c., and anything that tends to obliterate these
+signs is to be deplored.
+
+
+
+
+                            SPECIFICATIONS
+
+
+                    SPECIFICATIONS FOR BOOKBINDING
+
+These specifications will require modification in special cases, and
+are only intended to be a general guide.
+
+------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+-------
+            | SHEETS. | END PAPERS. | PRESSING.| EDGES. |  SEWING. | BACK.
+------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+-------
+            |To be    |To be sewn   |Books on  |To be   |To be with|To be
+     I.     |carefully|on. To be of |handmade  |trimmed |ligature  |kept
+For Extra   |folded,  |good paper   |paper not |and gilt|silk,     |as
+Binding     |or, if   |made with    |to be     |before  |flexible, |flat
+suitable    |an old   |zigzag, with |pressed   |sewing. |round five|as it
+for Valuable|book, all|board papers |unduly.   |To be   |bands of  |can be
+Books. Whole|damaged  |of self-     |          |uncut.  |best      |without
+Leather.    |leaves to|coloured     |          |        |sewing    |forcing
+            |be       |paper of good|          |        |cord.     |it and
+            |carefully|quality, or  |          |        |          |without
+            |mended,  |vellum. Or to|          |        |          |danger
+            |the backs|be made with |          |        |          |of its
+            |where    |leather      |          |        |          |becom-
+            |damaged  |joint.       |          |        |          |ing
+            |to be    |             |          |        |          |concave
+            |made     |             |          |        |          |in use.
+            |sound.   |             |          |        |          |
+            |Single   |             |          |        |          |
+            |leaves   |             |          |        |          |
+            |to be    |             |          |        |          |
+            |guarded  |             |          |        |          |
+            |round    |             |          |        |          |
+            |the      |             |          |        |          |
+            |sections |             |          |        |          |
+            |next     |             |          |        |          |
+            |them. All|             |          |        |          |
+            |plates to|             |          |        |          |
+            |be       |             |          |        |          |
+            |guarded. |             |          |        |          |
+            |Guards to|             |          |        |          |
+            |be sewn  |             |          |        |          |
+            |through. |             |          |        |          |
+            |No past- |             |          |        |          |
+            |ing on   |             |          |        |          |
+            |or over- |             |          |        |          |
+            |casting  |             |          |        |          |
+            |to be    |             |          |        |          |
+            |allowed. |             |          |        |          |
+------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+-------
+            |As No.   |To be of good|Same as   |To be   |To be with|Same as
+     II.    |I.,      |paper made   |No. I.    |cut and |unbleached|for No.
+For Good    |excepting|with zigzag, |          |gilt in |thread,   |I.
+Binding for |that any |with board   |          |boards  |flexible, |
+Books of    |mending  |papers of    |          |or      |round five|
+Reference,  |may be   |self-coloured|          |coloured|bands of  |
+Catalogues, |done     |paper of good|          |or to be|best      |
+&c., and    |rather   |quality.     |          |uncut.  |sewing    |
+other heavy |with a   |Large or     |          |        |cord.     |
+Books that  |view to  |heavy books  |          |        |          |
+may have a  |strength |to have a    |          |        |          |
+great deal  |than     |cloth joint. |          |        |          |
+of use.     |extreme  |To be sewn   |          |        |          |
+Whole or    |neatness.|on.          |          |        |          |
+Half        |         |             |          |        |          |
+Leather.    |         |             |          |        |          |
+------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+-------
+            |Same as  |To be of good|Same as   |To be   |To be with|Same as
+    III.    |No. II.  |paper, sewn  |No. I.    |uncut,  |unbleached|for
+For Binding |         |on, made with|          |or to be|thread    |Nos. I.
+for         |         |zigzag.      |          |cut in  |across not|and II.
+Libraries,  |         |             |          |guillo- |less than |
+IV. for     |         |             |          |tine and|four      |
+Books in    |         |             |          |gilt or |unbleached|
+current     |         |             |          |coloured|linen     |
+use. Half   |         |             |          |or to   |tapes.    |
+Leather.    |         |             |          |have top|          |
+            |         |             |          |edge    |          |
+            |         |             |          |only    |          |
+            |         |             |          |gilt.   |          |
+------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+-------
+            |Any      |Same as No.  |          |May be  |With      |Back to
+    IV.     |leaves   |III.         |          |cut     |unbleached|be left
+For Library |damaged  |             |          |smooth  |thread    |square
+Bindings of |at the   |             |          |in      |over three|after
+Books of    |back or  |             |          |guillo- |unbleached|glueing
+little      |plates   |             |          |tine.   |linen     |up.
+Interest or |to be    |             |          |        |tapes.    |
+Value,      |overcast |             |          |        |          |
+Cloth or    |into     |             |          |        |          |
+Half Linen. |sections.|             |          |        |          |
+------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+-------
+
+
+            SPECIFICATIONS FOR BOOKBINDING--(_continued_).
+
+------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+--------
+            |BOARDS. |HEADBANDS.|  COVERS. |LETTERING.|DECORATION.|
+------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+--------
+            |To be of|To be     |Goatskin  |To be     |To be as   |All work
+     I.	    |the best|worked    |(morocco),|legible   |much or as |to be
+For Extra   |black   |with silk |pigskin   |and to    |little as  |done in
+Binding     |mill-   |on strips |or seal-  |identify  |the nature |the best
+suitable    |board.  |of vellum |skin manu-|the       |of the book|manner.
+for Valuable|Two     |or catgut |factured  |volume.   |warrants.  |
+Books. Whole|boards  |or cord,  |according |          |           |
+Leather.    |to be   |with      |to the    |          |           |
+            |made    |frequent  |recommend-|          |           |
+            |together|tie-downs.|ations of |          |           |
+            |for     |The head- |the       |          |           |
+            |large   |bands to  |Society   |          |           |
+            |books,  |be "set"  |of Arts'  |          |           |
+            |and all |by pieces |Committee |          |           |
+            |five    |of good   |on Leather|          |           |
+            |bands   |paper or  |for       |          |           |
+            |laced in|leather   |Book-     |          |           |
+            |through |glued at  |binding.  |          |           |
+            |two     |head and  |Whole     |          |           |
+            |holes.  |tail. The |binding;  |          |           |
+            |        |back to be|leather   |          |           |
+            |        |lined up  |to be     |          |           |
+            |        |with      |attached  |          |           |
+            |        |leather   |directly  |          |           |
+            |        |all over  |to the    |          |           |
+            |        |if the    |back.     |          |           |
+            |        |book is   |          |          |           |
+            |        |large.    |          |          |           |
+------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+--------
+            |Same as |Same as   |Same as   |Same as   |To be      |Work may
+    II.     |No. I., |No. I.    |No. I.,   |No. I.    |omitted, or|be a
+For Good    |or may  |          |excepting |          |only to    |little
+Binding for |be of   |          |that      |          |consist of |rougher,
+Books of    |good    |          |properly  |          |a few lines|but not
+Reference,  |grey    |          |prepared  |          |or dots or |careless
+Catalogues, |board.  |          |sheepskin |          |other      |or
+&c., and    |        |          |may be    |          |quite      |dirty.
+other heavy |        |          |added.    |          |simple     |
+Books that  |        |          |Half-     |          |ornament.  |
+may have    |        |          |binding,  |          |           |
+a great deal|        |          |leather   |          |           |
+of use.     |        |          |only at   |          |           |
+Whole or    |        |          |back.     |          |           |
+Half        |        |          |Corners   |          |           |
+Leather.    |        |          |to be     |          |           |
+            |        |          |strength- |          |           |
+            |        |          |ened with |          |           |
+            |        |          |tips of   |          |           |
+            |        |          |vellum.   |          |           |
+            |        |          |Sides     |          |           |
+            |        |          |covered   |          |           |
+            |        |          |with good |          |           |
+            |        |          |paper     |          |           |
+            |        |          |or linen. |          |           |
+------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+--------
+            |To be   |To be     |Same as   |Same as   |To be      |Same as
+    III.    |split   |worked    |Nos. I.   |Nos. I.   |omitted.   |No. II.
+For Binding |grey    |with      |and II.,  |and II.   |           |
+for         |boards, |thread    |but skins |          |           |
+Libraries,  |or      |or vellum |may be    |          |           |
+for Books   |straw-  |or cord,  |used where|          |           |
+in current  |board   |or to be  |there are |          |           |
+use. Half   |with    |omitted   |surface   |          |           |
+Leather.    |black   |and a     |flaws that|          |           |
+            |board   |piece of  |do not    |          |           |
+            |liner,  |cord      |affect the|          |           |
+            |with    |inserted  |strength. |          |           |
+            |ends    |into the  |Leather to|          |           |
+            |of tapes|turn in   |be used   |          |           |
+            |attached|of the    |thicker   |          |           |
+            |to      |leather at|than is   |          |           |
+            |portion |head and  |usual,    |          |           |
+            |of waste|tail in   |there     |          |           |
+            |sheet,  |their     |being     |          |           |
+            |inserted|place.    |French    |          |           |
+            |between |          |joints.   |          |           |
+            |them.   |          |Leather at|          |           |
+            |Boards  |          |back only;|          |           |
+            |to be   |          |paper     |          |           |
+            |left a  |          |sides;    |          |           |
+            |short   |          |vellum    |          |           |
+            |distance|          |tips.     |          |           |
+            |from the|          |          |          |           |
+            |joint   |          |          |          |           |
+            |to form |          |          |          |           |
+            |a French|          |          |          |           |
+            |joint.  |          |          |          |           |
+------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+--------
+            |To be   |No        |Whole     |Same as   |To be      |Same as
+    IV.     |split   |headbands.|buckram   |Nos. I.   |omitted.   |No. II.
+For Library |boards, |          |or half   |II. and   |           |
+Bindings of |two     |          |linen and |III.      |           |
+Books of    |straw-  |          |paper     |          |           |
+little      |boards  |          |sides.    |          |           |
+Interest or |made    |          |          |          |           |
+Value, Cloth|together|          |          |          |           |
+or Half     |and ends|          |          |          |           |
+Linen.      |of slips|          |          |          |           |
+            |insert- |          |          |          |           |
+            |ed.     |          |          |          |           |
+            |French  |          |          |          |           |
+            |joint to|          |          |          |           |
+            |be left.|          |          |          |           |
+------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+--------
+
+
+
+
+                               GLOSSARY
+
+
+_Arming press_, a small blocking press used for striking arms-blocks
+on the sides of books.
+
+_Backing boards_, wedge-shaped bevelled boards used in backing (see
+Fig. 40).
+
+_Backing machine_, used for backing cheap work in large quantities; it
+often crushes and damages the backs of the sections.
+
+_Bands_, (1) the cords on which a book is sewn. (2) The ridges on the
+back caused by the bands showing through the leather.
+
+_Band nippers_, pincers with flat jaws, used for straightening the
+bands (see Fig. 61). For nipping up the leather after covering, they
+should be nickelled to prevent the iron staining the leather.
+
+_Beating stone_, the "stone" on which books were formerly beaten; now
+generally superseded by the rolling machine and standing press.
+
+_Blind tooling_, the impression of finishing tools without gold.
+
+_Blocking press_, a press used for impressing blocks such as those
+used in decorating cloth cases.
+
+_Board papers_, the part of the end papers pasted on to the boards.
+
+_Bodkin_, an awl used for making the holes in the boards for the
+slips.
+
+_Bolt_, folded edge of the sheets in an unopened book.
+
+_Cancels_, leaves containing errors, which have to be discarded and
+replaced by corrected sheets. Such leaves are marked by the printer
+with a star.
+
+_Catch-word_, a word printed at the foot of one page indicating the
+first word of the page following, as a guide in collating.
+
+_Cutting boards_, wedge-shaped boards somewhat like backing boards,
+but with the top edge square; used in cutting the edge of a book and
+in edge-gilding.
+
+_Cutting in boards_, cutting the edges of a book after the boards are
+laced on.
+
+_Cutting press_, when the lying press is turned, so that the side with
+the runners is uppermost, it is called a cutting press (see Fig. 46).
+
+_Diaper_, a term applied to a small repeating all-over pattern. From
+woven material decorated in this way.
+
+_Doublure_, the inside face of the boards, especially applied to them
+when lined with leather and decorated.
+
+_End papers_, papers added at the beginning and end of a book by the
+binder.
+
+_Extra binding_, a trade term for the best work.
+
+_Finishing_, comprises lettering, tooling, and polishing, &c.
+
+_Finishing press_, a small press used for holding books when they are
+being tooled (see Fig. 84).
+
+_Finishing stove_, used for heating finishing tools.
+
+_Folder_, a flat piece of ivory or bone, like a paper knife, used in
+folding sheets and in various other operations.
+
+_Foredge_ (fore edge), the front edge of the leaves. Pronounced
+"forrege."
+
+_Forwarding_, comprises all the operations between sewing and
+finishing, excepting headbanding.
+
+_Gathering_, collecting one sheet from each pile in a printer's
+warehouse to make up a volume.
+
+_Glaire_, white of eggs beaten up, and used in finishing and edge
+gilding.
+
+_Half binding_, when the leather covers the back and only part of the
+sides, a book is said to be half bound.
+
+_Head band_, a fillet of silk or thread, worked at the head and tail
+of the back.
+
+_Head cap_, the fold of leather over the head band (see Fig. 67).
+
+_Head and tail_, the top and bottom of a book.
+
+_Imperfections_, sheets rejected by the binder and returned to the
+printer to be replaced.
+
+_India proofs_, strictly first proofs only of an illustration pulled
+on "India paper," but used indiscriminately for all illustrations
+printed on India paper.
+
+_Inset_, the portion of a sheet cut off and inserted in folding
+certain sizes, such as duodecimo, &c. (see Fig. 4).
+
+_Inside margins_, the border made by the turn in of the leather on the
+inside face of the boards (see Fig. 116).
+
+_Joints_, (1) the groove formed in backing to receive the ends of the
+mill-boards. (2) The part of the binding that bends when the boards
+are opened. (3) Strips of leather or cloth used to strengthen the end
+papers.
+
+"_Kettle stitch_," catch stitch formed in sewing at the head and tail.
+
+_Lacing in_, lacing the slips through holes in the boards to attach
+them.
+
+_Lying press_, the term applied to the under side of the cutting press
+used for backing, usually ungrammatically called "laying press."
+
+_Marbling_, colouring the edges and end papers in various patterns,
+obtained by floating colours on a gum solution.
+
+_Millboard machine_, machine used for squaring boards; should only be
+used for cheap work, as an edge cut by it will not be as square as if
+cut by the plough.
+
+_Mitring_, (1) lines meeting at a right angle without overrunning are
+said to be mitred. (2) A join at 45° as in the leather on the inside
+of the boards.
+
+_Overcasting_, over-sewing the back edges of single leaves or weak
+sections.
+
+_Peel_, a thin board on a handle used for hanging up sheets for
+drying.
+
+_Plate_, an illustration printed from a plate. Term often incorrectly
+applied to illustrations printed from woodcuts. Any full-page
+illustration printed on different paper to the book is usually called
+a "plate."
+
+_Pressing plates_, plates of metal japanned or nickelled, used for
+giving finish to the leather on a book.
+
+_Press pin_, an iron bar used for turning the screws of presses.
+
+_Proof_, edges left uncut as "proof" that the book has not been unduly
+cut down.
+
+_Register_, (i.) when the print on one side of a leaf falls exactly
+over that on the other it is said to register. (ii.) Ribbon placed in
+a book as a marker.
+
+_Rolling machine_, a machine in which the sheets of a book are subject
+to heavy pressure by being passed between rollers.
+
+_Sawing in_, when grooves are made in the back with a saw to receive
+the bands.
+
+_Section_, the folded sheet.
+
+_Semée_ or _Semis_, an heraldic term signifying sprinkled.
+
+_Set off_, print is said to "set off" when part of the ink from a page
+comes off on an opposite page. This will happen if a book is pressed
+too soon after printing.
+
+_Sheet_, the full size of the paper as printed, forming a section when
+folded.
+
+_Signature_, the letter or figure placed on the first page of each
+sheet.
+
+_Slips_, the ends of the sewing cord or tape that are attached to the
+boards.
+
+_Squares_, the portion of the boards projecting beyond the edges of
+the book.
+
+_Start_, when, after cutting, one or more sections of the book come
+forward, making the fore edge irregular, they are said to have
+started.
+
+_Straight edge_, a flat ruler.
+
+_Tacky_, sticky.
+
+_T. E. G._, top-edge gilt.
+
+_Trimmed._ The edges of a book are said to be trimmed when the edges
+of the larger (or projecting) leaves only have been cut.
+
+_Tub_, the stand which supports the lying press. Originally an actual
+tub to catch the shavings.
+
+_Uncut_, a book is said to be uncut when the edges of the paper have
+not been cut with the plough or guillotine.
+
+_Unopened_, the book is said to be unopened if the bolts of the sheets
+have not been cut.
+
+_Waterproof sheets_, sheets of celluloid, such as are used by
+photographers.
+
+_Whole binding_, when the leather covers the back and sides of a
+volume.
+
+_Wire staples_ are used by certain machines in the place of thread for
+securing the sections.
+
+_Groove_, that part of the sections which is turned over in backing to
+receive the board.
+
+
+
+
+                       REPRODUCTIONS OF BINDINGS
+
+                           I., II., AND III.
+
+                FIFTEENTH CENTURY BLIND-TOOLED BINDINGS
+
+                                  IV.
+
+          SIXTEENTH CENTURY BINDING WITH SIMPLE GOLD-TOOLING
+
+                       V., VI., VII., AND VIII.
+
+                MODERN BINDINGS DESIGNED BY THE AUTHOR
+
+    [Illustration: I.--German Fifteenth Century. Pigskin. Actual
+    size, 8¾" × 6¼".]
+
+    [Illustration: II.--German Fifteenth Century. Calf. Actual
+    size 12½" × 8½".]
+
+    [Illustration: III.--Italian Fifteenth Century. Sheepskin,
+    with coloured roundels. Actual size, 11½" × 8¼".]
+
+    [Illustration: IV.--Italian Sixteenth Century. Actual size,
+    12½" × 8½". Goatskin.]
+
+    [Illustration: V.--Half Niger morocco, with sides of English
+    oak. Actual size, 17" × 11½".]
+
+    [Illustration: VI.--Niger morocco, inlaid green leaves.
+    Actual size, 8¼" × 5½".]
+
+    [Illustration: VII.--Green levant, inlaid with lighter green
+    panel and red dots. Actual size, 6¾" × 4½".]
+
+    [Illustration: VIII.--Niger morocco, executed by a student of
+    the Central School of Arts and Crafts. Actual size, 11¾" × 9¼".]
+
+
+
+
+                                 INDEX
+
+
+ARMING PRESS, 229, 313
+
+Arms blocks, 228
+
+Art paper, 48, 282
+
+Autograph letters, 179
+
+
+BACKING, 117
+
+Backing hammer, 123
+
+Back, lining up, 152
+
+Band nippers, 160, 163
+
+Bands, 313
+
+Bandstick, 160
+
+Beating, 90
+
+Beating stone, 90, 313
+
+Benzine, 207, 209
+
+Binding, decoration of, 21, 30, 188, 233
+
+Binding, collotype reproductions of, 321-336
+
+Binding, embroidered, 186
+
+Binding early printed books, 31, 46, 113
+
+Binding, extra, 308
+
+Binding, jewelled, 263
+
+Binding, library, 27, 173, 308
+
+Binding, manuscripts, 31, 108, 113, 125, 135, 223
+
+Binding, metal-covered, 263
+
+Binding, vellum, 180
+
+Binding very thin books, 177
+
+Blind tooling, 188, 222
+
+Blocking press, 229, 313
+
+Blocks, striking, 229
+
+Boards, 124
+
+Boards, attaching, 132
+
+Boards, cutting, 125
+
+Boards, filling in, 170
+
+Boards, lining, 129
+
+Boards, pressing, 193, 210
+
+Boards, split, 28, 175, 311
+
+Bodkin, 114
+
+Bookbinding as a profession, 32
+
+Books in sheets, 34
+
+Bookworms, 297
+
+Borders, designing, 240
+
+Borders, inside, 253
+
+
+CALF, 27, 277
+
+Cancelled sheets, 43
+
+Cased books, 19, 49
+
+Castor oil, 303
+
+Catch stitch, 99
+
+Catch words, 314
+
+Celluloid, sheets of, 161
+
+Centres, designing, 241
+
+Chrome leather, 276
+
+Clasps and ties, 183, 259
+
+Cleaning off back, 137
+
+Cloth casing, 19, 49
+
+Cloth joints, 86, 257
+
+Cobden-Sanderson, T. J., xii., 22
+
+Cockroaches, 300
+
+Cocoanut oil, 200
+
+Collating, 43
+
+Colouring edges, 144
+
+Combining tools to form patterns, 232
+
+Compasses, 131
+
+Cord sewing, 111
+
+Corners, mitring, 165, 168
+
+Cousin, Jules, 74, 299
+
+Covering, 23, 159, 176, 310
+
+Crushing the grain of leather, 192
+
+Cutting in boards, 139
+
+Cutting mill-boards, 124
+
+Cutting press, 128
+
+
+DAMP, effect of, on bindings, 294
+
+Decoration of bindings, 21, 30, 188, 233
+
+Designing tools, 230
+
+Diaper patterns, 236
+
+Dividers, 51
+
+Dots, striking, 205
+
+Doubluves, 253, 314
+
+Dressing for old bindings, 302
+
+Dust and dusting, 296
+
+
+EARLY printed books, binding, 31, 46, 113
+
+Edge colouring, 144
+
+Edge gauffering, 144
+
+Edge gilding, 95, 144
+
+Edge sizing, 95, 146
+
+Edges, painted, 146
+
+Embroidered bindings, 186
+
+End papers, 80, 254
+
+End, painted, 83
+
+End, vellum, 84
+
+Ends, silk, 84
+
+Entering, 33
+
+Evelyn's Diary (quotation), 282
+
+"Extra" binding, 308, 314
+
+
+FALSE bands, 26
+
+Fillet, 190, 206
+
+Fillet, small, 206, 246
+
+Filling in boards, 170
+
+Finishing, 191
+
+Finishing press, 194
+
+Finishing tools, 188
+
+Finishing stove, 195
+
+Flattening vellum, 65
+
+Folder, 164
+
+Folding, 36
+
+Fraying out slips, 114
+
+French joint, 176
+
+French paring knife, 156
+
+French standing press, 91
+
+
+GAS fumes, effect of, 291
+
+Gathering, 35
+
+Gauffering edges, 144
+
+Gelatine, 70
+
+Gilding edges, 95, 144
+
+Gilt top, 92
+
+Glaire, 97, 198
+
+Glass, tinted, for libraries, 292
+
+Glossary, 313
+
+Glue, 289
+
+Glueing up, 115
+
+Goatskin, 277
+
+Gold cushion, 200
+
+Gold leaf, 199
+
+Gold knife, 200
+
+Gold, net for, 96
+
+Gold, pad for, 201
+
+Gold tooling, 188, 191
+
+Gouges, 189, 205, 247
+
+Groove (_see_ Joint)
+
+Guarding, 42, 53
+
+Guarding plates, 50, 56, 316
+
+
+HAMMER, backing, 123
+
+Hand-made paper, 280
+
+Headbanding, 108, 147, 176
+
+Headcaps, 156, 166
+
+Heat, effect of, on bindings, 295
+
+Heraldry on bindings, 227
+
+Hinging plates, 57
+
+Hollow backs, 25, 185
+
+
+IMPERFECTIONS, 35
+
+India proofs, soaking off, 62
+
+India proofs, mounting, 63
+
+Indiarubber for gold, 207
+
+Inlaying leather, 213, 232, 243
+
+Inlaying leaves or plates, 64
+
+Inset, 40, 315
+
+Inside margins, 253
+
+
+JACONET, 60, 64
+
+Japanese paper, 282
+
+Japanese vellum, 282
+
+Jewelled bindings, 263
+
+Joint, 165, 169
+
+Joint, cloth, 86, 257
+
+Joint, French, 176
+
+Joint, knocking out, 53
+
+Joint, leather, 86, 171
+
+
+KETTLE stitch, 49, 99, 105
+
+Keys, sewing, 101
+
+Knife, mountcutters', 54
+
+Knife, French paring, 156
+
+Knife, gold, 200
+
+Knife, plough, 129, 139
+
+Knocking down iron, 53, 134
+
+Knocking out joints, 53
+
+Knot, 100, 106
+
+
+LACING in slips, 132
+
+Lay cords, 100
+
+Laying press (_see_ Lying press)
+
+Leather, 27, 263
+
+Leather, chrome, 276
+
+Leather, crushing grain of, 192
+
+Leather, inlaying, 213, 232, 243
+
+Leather joints, 86, 171
+
+Leather, paring, 154
+
+Leather, polishing, 191
+
+Leather, sprinkling and marbling, 27, 279
+
+Leather, stretching, 23, 161
+
+Leather, testing, 274
+
+Leather work, 226
+
+Leaves, inlaying, 64
+
+Lettering, 28, 215, 246
+
+Letters, autograph, 179
+
+Library binding, 27, 173, 308
+
+Light, effect of, on leather, 292
+
+Lining up back, 152
+
+Lithographic stone, 157, 160
+
+Loose covers, 304
+
+Lying press, 128
+
+
+MANUSCRIPTS, binding of, 31, 108, 113, 125, 135, 223
+
+Manuscripts, collating, 46
+
+Maps, throwing out, 60
+
+Marbled paper, 83
+
+Margins, inside, 253
+
+Marking up, 98
+
+Materials for sewing, 111
+
+Mending, 76
+
+Mending tooling, 208
+
+Mending vellum, 79
+
+Metal on bindings, 262
+
+Millboards, 124
+
+Millboard machine, 127, 315
+
+Millboard shears, 126
+
+Mitring corners, 165, 168
+
+Morocco, 277
+
+Morocco, "Persian," 271
+
+Mount-cutters' knife, 54
+
+Mounting India-proofs, 63
+
+Mounting very thin paper, 63
+
+
+NET for gilding edges, 96
+
+Niger morocco, 278
+
+Nipping press, 211
+
+Nippers, band, 160, 163
+
+
+OIL, cocoanut, 200
+
+Opening newly-bound books, 257
+
+Overcasting, 51
+
+"Overs," 35
+
+Oxalic acid, use of, 173
+
+
+PAD for gold, 201
+
+Paging, 44
+
+Painted edges, 146
+
+Painted end papers, 83
+
+Pallets, 189
+
+Paper, 280
+
+Paper, art, 48, 283
+
+Paper, hand-made, 280
+
+Paper, Japanese, 282
+
+Paper, marbled, 83
+
+Paper, sizes of, 36, 283
+
+Paper, sizing, 67
+
+Paper, splitting, 63
+
+Paper, washing, 71
+
+Paraffin wax, 303
+
+Paring leather, 154
+
+Paring paper, 61
+
+Paring stone, 157, 160
+
+Pastes, 286
+
+Paste water, 198
+
+Pasting down end papers, 254
+
+Patterns, 232
+
+"Peel," 316
+
+Permanent binding, 19
+
+"Persian" morocco, 271
+
+Pigskin, 278
+
+Plates, detaching, 48
+
+Plates, guarding, 56
+
+Plates, hinging, 57
+
+Plates, inlaying, 64
+
+Plates, trimming, 40
+
+Plough, 128
+
+Plough knife, 129, 139
+
+Polishing, 191
+
+Preserving old bindings, 302
+
+Press, arming, 229, 313
+
+Press, blocking, 229, 313
+
+Press, cutting, 128
+
+Press, finishing, 194
+
+Press, lying, 128
+
+Press, nipping, 211
+
+Press pin, 316
+
+Press, sewing (_see_ Sewing frame)
+
+Press, standing, 88
+
+Pressing boards, 193, 210
+
+Pressing in boards, 138
+
+Pressing plates, 192, 316
+
+Pressing sections, 87
+
+"Proof," 316
+
+Publishers' binding, 20
+
+Pulling to pieces, 46
+
+
+QUARTER sections, 42
+
+Quires, books in, 34
+
+
+RATS and mice, 299
+
+Re-backing, 305
+
+Re-binding, 18, 306
+
+Refolding, 51
+
+Register of printing, 52, 316
+
+Representations of bindings, 321-336
+
+Roll, 190
+
+Rounding, 117
+
+
+SAWING in, 20, 25, 100, 108
+
+Scrap books, 178
+
+Sealskin, 278
+
+Sections, pressing, 87
+
+Sewing, 100
+
+Sewing cord, 111
+
+Sewing frame, 100
+
+Sewing keys, 101
+
+Sewing on tapes, 26, 111, 174
+
+Sewing on vellum slips, 111, 181
+
+Sewing silk, 112
+
+Sewing, tape for, 112
+
+Sewing thread, 112
+
+Sheepskin, 277-308
+
+Sheets, books in, 34
+
+Sheets, waterproof, 161
+
+Signatures, 34, 43
+
+Silk ends, 84
+
+Silk sewing, 112
+
+Sizes of paper, 36, 283
+
+Sizing, 67
+
+Sizing edges, 95-146
+
+Sizing leather, 198
+
+Sizing paper, 67
+
+Slips, 317
+
+Slips, fraying out, 114
+
+Slips, lacing in, 132
+
+Soaking off India proofs, 62
+
+Society of Arts, Report of Committee on Leather for Bookbinding, 22, 264
+
+Society of Arts, Report of Committee on Paper, 284
+
+Specifications, 308
+
+Split boards, 28, 175, 311
+
+Splitting paper, 63
+
+Sprinkling leather, 27, 279
+
+Squares, 131, 153, 317
+
+Standing press, 88
+
+Standing press, French, 89, 91
+
+Staples, wire, 49
+
+"Starred" sheets, 43
+
+Stove, finishing, 195
+
+Stone, lithographic, 157, 160
+
+Striking dots, 205
+
+Striking tools, 204
+
+
+TAPE, sewing on, 26, 112, 174
+
+Temporary binding, 20
+
+Testing leather, 274
+
+Thin books, binding, 177
+
+Thin paper, mounting, 63
+
+Thread, sewing, 112
+
+Throwing out maps, 60
+
+Ties and clasps, 183, 259
+
+Tobacco smoke, effect of, on binding, 294
+
+Tooling, blind, 188, 222
+
+Tooling, gold, 24, 188, 191
+
+Tooling on vellum, 212
+
+Tools, designing, 188, 230
+
+Tools, finishing, 188, 230
+
+Training for bookbinding, 32
+
+Trimming before sewing, 93
+
+Trimming machine, 94
+
+Trimming plates, 40
+
+Tub, 317
+
+Tying up, 167
+
+
+VARNISH, 209
+
+Vellum binders, 26
+
+Vellum bindings, 180
+
+Vellum ends, 84
+
+Vellum, flattening, 65
+
+Vellum, Japanese, 282
+
+Vellum, mending, 79
+
+Vellum slips, sewing on, 111, 183
+
+Vellum tooling on, 212
+
+
+WALKER, Emery, 216
+
+Washing, 71
+
+Waterproof sheets, 161
+
+Weaver's knot, 106
+
+Wooden boards, 32, 135, 223, 330
+
+Worm holes, 78, 297
+
+
+
+
+                     THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF
+                         TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS.
+
+                       Edited by W. R. LETHABY.
+
+
+The series will appeal to handicraftsmen in the industrial and
+mechanic arts. It consists of authoritative statements by experts in
+every field for the exercise of ingenuity, taste, imagination--the
+whole sphere of the so-called "dependent arts."
+
+    BOOKBINDING AND THE CARE OF BOOKS. A Handbook for Amateurs,
+    Bookbinders, and Librarians. By DOUGLAS COCKERELL. With 120
+    Illustrations and Diagrams by Noel Rooke, and 8 collotype
+    reproductions of binding. 12mo. $1.25 net.
+
+    SILVERWORK AND JEWELRY. A Text-Book for Students and Workers
+    in Metal. By H. WILSON. With 160 Diagrams and 16 full-page
+    Illustrations, 12mo. $1.40 net.
+
+    WOOD CARVING: DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP. By GEORGE JACK. With
+    Drawings by the Author and other Illustrations. $1.40 net.
+
+    STAINED-GLASS WORK. A Text-Book for Students and Workers in
+    Glass. By C. W. WHALL. With Diagrams by two of his
+    Apprentices, and other Illustrations. $1.50 net; postage, 14
+    cents additional.
+
+                  D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.
+
+
+
+
+                          TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+Obvious typographic errors have been corrected. For the detailed list
+see below. The tables have been slightly modified to optimize
+presentation.
+
+page 014--typo fixed: changed 'Making' to 'Marking'
+page 138--spelling normalized: changed 'head-banding' to 'headbanding'
+page 159--typo fixed: changed 'wook' to 'wood'
+page 173--typo fixed: changed 'CHAPTER VIII' to 'CHAPTER XIII'
+page 198--typo fixed: changed 'isinglas' to 'isinglass'
+page 249--spelling normalized: changed 'tie downs' to 'tie-downs'
+page 253--spelling normalized: changed 'headcap' to 'head-cap'
+page 298--spelling normalized: changed 'millboard' to 'mill-board'
+page 303--spelling normalized: changed 're-binding' to 'rebinding'
+page 304--spelling normalized: changed 'millboard' to 'mill-board'
+page 310--spelling normalized: changed 'Goat-skin' to 'Goatskin'
+page 314--spelling normalized: changed 'head-banding' to 'headbanding'
+page 315--spelling normalized: changed 'millboards' to 'mill-boards'
+page 339--spelling normalized: changed 'millboards' to 'mill-boards'
+page 341--spelling normalized: changed 'Re-folding' to 'Refolding'
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Bookbinding, and the Care of Books, by 
+Douglas Cockerell
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+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's Bookbinding, and the Care of Books, by Douglas Cockerell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Bookbinding, and the Care of Books
+       A handbook for Amateurs, Bookbinders & Librarians
+
+Author: Douglas Cockerell
+
+Editor: W. R. Lethaby
+
+Illustrator: Noel Rooke
+
+Release Date: September 19, 2008 [EBook #26672]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOOKBINDING, AND THE CARE OF BOOKS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Shell, Irma Spehar and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 90%">THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES<br />
+OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS<br />
+EDITED BY W.&nbsp;R. LETHABY</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 90%">BOOKBINDING</p>
+
+<div class="titlepage">
+<h1>BOOKBINDING, AND<br />
+THE CARE OF BOOKS</h1>
+
+<p class="titlesub">A HANDBOOK FOR AMATEURS
+BOOKBINDERS &amp; LIBRARIANS
+BY DOUGLAS COCKERELL<br />
+
+WITH<br />
+
+DRAWINGS BY NOEL ROOKE
+AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 75px; padding-top: 4em">
+<img src="images/tp01.jpg" width="75" height="87" alt="publisher_logo" title="publisher_logo" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="publisher">NEW YORK<br />
+D. APPLETON AND COMPANY<br />
+1910</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="copyright"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1901,<br />
+By D. Appleton and Company</span><br /><br />
+
+<i>All rights reserved</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="figcenter"><a href="images/gs005.jpg"><img src="images/gs005_th.jpg"
+alt="" title="" /></a></p>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">White Pigskin.</span>&mdash;<i>Basle</i>, 1512.</p>
+
+
+<h2><a name="EDITORS_PREFACE" id="EDITORS_PREFACE"></a>EDITOR&#8217;S PREFACE<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> issuing this volume of a series of
+Handbooks on the Artistic Crafts, it
+will be well to state what are our general
+aims.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, we wish to provide
+trustworthy text-books of workshop practice,
+from the points of view of experts
+who have critically examined the methods
+current in the shops, and putting aside
+vain survivals, are prepared to say what
+is good workmanship, and to set up a
+standard of quality in the crafts which
+are more especially associated with design.
+Secondly, in doing this, we hope
+to treat design itself as an essential part
+of good workmanship. During the last
+century most of the arts, save painting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+and sculpture of an academic kind, were
+little considered, and there was a tendency
+to look on &#8220;design&#8221; as a mere matter
+of <i>appearance</i>. Such &#8220;ornamentation&#8221; as
+there was was usually obtained by following
+in a mechanical way a drawing provided
+by an artist who often knew little
+of the technical processes involved in
+production. With the critical attention
+given to the crafts by Ruskin and Morris,
+it came to be seen that it was impossible
+to detach design from craft in this
+way, and that, in the widest sense, true
+design is an inseparable element of good
+quality, involving as it does the selection
+of good and suitable material, contrivance
+for special purpose, expert workmanship,
+proper finish and so on, far
+more than mere ornament, and indeed,
+that ornamentation itself was rather an
+exuberance of fine workmanship than a
+matter of merely abstract lines. Workmanship
+when separated by too wide a gulf
+from fresh thought&mdash;that is, from design&mdash;inevitably
+decays, and, on the other hand,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+ornamentation, divorced from workmanship,
+is necessarily unreal, and quickly
+falls into affectation. Proper ornamentation
+may be defined as a language addressed
+to the eye; it is pleasant thought
+expressed in the speech of the tool.</p>
+
+<p>In the third place, we would have this
+series put artistic craftsmanship before
+people as furnishing reasonable occupation
+for those who would gain a livelihood.
+Although within the bounds of
+academic art, the competition, of its kind,
+is so acute that only a very few per cent.
+can fairly hope to succeed as painters and
+sculptors; yet, as artistic craftsmen, there
+is every probability that nearly every
+one who would pass through a sufficient
+period of apprenticeship to workmanship
+and design would reach a measure
+of success.</p>
+
+<p>In the blending of handwork and
+thought in such arts as we propose to
+deal with, happy careers may be found
+as far removed from the dreary routine
+of hack labour, as from the terrible uncertainty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+of academic art. It is desirable
+in every way that men of good education
+should be brought back into the productive
+crafts: there are more than enough
+of us &#8220;in the city,&#8221; and it is probable
+that more consideration will be given in
+this century than in the last to Design
+and Workmanship.</p>
+
+<p class="right">W.&nbsp;R. LETHABY.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="AUTHORS_NOTE" id="AUTHORS_NOTE"></a>AUTHOR&#8217;S NOTE<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is hoped that this book will help
+bookbinders and librarians to select sound
+methods of binding books.</p>
+
+<p>It is intended to supplement and not
+to supplant workshop training for bookbinders.
+No one can become a skilled
+workman by reading text-books, but to
+a man who has acquired skill and practical
+experience, a text-book, giving perhaps
+different methods from those to which
+he has been accustomed, may be helpful.</p>
+
+<p>My thanks are due to many friends,
+including the workmen in my workshop,
+for useful suggestions and other
+help, and to the Society of Arts for permission
+to quote from the report of their
+Special Committee on leather for bookbinding.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>I should also like to express my indebtedness
+to my master, Mr. T.&nbsp;J.
+Cobden-Sanderson, for it was in his workshop
+that I learned my craft, and anything
+that may be of value in this book is due
+to his influence.</p>
+
+<p class="right">D.&nbsp;C.</p>
+
+<p><i>November</i> 1901.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></h2>
+
+
+<table summary="table of contents" class="toc">
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">PART I</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2"><span style="letter-spacing: 0.15ex"><i>BINDING</i></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="toc_pageno"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Editor&#8217;s Preface</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Author&#8217;s Note</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER I</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Introduction</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER II</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Entering&mdash;Books in Sheets&mdash;Folding&mdash;Collating&mdash;Pulling
+to Pieces&mdash;Refolding&mdash;Knocking
+out Joints</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER III</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Guarding&mdash;Throwing Out&mdash;Paring Paper&mdash;Soaking
+off India Proofs&mdash;Mounting very
+Thin Paper&mdash;Splitting Paper&mdash;Inlaying&mdash;Flattening
+Vellum</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER IV</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>Sizing&mdash;Washing&mdash;Mending</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER V</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">End Papers&mdash;Leather Joints&mdash;Pressing</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER VI</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Trimming Edges before Sewing&mdash;Edge Gilding</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER VII</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Marking up&mdash;Sewing&mdash;Materials for Sewing</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Fraying out Slips&mdash;Glueing up&mdash;Rounding and
+Backing</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER IX</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Cutting and Attaching Boards&mdash;Cleaning off
+Back&mdash;Pressing</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER X</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Cutting in Boards&mdash;Gilding and Colouring Edges</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER XI</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Headbanding</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER XII</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Preparing for Covering&mdash;Paring Leather&mdash;Covering&mdash;Mitring
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>Corners&mdash;Filling-in Boards</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIII</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Library Binding&mdash;Binding very Thin Books&mdash;Scrap-Books&mdash;Binding
+in Vellum&mdash;Books
+covered with Embroidery</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIV</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Decoration&mdash;Tools&mdash;Finishing&mdash;Tooling on
+Vellum&mdash;Inlaying on Leather</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER XV</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Lettering&mdash;Blind Tooling&mdash;Heraldic Ornament</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVI</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Designing for Gold-Tooled Decoration</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVII</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Pasting down End Papers&mdash;Opening Books</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVIII</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Clasps and Ties&mdash;Metal on Bindings</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIX</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Leather</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER XX</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>Paper&mdash;Pastes&mdash;Glue</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">PART II</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2"><span style="letter-spacing: 0.15ex"><i>CARE OF BOOKS WHEN BOUND</i></span></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXI</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">Injurious Influences to which Books are Subjected</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="toc_chapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXII</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle">To Preserve Old Bindings&mdash;Re-backing</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_302">302</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle"><span class="smcap">Specifications</span></td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle"><span class="smcap">Glossary</span></td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_313">313</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle"><span class="smcap">Reproductions of Bindings</span> (Eight Collotypes)</td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_319">319</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc_subtitle"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td class="toc_pageno"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 style="line-height: 150%"><a name="PART_I" id="PART_I"></a>PART I<br />
+
+BINDING</h2>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></h2>
+
+<h5>INTRODUCTION</h5>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> reasons for binding the leaves of a
+book are to keep them together in their
+proper order, and to protect them. That
+bindings can be made, that will adequately
+protect books, can be seen from the large
+number of fifteenth and sixteenth century
+bindings now existing on books still in
+excellent condition. That bindings are
+made, that fail to protect books, may be
+seen by visiting any large library, when
+it will be found that many bindings have
+their boards loose and the leather crumbling
+to dust. Nearly all librarians complain,
+that they have to be continually<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+rebinding books, and this not after four
+hundred, but after only five or ten years.</p>
+
+<p>It is no exaggeration to say that ninety
+per cent. of the books bound in leather
+during the last thirty years will need rebinding
+during the next thirty. The
+immense expense involved must be a very
+serious drag on the usefulness of libraries;
+and as rebinding is always to some
+extent damaging to the leaves of a book, it
+is not only on account of the expense that
+the necessity for it is to be regretted.</p>
+
+<p>The reasons that have led to the production
+in modern times of bindings that
+fail to last for a reasonable time, are twofold.
+The materials are badly selected or
+prepared, and the method of binding is
+faulty. Another factor in the decay of
+bindings, both old and new, is the bad
+conditions under which they are often
+kept.</p>
+
+<p>The object of this text-book is to
+describe the best methods of bookbinding,
+and of keeping books when bound, taking
+into account the present-day conditions.
+No attempt has been made to describe all
+possible methods, but only such as appear
+to have answered best on old books. The
+methods described are for binding that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+can be done by hand with the aid of
+simple appliances. Large editions of
+books are now bound, or rather cased,
+at an almost incredible speed by the aid
+of machinery, but all work that needs
+personal care and thought on each book,
+is still done, and probably always will be
+done, by hand. Elaborate machinery can
+only be economically employed when very
+large numbers of books have to be turned
+out exactly alike.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary cloth &#8220;binding&#8221; of the
+trade, is better described as casing. The
+methods being different, it is convenient
+to distinguish between casing and binding.
+In binding, the slips are firmly attached
+to the boards before covering; in casing,
+the boards are covered separately, and
+afterwards glued on to the book. Very
+great efforts have been made in the decoration
+of cloth covers, and it is a pity
+that the methods of construction have
+not been equally considered. If cloth cases
+are to be looked upon as a temporary
+binding, then it seems a pity to waste so
+much trouble on their decoration; and
+if they are to be looked upon as permanent
+binding, it is a pity the construction
+is not better.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For books of only temporary interest,
+the usual cloth cases answer well enough;
+but for books expected to have permanent
+value, some change is desirable.</p>
+
+<p>Valuable books should either be issued
+in bindings that are obviously temporary,
+or else in bindings that are strong enough
+to be considered permanent. The usual
+cloth case fails as a temporary binding,
+because the methods employed result in
+serious damage to the sections of the book,
+often unfitting them for rebinding, and it
+fails as a permanent binding on account of
+the absence of sound construction.</p>
+
+<p>In a temporary publisher&#8217;s binding,
+nothing should be done to the sections
+of a book that would injure them. Plates
+should be guarded, the sewing should be
+on tapes, without splitting the head and
+tail, or &#8220;sawing in&#8221; the backs, of the
+sections; the backs should be glued up
+square without backing. The case may
+be attached, as is now usual. For a permanent
+publisher&#8217;s binding, something
+like that recommended for libraries (page
+<a href="#Page_173">173</a>) is suggested, with either leather or
+cloth on the back.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of the book four specifications
+are given (page <a href="#Page_307">307</a>). The first is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+suggested for binding books of special
+interest or value, where no restriction as to
+price is made. A binding under this specification
+may be decorated to any extent
+that the nature of the book justifies. The
+second is for good binding, for books
+of reference and other heavy books that
+may have a great deal of wear. All the
+features of the first that make for the
+strength of the binding are retained, while
+those less essential, that only add to the
+appearance, are omitted. Although the
+binding under this specification would be
+much cheaper than that carried out under
+the first, it would still be too expensive
+for the majority of books in most libraries;
+and as it would seem to be impossible
+to further modify this form of
+binding, without materially reducing its
+strength, for cheaper work, a somewhat
+different system is recommended. The
+third specification is recommended for
+the binding of the general run of small
+books in most libraries. The fourth is
+a modification of this for pamphlets and
+other books of little value, that need to
+be kept together tidily for occasional
+reference.</p>
+
+<p>Thanks, in a great measure, to the work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+of Mr. Cobden-Sanderson, there is in England
+the germ of a sound tradition for the
+best binding. The Report of the Committee
+appointed by the Society of Arts
+to investigate the cause of the decay of
+modern leather bindings, should tend to
+establish a sound tradition for cheaper
+work. The third specification at the end
+of this book is practically the same as that
+given in their Report, and was arrived at
+by selection, after many libraries had been
+examined, and many forms of binding
+compared.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the end of the eighteenth century
+the traditional methods of binding
+books had altered very little during three
+hundred years. Books were generally
+sewn round five cords, the ends of all of
+these laced into the boards, and the leather
+attached directly to the back. At the end
+of the eighteenth century it became customary
+to pare down leather until it was as
+thin as paper, and soon afterwards the use
+of hollow backs and false bands became
+general, and these two things together
+mark the beginning of the modern degradation
+of binding, so far as its utility as a
+protection is concerned.</p>
+
+<p>The Society of Arts Committee report<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+that the bookbinders must share with the
+leather manufacturers and librarians the
+blame for the premature decay of modern
+bindings, because&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;1. Books are sewn on too few, and
+too thin cords, and the slips are pared
+down unduly (for the sake of neatness),
+and are not in all cases firmly laced into
+the boards. This renders the attachment
+of the boards to the book almost
+entirely dependent on the strength of the
+leather.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;2. The use of hollow backs throws all
+the strain of opening and shutting on the
+joints, and renders the back liable to come
+right off if the book is much used.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;3. The leather of the back is apt to
+become torn through the use of insufficiently
+strong headbands, which are unable
+to stand the strain of the book being taken
+from the shelf.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;4. It is a common practice to use far
+too thin leather; especially to use large
+thick skins very much pared down for
+small books.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;5. The leather is often made very
+wet and stretched a great deal in covering,
+with the result that on drying it is further
+strained, almost to breaking point, by contraction,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+leaving a very small margin of
+strength to meet the accidents of use.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The history of the general introduction
+of hollow backs is probably somewhat
+as follows: Leather was doubtless first
+chosen for covering the backs of books
+because of its toughness and flexibility;
+because, while protecting the back, it
+would bend when the book was opened
+and allow the back to &#8220;throw up&#8221; (see
+<a href="#Fig_1">fig. 1</a>, A). When gold tooling became
+common, and the backs of books were elaborately
+decorated, it was found that the
+creasing of the leather injured the brightness
+or the gold and caused it to crack.
+To avoid this the binders lined up the
+back until it was as stiff as a block of
+wood. The back would then not &#8220;throw
+up&#8221; as the book was opened, the leather
+would not be creased, and the gold would
+remain uninjured (see <a href="#Fig_1">fig. 1</a>, B). This was
+all very well for the gold, but a book so
+treated does not open fully, and indeed,
+if the paper is stiff, can hardly be got to
+open at all. To overcome both difficulties
+the hollow back was introduced, and
+as projecting bands would have been
+in the way, the sewing cord was sunk in
+saw cuts made across the back of the book.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_1" id="Fig_1"></a>
+<img src="images/gs026.jpg" width="300" height="365" alt="Fig. 1." title="Fig. 1" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 1.</p>
+
+<p>The use of hollow backs was a very
+ingenious way out of the difficulty, as
+with them the backs could be made to
+&#8220;throw up,&#8221; and at the same time the
+leather was not disturbed (see <a href="#Fig_1">fig. 1</a>, C).
+The method of &#8220;sawing in&#8221; bands was
+known for a long time before the general<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+use of hollow backs. It has been used to
+avoid the raised bands on books covered
+with embroidered material.</p>
+
+<p>If a book is sewn on tapes, and the back
+lined with leather, there is no serious objection
+to a carefully-made hollow back
+without bands. The vellum binders use
+hollow backs made in this way for great
+account books that stand an immense
+amount of wear. They make the &#8220;hollow&#8221;
+very stiff, so that it acts as a spring to
+throw the back up.</p>
+
+<p>But although, if carefully done, satisfactory
+bindings may be made with hollow
+backs, their use has resulted in the production
+of worthless bindings with little
+strength, and yet with the appearance of
+better work.</p>
+
+<p>The public having been accustomed to
+raised bands on the backs of books, and
+the real bands being sunk in the back, the
+binders put false ones over the &#8220;hollow.&#8221;
+To save money or trouble, the bands being
+out of sight, the book would be sewn on
+only three or sometimes only two cords,
+the usual five false ones still showing at
+the back. Often only two out of the
+three bands would be laced into the board,
+and sometimes the slips would not be laced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+in at all. Again, false headbands worked
+by the yard by machinery would be stuck
+on at the head and tail, and a &#8220;hollow&#8221;
+made with brown paper. Then leather so
+thin as to have but little strength, but used
+because it is easy to work and needs no
+paring, would be stuck on. The back
+would often be full gilt and lettered, and
+the sides sprinkled or marbled, thus further
+damaging the leather.</p>
+
+<p>In every large library hundreds of books
+bound somewhat on these lines may be
+seen. When they are received from the
+binder they have the appearance of being
+well bound, they look smart on the shelf,
+but in a few years, whether they are used
+or not, the leather will have perished and
+the boards become detached, and they will
+have to be rebound.</p>
+
+<p>As long as librarians expect the appearance
+of a guinea binding for two or three
+shillings, such shams will be produced.
+The librarian generally gets his money&#8217;s
+worth, for it would be impossible for the
+binder to do better work at the price
+usually paid without materially altering
+the appearance of the binding. The
+polished calf and imitation crushed morocco
+must go, and in its place a rougher,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+thicker leather must be employed. The
+full-gilt backs must go, the coloured lettering
+panel must go, the hollow backs must
+go, but in the place of these we may have
+the books sewn on tapes with the ends
+securely fastened into split boards, and
+the thick leather attached directly to the
+backs of the sections. (See specification
+III. page <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Such a binding would look well and not
+be more expensive than the usual library
+binding. It should allow the book to
+open flat, and if the materials are well
+selected, be very durable, and specially
+strong in the joints, the weak place in
+most bindings. The lettering on the back
+may be damaged in time if the book is
+much used, but if so it can easily be
+renewed at a fraction of the cost of rebinding,
+and without injury to the book.</p>
+
+<p>While the majority of books in most
+libraries must be bound at a small cost,
+at most not exceeding a few shillings a
+volume, there is a large demand for good
+plain bindings, and a limited, but growing,
+demand for more or less decorated
+bindings for special books.</p>
+
+<p>Any decoration but the simplest should
+be restricted to books bound as well as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+the binder can do them. The presence
+of decoration should be evidence that the
+binder, after doing his best with the &#8220;forwarding,&#8221;
+has had time in which to try
+to make his work a beautiful, as well as
+a serviceable, production.</p>
+
+<p>Many books, although well bound, are
+better left plain, or with only a little
+decoration. But occasionally there are
+books that the binder can decorate as
+lavishly as he is able. As an instance of
+bindings that cannot be over-decorated,
+those books which are used in important
+ceremonies, such as Altar Books, may be
+mentioned. Such books may be decorated
+with gold and colour until they seem to
+be covered in a golden material. They
+will be but spots of gorgeousness in a
+great church or cathedral, and they cannot
+be said to be over-decorated as long
+as the decoration is good.</p>
+
+<p>So, occasionally some one may have a
+book to which he is for some reason
+greatly attached, and wishing to enshrine
+it, give the binder a free hand to do
+his best with it. The binder may wish
+to make a delicate pattern with nicely-balanced
+spots of ornament, leaving the
+leather for the most part bare, or he may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+wish to cover the outside with some close
+gold-tooled pattern, giving a richness of
+texture hardly to be got by other means.
+If he decides on the latter, many people
+will say that the cover is over-decorated.
+But as a book cover can never be seen
+absolutely alone, it should not be judged
+as an isolated thing covered with ornament
+without relief, but as a spot of
+brightness and interest among its surroundings.
+If a room and everything in
+it is covered with elaborate pattern, then
+anything with a plain surface would be
+welcome as a relief; but in a room which
+is reasonably free from ornament, a spot
+of rich decoration should be welcome.</p>
+
+<p>It is not contended that the only, or
+necessarily the best, method of decorating
+book covers is by elaborate all-over gold-tooled
+pattern; but it is contended that
+this is a legitimate method of decoration
+for exceptional books, and that by its use
+it is possible to get a beautiful effect well
+worth the trouble and expense involved.</p>
+
+<p>Good leather has a beautiful surface,
+and may sometimes be got of a fine colour.
+The binder may often wish to show this
+surface and colour, and to restrict his
+decoration to small portions of the cover,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+and this quite rightly, he aiming at, and
+getting, a totally different effect than that
+got by all-over patterns. Both methods
+are right if well done, and both methods
+can equally be vulgarised if badly done.</p>
+
+<p>A much debated question is, how far
+the decoration of a binding should be
+influenced by the contents of the book?
+A certain appropriateness there should be,
+but as a general thing, if the binder aims
+at making the cover beautiful, that is the
+best he can do. The hints given for
+designing are not intended to stop the
+development of the student&#8217;s own ideas,
+but only to encourage their development
+on right lines.</p>
+
+<p>There should be a certain similarity of
+treatment between the general get-up of
+a book and its binding. It is a great pity
+that printers and binders have drifted so
+far apart; they are, or should be, working
+for one end, the production of a book,
+and some unity of aim should be evident
+in the work of the two.</p>
+
+<p>The binding of manuscripts and early
+printed books should be strong and simple.
+It should be as strong and durable as the
+original old bindings, and, like them, last
+with reasonable care for four hundred years<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+or more. To this end the old bindings,
+with their stout sewing cord, wooden
+boards, and clasps, may be taken as models.</p>
+
+<p>The question is constantly asked, especially
+by women, if a living can be made
+by setting up as bookbinders. Cheap
+binding can most economically be done
+in large workshops, but probably the best
+bindings can be done more satisfactorily
+by binders working alone, or in very small
+workshops.</p>
+
+<p>If any one intends to set up as a bookbinder,
+doing all the work without help,
+it is necessary to charge very high prices
+to get any adequate return after the
+working expenses have been paid. In
+order to get high prices, the standard of
+work must be very high; and in order to
+attain a high enough standard of work,
+a very thorough training is necessary. It
+is desirable that any one hoping to make
+money at the craft should have at least a
+year&#8217;s training in a workshop where good
+work is done, and after that, some time
+will be spent before quite satisfactory work
+can be turned out rapidly enough to pay,
+supposing that orders can be obtained or
+the books bound can be sold.</p>
+
+<p>There are some successful binders who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+have had less than a year&#8217;s training, but
+they are exceptional. Those who have
+not been accustomed to manual work have
+usually, in addition to the necessary skill,
+to acquire the habit of continuous work.
+Bookbinding seems to offer an opening
+for well-educated youths who are willing
+to serve an apprenticeship in a good shop,
+and who have some small amount of capital
+at their command.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the production of decorated
+bindings, there is much to be done
+by specialising in certain kinds of work
+requiring special knowledge. Repairing
+and binding early printed books and
+manuscripts, or the restoration of Parish
+Registers and Accounts, may be suggested.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle">Entering&mdash;Books in Sheets&mdash;Folding&mdash;Collating&mdash;Pulling
+to Pieces&mdash;Refolding&mdash;Knocking out
+Joints</p>
+
+
+<h5>ENTERING</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">On</span> receiving a book for binding, its title
+should be entered in a book kept for
+that purpose, with the date of entry, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+customer&#8217;s name and address, and any instructions
+he may have given, written out
+in full underneath, leaving room below to
+enter the time taken on the various operations
+and cost of the materials used. It
+is well to number the entry, and to give
+a corresponding number to the book. It
+should be at once collated, and any special
+features noted, such as pages that need
+washing or mending. If the book should
+prove to be imperfect, or to have any
+serious defect, the owner should be communicated
+with, before it is pulled to
+pieces. This is very important, as imperfect
+books that have been &#8220;pulled&#8221; are
+not returnable to the bookseller. Should
+defects only be discovered after the book
+has been taken to pieces, the bookbinder is
+liable to be blamed for the loss of any
+missing leaves.</p>
+
+
+<h5>BOOKS IN SHEETS</h5>
+
+<p>The sheets of a newly printed book are
+arranged in piles in the printer&#8217;s warehouse,
+each pile being made up of repetitions
+of the same sheet or &#8220;signature.&#8221;
+Plates or maps are in piles by themselves<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+To make a complete book one sheet is
+gathered from each pile, beginning at the
+last sheet and working backwards to signature
+A. When a book is ordered from a
+publisher in sheets, it is such a &#8220;gathered&#8221;
+copy that the binder receives. Some books
+are printed &#8220;double,&#8221; that is, the type is
+set up twice, two copies are printed at once
+at different ends of a sheet of paper, and
+the sheets have to be divided down the
+middle before the copies can be separated.
+Sometimes the title and introduction, or
+perhaps only the last sheet, will be printed
+in this way. Publishers usually decline to
+supply in sheets fewer than two copies of
+such double-printed books.</p>
+
+<p>If a book is received unfolded, it is
+generally advisable at once to fold up the
+sheets and put them in their proper order,
+with half-title, title, introduction, &amp;c., and,
+if there are plates, to compare them with
+the printed list.</p>
+
+<p>Should there be in a recently published
+book defects of any kind, such as soiled
+sheets, the publisher will usually replace
+them on application, although they sometimes
+take a long time to do so. Such
+sheets are called &#8220;imperfections,&#8221; and the
+printers usually keep a number of &#8220;overs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>&#8221;
+in order to make good such imperfections
+as may occur.</p>
+
+
+<h5>FOLDING</h5>
+
+<p>Books received in sheets must be folded.
+Folding requires care, or the margins of
+different leaves will be unequal, and the
+lines of printing not at right angles to
+the back.</p>
+
+<p>Books of various sizes are known as
+&#8220;folio,&#8221; &#8220;quarto,&#8221; &#8220;octavo,&#8221; &#8220;duodecimo,&#8221;
+&amp;c. These names signify the
+number of folds, and consequently the
+number of leaves the paper has been folded
+into. Thus, a folio is made up of sheets
+of paper folded once down the centre,
+forming two leaves and four pages. The
+sheets of a quarto have a second fold,
+making four leaves and eight pages, and
+in an octavo the sheet has a third fold,
+forming eight leaves and sixteen pages
+(see <a href="#Fig_2">fig. 2</a>), and so on. Each sheet of
+paper when folded constitutes a section,
+except in the case of folios, where it is
+usual to make up the sections by inserting
+two or more sheets, one within the other.</p>
+
+<p>Paper is made in several named sizes,
+such as &#8220;imperial,&#8221; &#8220;royal,&#8221; &#8220;demy,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>&#8221;
+&#8220;crown,&#8221; &#8220;foolscap,&#8221; &amp;c. (see p. <a href="#Page_283">283</a>),
+so that the terms &#8220;imperial folio&#8221; or
+&#8220;crown octavo&#8221; imply that a sheet of a
+definite size has been folded a definite
+number of times.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_2" id="Fig_2"></a>
+<img src="images/gs038.jpg" width="400" height="336" alt="Fig. 2." title="Fig. 2." />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 2.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the traditional sizes, paper is now
+made of almost any length and width, resulting
+in books of odd shape, and the
+names folio, quarto, &amp;c., are rather losing
+their true meaning, and are often used
+loosely to signify pages of certain sizes,
+irrespective of the number that go to a
+sheet.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On receipt, for instance, of an octavo
+book for folding, the pile of sheets is laid
+flat on the table, and collated by the letter
+or signature of each sheet. The first sheet
+of the book proper will probably be signature
+B, as signature A usually consists of
+the half-title, title, introduction, &amp;c., and
+often has to be folded up rather differently.</p>
+
+<p>The &#8220;outer&#8221; sides, known by the signature
+letters B, C, D, &amp;c., should be downwards,
+and the inner sides facing upwards
+with the second signatures, if there are any,
+B2, C2, D2, &amp;c., at the right-hand bottom
+corner.</p>
+
+<p>The pages of an octave book, commencing
+at page 1, are shown at <a href="#Fig_3">fig. 3</a>.
+A folder is taken in the right hand, and
+held at the bottom of the sheet at about
+the centre, and the sheet taken by the left
+hand at the top right-hand corner and bent
+over until pages 3 and 6 come exactly over
+pages 2 and 7; and when it is seen that
+the headlines and figures exactly match, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+paper, while being held in that position,
+is creased down the centre with the folder,
+and the fold cut up a little more than half-way.
+Pages 4, 13, 5, 12 will now be
+uppermost; pages 12 and 5 are now folded
+over to exactly match pages 13 and 4, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+the fold creased and cut up a little more
+than half-way, as before. Pages 8 and 9
+will now be uppermost, and will merely
+require folding together to make the pages
+of the section follow in their proper order.
+If the folding has been done carefully,
+and the &#8220;register&#8221; of the printing is
+good, the headlines should be exactly even
+throughout.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><a href="images/gs040.jpg"><img src="images/gs040_th.jpg"
+alt="Fig. 3." title="Fig. 3." /></a><a name="Fig_3" id="Fig_3"></a></p>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 3.</p>
+
+<p>The object of cutting past the centre at
+each fold is to avoid the unsightly creasing
+that results from folding two or more
+thicknesses of paper when joined at the
+top edge.</p>
+
+<p>A &#8220;duodecimo&#8221; sheet has the pages
+arranged as at <a href="#Fig_4">fig. 4</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The &#8220;inset&#8221; pages, 10, 15, 14, 11, must
+be cut off, and the rest of the section
+folded as for an octavo sheet. The inset
+is folded separately and inserted into the
+centre of the octavo portion.</p>
+
+<p>Other sizes are folded in much the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+way, and the principle of folding one sheet
+having been mastered, no difficulty will be
+found in folding any other.</p>
+
+<p>Plates often require trimming, and this
+must be done with judgment. The plates
+should be trimmed to correspond as far as
+possible with the printing on the opposite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+page, but if this cannot be done, it is desirable
+that something approaching the proportion
+of margin shown at <a href="#Fig_2">fig. 2</a> (folio)
+should be aimed at. That is to say, the
+back margin should be the smallest, the
+head margin the next, the fore-edge a little
+wider, and the tail widest of all. When a
+plate consists of a small portrait or diagram
+in the centre of the page, it looks better if
+it is put a little higher and a little nearer
+the back than the actual centre.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><a href="images/gs042.jpg"><img src="images/gs042_th.jpg"
+alt="Fig. 4." title="Fig. 4." /></a><a name="Fig_4" id="Fig_4"></a></p>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 4.</p>
+
+<p>Plates that have no numbers on them
+must be put in order by the list of printed
+plates, or &#8220;instructions to the binder.&#8221;
+The half-title, title, dedication, &amp;c., will
+often be found to be printed on odd sheets
+that have to be made up into section A.
+This preliminary matter is usually placed
+in the following order: Half-title, title,
+dedication, preface, contents, list of illustrations
+or other lists. If there is an index,
+it should be put at the end of the book.</p>
+
+<p>All plates should be &#8220;guarded,&#8221; and
+any &#8220;quarter sections,&#8221; that is, sections
+consisting of two leaves, should have their
+backs strengthened by a &#8220;guard,&#8221; or they
+may very easily be torn in the sewing.
+Odd, single leaves may be guarded round
+sections in the same way as plates.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When a book has been folded, it should
+be pressed (see p. <a href="#Page_87">87</a>).</p>
+
+<p>There will sometimes be pages marked
+by the printer with a star. These have
+some error in them, and are intended to
+be cut out. The printer should supply
+corrected pages to replace them.</p>
+
+
+<h5>COLLATING</h5>
+
+<p>In addition to the pagination each sheet
+or section of a printed book is lettered or
+numbered. Each letter or number is called
+the &#8220;sheet&#8217;s signature.&#8221; Printers usually
+leave out J W and V in lettering sheets.
+If there are more sections than there are
+letters in the alphabet, the printer doubles
+the letters, signing the sections A A, B B,
+and so on, after the single letters are exhausted.
+Some printers use an Arabic
+numeral before the section number to
+denote the second alphabet, as 2A, 2B,
+&amp;c., and others change the character of
+the letters, perhaps using capitals for the
+first alphabet and italics for the second.
+If the sheets are numbered, the numbers
+will of course follow consecutively. In
+books of more than one volume, the number
+of the volume is sometimes added in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+Roman numerals before the signature, as
+II A, II B.</p>
+
+<p>The main pagination of the book usually
+commences with Chapter I., and all before
+that is independently paged in Roman
+numerals. It is unusual to have actual
+numbers on the title or half-title, but if
+the pages are counted back from where
+the first numeral occurs, they should come
+right.</p>
+
+<p>There will sometimes be one or more
+blank leaves completing sections at the
+beginning or end. Such blank leaves must
+be retained, as without them the volume
+would be &#8220;imperfect.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>To collate a modern book the paging
+must be examined to see that the leaves
+are in order, and that nothing is defective
+or missing.</p>
+
+<p>The method of doing this is to insert the
+first finger of the right hand at the bottom
+of about the fiftieth page, crook the finger,
+and turn up the corners of the pages with
+it. When this is done the thumb is placed
+on page 1, and the hand twisted, so as to fan
+out the top of the pages. They can then
+be readily turned over by the thumb and
+first finger of the left hand (see <a href="#Fig_5">fig. 5</a>).
+This is repeated throughout the book,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+taking about fifty pages at a time. It
+will of course only be necessary to check
+the odd numbers, as if they are right, the
+even ones on the other side of the leaf
+must be so. If the pages are numbered at
+the foot, the leaves must be fanned out
+from the head.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_5" id="Fig_5"></a>
+<img src="images/gs046.jpg" width="300" height="305" alt="Fig. 5." title="Fig. 5." />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 5.</p>
+
+<p>Plates or maps that are not paged can
+only be checked from the printed list.
+When checked it will save time if the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+number of the page which each faces is
+marked on the back in small pencil figures.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of early printed books or
+manuscripts, which are often not paged,
+special knowledge is needed for their
+collation. It may roughly be said, that
+if the sections are all complete, that is,
+if there are the same number of leaves
+at each side of the sewing in all the
+sections, the book may be taken to be
+perfect, unless of course whole sections
+are missing. All unpaged books should
+be paged through in pencil before they
+are taken apart; this is best done with a
+very fine pencil, at the bottom left-hand
+corner; it will only be necessary to number
+the front of each leaf.</p>
+
+
+<h5>PULLING TO PIECES</h5>
+
+<p>After the volume has been collated it
+must be &#8220;pulled,&#8221; that is to say, the
+sections must be separated, and all plates
+or maps detached.</p>
+
+<p>If in a bound book there are slips laced
+in the front cover, they must be cut and
+the back torn off. It will sometimes
+happen that in tearing off the leather
+nearly all the glue will come too, leaving<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+the backs of the pages detached except
+for the sewing. More usually the back
+will be left covered with a mass of glue
+and linen, or paper, which it is very difficult
+to remove without injury to the
+backs of the sections. By drawing a sharp
+knife along the bands, the sewing may be
+cut and the bands removed, leaving the
+sections only connected by the glue.
+Then the sections of the book can usually
+be separated with a fine folder, after the
+thread from the centre of each has been
+removed; the point of division being
+ascertained by finding the first signature
+of each section. In cases where the glue
+and leather form too hard a back to yield
+to this method, it is advisable to soak the
+glue with paste, and when soft to scrape
+it off with a folder. As this method is
+apt to injure the backs of the sections,
+it should not be resorted to unless necessary;
+and when it is, care must be taken
+not to let the damp penetrate into the
+book, or it will cause very ugly stains.
+The book must be pulled while damp,
+or else the glue will dry up harder than
+before. The separated sections must be
+piled up carefully to prevent pages being
+soiled by the damp glue.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>All plates or single leaves &#8220;pasted on&#8221;
+must be removed. These can usually be
+detached by carefully tearing apart, but
+if too securely pasted they must be soaked
+off in water, unless of course the plates
+have been painted with water-colour. If
+the plates must be soaked off, the leaf
+and attached plate should be put into a
+pan of slightly warm water and left to
+soak until they float apart, then with a
+soft brush any remaining glue or paste
+can be easily removed while in the water.
+Care must be taken not to soak modern
+books printed on what is called &#8220;Art
+Paper,&#8221; as this paper will hardly stand
+ordinary handling, and is absolutely ruined
+if wetted. The growing use of this paper
+in important books is one of the greatest
+troubles the bookbinder has to face. The
+highly loaded and glazed surface of some
+of the heavy plate papers easily flakes off,
+so that any guard pasted on these plates
+is apt to come away, taking with it the
+surface of the paper. Moreover, should
+the plates chance to be fingered or in any
+way soiled, nothing can remove the marks;
+and should a corner get turned down, the
+paper breaks and the corner will fall off.
+It is the opinion of experts that this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+heavily loaded Art Paper will not last a
+reasonable time, and, apart from other
+considerations, this should be ample reason
+for not using it in books that are expected
+to have a permanent value. Printers like
+this paper, because it enables them to
+obtain brilliant impressions from blocks
+produced by cheap processes.</p>
+
+<p>In &#8220;cased&#8221; books, sewn by machinery,
+the head and tail of the sheets will often
+be found to be split up as far as the
+&#8220;kettle&#8221; stitches. If such a book is to
+be expensively bound, it will require mending
+throughout in these places, or the glue
+may soak into the torn ends, and make the
+book open stiffly.</p>
+
+<p>Some books are put together with staples
+of tinned iron wire, which rapidly rust and
+disfigure the book by circular brown marks.
+Such marks will usually have to be cut out
+and the places carefully mended. This process
+is lengthy, and consequently so costly,
+that it is generally cheaper, when possible,
+to obtain an unbound copy of the book from
+the publishers, than to waste time repairing
+the damage done by the cloth binder.</p>
+
+<p>Generally speaking, the sections of a
+book cased in cloth by modern methods
+are so injured as to make it unfit for more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+permanent binding unless an unreasonable
+amount of time is spent on it. It is a
+great pity that publishers do not, in the
+case of books expected to have a permanent
+literary value, issue a certain number
+of copies printed on good paper, and unbound,
+for the use of those who require
+permanent bindings; and in such copies it
+would be a great help if sufficient margin
+were left at the back of the plates for the
+binder to turn it up to form a guard. If
+the plates were very numerous, guards
+made of the substance of the plates themselves
+would make the book too thick; but
+in the case of books with not more than a
+dozen plates, printed on comparatively
+thin paper, it would be a great advantage.</p>
+
+<p>Some books in which there are a large
+number of plates are cut into single leaves,
+which are held together at the back by a
+coating of an indiarubber solution. For a
+short time such a volume is pleasant enough
+to handle, and opens freely, but before long
+the indiarubber perishes, and the leaves and
+plates fall apart. When a book of this
+kind comes to have a permanent binding,
+all the leaves and plates have to be pared
+at the back and made up into sections
+with guards&mdash;a troublesome and expensive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+business. The custom with binders is to
+overcast the backs of the leaves in sections,
+and to sew through the overcasting thread,
+but this, though an easy and quick process,
+makes a hopelessly stiff back, and no book
+so treated can open freely.</p>
+
+
+<h5>REFOLDING</h5>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 161px;"><a name="Fig_6" id="Fig_6"></a>
+<img src="images/gs052.jpg" width="161" height="300" alt="Fig. 6.&mdash;Dividers" title="Dividers" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 6.&mdash;Dividers</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>When the sheets of books that have to
+be rebound have been
+carelessly folded, a
+certain amount of readjustment
+is often
+advisable, especially
+in cases where the
+book has not been
+previously cut. The
+title-page and the
+half-title, when found
+to be out of square,
+should nearly always
+be put straight. The
+folding of the whole
+book may be corrected
+by taking each
+pair of leaves and
+holding them up to the light and adjusting
+the fold so that the print on one
+leaf comes exactly over the print on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+other, and creasing the fold to make them
+stay in that position. With a pair of
+dividers (<a href="#Fig_6">fig. 6</a>) set to the height of the
+shortest top margin, points the same distance
+above the headline of the other leaves
+can be made. Then against a carpenter&#8217;s
+square, adjusted to the back of the fold, the
+head of one pair of leaves at a time can be
+cut square (see <a href="#Fig_7">fig. 7</a>). If the book has
+been previously cut this process is apt to
+throw the leaves so far out of their original
+position as to make them unduly uneven.</p>
+
+<p>Accurate folding is impossible if the
+&#8220;register&#8221; of the printing is bad, that is
+to say, if the print on the back of a leaf
+does not lie exactly over that on the front.</p>
+
+<p>Crooked plates should usually be made
+straight by judicious trimming of the margins.
+It is better to leave a plate short at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+tail or fore-edge than to leave it out of
+square.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_7" id="Fig_7"></a>
+<img src="images/gs053.jpg" width="300" height="142" alt="Fig. 7." title="Fig. 7." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 7.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h5>KNOCKING OUT JOINTS</h5>
+
+<p>The old &#8220;joints&#8221; must be knocked out
+of the sections of books that have been
+previously backed. To do this, one or two
+sections at a time are held firmly in the left
+hand, and well hammered on the knocking-down
+iron fixed into the lying press. It
+is important that the hammer face should
+fall exactly squarely upon the paper, or
+it may cut pieces out. The knocking-down
+iron should be covered with a piece
+of paper, and the hammer face must be
+perfectly clean, or the sheets may be soiled.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle">Guarding&mdash;Throwing Out&mdash;Paring Paper&mdash;Soaking
+off India Proofs&mdash;Mounting very Thin Paper&mdash;Splitting
+Paper&mdash;Inlaying&mdash;Flattening Vellum</p>
+
+
+<h5>GUARDING</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Guards</span> are slips of thin paper or linen
+used for strengthening the fold of leaves
+that are damaged, or for attaching plates
+or single leaves.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_8" id="Fig_8"></a>
+<img src="images/gs055.jpg" width="200" height="110" alt="Fig. 8." title="Fig. 8." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 8.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Guards should be of good thin paper.
+That known as Whatman&#8217;s Banknote paper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+answers very well. An easy way to cut
+guards is shown in <a href="#Fig_8">fig. 8</a>. Two or three
+pieces of paper
+of the height of
+the required
+guards are folded
+and pinned to
+the board by the
+right-hand corners.
+A series
+of points are marked at the head and
+tail with dividers set to the width desired
+for the guards, and with a knife guided
+by a straight-edge, cuts joining the
+points are made right through the paper,
+but not extending quite to either end.
+On a transverse cut being made near the
+bottom, the guards are left attached by
+one end only (see
+<a href="#Fig_9">fig. 9</a>), and can
+be torn off as
+wanted. This
+method prevents
+the paper from
+slipping while it
+is being cut.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_9" id="Fig_9"></a>
+<img src="images/gs055a.jpg" width="200" height="111" alt="Fig. 9." title="" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 9.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A mount cutter&#8217;s knife (<a href="#Fig_10">fig. 10</a>) will
+be found to be a convenient form of knife
+to use for cutting guards.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p>In using the knife and straight-edge a
+good deal of pressure should be put on
+the straight-edge, and comparatively little
+on the knife.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_10" id="Fig_10"></a>
+<img src="images/gs056.jpg" width="300" height="35" alt="Fig. 10.&mdash;Mount Cutter&#8217;s Knife" title="Fig. 10.&mdash;Mount Cutter&#8217;s Knife" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 10.&mdash;Mount Cutter&#8217;s Knife</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To mend the torn back of a pair of
+leaves, a guard should be selected a little
+longer than the height of the pages
+and well pasted with white paste (see
+page <a href="#Page_288">288</a>). If the pair of leaves are not
+quite separated, the pasted guard held by
+its extremities may be simply laid along
+the weak place and rubbed down through
+blotting-paper. If the leaves are quite
+apart, it is better to lay the pasted guard
+on a piece of glass and put the edges of
+first one and then the other leaf on to it
+and rub down.</p>
+
+<p>On an outside pair of leaves the guard
+should be inside, so that the glue may
+catch any ragged edges; while on the
+inside pair the guard should be outside, or
+it will be found to be troublesome in sewing.
+In handling the pasted guards care is
+needed not to stretch them, or they may
+cause the sheet to crinkle as they dry.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_11" id="Fig_11"></a>
+<img src="images/gs057.jpg" width="300" height="121" alt="Fig. 11." title="Fig. 11." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 11.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Plates must be guarded round the
+sections next them. When there are a
+great many plates the back margin of
+each, to which a guard will be attached,
+must be pared (see <a href="#Fig_11">fig. 11</a>, A), or the additional
+thickness caused by the guards
+will make the back swell unduly. In
+guarding plates a number can be pasted
+at once if they are laid one on another,
+with about an eighth of an inch of the
+back of each exposed, the top of the pile
+being protected by a folded piece of
+waste paper (see <a href="#Fig_12">fig. 12</a>). To paste, the
+brush is brought from the top to the
+bottom of the pile only, and not the
+other way, or paste will get between
+the plates and soil them. Guards should
+usually be attached to the backs of plates,
+and should be wide enough to turn up
+round the adjoining section, so that they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+may be sewn through. Should a plate
+come in the middle of a section, the guard
+is best turned back and slightly pasted to
+the inside of the sheet and then sewn
+through in the ordinary way.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_12" id="Fig_12"></a>
+<img src="images/gs058.jpg" width="300" height="152" alt="Fig. 12." title="Fig. 12." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 12.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If plates are very thick, they must be
+hinged, as shown at <a href="#Fig_11">fig. 11</a>, B. This is
+done by cutting a strip of about a quarter
+of an inch off the back of the plate, and
+guarding with a wide guard of linen, leaving
+a small space between the plate and
+the piece cut off to form a hinge. It will
+save some swelling if the plate is pared
+and a piece of thinner paper substituted
+for the piece cut off (see <a href="#Fig_11">fig. 11</a>, C). If
+the plates are of cardboard, they should
+be guarded on both sides with linen, and
+may even need a second joint.</p>
+
+<p>A book that consists entirely of plates<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+or single leaves must be made up into
+sections with guards, and sewn as usual.
+In books in which there are a great many
+plates, it is often found that two plates
+either come together in the centre of a
+section, or come at opposite sides of the
+same pair of leaves. Such plates should
+be guarded together and treated as folded
+sheets (see <a href="#Fig_13">fig. 13</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_13" id="Fig_13"></a>
+<img src="images/gs059.jpg" width="300" height="55" alt="Fig. 13." title="Fig. 13." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 13.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In order to be sure that the pages of
+a book to be guarded throughout will
+come in their proper order, it is well to
+make a plan of the sections as follows,
+and to check each pair of leaves by it, as
+they are guarded:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Thus, if the book is to be made up
+into sections of eight leaves, the pairs of
+leaves to be guarded together can be seen
+at once if the number of the pages are
+written out&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1, 3, 5, 7,&mdash;9, 11, 13, 15.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>First the inside pair, 7 and 9, are guarded
+together with the guard outside, then the
+next pair, 5 and 11, then 3 and 13, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+then the outside pair, 1 and 15, which
+should have the guard outside. A plan
+for the whole book would be more conveniently
+written thus&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-15<span style="padding-left: 2em">17-31</span><span style="padding-left: 2em">33-47</span></li>
+<li>3-13<span style="padding-left: 2em">19-29</span><span style="padding-left: 2em">35-45</span></li>
+<li>5-11<span style="padding-left: 2em">21-27</span><span style="padding-left: 2em">37-43</span></li>
+<li>7-9<span style="padding-left: 2.5em">23-25</span><span style="padding-left: 2em">39-41, and so on.</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<p>To arrange a book of single leaves for
+guarding, it is convenient to take as many
+leaves as you intend to go to a section,
+and opening them in the centre, take a
+pair at a time as they come.</p>
+
+<p>The number of leaves it is advisable to
+put into a section will depend on the thickness
+of the paper and the size and thickness
+of the book. If the paper is thick,
+and the backs of the leaves have been
+pared, four leaves to a section will be
+found to answer. But if the paper is thin,
+and does not allow of much paring, it is
+better to have a larger section, in order
+to have as little thread in the back as
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>The sheets of any guarded book should
+be pressed before sewing, in order to reduce
+the swelling of the back caused by
+the guards.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h5>THROWING OUT</h5>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 138px;"><a name="Fig_14" id="Fig_14"></a>
+<img src="images/gs061.jpg" width="138" height="350" alt="Fig. 14." title="Fig. 14." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 14.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Maps or diagrams
+that are
+frequently referred
+to in the
+text of a book,
+should be
+&#8220;thrown out&#8221;
+on a guard as
+wide as the sheet
+of the book.
+Such maps, &amp;c.,
+should be placed
+at the end, so
+that they may
+lie open for reference
+while
+the book is
+being read (see
+<a href="#Fig_14">fig. 14</a>). Large
+folded maps or
+diagrams should
+be mounted on
+linen. To do
+this take a piece
+of jaconet and
+pin it out flat
+on the board,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+then evenly paste the back of the map
+with thin paste in which there are no
+lumps, and lay it on the linen, rub
+down through blotting-paper, and leave
+to dry. Unless the pasting is done
+evenly the marks of the paste-brush will
+show through the linen. If a folded
+map is printed on very thick paper each
+fold must be cut up, and the separate
+pieces mounted on the linen, with a slight
+space between them to form a flexible joint.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_15" id="Fig_15"></a>
+<img src="images/gs062.jpg" width="300" height="130" alt="Fig. 15." title="Fig. 15." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 15.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A folded map must have in the back
+of the book sufficient guards to equal it
+in thickness at its thickest part when
+folded, or the book will not shut properly
+(see <a href="#Fig_15">fig. 15</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h5>PARING PAPER</h5>
+
+<p>For paring the edge of paper for mending
+or guarding, take a very sharp knife,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+and holding the blade at right angles to
+the covering-board, draw the edge once or
+twice along it from left to right. This
+should turn up enough of the edge to
+form a &#8220;burr,&#8221; which causes the knife to
+cut while being held almost flat on the
+paper. The plate or paper should be laid
+face downwards on the glass with the
+edge to be pared away from the workman,
+the knife held in the right hand, with the
+burr downwards. The angle at which to
+hold the knife will depend on its shape
+and on the thickness and character of
+the paper to be pared, and can only be
+learned by practice. If the knife is in
+order, and is held at the proper angle,
+the shaving removed from a straight edge
+of paper should come off in a long spiral.
+If the knife is not in proper order, the
+paper may be badly jagged or creased.</p>
+
+
+<h5>SOAKING OFF INDIA PROOFS</h5>
+
+<p>Place a piece of well-sized paper in a
+pan of warm water, then lay the mounted
+India proof, face downwards, upon it and
+leave it to soak until the proof floats off.
+Then carefully take out the old mount,
+and the India proof can be readily removed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+from the water on the under paper, and
+dried between sheets of blotting-paper.</p>
+
+
+<h5>MOUNTING VERY THIN PAPER</h5>
+
+<p>Very thin paper, such as that of some
+&#8220;India&#8221; proofs, may be safely mounted
+as follows:&mdash;The mount, ready for use,
+is laid on a pad of blotting-paper. The
+thin paper to be mounted is laid face
+downwards on a piece of glass and very
+carefully pasted with thin, white paste.
+Any paste on the glass beyond the edges
+of the paper is carefully wiped off with
+a clean cloth. The glass may then be
+turned over, and the pasted plate laid on
+the mount, its exact position being seen
+through the glass.</p>
+
+
+<h5>SPLITTING PAPER</h5>
+
+<p>It is sometimes desirable to split pieces
+of paper when the matter on one side only
+is needed, or when the matter printed on
+each side is to be used in different places.
+The paper to be split should be well
+pasted on both sides with a thickish paste,
+and fine linen or jaconet placed on each
+side. It is then nipped in the press to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+make the linen stick all over, and left to
+dry.</p>
+
+<p>If the two pieces of jaconet are carefully
+pulled apart when dry, half the
+paper should be attached to each, unless
+at any point the paste has failed to stick,
+when the paper will tear. The jaconet
+and paper attached must be put into warm
+water until the split paper floats off.</p>
+
+
+<h5>INLAYING LEAVES OR PLATES</h5>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 100px;"><a name="Fig_16" id="Fig_16"></a>
+<img src="images/gs065.jpg" width="100" height="129" alt="Fig. 16." title="Fig. 16." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 16.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When a small plate or leaf has to be
+inserted into a larger book, it is best to
+&#8220;inlay it&#8221;; that is to say, the plate or
+leaf is let into a sheet of
+paper the size of the page
+of the book. To do this, a
+piece of paper as thick as
+the plate to be inlaid, or
+a little thicker, is selected,
+and on this is laid the plate,
+which should have been
+previously squared, and the
+positions of the corners marked with a
+folder. A point is made about an eighth of
+an inch inside each corner mark, and the
+paper within these points is cut out (see <a href="#Fig_16">fig.
+16</a>). This leaves a frame of paper, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+inner edges of which will slightly overlap
+the edges of the plate. The under edge
+of the plate, and the upper edge of the
+mount, should then be pared and pasted,
+and the plate laid in its place (with the
+corners corresponding to the folder marks).
+If the edges have been properly pared, the
+thickness where they overlap should not
+exceed the thickness of the frame paper.
+If an irregular fragment is to be inlaid,
+it is done in the same way, except that the
+entire outline is traced on the new paper
+with a folder, and the paper cut away,
+allowing one eighth of an inch inside the
+indented line.</p>
+
+
+<h5>FLATTENING VELLUM</h5>
+
+<p>The leaves of a vellum book that have
+become cockled from damp or other causes
+may be flattened by damping them, pulling
+them out straight, and allowing them
+to dry under pressure. To do this take
+the book to pieces, clean out any dirt
+there may be in the folds of the leaves, and
+spread out each pair of leaves as flatly as
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>Damp some white blotting-paper by
+interleaving it with common white paper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+that has been wetted with a sponge. One
+sheet of wet paper to two of blotting-paper
+will be enough. The pile of blotting-paper
+and wet paper is put in the
+press and left for an hour or two under
+pressure, then taken out and the common
+paper removed.</p>
+
+<p>The blotting-paper should now be
+slightly and evenly damp. To flatten the
+vellum the open pairs of leaves are interleaved
+with the slightly damp blotting-paper,
+and are left for an hour under the
+weight of a pressing-board. After this
+time the vellum will have become quite
+soft, and can with care be flattened out
+and lightly pressed between the blotting-paper,
+and left for a night. The next day
+the vellum leaves should be looked at to
+see that they lie quite flat, and the blotting-paper
+changed for some that is dry.
+The vellum must remain under pressure
+until it is quite dry, or it will cockle up
+worse than ever when exposed to the air.
+The blotting-paper should be changed
+every day or two. The length of time
+that vellum leaves take to dry will vary
+with the state of the atmosphere, and the
+thickness of the vellum, from one to six
+weeks.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Almost any manuscript or printed
+book on vellum can be successfully flattened
+in this way; miniatures should have
+pieces of waxed paper laid over them to
+prevent the chance of any of the fibres of
+the blotting-paper sticking. The pressure
+must not be great; only enough is needed
+to keep the vellum flat as it dries.</p>
+
+<p>This process of flattening, although so
+simple, requires the utmost care. If the
+blotting-paper is used too damp, a manuscript
+may be ruined; and if not damp
+enough, the pressing will have no effect.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle" style="text-align: center">Sizing&mdash;Washing&mdash;Mending</p>
+
+
+<h5>SIZING</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> paper in old books is sometimes soft
+and woolly. This is generally because the
+size has perished, and such paper can
+often be made perfectly sound by resizing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_17" id="Fig_17"></a>
+<img src="images/gs069.jpg" width="300" height="129" alt="Fig. 17." title="Fig. 17." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 17.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>For size, an ounce of isinglass or good
+gelatine is dissolved in a quart of water.
+This should make a clear solution when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+gently warmed, and should be used at
+about a temperature of 120&deg; F. Care
+must be taken not to heat too quickly,
+or the solution may burn and turn brown.
+If the size is not quite clear, it should
+be strained through fine muslin or linen
+before being used. When it is ready it
+should be poured into an open pan (<a href="#Fig_17">fig.
+17</a>), so arranged that it can be kept warm
+by a gas flame or spirit lamp underneath.
+When this is ready the sheets to be sized
+can be put in one after another and taken
+out at once. The hot size will be found
+to take out a great many stains, and especially
+those deep brown stains that come
+from water. If there are only a few
+sheets, they can be placed between blotting-paper
+as they are removed from the size;
+but if there is a whole book, it is best to
+lay them in a pile one on the other, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+when all have been sized to squeeze them
+in the &#8220;lying press&#8221; between pressing-boards,
+a pan being put underneath to
+catch the liquid squeezed out. When
+the sheets have been squeezed they can
+be readily handled, and should be spread
+out to dry on a table upon clean paper.
+When they are getting dry and firm they
+can be hung on strings stretched across
+the room, slightly overlapping one another.
+The strings must first be covered
+with slips of clean paper, and the sized
+sheets should have more paper over them
+to keep them clean.</p>
+
+<p>Before sizing it will be necessary to go
+through a book and take out any pencil
+or dust marks that can be removed with
+indiarubber or bread crumbs, or the size
+will fix them, and it will be found exceedingly
+difficult to remove them afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>When the sheets are dry they should
+be carefully mended in any places that
+may be torn, and folded up into sections
+and pressed. A long, comparatively light
+pressure will be found to flatten them
+better and with less injury to the surface
+of the paper than a short, very heavy pressure,
+such as that of the rolling-machine.</p>
+
+<p>In some cases it will be found that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+sheets of old books are so far damaged
+as to be hardly strong enough to handle.
+Such sheets must be sized in rather a
+stronger size in the following way:&mdash;Take
+a sheet of heavily-sized paper, such as
+notepaper, and carefully lay your damaged
+sheet on that. Then put another sheet
+of strong paper on the top, and put all
+three sheets into the size. It will be
+found that the top sheet can then be
+easily lifted off, and the size be made to
+flow over the face of the damaged sheet.
+Then, if the top sheet be put on again,
+the three sheets, if handled as one, can be
+turned over and the operation repeated,
+and size induced to cover the back of
+the damaged leaf. The three sheets
+must then be taken out and laid between
+blotting-paper to take up the surplus
+moisture. The top sheet must then be
+carefully peeled off, and the damaged
+page laid face downwards on clean blotting-paper.
+Then the back sheet can be
+peeled off as well, leaving the damaged
+sheet to dry.</p>
+
+<p>The following is quoted from &#8220;Chambers&#8217;
+Encyclop&aelig;dia&#8221; on Gelatine:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Gelatine should never be judged by
+the eye alone.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Its purity may be very easily tested
+thus: Soak it in cold water, then pour
+upon it a small quantity of boiling water.
+If pure, it will form a thickish, clear straw-coloured
+solution, free from smell; but if
+made of impure materials, it will give off
+a very offensive odour, and have a yellow,
+gluey consistency.&#8221;</p>
+
+
+<h5>WASHING</h5>
+
+<p>When there are stains or ink marks on
+books that cannot be removed by the use of
+hot size or hot water, stronger measures may
+sometimes have to be taken. Many stains
+will be found to yield readily to hot water
+with a little alum in it, and others can be
+got out by a judicious application of curd
+soap with a very soft brush and plenty of
+warm water. But some, and especially ink
+stains, require further treatment. There
+are many ways of washing paper, and most
+of those in common use are extremely
+dangerous, and have in many cases resulted
+in the absolute destruction of fine books.
+If it is thought to be absolutely necessary
+that the sheets of a book should be washed,
+the safest method is as follows:&mdash;Take an
+ounce of permanganate of potash dissolved<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+in a quart of water, and warmed slightly.
+In this put the sheets to be washed, and
+leave them until they turn a dark brown.
+This will usually take about an hour, but
+may take longer for some papers. Then
+turn the sheets out and wash them in
+running water until all trace of purple
+stain disappears from the water as it comes
+away. Then transfer them to a bath of
+sulphurous (not sulphuric) acid and water
+in the proportion of one ounce of acid to
+one pint of water. The sheets in this
+solution will rapidly turn white, and if
+left for some time nearly all stains will be
+removed. In case any stains refuse to
+come out, the sheets should be put in
+clear water for a short time, and then
+placed in the permanganate of potash solution
+again, and left there for a longer time
+than before; then after washing in clear
+water, again transferred to the sulphurous
+acid. When sheets are removed from the
+sulphurous acid they should be well washed
+for an hour or two in running water, and
+then may be blotted or squeezed off and
+hung up on lines to dry. Any sheets
+treated in this way will require sizing
+afterwards. And if, as is often the case,
+only a few sheets at the beginning or end<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+of the book have to be washed, it will be
+necessary to tone down the washed sheets
+to match the rest of the book by putting
+some stain in the size. For staining there
+are many things used. A weak solution
+of permanganate of potash gives a yellowish
+stain that will be found to match many
+papers. Other stains are used, such as
+coffee, chicory, tea, liquorice, &amp;c. Whatever
+is used should be put in the size. To ascertain
+that the right depth of colour has
+been obtained, a piece of unsized paper,
+such as white blotting-paper, is dipped in
+the stained size and blotted off and dried
+before the fire. It is impossible to judge
+of the depth of colour in a stain unless the
+test piece is thoroughly dried. If the
+stain is not right, add more water or more
+stain as is needed. Experience will tell
+what stain to use to match the paper of
+any given book.</p>
+
+<p>To remove grease or oil stains, ether
+may be used. Pour it freely in a circle
+round the spot, narrowing the circle gradually
+until the stain is covered. Then
+apply a warm iron through a piece of
+blotting-paper.</p>
+
+<p>Ether should only be used in a draught
+in a well-ventilated room on account of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+its well-known inflammable and an&aelig;sthetical
+properties.</p>
+
+<p>A very dilute (about one per cent.)
+solution of pure hydrochloric acid in cold
+water will be found to take out some
+stains if the paper is left in it for some
+hours. When the paper is removed from
+the solution, it must be thoroughly washed
+in running water. It is important that the
+hydrochloric acid used should be pure, as
+the commercial quality (spirits of salts)
+often contains sulphuric acid.</p>
+
+<p>The following recipes are quoted from
+<i>De l&#8217;organisation et de l&#8217;administration des
+Biblioth&egrave;ques, par Jules Cusin</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>To remove stains from paper:&mdash;&#8220;<i>Mud
+Stains.</i>&mdash;To take away these kinds of
+stains, spread some soap jelly very evenly
+over the stained places, and leave it there
+for thirty or forty minutes, according to
+the depth of the stain. Then dip the
+sheet in clean water, and then having
+spread it on a perfectly clean table, remove
+the soap lightly with a hog&#8217;s hair brush or
+a fine sponge; all the mud will disappear
+at the same time. Put the sheet into the
+clear water again, to get rid of the last
+trace of soap. Let it drain a little, press
+it lightly between two sheets of blotting-paper,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+and finish by letting it dry slowly
+in a dry place in the shade.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<i>Stains of Tallow, Stearine, or Fat.</i>&mdash;To
+take away these stains cover them with
+blotting-paper and pass over them a warm
+flat-iron. When the paper has soaked up
+the grease, change it and repeat the operation
+until the stains have been sufficiently
+removed. After that, touch both sides
+of the sheets where they have been stained
+with a brush dipped in essence of turpentine
+heated to boiling-point. Then to
+restore the whiteness of the paper, touch
+the places which were stained with a piece
+of fine linen soaked in purified spirits of
+wine warmed in the water-bath. This
+method may also be employed to get rid
+of sealing-wax stains.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<i>Oil Stains.</i>&mdash;Make a mixture of 500 gr.
+of soap, 300 gr. of clay, 60 gr. of quicklime,
+and sufficient water to make it of the
+right consistency, spread a thin layer of this
+on the stain, and leave it there about a
+quarter of an hour. Then dip the sheet
+in a bath of hot water; take it out, and
+let it dry slowly.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;You can also use the following method,
+generally employed for finger-marks:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<i>Finger-marks.</i>&mdash;These stains are sometimes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+very obstinate. Still they can generally
+be mastered by the following
+method:&mdash;Spread over them a layer of
+white soap jelly (<i>savon blanc en gel&eacute;e</i>), and
+leave it there for some hours. Then
+remove this with a fine sponge dipped in
+hot water, and more often than not all
+the dirt disappears at the same time. If
+this treatment is not sufficient, you might
+replace the soap jelly by soft soap (<i>savon
+noir</i>), but you must be careful not to leave
+it long on the printing, which might decompose
+and run, and that would do more
+harm than good.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Sheets of very old books are best left
+with the stains of age upon them, excepting,
+perhaps, such as can be removed with
+hot water or size. Nearly all stains <i>can</i>
+be removed, but in the process old paper
+is apt to lose more in character than it
+gains in appearance.</p>
+
+
+<h5>MENDING</h5>
+
+<p>For mending torn sheets of an old
+book, some paper that matches as nearly
+as possible must be found. For this purpose
+it is the custom for bookbinders to
+collect quantities of old paper. If a piece<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+of the same tone cannot be found, paper
+of similar texture and substance may be
+stained to match.</p>
+
+<p>Supposing a corner to be missing, and a
+piece of paper to have been found that
+matches it, the torn page is laid over the
+new paper in such a way that the wire
+marks on both papers correspond. Then
+the point of a folder should be drawn
+along the edge of the torn sheet, leaving
+an indented line on the new paper. The
+new paper should then be cut off about an
+eighth of an inch beyond the indented line,
+and the edge carefully pared up to the
+line. The edge of the old paper must be
+similarly pared, so that the two edges when
+laid together will not exceed the thickness
+of the rest of the page. It is well to leave
+a little greater overlap at the edges of the
+page. Both cut edges must then be well
+pasted with white paste and rubbed down
+between blotting-paper. To ensure a perfectly
+clean joint the pasted edge should
+not be touched with the hand, and pasting-paper,
+brushes, and paste must be perfectly
+clean.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of a tear across the page,
+if there are any overlapping edges, they
+may merely be pasted together and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+end of the tear at the edge of the paper
+strengthened by a small piece of pared
+paper. If the tear crosses print, and there
+are no overlapping edges, either tiny pieces
+of pared paper may be cut and laid across
+the tear between the lines of print, or
+else a piece of the thinnest Japanese paper,
+which is nearly transparent, may be pasted
+right along the tear over the print; in
+either case the mend should be strengthened
+at the edge of the page by an additional
+thickness of paper. In cases where the
+backs of the sections have been much
+damaged, it will be necessary to put a
+guard the entire length, or in the case of
+small holes, to fill them in with pieces of
+torn paper. The edges of any mend may,
+with great care, be scraped with a sharp
+knife having a slight burr on the under
+side, and then rubbed lightly with a piece
+of worn fine sand-paper, or a fragment of
+cuttle-fish bone. Care must be taken not
+to pare away too much, and especially not
+to weaken the mend at the edges of the
+sheet. As a general rule, the new mending
+paper should go on the back of a
+sheet.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes it is thought necessary to
+fill up worm-holes in the paper. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+may be done by boiling down some paper
+in size until it is of a pulpy consistency,
+and a little of this filled into the worm-holes
+will re-make the paper in those
+places. It is a very tedious operation,
+and seldom worth doing.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Fig_18" id="Fig_18"></a>
+<img src="images/gs080.jpg" width="150" height="91" alt="Fig. 18." title="Fig. 18." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 18.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mending vellum is done in much the
+same way as mending paper, excepting
+that a little greater overlap must be left.
+It is well to put a stitch of silk at each
+end of a vellum patch, as you cannot
+depend on paste alone holding vellum
+securely. The overlapping edges must
+be well roughed
+up with a knife to
+make sure that the
+paste will stick.
+A cut in a vellum
+page is best mended
+with fine silk with
+a lacing stitch
+(see <a href="#Fig_18">fig. 18</a>).</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Mending is most easily done on a sheet
+of plate-glass, of which the edges and
+corners have been rubbed down.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle" style="text-align: center">End Papers&mdash;Leather Joints&mdash;Pressing</p>
+
+
+<h5>END PAPERS</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">If</span> an old book that has had much wear
+is examined, it will generally be found
+that the leaves at the beginning and the
+end have suffered more than the rest of
+the book. On this ground, and also to
+enable people who must write notes in
+books to do so with the least injury to
+the book, it is advisable to put a good
+number of blank papers at each end. As
+these papers are part of the binding, and
+have an important protective function to
+perform, they should be of good quality.
+At all times difficulty has been found in
+preventing the first and last section of
+the book, whether end papers or not,
+from dragging away when the cover is
+opened, and various devices have been
+tried to overcome this defect. In the
+fifteenth century strips of vellum (usually
+cut from manuscripts) were pasted on to
+the back of the book and on the inside<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+of the boards, or in some cases were
+merely folded round the first and last
+section and pasted on to the covers. The
+modern, and far less efficient, practice is
+to &#8220;overcast&#8221; the first and last sections.
+This is objectionable, because it prevents
+the leaves from opening right to the back,
+and it fails in the object aimed at, by
+merely transferring the strain to the back
+of the overcast section.</p>
+
+<p>In order to make provision for any
+strain there may be in opening the cover,
+it is better to adopt some such arrangement
+as shown in <a href="#Fig_19">fig. 19</a>. In this end
+paper the zigzag opens slightly in response
+to any strain.</p>
+
+<p>The way to make this end paper is
+to take a folded sheet of paper a little
+larger than the book. Then with dividers
+mark two points an eighth of an inch
+from the back for the fold, and paste your
+paste-down paper, B B, up to these points
+(see <a href="#Fig_19">fig. 19</a>, II). When the paste is dry,
+fold back the sheet (A1) over the paste-down
+paper, and A2 the reverse way,
+leaving the form seen in <a href="#Fig_19">fig. 19</a>, III. A
+folded sheet of paper similar to A is
+inserted at C (<a href="#Fig_19">fig. 19</a>, V, H), and the
+sewing passes through this. When the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+book is pasted down the leaf A1 is torn
+off, and B1 pasted down on the board.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+If marbled paper is desired, the marble
+should be &#8220;made,&#8221; that is, pasted on to
+B1.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><a href="images/gs083.jpg"><img src="images/gs083_th.jpg"
+alt="" title="" /></a><a name="Fig_19" id="Fig_19"></a></p>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 19.</p>
+
+<p>There are considerable disadvantages in
+using marbled papers, as if they are of
+thick enough paper to help the strength
+of the binding, the &#8220;made&#8221; sheet is very
+stiff, and in a small book is troublesome.
+On no account should any marble paper
+be used, unless it is tough and durable.
+The quality of the paper of which most
+marbled papers are made is so poor, that
+it is unsuitable for use as end papers.
+For most books a self-coloured paper of
+good quality answers well for the paste-down
+sheets.</p>
+
+<p>It is a mistake to leave end papers to
+be pasted on after the book has been
+forwarded, as in that case they have little
+constructive value. Every leaf of such
+an end paper as is described above will
+open right to the back, and the zigzag
+allows play for the drag of the board.</p>
+
+<p>Paper with a conventional pattern
+painted or printed on it may be used for
+end papers. If such a design is simple,
+such as a sprig repeated all over, or an
+arrangement of stars or dots, it may look
+very well; but over elaborate end papers,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+and especially those that aim at pictorial
+effect, are seldom successful.</p>
+
+<p>Ends may be made of thin vellum.
+If so, unless the board is very heavy, it is
+best to have leather joints.</p>
+
+<p>A single leaf of vellum (in the place of
+B1 and 2, II, <a href="#Fig_19">fig. 19</a>) should have an edge
+turned up into the zigzag with the leather
+joint, and sewn through. Vellum ends
+must always be sewn, as it is not safe to
+rely upon paste to hold them. They
+look well, and may be enriched by
+tooling. The disadvantage of vellum is,
+that it has a tendency to curl up if subjected
+to heat, and when it contracts it
+unduly draws the boards of the book.
+For large manuscripts, or printed books
+on vellum, which are bound in wooden
+or other thick boards and are clasped,
+thicker vellum may be used for the ends;
+that with a slightly brown surface looks
+best. The part that will come into the
+joint should be scraped thin with a knife,
+and a zigzag made of Japanese paper.</p>
+
+<p>Silk or other fine woven material may
+be used for ends. It is best used with a
+leather joint, and may be stuck on to the
+first paper of the end papers (B1, No. 2,
+<a href="#Fig_19">fig. 19</a>), and cut with the book. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+glaire of the edge gilding will help to stop
+the edges fraying out. In attaching silk
+to paper, thin glue is the best thing to
+use; the paper, not the silk, being glued.
+Some little practice is needed to get sufficient
+glue on the paper to make the silk
+stick all over, and yet not to soil it.
+When the silk has been glued to the paper,
+it should be left under a light weight to
+dry. If put in the press, the glue may
+be squeezed through and the silk soiled.</p>
+
+<p>If the silk is very thin, or delicate in
+colour, or if it seems likely that it will
+fray out at the edges, it is better to turn
+the edges in over a piece of paper cut a
+little smaller than the page of the book
+and stick them down. This forms a pad,
+which may be attached to the first leaf of
+the end papers; a similar pad may be
+made for filling in the board.</p>
+
+<p>Before using, the silk should be damped
+and ironed flat on the wrong side.</p>
+
+<p>Silk ends give a book a rich finish, but
+seldom look altogether satisfactory. If
+the silk is merely stuck on to the first
+end paper, the edges will generally fray
+out if the book is much used. If the
+edges are turned in, an unpleasantly thick
+end is made.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h5>LEATHER JOINTS</h5>
+
+<p>Leather joints are pieces of thin leather
+that are used to cover the joints on the
+inside (for paring, see page <a href="#Page_154">154</a>). They
+add very little strength to the book, but
+give a pleasant finish to the inside of the
+board.</p>
+
+<p>If there are to be leather joints, the end
+papers are made up without A 1, and the
+edge of the leather pasted and inserted at
+D, with a piece of common paper as a protection
+(see <a href="#Fig_19">fig. 19</a>, IV). When the paste
+is dry, the leather is folded over at E.</p>
+
+<p>A piece of blotting-paper may be pasted
+on to the inside of the waste leaf, leaving
+enough of it loose to go between the
+leather joint and the first sheet of the
+end paper. This will avoid any chance
+of the leather joint staining or marking
+the ends while the book is being bound.
+The blotting-paper, of course, is taken
+out with the waste sheet before the joint
+is pasted down.</p>
+
+<p>Joints may also be made of linen or
+cloth inserted in the same way. A cloth
+joint has greater strength than a leather
+one, as the latter has to be very thin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+in order that the board may shut properly.</p>
+
+<p>With leather or cloth joints, the sewing
+should go through both E and F.</p>
+
+
+<h5>PRESSING</h5>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_20" id="Fig_20"></a>
+<img src="images/gs088.jpg" width="300" height="138" alt="Fig. 20." title="Fig. 20." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 20.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 222px; padding-top: 2em"><a name="Fig_21" id="Fig_21"></a>
+<img src="images/gs089.jpg" width="222" height="450" alt="Fig. 21.&mdash;Standing Press" title="Fig. 21.&mdash;Standing Press" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 21.&mdash;Standing Press</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>While the end papers are being made,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+the sections of the book should be pressed.
+To do this a pressing-board is taken
+which is a little larger than the book, and
+a tin, covered with common paper, placed
+on that, then a few sections of the book,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+then another tin covered with paper, and
+then more sections, and so on, taking care
+that the sections are exactly over one
+another (see <a href="#Fig_20">fig. 20</a>). A second pressing-board
+having been placed on the last tin,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+the pile of sections, tins, and pressing-boards
+can be put into the standing-press
+and left under pressure till next day.
+Newly printed plates should be protected
+by thin tissue paper while being pressed.
+Any folded plates or maps, &amp;c., or inserted
+letters, must either not be pressed,
+or have tins placed on each side of them
+to prevent them from indenting the adjoining
+leaves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_22" id="Fig_22"></a>
+<img src="images/gs090.jpg" width="200" height="450" alt="Fig. 22.&mdash;French Standing Press" title="Fig. 22.&mdash;French Standing Press" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 22.&mdash;French Standing Press</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Hand-printed books, such as the publications
+of the Kelmscott Press, should
+have very little pressure, or the &#8220;impression&#8221;
+of the print and the surface of the
+paper may be injured. Books newly
+printed on vellum or heavily coloured
+illustrations should not be pressed at all,
+or the print may &#8220;set off.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The protecting tissues on the plates of
+a book that has been printed for more
+than a year can generally be left out,
+unless the titles of the plates are printed
+on them, as they are a nuisance to readers
+and often get crumpled up and mark the
+book.</p>
+
+<p>In order to make books solid, that is, to
+make the leaves lie evenly and closely to
+one another, it was formerly the custom
+to beat books on a &#8220;stone&#8221; with a heavy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+hammer. This process has been superseded
+by the rolling-press; but with the
+admirable presses that are now to be had,
+simple pressing will be found to be sufficient
+for the &#8220;extra&#8221; binder.</p>
+
+<p>At <a href="#Fig_21">fig. 21</a> is shown an iron standing-press.
+This is screwed down first with a
+short bar, and finally with a long bar.
+This form of press is effective and simple,
+but needs a good deal of room for the
+long bar, and must have very firm supports,
+or it may be pulled over.</p>
+
+<p>At <a href="#Fig_22">fig. 22</a> is shown a French standing-press,
+in which the pressure is applied by
+a weighted wheel, which will, in the first
+place, by being spun round, turn the
+screw until it is tight, and give additional
+pressure by a hammering action. This
+press I have found to answer for all ordinary
+purposes, and to give as great pressure
+as can be got by the iron standing-press,
+without any undue strain on supports or
+workmen.</p>
+
+<p>There are many other forms of press
+by which great pressure can be applied,
+some working by various arrangements of
+cog-wheels, screws, and levers, others by
+hydraulic pressure.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle" style="text-align: center">Trimming Edges before Sewing&mdash;Edge Gilding</p>
+
+
+<h5>TRIMMING BEFORE SEWING</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">When</span> the sheets come from the press the
+treatment of the edges must be decided
+upon, that is, whether they are to be entirely
+uncut, trimmed before sewing, or
+cut in boards.</p>
+
+<p>Early printed books and manuscripts
+should on no account have their edges
+cut at all, and any modern books of value
+are better only slightly trimmed and gilt
+before sewing. But for books of reference
+that need good bindings, on account
+of the wear they have to withstand, cutting
+in boards is best, as the smooth edge
+so obtained makes the leaves easier to
+turn over. Gilt tops and rough edges
+give a book a look of unequal finish.</p>
+
+<p>If the edges are to remain uncut, or be
+cut &#8220;in boards&#8221; with the plough, the
+book will be ready for &#8220;marking up&#8221; as
+soon as it comes from the press; but if it
+is to be gilt before sewing, it must be first
+trimmed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 143px;"><a name="Fig_23" id="Fig_23"></a>
+<img src="images/gs094.jpg" width="143" height="200" alt="Fig. 23." title="Fig. 23." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 23.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sheets for trimming with end
+papers and all plates inserted must first be
+cut square at the head against a carpenter&#8217;s
+square (see <a href="#Fig_7">fig.
+7</a>). Then a piece
+of mill-board may
+be cut to the size,
+it is desired to leave
+the leaves, and the
+sections trimmed to
+it. To do this three
+nails should be put
+into the covering
+board through a
+piece of straw-board,
+and the back of the
+section slid along
+nails 1 and 2 until
+it touches No. 3 (see <a href="#Fig_23">fig. 23</a>). The
+board is slid in the same way, and anything
+projecting beyond it cut off. When
+the under straw-board has become inconveniently
+scored in the first position,
+by shifting the lower nail (1) a fresh surface
+will receive the cuts. Fig. 24 is a
+representation of a simple machine that I
+use in my workshop for trimming. The
+slides A A are adjustable to any width
+required, and are fixed by the screws B B.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+The brass-bound straight edge C fits on to
+slots in A A, and as this, by the adjustment
+of the slides, can be fixed at any
+distance from B B, all sizes of books can
+be trimmed. As by this machine several
+sections can be cut at once, the time taken
+is not very much greater than if the book
+were cut in the plough.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/gs095.jpg" width="400" height="235" alt="Fig. 24." title="Fig. 24." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 24.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Considerable judgment is required in
+trimming. The edges of the larger pages
+only, on a previously uncut book, should
+be cut, leaving the smaller pages untouched.
+Such uncut pages are called
+&#8220;proof,&#8221; and the existence of proof in a
+bound book is evidence that it has not
+been unduly cut.</p>
+
+<p>Before gilding the edges of the trimmed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+sections, any uncut folds that may remain
+should be opened with a folder, as if
+opened after gilding, they will show a
+ragged white edge.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_25" id="Fig_25"></a>
+<img src="images/gs096.jpg" width="200" height="99" alt="Fig. 25." title="Fig. 25." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 25.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h5>EDGE GILDING</h5>
+
+<p>To gild the edges of trimmed sections,
+the book must be &#8220;knocked up&#8221; to the
+fore-edge, getting as many of the short
+leaves as possible to the front. It is then
+put into the
+&#8220;lying press,&#8221;
+with gilding
+boards on each
+side (see <a href="#Fig_25">fig.
+No. 25</a>), and
+screwed up
+tightly. Very little scraping will be
+necessary, and usually if well rubbed
+with fine sand-paper, to remove any
+chance finger-marks or loose fragments of
+paper, the edge will be smooth enough to
+gild. If the paper is very absorbent, the
+edges must be washed over with vellum
+size and left to dry.</p>
+
+<p>The next process is an application of
+red chalk. For this a piece of gilder&#8217;s
+red chalk is rubbed down on a stone with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+water, making a thickish paste, and the
+edges are well brushed with a hard brush
+dipped in this mixture, care being taken
+not to have it wet enough to run between
+the leaves. Some gilders prefer to use
+blacklead or a mixture of chalk and blacklead.
+A further brushing with a dry
+brush will to some extent polish the
+leaves. It will then be ready for an application
+of glaire. Before glairing, the
+gold must be cut on the cushion to the
+width required (see p. <a href="#Page_200">200</a>), and may be
+either taken up on very slightly greased
+paper, a gilder&#8217;s tip, or with a piece of net
+stretched on a little frame (see <a href="#Fig_26">fig. 26</a>).
+The gold leaf will adhere sufficiently to
+the net, and can be readily released by a
+light breath when it is exactly over the
+proper place on the edge.</p>
+
+<p>When the gold is ready, the glaire
+should be floated on to the edge with a
+soft brush, and the gold spread evenly
+over it and left until dry; that is, in a
+workshop of ordinary temperature, for
+about an hour. The edge is then lightly
+rubbed with a piece of leather that has
+been previously rubbed on beeswax, and
+is ready for burnishing. It is best to commence
+burnishing through a piece of thin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+slightly waxed paper to set the gold, and
+afterwards the burnisher can be used
+directly on the edge. A piece of bloodstone
+ground so as to have no sharp edges
+(see <a href="#Fig_27">fig. 27</a>) makes a good burnisher.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_26" id="Fig_26"></a>
+<img src="images/gs098.jpg" width="200" height="194" alt="Fig. 26." title="Fig. 26." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 26.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are several different preparations
+used for gilding edges. One part of
+beaten up white of egg with four parts of
+water left to stand for a day and strained
+will be found to answer well.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_27" id="Fig_27"></a>
+<img src="images/gs098a.jpg" width="200" height="28" alt="Fig. 27." title="Fig. 27." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 27.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the fore-edge is gilt the same operation
+is repeated at the head and tail. As
+it is desirable to have the gilding at the
+head as solid as possible, rather more
+scraping is advisable here, or the head
+may be left to be cut with a plough and
+gilt in boards.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle" style="text-align: center">Marking up&mdash;Sewing&mdash;Materials for Sewing</p>
+
+
+<h5>MARKING UP</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">This</span> is drawing lines across the back of
+the sections to show the sewer the position
+of the sewing cords.</p>
+
+<p>Marking up for flexible sewing needs
+care and judgment, as on it depends the
+position of the bands on the back of the
+bound book. Nearly all books look best
+with five bands, but very large, thinnish
+folios may have six, and a very small, thick
+book may look better with four. Generally
+speaking, five is the best number. In
+marking up trimmed sheets for flexible
+sewing, the length of the back should be
+divided from the head into six portions,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+five equal, and one at the tail slightly
+longer. From the points so arrived at,
+strong pencil lines should be made across
+the back with a carpenter&#8217;s square as
+guide, the book having been previously
+knocked up between pressing-boards, and
+placed in the lying press. It is important
+that the head should be knocked up exactly
+square, as otherwise the bands will
+be found to slope when the book is bound.
+In the case of a book which is to be cut
+and gilt in boards, before marking up it
+will be necessary to decide how much is
+to be cut off, and allowance made, or the
+head and tail division of the back will,
+when cut, be too small. It must also be
+remembered that to the height of the
+pages the amount of the &#8220;squares&#8221; will
+be added.</p>
+
+<p>About a quarter of an inch from either
+end of the back of a trimmed book, and a
+little more in the case of one that is to be
+cut in boards, a mark should be made for
+the &#8220;kettle&#8221; or &#8220;catch&#8221; stitch. This
+may be slightly sawn in, but before using
+the saw, the end papers are removed. If
+these were sawn, the holes would show in
+the joint when the ends are pasted down.</p>
+
+<p>If the book is to be sewn on double<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+cords, or on slips of vellum or tape, two
+lines will be necessary for each band.</p>
+
+<p>It has become the custom to saw in the
+backs of books, and to sink the bands into
+the saw cuts, using &#8220;hollow backs,&#8221; and
+putting false bands to appear when bound.
+This is a degenerate form, to which is due
+much of the want of durability of modern
+bindings. If the bands are not to show
+on the back, it is better to sew on tapes or
+strips of vellum than to use sawn-in string
+bands.</p>
+
+
+<h5>SEWING</h5>
+
+<p>The sewing-frame need by bookbinders
+is practically the same now as is shown in
+prints of the early sixteenth century, and
+probably dates from still earlier times. It
+consists of a bed with two uprights and
+a crossbar, which can be heightened or
+lowered by the turning of wooden nuts
+working on a screw thread cut in the
+uprights (see <a href="#Fig_29">fig. 29</a>).</p>
+
+<p>To set up for sewing, as many loops
+of cord, called &#8220;lay cords,&#8221; as there are
+to be bands, are threaded on to the cross
+piece, and to these, by a simple knot,
+shown at <a href="#Fig_28">fig. 28</a>, cords are fastened
+to form the bands. The &#8220;lay cords<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>&#8221;
+can be used again and again until worn
+out.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 205px;"><a name="Fig_28" id="Fig_28"></a>
+<img src="images/gs102.jpg" width="205" height="300" alt="Fig. 28." title="Fig. 28." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 28.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To fasten the cord below, a key is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+taken (see <a href="#Fig_28">fig. 28</a>) and held below the
+press by the right hand; the cord is then
+pulled up round it by the left, and held
+in position on the key by the first finger
+of the right hand. The key is then
+turned over, winding up a little of the
+string, and the prongs slipped over the
+main cord. It is then put through the
+slit in the bed of the sewing-press, with
+the prongs away from the front. The
+cord is then cut off, and the same operation
+repeated for each band. When all
+the bands have been set up, the book is
+laid against them, and they are moved
+to correspond with the marks previously
+made on the back of the book, care being
+taken that they are quite perpendicular.
+If they are of the same length and evenly
+set up, on screwing up the crossbar they
+should all tighten equally.</p>
+
+<p>It will be found to be convenient to
+set up the cords as far to the right hand
+of the press as possible, as then there
+will be room for the sewer&#8217;s left arm on
+the inner side of the left hand upright.</p>
+
+<p>A roll of paper that will exactly fill
+the slot in the sewing-frame is pushed in
+in front of the upright cords to steady<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+them and ensure that they are all in the
+same plane.</p>
+
+<p>When the sewing-frame is ready, with
+the cords set up and adjusted, the book
+must be collated to make sure that neither
+sheets nor plates have been lost or misplaced
+during the previous operations.
+Plates need special care to see that the
+guards go properly round the sheets next
+them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_29" id="Fig_29"></a>
+<img src="images/gs105.jpg" width="300" height="418" alt="Fig. 29." title="Fig. 29." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 29.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The top back corner, on front and
+back waste end paper, should be marked.
+When this has been done, and all is found
+to be in order, the book is laid on a
+pressing-board behind the sewing-frame,
+the fore-edge towards the sewer, and the
+front end paper uppermost. As it is
+difficult to insert the needle into a section
+placed on the bed of the sewing-frame,
+it will be found convenient to sew upon
+a largish pressing-board, which will lie on
+the bed of the frame, and may have small
+catches to prevent it from shifting. When
+the board is in place, the first section (end
+paper) is taken in the left hand and
+turned over, so that the marks on the
+back come in the proper places against
+the strings. The left hand is inserted
+into the place where the sewing is to be,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+and with the right hand a needle and
+thread is passed through the kettle stitch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+mark (see <a href="#Fig_29">fig. 29</a>). It is grasped by
+the fingers of the left hand, is passed out
+through the back at the first mark on
+the left-hand side of the first upright
+cord, and pulled tight, leaving a loose end
+of thread at the kettle stitch. Then with
+the right hand it is inserted again in the
+same place, but from the other side of
+the cord, and so on round all five bands,
+and out again at the kettle stitch mark
+at the tail, using right and left hands
+alternately. The centre of the next section
+is then found, and it is sewn in the
+same way from tail to head, the thread
+being tied to the loose end hanging from
+the first kettle stitch. Another section
+is laid on and sewn, but when the kettle
+stitch is reached, the under thread is
+caught up in the way shown in <a href="#Fig_30">fig. 30</a>.
+These operations are repeated throughout
+the whole book. If the back seems
+likely to swell too much, the sections can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+be lightly tapped down with a loaded
+stick made for the purpose, care being
+taken not to drive the sections inwards,
+as it is difficult to get such sections out
+again. When all the sheets and the last
+end paper have been sewn on, a double
+catch stitch is made, and the end cut off.
+This method is known as flexible sewing
+&#8220;all along.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_30" id="Fig_30"></a>
+<img src="images/gs106.jpg" width="250" height="74" alt="Fig. 30." title="Fig. 30." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 30.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_31" id="Fig_31"></a>
+<img src="images/gs107.jpg" width="200" height="172" alt="Fig. 31." title="Fig. 31." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 31.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When one needle full of thread is
+exhausted, another is tied on, making
+practically a continuous
+length of
+thread going all
+along each section
+and round every
+band. The weaver&#8217;s
+knot is the best
+for joining the
+lengths of thread.
+A simple way of
+tying it is shown at
+<a href="#Fig_31">fig. 31</a>. A simple slip knot is made in the
+end of the new thread and put over the end
+of the old, and, on being pulled tight, the
+old thread should slip through, as shewn
+at B. The convenience of this knot is,
+that by its use a firm attachment can be
+made quite close up to the back of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+book. This is a great advantage, as
+if the knot is made at some distance
+from the back, it will have to be dragged
+through the section two or three times,
+instead of only once. The knot, after
+having been made, must be pulled inside
+the section, and remain there. Considerable
+judgment is required in sewing. If
+a book is sewn too loosely, it is almost
+impossible to bind it firmly; and if too
+tightly, especially if the kettle stitches
+have been drawn too tight, the thread
+may break in &#8220;backing,&#8221; and the book
+have to be resewn.</p>
+
+
+<p>One way to avoid having too much
+swelling in the back of a book consisting
+of a great many very thin sections is to
+sew &#8220;two sheets on.&#8221; In this form of
+sewing two sections at a time are laid on
+the sewing-frame. The thread is inserted
+at the &#8220;kettle stitch&#8221; of the lower section,
+and brought out as usual at the first
+cord, but instead of being reinserted into
+the lower section, it is passed into the
+upper one, and so on, alternately passing
+into the upper and lower sections. This
+will give, if there are five bands, three
+stitches in each section instead of six, as
+there would be if the sewing were &#8220;all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+along,&#8221; lessening the thread, consequently
+the swelling by half. It is usual to sew
+the first and last few sections &#8220;all along.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The common method of sewing is to
+make saw cuts in the back, in which thin
+cords can be sunk, and the thread merely
+passes behind them and not round them,
+as in flexible sewing. This method,
+although very quick and cheap, is not to
+be recommended, on account of the injury
+done to the backs of the sections by the
+saw, and because the glue running into
+the saw cuts is apt to make the back stiff,
+and to prevent the book from opening
+right to the back. Indeed, were a sawn-in
+book to open right to the back, as it is
+expected a flexibly-sewn book will do,
+showing the sewing along the centre of
+each section, the saw marks with the band
+inserted would show, and be a serious
+disfigurement.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 196px;"><a name="Fig_32" id="Fig_32"></a>
+<img src="images/gs111.jpg" width="196" height="400" alt="Fig. 32." title="Fig. 32." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 32.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 124px;"><a name="Fig_33" id="Fig_33"></a>
+<img src="images/gs112.jpg" width="124" height="250" alt="Fig. 33." title="Fig. 33." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 33.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Medi&aelig;val books were usually sewn on
+double cords or strips of leather, and the
+headband was often sewn at the same
+time, as shown at <a href="#Fig_32">fig. 32</a>, A. This is an
+excellent method for very large books
+with heavy sections, and is specially suitable
+for large vellum manuscripts, in many
+of which the sections are very thick. An<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+advantage of this method is, that the twist
+round the double cord virtually makes a
+knot at every band, and should a thread
+at any place break, there is no danger of
+the rest of the thread coming loose. This
+is the only mode of sewing by which a
+thread runs absolutely from end to end of
+the sections. The headband sewn at the
+same time, and so tied down in every section,
+is firmer and stronger than if worked
+on in the way now usual. In the fifteenth
+century it was the custom to lace
+the ends of the headbands into the boards
+in the same way as the other bands. This
+method, while giving additional strength
+at the head and tail, and avoiding the
+somewhat unfinished look of the cut-off
+ends of the modern headband, is, on the
+whole, of doubtful advantage, as it is
+necessary to cut the &#8220;turn in&#8221; at the
+point where strength in the leather is
+much wanted.</p>
+
+
+<p>At <a href="#Fig_32">fig. 32</a> is shown in section the three
+methods of sewing mentioned. A is the
+old sewing round double bands; with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+headbands worked at the same time with
+the same thread; B is the modern flexible
+sewing, and C the common sawn-in method.</p>
+
+<p>Books that are very thin or are to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+bound in vellum, are best sewn on tapes or
+vellum slips. The easiest way to set up
+the sewing-frame for
+such sewing is to sling
+a piece of wood
+through two of the lay
+cords, and to pin one
+end of the vellum or tape
+band round this, pull the
+other end tight, and secure
+it with a drawing-pin
+underneath the
+frame. The sewing, in
+the case of such flat
+bands, would not go
+round, but only across
+them. To avoid undue
+looseness, every three
+or four threads may be
+caught up at the back of the band, as
+shown in <a href="#Fig_33">fig. 33</a>.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h5>MATERIALS FOR SEWING</h5>
+
+<p>The cord used should be of the best
+hemp, specially made with only two strands
+of very long fibres to facilitate fraying out.
+For very large books where a double cord
+is to be used, the best water line will be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+found to answer, care being taken to select
+that which can be frayed out. If tape is
+used it should be unbleached, such as the
+sailmakers use. Thread should also be unbleached,
+as the unnecessary bleaching of
+most bookbinder&#8217;s sewing-thread seems to
+cause it to rot in a comparatively short
+time. Silk of the best quality is better
+than any thread. The ligature silk, undyed,
+as used by surgeons, is perhaps the
+strongest material, and can be had in
+various thicknesses. It is impossible to
+pay too great attention to the selection of
+sewing materials, as the permanency of the
+binding depends on their durability. The
+rebinding of valuable books is at best a
+necessary evil, and anything that makes
+frequent rebinding necessary, is not only
+objectionable on account of the cost involved,
+but because it seriously shortens
+the life of the book.</p>
+
+<p>Experience is required to judge what
+thickness of thread to use for any given
+book. If the sections are very thin, a thin
+thread must be used, or the &#8220;swelling&#8221; of
+the back caused by the additional thickness
+of the thread in that part will be
+excessive, and make the book unmanageable
+in &#8220;backing.&#8221; On the other hand,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+if the sections are large, and a too thin
+thread is used, there will not be enough
+swelling to make a firm &#8220;joint.&#8221; Broadly
+speaking, when there are a great many
+very thin sections, the thinnest thread
+may be used; and coarser thread may be
+used when the sections are thicker, or
+fewer in number. In the case of large
+manuscripts on vellum it is best to use
+very thick silk, or even catgut. Vellum
+is so tough and durable, that any binding
+of a vellum book should be made as if
+it were expected to last for hundreds of
+years.</p>
+
+<p>In selecting the thickness of cord for a
+book, some judgment is required. On an
+old book the bands are best made rather
+prominent by the use of thick cord, but
+the exact thickness to be used is a matter
+for taste and experience to decide.</p>
+
+<p>A very thick band on a small book is
+clumsy, while a very thin band on the back
+of a heavy book suggests weakness, and is
+therefore unsightly.</p>
+
+<p>In bindings of early printed books and
+manuscripts an appearance of great strength
+is better than extreme neatness.</p>
+
+<p>When the sewing is completed, the cords
+are cut off close to the lay cords, and then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+the keys will be loose enough to be easily
+removed. The knots remaining on the
+lay bands are removed, and the keys slung
+through one of them.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle" style="text-align: center">Fraying out Slips&mdash;Glueing up&mdash;Rounding
+and Backing</p>
+
+
+<h5>FRAYING OUT SLIPS AND GLUEING UP</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">After</span> sewing, the book should be looked
+through to see that all sheets and plates
+have been caught by the thread, and special
+attention should be given to end papers to
+see that the sewing lies evenly.</p>
+
+<p>The ends of the cords should next be
+cut off to within about two inches of the
+book on each side, and the free portions
+frayed out. If proper sewing cord is used,
+this will be found to be very easily done,
+if a binder&#8217;s bodkin is first inserted between
+the two strands, separating them,
+and then again in the centre of each separated
+strand to still further straighten the
+fibres (see <a href="#Fig_34">fig. 34</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The fraying out of the thick cord recommended<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+for heavy books is a more
+difficult operation, but with a little trouble
+the fibres of any good
+cord can be frayed out.
+Vellum or tape bands
+will only require cutting
+off, leaving about two
+inches free on each side.
+The free parts of the
+bands are called slips.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 111px;"><a name="Fig_34" id="Fig_34"></a>
+<img src="images/gs116.jpg" width="111" height="150" alt="Fig. 34." title="Fig. 34." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 34.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The book is now
+ready for glueing up.
+A piece of waste mill-board or an old
+cloth cover is put on each side over the
+slips, and the book knocked up squarely
+at the back and head. Then it is lowered
+into the lying press and screwed up,
+leaving the back with the protecting
+boards projecting about three-quarters
+of an inch. If the back has too much
+swelling in it or is spongy, it is better to
+leave the slips on one side free and to pull
+them as tight as possible while the book is
+held in the press, or a knocking-down iron
+may be placed on one side of the projecting
+back and the other side tapped with
+the backing hammer to make the sections
+lie close to one another, and then the slips
+pulled straight (<a href="#Fig_35">fig. 35</a>). The back must<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+now be glued. The glue for this operation
+must be hot, and not too thick. It
+is very important that it should be worked
+well between the sections with the brush,
+and it is well after it has been applied to
+rub the back with a finger or folder to
+make quite sure that the glue goes between
+every section for its entire length.
+If the book is too tightly screwed up in
+the press, the glue is apt to remain too
+much on the surface; and if not tightly
+enough, it may penetrate too deeply between
+the sections. If the glue is thick,
+or stringy, it may be diluted with hot
+water and the glue-brush rapidly spun<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+round in the glue-pot to break it up and
+to make it work freely.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_35" id="Fig_35"></a>
+<img src="images/gs117.jpg" width="300" height="257" alt="Fig. 35." title="Fig. 35." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 35.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Very great care is needed to see that
+the head of a previously trimmed book
+is knocked up exactly square before the
+back is glued, for if it is not, it will be
+very difficult to get it even afterwards.</p>
+
+
+<h5>ROUNDING AND BACKING</h5>
+
+<p>The amount of rounding on the back
+of a book should be determined by the
+necessities of the case; that is to say, a
+back that has, through guarding, or excess
+of sewing, a tendency to be round, is best
+not forced to be flat, and a back that
+would naturally be flat, is best not forced
+to be unduly round. A very round back
+is objectionable where it can be avoided,
+because it takes up so much of the back
+margins of the sheets, and is apt to make
+the book stiff in opening. On the other
+hand, a back that is quite flat has to be
+lined up stiffly, or it may become concave
+with use.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_36" id="Fig_36"></a>
+<img src="images/gs119.jpg" width="300" height="307" alt="Fig. 36." title="Fig. 36." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 36.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The method of rounding is to place the
+book with the back projecting a little
+over the edge of the press or table, then
+to draw the back over towards the workman,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+and, while in this position, to tap it
+carefully with a hammer (see <a href="#Fig_36">fig. 36</a>).
+This is repeated on the other side of
+the book, and, if properly done, will give
+the back an even, convex form that should
+be in section, a portion of a circle.
+Rounding and backing are best done after
+the glue has ceased to be tacky, but before
+it has set hard.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_37" id="Fig_37"></a>
+<img src="images/gs120.jpg" width="250" height="293" alt="Fig. 37." title="Fig. 37." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 37.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Backing is perhaps the most difficult and
+important operation in forwarding. The
+sewing threads in the back cause that part
+to be thicker than the rest of the book.
+Thus in a book with twenty sections
+there will be in the back, in addition to
+the thickness of the paper, twenty thicknesses
+of thread.</p>
+
+<p>If the boards were laced on to the book
+without rounding or backing, and the
+book were pressed, the additional thickness
+of the back, having to go somewhere,
+would cause it to go either convex or
+concave, or else perhaps to crease up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+(see <a href="#Fig_37">fig. 37</a>). The object of rounding
+is to control the distribution of this
+swelling, and to make the back take an
+even and permanently convex form.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 100px;"><a name="Fig_38" id="Fig_38"></a>
+<img src="images/gs121.jpg" width="100" height="119" alt="Fig. 38." title="Fig. 38." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 38.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If the boards were merely laced on after
+rounding, there would be a gap between
+the square ends of the
+board and the edge of the
+back (see <a href="#Fig_38">fig. 38</a>), though
+the convexity and even
+curve of the back would
+be to some extent assured.
+What is done in backing
+is to make a groove, into
+which the edges of the
+board will fit neatly, and to hammer the
+backs of the sections over one another
+from the centre outwards on both sides
+to form the &#8220;groove,&#8221; to
+ensure that the back shall return
+to the same form after
+the book has been opened.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 100px;"><a name="Fig_39" id="Fig_39"></a>
+<img src="images/gs121a.jpg" width="100" height="132" alt="Fig. 39." title="Fig. 39." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 39.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To back the book, backing
+boards are placed on each
+side (leaving the slips outside)
+a short distance below the edge of the
+back (<a href="#Fig_39">fig. 39</a>). The amount to leave
+here must be decided by the thickness of
+the boards to be used. When the backing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+boards are in position, the book and
+boards must be carefully lowered into the
+lying press and screwed up very tight,
+great care being taken to see that the
+boards do not slip, and that the book is
+put in evenly. Even the most experienced
+forwarder will sometimes have to take a
+book out of the press two or three times
+before he gets it in quite evenly and
+without allowing the boards to slip.
+Unless the back has a perfectly even curve
+when put in the press for backing, no
+amount of subsequent hammering will put
+it permanently right.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_40" id="Fig_40"></a>
+<img src="images/gs122.jpg" width="300" height="215" alt="Fig. 40." title="Fig. 40." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 40.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px; padding-top: 2em"><a name="Fig_41" id="Fig_41"></a>
+<img src="images/gs123.jpg" width="250" height="308" alt="Fig. 41." title="Fig. 41." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 41.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The backs of the sections should be
+evenly fanned out one over the other
+from the centre outwards on both sides.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+This is done by side strokes of the
+hammer, in fact by a sort of &#8220;riveting&#8221;
+blow, and not by a directly crushing blow
+(see <a href="#Fig_41">fig. 41</a>, in which the arrows show the
+direction of the hammer strokes). If the
+sections are not evenly fanned out from
+the centre, but are either zigzagged by
+being crushed by direct blows of the hammer,
+as shown in <a href="#Fig_42">fig. 42</a>, A, or are unevenly
+fanned over more to one side than
+the other, as shown in <a href="#Fig_42">fig. 42</a>, B, the back,
+although it may be even enough when
+first done, will probably become uneven<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+with use. A book in which the sections
+have been crushed down, as at <a href="#Fig_42">fig. 42</a>, A,
+will be disfigured inside by creases in the
+paper.<a name="Fig_43" id="Fig_43"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_42" id="Fig_42"></a>
+<img src="images/gs124.jpg" width="300" height="163" alt="Fig. 42." title="Fig. 42." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 42.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table summary="positioning illos" style="padding-top: 2em">
+<tr><td style="vertical-align: bottom"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;">
+<img src="images/gs124a.jpg" width="100" height="182" alt="Fig. 43." title="Fig. 43." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 43.</p>
+</div></td>
+
+<td style="padding-left: 4em"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Fig_44" id="Fig_44"></a>
+<img src="images/gs124b.jpg" width="150" height="203" alt="Fig. 44." title="Fig. 44." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 44.</p></div>
+</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It is a mistake to suppose that a very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+heavy hammer is necessary for backing
+any but the largest books. For flexible
+books a hammer with a comparatively
+small face should be used, as by its use
+the book can be backed without flattening
+the bands. It is well to have a hammer
+head of the shape shown in <a href="#Fig_43">fig. 43</a>. By
+using the thin end, the force of a comparatively
+light blow, because concentrated
+on a small surface, is effective.</p>
+
+<p>At <a href="#Fig_44">fig. 44</a> is shown an ordinary backing
+hammer.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle" style="text-align: center">Cutting and Attaching Boards&mdash;Cleaning off Back&mdash;Pressing</p>
+
+
+<h5>CUTTING AND ATTACHING BOARDS</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> first quality of the best black board
+made from old rope is the best to use for
+&#8220;extra&#8221; binding. It will be found to be
+very hard, and not easily broken or bent
+at the corners. In selecting the thickness
+suitable for any given book, the size
+and thickness of the volume should be
+taken into account. The tendency of
+most modern binders is to use a rather<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+over thick board, perhaps with a view to
+bulk out the volume. For manuscripts,
+or other books on vellum, it is best to
+use wooden boards, which should be
+clasped. From their stability they form
+a kind of permanent press, in which the
+vellum leaves are kept flat. In a damp
+climate like that of England, vellum,
+absorbing moisture from the atmosphere,
+soon cockles up unless it is held tightly
+in some way; and when it is once cockled,
+the book cannot be made to shut properly,
+except with very special treatment.
+Then also dust and damp have ready
+access to the interstices of the crinkled
+pages, resulting in the disfigurement so
+well known and so deplored by all lovers
+of fine books.</p>
+
+<p>For large books a &#8220;made&#8221; board, that
+is, two boards pasted together, is better
+than a single board of the same thickness.
+In making boards a thin and a thick board
+should be pasted together, the thin board
+to go nearest the book. It will not be
+necessary to put a double lining on the
+inside of such boards, as a thin board will
+always draw a thick one.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_45" id="Fig_45"></a>
+<img src="images/gs127.jpg" width="250" height="343" alt="Fig. 45." title="Fig. 45." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 45.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If mill-boards are used they are first
+cut roughly to size with the mill-board<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+shears, screwed up in the &#8220;lying&#8221; press.
+The straight arm of the shears is the one
+to fix in the press, for if the bent arm be
+undermost, the knuckles are apt to be
+severely bruised against the end. A better
+way of fixing the shears is shown at <a href="#Fig_45">fig. 45</a>.
+Any blacksmith will bend the arm of the
+shears and make the necessary clips. This
+method saves trouble and considerable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+wear and tear to the &#8220;lying&#8221; press.
+Where a great many boards are needed,
+they may be quickly cut in a board
+machine, but for &#8220;extra&#8221; work they
+should be further trimmed in the plough,
+in the same way as those cut by the
+shears. After the boards have been
+roughly cut to size, they should have one
+edge cut straight with the plough. To
+do this one or two pairs of boards are
+knocked up to the back and inserted in
+the cutting side of the press, with those
+edges projecting which are to be cut off,
+and behind them, as a &#8220;cut against,&#8221; a
+board protected by a waste piece of mill-board.</p>
+
+<p>The plough, held by the screw and
+handle, and guided by the runners on the
+press, is moved backwards and forwards.
+A slight turn of the screw at each movement
+brings the knife forward. In cutting
+mill-boards which are very hard, the screw
+should be turned very little each time.
+If press and plough are in proper order,
+that part of the board which projects
+above the cheek of the press should be
+cut off, leaving the edges perfectly square
+and straight. If the edge of the press has
+been damaged, or is out of &#8220;truth,&#8221; a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+cutting board may be used between the
+cheek of the press and the board to be
+cut, making a true edge for the knife to
+run on.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_46" id="Fig_46"></a>
+<img src="images/gs129.jpg" width="300" height="409" alt="Fig. 46.&mdash;Lying or Cutting Press" title="Fig. 46.&mdash;Lying or Cutting Press" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 46.&mdash;Lying or Cutting Press</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The position of the plough on the press<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+is shown at <a href="#Fig_46">fig. 46</a>. The side of the press
+with runners should be reserved for cutting,
+the other side used for all other
+work.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 100px;"><a name="Fig_47" id="Fig_47"></a>
+<img src="images/gs130.jpg" width="100" height="131" alt="Fig. 47." title="Fig. 47." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 47.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The plough knife for mill-boards should
+not be ground at too acute an angle, or
+the edge will most likely
+break away at the first cut.
+The shape shown at <a href="#Fig_47">fig. 47</a>
+is suitable. The knife should
+be very frequently ground,
+as it soon gets blunt, which
+adds greatly to the labour of
+cutting.</p>
+
+<p>After an edge has been
+cut, each side should be well
+rubbed with a folder to smooth down
+any burr left by the plough knife.
+Then a piece of common paper with
+one edge cut straight is pasted on to
+one side of the board, with the straight
+edge exactly up to the cut edge of the
+board. Then a piece of paper large
+enough to cover both sides of the board
+is pasted round it, and well rubbed down
+at the cut edge. After having been lined,
+the boards are nipped in the press to
+ensure that the lining paper shall stick.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+They are stood up to dry, with the doubly
+lined side outwards. The double paper
+is intended to warp the board slightly to
+that side, to compensate for the pull of
+the leather when the book is covered. If
+the board is a double one, a single lining
+paper will be sufficient, the thinner board
+helping to draw the thicker. The paste
+for lining boards must be fairly thin, and
+very well beaten up so as to be free from
+lumps. It is of the utmost importance
+that the lining papers should stick properly,
+for unless they stick, no subsequent
+covering of leather or paper can be made
+to lie flat.</p>
+
+<p>When the lined boards are quite dry,
+they should be paired with the doubly
+lined sides together, and the top back
+corner marked to correspond with the
+marks on the top back corners of the
+book. Then near the top edge, with the
+aid of a carpenter&#8217;s square, two points are
+marked in a line at right angles to the cut
+edge. The pair of boards is then knocked
+up to the back and lowered into the press
+as before, so that the plough knife will
+exactly cut through the points. The
+same operation is repeated on the two
+remaining uncut edges. In marking out<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+those for the fore-edge, the measurement is
+taken with a pair of compasses (<a href="#Fig_48">fig. 48</a>)
+from the joint of the book to the fore-edge
+of the first section. If the book has been
+trimmed, or is to remain uncut, a little
+more must be allowed for the &#8220;squares,&#8221;
+and if it is to be cut in the plough, it
+must be now decided how
+much is to be cut off,
+remembering that it is
+much better to have the
+boards a little too large,
+and so have to reduce
+them after the book is
+cut, than to have them
+too small, and either be
+obliged to get out a new
+pair of boards, or unduly
+cut down the book.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Fig_48" id="Fig_48"></a>
+<img src="images/gs132.jpg" width="150" height="261" alt="Fig. 48." title="Fig. 48." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 48.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 100px;"><a name="Fig_49" id="Fig_49"></a>
+<img src="images/gs133.jpg" width="100" height="126" alt="Fig. 49." title="Fig. 49." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 49.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The height of the boards
+for a book that has been
+trimmed, or is to remain
+uncut, will be the height of the page with
+a small allowance at each end for the
+squares. When a pair of boards has been
+cut all round, it can be tested for squareness
+by reversing one board, when any
+inequality that there may be will appear
+doubled. If the boards are out of truth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+they should generally be put on one side,
+to be used for a smaller book, and new
+boards got out. To correct a badly cut
+pair of boards, it is necessary to reduce
+them in size, and the book consequently
+suffers in proportion. If the boards have
+been found to be truly cut, they are laid
+on the book, and the position of the slips
+marked on them by lines at right angles
+to the back. A line is
+then made parallel to the
+back, about half an inch
+in (see <a href="#Fig_49">fig. 49</a>). At
+the points where the
+lines cross, a series of
+holes is punched from
+the front with a binder&#8217;s
+bodkin on a lead plate,
+then the board is turned
+over, and a second series is punched from
+the back about half an inch from the first.
+If the groove of the back is shallower than
+the thickness of the board, the top back
+edge of the board should be bevelled off
+with a file. This will not be necessary if
+the groove is the exact depth. When the
+holes have been punched, it is well to cut
+a series of V-shaped depressions from the
+first series of holes to the back to receive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+the slips, or they may be too prominent
+when the book is bound. It will now be
+necessary to considerably reduce the slips
+that were frayed out after sewing, and to
+remove all glue or any other matter attached
+to them. The extent to which
+they may be reduced is a matter of nice
+judgment. In the desire to ensure absolute
+neatness in the covering, modern
+binders often reduce the slips to almost
+nothing. On the other hand, some go to
+the other extreme, and leave the cord
+entire, making great ridges on the sides
+of the book where it is laced in. It
+should be possible with the aid of the
+depressions, cut as described, to use slips
+with sufficient margin of strength, and yet
+to have no undue projection on the cover.
+A slight projection is not unsightly, as it
+gives an assurance of sound construction
+and strength, and, moreover, makes an
+excellent starting-point for any pattern
+that may be used. When the slips have
+been scraped and reduced, the portion left
+should consist of long straight silky fibres.
+These must be well pasted, and the ends
+very slightly twisted. The pointed ends
+are then threaded through the first series
+of holes in the front of the board, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+back again through the second (<a href="#Fig_50">fig. 50</a>).
+In lacing-in the slips must not be pulled
+so tight as to prevent the board from
+shutting freely, nor left so loose as to
+make a perceptible interval in the joint of
+the book. The pasted slips having been
+laced in, their ends are cut off with a
+sharp knife, flush with the surface of the
+board. The laced-in slips are then well
+hammered on a knocking-down iron (see
+<a href="#Fig_51">fig. 51</a>), first from the front and then
+from the back, care being taken that the
+hammer face should fall squarely, or the
+slips may be cut. This should rivet them
+into the board, leaving little or no projection.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+If in lacing in the fibres should
+get twisted, no amount of hammering will
+make them flat, so that it is important in
+pointing the ends for lacing in, that only
+the points are twisted just sufficiently to
+facilitate the threading through the holes,
+and not enough to twist the whole slip.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_50" id="Fig_50"></a>
+<img src="images/gs135.jpg" width="300" height="232" alt="Fig. 50." title="Fig. 50." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 50.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px; padding-top: 2em"><a name="Fig_51" id="Fig_51"></a>
+<img src="images/gs136.jpg" width="300" height="259" alt="Fig. 51." title="Fig. 51." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 51.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To lace slips into wooden boards, holes
+are made with a brace and fine twist bit,
+and the ends of the frayed out slips may
+be secured with a wooden plug (see <a href="#Fig_52">fig. 52</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Old books were sometimes sewn on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+bands of leather, but as those sewn on
+cord seem to have lasted on the whole
+much better, and as, moreover, modern
+cord is a far more trustworthy material
+than modern leather, it is better to use
+cord for any books bound now.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_52" id="Fig_52"></a>
+<img src="images/gs137.jpg" width="300" height="426" alt="Fig. 52." title="Fig. 52." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 52.</p>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h5>CLEANING OFF THE BACK AND
+PRESSING</h5>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 100px;"><a name="Fig_53" id="Fig_53"></a>
+<img src="images/gs138.jpg" width="100" height="168" alt="Fig. 53." title="Fig. 53." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 53.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the boards have been laced on
+and the slips hammered down, the book
+should be pressed. Before pressing, a tin
+is put on each side of both boards, one
+being pushed right up into the joint on
+the inside, and the other up to the joint,
+or a little over it, on the outside. While
+in the press, the back should be
+covered with paste and left to
+soak for a few minutes. When
+the glue is soft the surplus on
+the surface can be scraped off
+with a piece of wood shaped as
+shown in <a href="#Fig_53">fig. 53</a>. For important
+books it is best to do this in the
+lying press, but some binders prefer
+first to build up the books in the standing
+press, and then to paste the backs
+and clean them off there. This has the
+advantage of being a quicker method, and
+will, in many cases, answer quite well.
+But for books that require nice adjustment
+it will be found better to clean off each
+volume separately in the lying press, and
+afterwards to build up the books and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+boards in the standing press, putting the
+larger books at the bottom. It must be
+seen that the entire pile is exactly in the
+centre under the screw, or the pressure will
+be uneven. To ascertain if the books are
+built up truly, the pile must be examined
+from both the front and side of the press.
+Each volume must also be looked at carefully
+to see that it lies evenly, and that the
+back is not twisted or out of shape. This
+is important, as any form given to the
+book when it is pressed at this stage will
+be permanent.</p>
+
+<p>Any coloured or newly printed plates
+will need tissues, as in the former pressing;
+and any folded plates or diagrams or
+inserted letters will need a thin tin on each
+side of them to prevent them from marking
+the book.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the pressure on hand-printed
+books must not be excessive.</p>
+
+<p>The books should be left in the press
+at least a night. When taken out they
+will be ready for headbanding, unless the
+edges are to be cut in boards.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle" style="text-align: center">Cutting in Boards&mdash;Gilding and Colouring Edges</p>
+
+
+<h5>CUTTING IN BOARDS</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> knife for cutting edges may be ground
+more acutely than for cutting boards, and
+should be very sharp, or the paper may
+be torn. The plough knife should never
+be ground on the under side, as if the
+under side is not quite flat, it will tend to
+run up instead of cutting straight across.
+Before beginning to cut edges, the position
+of the knife should be tested carefully
+by screwing the plough up, with the
+press a little open, and noting whereabouts
+on the left-hand cheek the point of the
+knife comes. In a press that is true the
+knife should just clear the edge of the
+press. If there is too much packing the
+knife will cut below the edge of the press,
+and if too little, it will cut above.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Packing&#8221; is paper inserted between
+the knife and the metal plate on the
+plough, to correct the position of the
+knife. When by experiment the exact
+thickness of paper necessary for any given<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+knife is found, the packing should be
+carefully kept when the knife is taken out
+for grinding, and put back with it into
+the plough.</p>
+
+<p>The first edge to be cut is the top, and
+the first thing to do is to place the boards
+in the position they will hold when the
+book is bound. The front board is then
+dropped the depth of the square required,
+care being taken that the back edge of the
+board remains evenly in the joint. A piece
+of cardboard, or two or three thicknesses
+of paper, are then slipped in between the
+end paper and the back board to prevent
+the latter from being cut by the knife.
+The book is then carefully lowered into
+the press, with the back towards the workman,
+until the top edge of the front board
+is exactly even with the right-hand cheek,
+and the press screwed up evenly. The
+back board should show the depth of the
+square above the left-hand cheek. It is
+very important that the edge of the back
+board should be exactly parallel with the
+press, and if at first it is not so, the book
+must be twisted until it is right.</p>
+
+<p>The edges can now be cut with the
+plough as in cutting mill-boards. The
+tail of the book is cut in the same way,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+still keeping the back of the book towards
+the workman, but cutting from the back
+board.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Fig_54" id="Fig_54"></a>
+<img src="images/gs142.jpg" width="150" height="147" alt="Fig. 54." title="Fig. 54." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 54.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 120px;"><a name="Fig_55" id="Fig_55"></a>
+<img src="images/gs143.jpg" width="120" height="223" alt="Fig. 55." title="Fig. 55." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 55.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Cutting the fore-edge is more difficult.
+The waste sheets at each end of the book
+should be cut off flush with the edge of
+the board, and marks made on them below
+the edge showing the amount of the square,
+and consequently how much is to be cut
+off. The curve of the
+back, and consequent
+curve of the fore-edge,
+must first be got rid of,
+by inserting a pair of
+pieces of flat steel called
+&#8220;trindles&#8221; (<a href="#Fig_54">fig. 54</a>)
+across the back, from
+the inside of the boards.
+When these are inserted
+the back must be knocked quite flat,
+and, in the case of a heavy book, a
+piece of tape may be tied round the
+leaves (see <a href="#Fig_55">fig. 55</a>) to keep them in
+position. A pair of cutting boards is
+placed one on each side of the leaves, the
+back one exactly up to the point that the
+edge of the board came to, and the front
+one as much below that point as it is
+desired the square of the fore-edge should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+be. The trindles are removed while the
+book is held firmly between the cutting
+boards by the finger and thumb; book and
+boards are then lowered very carefully into
+the press. The top edge of the front
+cutting board should be flush with the
+right-hand cheek of
+the press, and that of
+the back a square above
+the left-hand cheek (see
+<a href="#Fig_56">fig. 56</a>). A further
+test is to look along
+the surface of the
+right-hand cheek,
+when, if the book has
+been inserted truly, the
+amount of the back
+cutting board in sight
+should exactly correspond
+with the
+amount of the paper
+to be cut showing
+above the front board.
+It will also be necessary before cutting
+to look at the back, and to see that
+it has remained flat. If it has gone
+back to its old curve, or the book
+has been put into the press crookedly,
+it must be taken right out again and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+trindles inserted afresh, as it is usually a
+waste of time to try to adjust the book
+when it is in the press. The leaves are
+cut in the same way as those of the head
+and tail.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_56" id="Fig_56"></a>
+<img src="images/gs144.jpg" width="250" height="343" alt="Fig. 56." title="Fig. 56." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 56.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h5>GILDING OR COLOURING THE EDGES
+OF A CUT BOOK<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span></h5>
+
+<p>Gilding the edges of a book cut in
+boards is much the same process as that
+described for the trimmed book, excepting
+that when gilt in boards the edges can be
+scraped and slightly sand-papered. It is
+the custom to admire a perfectly solid gilt
+edge, looking more like a solid sheet of
+metal, than the leaves of a book. As the
+essential characteristic of a book is, that it
+is composed of leaves, this fact is better
+accepted and emphasised by leaving the
+edges a little rough, so that even when
+gilt they are evidently the edges of leaves
+of paper, and not the sides of a block, or
+of something solid.</p>
+
+<p>To gild the edges of a cut book the
+boards should be turned back, and cutting
+boards put on each side of the book flush
+with the edge to be gilt. For the fore-edge
+the book must be thrown up with
+trindles first, unless it is desired to gild in
+the round, a process which gives the objectionable
+solid metallic edge.</p>
+
+<p>After the edges have been gilt they may
+be decorated by tooling, called &#8220;gauffering.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This may be done, either by tooling
+with hot tools directly on the gold while
+the leaves are screwed up tightly in the
+press, or by laying another coloured gold
+on the top of the first and tooling over
+that, leaving the pattern in the new gold
+on the original colour. But, to my mind,
+edges are best left undecorated, except for
+plain gold or colour.</p>
+
+<p>If the edges are to be coloured, they
+should be slightly scraped, and the colour
+put on with a sponge, commencing with
+the fore-edge, which should be slightly
+fanned out, and held firmly, by placing a
+pressing-board above it, and pressing with
+the hand on this. The colour must be
+put on very thinly, commencing from the
+centre of the fore-edge and working to
+either end, and as many coats put on as
+are necessary to get the depth of colour
+required. The head and tail are treated
+in the same way, excepting that they
+cannot be fanned out, and the colour
+should be applied from the back to the fore-edge.
+If in the fore-edge an attempt is
+made to colour from one end to the other,
+and if in the head or tail from the fore-edge
+to the back, the result will almost certainly
+be that the sponge will leave a thick<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+deposit of colour round the corner from
+which it starts.</p>
+
+<p>For colouring edges almost any stain
+will answer, or ordinary water-colours may
+be used if moistened with size.</p>
+
+<p>When the colour is dry the edge should
+be lightly rubbed over
+with a little beeswax, and
+burnished with a tooth
+burnisher (see <a href="#Fig_57">fig. 57</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 100px;"><a name="Fig_57" id="Fig_57"></a>
+<img src="images/gs147.jpg" width="100" height="26" alt="Fig. 57." title="Fig. 57." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 57.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In addition to plain colour and gilding,
+the edges of a book may be decorated in a
+variety of ways. The fore-edge may be
+fanned out and painted in any device in
+water-colour and afterwards gilded; the
+painting will only show when the book is
+open. The fore-edge for this must be cut
+very solid, and if the paper is at all
+absorbent, must be sized with vellum size
+before being painted. The paints used
+must be simple water-colour, and the edge
+must not be touched with the hand before
+gilding, as if there is any grease or finger-mark
+on it, the gold will not stick evenly.
+Painting on the fore-edge should only be
+attempted when the paper of the book is
+thin and of good quality. More common
+methods of decorating edges are by marbling
+and sprinkling, but they are both<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+inferior to plain colouring. Some pleasant
+effects are sometimes obtained by marbling
+edges and then gilding over the
+marbling.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle" style="text-align: center">Headbanding</p>
+
+
+<h5>HEADBANDS</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Modern</span> headbands are small pieces of
+vellum, gut, or cord sewn on to the head
+and tail of a book with silk or thread.
+They resist the strain on the book when
+it is taken from the shelf. The vellum
+slip or cord must be of such a depth, that
+when covered with silk it will be slightly
+lower than the square of the boards. The
+cut edge of the vellum always slants, and
+the slip must be placed in position so that
+it tilts back rather than forward on the
+book.</p>
+
+<p>To start, ease the boards slightly on
+the slips and pull them down with the
+top edges flush with the top edge of the
+leaves. If this is not done the silk catches
+on the projecting edges as the band is
+worked. Stand the book in a finishing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+press, fore-edge to the worker, and tilted
+forward so as to give a good view of the
+headband as it is worked. The light
+must come from the left, and well on to
+the work. A needle threaded with silk
+is put in at the head of the book, and
+through the centre of the first section
+after the end papers, and drawn out at
+the back below the kettle stitch with about
+two-thirds of the silk. The needle is
+again inserted in the same place, and drawn
+through until a loop of silk is left. The
+vellum slip is placed in the loop, with the
+end projecting slightly to the left. It
+must be held steady by a needle placed
+vertically behind it, with its point between
+the leaves of the first section. The needle
+end of silk is then behind the headband,
+and the shorter end in front. The needle
+end is brought over from the back with
+the right hand, passed into the left hand,
+and held taut. The short end is picked
+up with the right hand, brought over the
+needle end under the vellum, and pulled
+tight from the back. This is repeated;
+the back thread is again drawn up and
+over the band to the front, the needle end
+crosses it, and is drawn behind under the
+vellum slip, and so on. The crossing of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+the threads form a &#8220;bead,&#8221; which must
+be watched, and kept as tight as possible,
+and well down on the leaves of the book.
+Whenever the vellum or string begins to
+shift in position, it must be tied down.
+This is done when the needle end of silk
+is at the back. A finger of the left hand
+is placed on the thread of silk at the back,
+and holds it firmly just below the slip.
+The needle end is then brought up and
+over the slip, but instead of crossing it
+with the front thread, the needle is passed
+between the leaves and out at the back of
+the book, below the kettle stitch, and the
+thread gradually drawn tight, and from
+under the left-hand finger. The loop so
+made will hold the band firmly, and the
+silk can then be brought up and over the
+slip and crossed in the usual way. The
+band should be worked as far as the end
+papers, and should be finished with a
+double &#8220;tie down,&#8221; after which the front
+thread is drawn under the slip to the
+back. Both the ends of silk are then cut
+off to about half an inch, frayed out, and
+pasted down as flatly as possible on the
+back of the book.</p>
+
+<p>The band should be tied down frequently.
+It is not too much to tie down<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+every third time the needle end of the
+silk comes to the back. To make good
+headbands the pull on the silk must be
+even throughout.</p>
+
+<p>When the ends of the silk are pasted
+down, the ends of the vellum slip are cut
+off as near the silk as possible. The correct
+length of the headband is best judged by
+pressing the boards together with thumb
+and finger at the opposite ends of the
+band, so as to compress the sections into
+their final compass. If the band then
+buckles in the least, it is too long and
+must be shortened.</p>
+
+<p>The medi&aelig;val headbands were sewn
+with the other bands (see <a href="#Fig_32">fig. 32</a>), and
+were very strong, as they were tied down
+at every section. Modern worked headbands,
+although not so strong, are, if frequently
+tied down, strong enough to
+resist any reasonable strain. There are
+many other ways of headbanding, but if
+the one described is mastered, the various
+other patterns will suggest themselves if
+variety is needed. For very large books a
+double headband may be worked on two
+pieces of gut or string&mdash;a thick piece with
+a thin piece in front. The string should
+first be soaked in thin glue and left to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+dry. Such a band is worked with a figure
+of eight stitch. Headbands may also be
+worked with two or three shades of silk.
+As vellum is apt to get hard and to break
+when it is used for headbanding, it is well
+to paste two pieces together with linen in
+between, and to cut into strips as required.</p>
+
+<p>Machine-made headbands can be bought
+by the yard. Such bands are merely glued
+on, but as they have but little strength,
+should not be used.</p>
+
+<p>Where leather joints are used, the
+headbands may be worked on pieces of
+soft leather sized and screwed up. If the
+ends are left long and tied in front while
+the book is being covered, they may be
+conveniently let into grooves in the boards
+before the leather joint is pasted down.
+This method, I think, has little constructive
+value, but it certainly avoids the
+rather unfinished look of the cut-off headband.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle">Preparing for Covering&mdash;Paring Leather&mdash;Covering&mdash;Mitring
+Corners&mdash;Filling-in Boards</p>
+
+
+<h5>PREPARING FOR COVERING</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">After</span> the headband is worked, a piece
+of brown or other stout paper should be
+well glued on at the head and tail, care
+being taken that it is firmly attached to
+the back and the headband. When dry,
+the part projecting above the headband is
+neatly cut off, and the part on the back
+well sand-papered, to remove any irregularity
+caused by the tie-downs attaching
+the headband. For most books this will
+be quite sufficient lining up, but very
+heavy books are best further lined up
+between the bands with linen, or thin
+leather. This can be put on by pasting
+the linen or leather and giving the back a
+very thin coat of glue.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 100px;"><a name="Fig_58" id="Fig_58"></a>
+<img src="images/gs154.jpg" width="100" height="87" alt="Fig. 58." title="Fig. 58." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 58.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The only thing now left to do before
+covering will be to set the squares and to
+cut off a small piece of the back corner of
+each board at the head and tail, to make
+it possible for the boards to open and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+shut without dragging the head-cap out of
+place. The form of the little piece to be
+cut off varies with each individual binder,
+but I have found for an octavo book that
+a cut slightly sloping from the inside
+cutting off the corner about
+an eighth of an inch each way,
+gives the best result (see <a href="#Fig_58">fig.
+58</a>). When the corner has
+been cut off, the boards should
+be thrown back, and the slips
+between the book and the board well
+pasted. When these have soaked a
+little, the squares of the boards are
+set; that is, the boards are fixed so that
+exactly the same square shows on each
+board above head and tail. A little
+larger square is sometimes an advantage
+at the tail to keep the head-cap well off
+the shelf, the essential thing being that
+both head and both tail squares should be
+the same. In the case of an old book
+that has not been recut, the edges will
+often be found to be uneven. In such
+cases the boards must be made square, and
+so set that the book stands up straight.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>When the slips have been pasted and
+the squares set, tins can be put inside and
+outside the boards, and the book given a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+slight nip in the press to flatten the slips.
+Only a comparatively light pressure should
+be given, or the lining up of the headbands
+or back will become cockled and
+detached.</p>
+
+
+<h5>PARING LEATHER</h5>
+
+<p>While the slips are being set in the press
+the cover can be got out. Judgment is
+necessary in cutting out covers. One
+workman will be able, by careful cutting,
+to get six covers out of a skin where
+another will only get four. The firm
+part of the skin is the back and sides, and
+this only should be used for the best
+books. The fleshy parts on the flanks
+and belly will not wear sufficiently well to
+be suitable for good bookbinding.</p>
+
+<p>The skin should be cut out leaving
+about an inch all round for turning in
+when the book is covered, and when cut
+out it must be pared. If the leather is
+of European manufacture most of the
+paring will have been done before it is
+sold, and the leather manufacturer will
+have shaved it to any thickness required.
+This is a convenience that is partly responsible
+for the unduly thin leather that is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+commonly used. The better plan is to
+get the leather rather thick, and for the
+binder to pare it down where necessary.
+For small books it is essential, in order
+that the covers may open freely, and the
+boards not look clumsy, that the leather
+should be very thin at the joint and round
+the edges of the boards. For such books
+it is very important that a small, naturally
+thin skin should be used that will not
+have to be unduly pared down, and that
+the large and thicker skins should be kept
+for large books.</p>
+
+<p>Binders like using large skins because
+there is much less waste, but if these skins
+are used for small books, so much of the
+leather substance has to be pared away, that
+only the comparatively brittle grained surface
+remains. By the modern process of
+dyeing this surface is often to some extent
+injured, and its strength sometimes totally
+destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>When the cover has been cut to size the
+book is laid on it with the boards open,
+and a pencil line drawn round them, a
+mark being made to show where the back
+comes. The skin is then pared, making
+it thin where the edge of the boards will
+come. Great care must be taken that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+thinning does not commence too abruptly,
+or a ridge will be apparent when the
+leather is on the book.</p>
+
+<p>The paring must be done quite smoothly
+and evenly. Every unevenness shows when
+the cover is polished and pressed. Care is
+needed in estimating the amount that will
+have to be pared off that part of the leather
+that covers the back and joints. The object
+of the binder should be to leave these portions
+as thick as he can consistently with
+the free opening of the boards. The leather
+at the head-caps must be pared quite thin,
+as the double thickness on the top of the
+headband is apt to make this part project
+above the edges of the board. This is a
+great trouble, especially at the tail, where,
+if the head-cap projects beyond the boards,
+the whole weight of the book rests on it,
+and it is certain to be rubbed off when the
+book is put on the shelf.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_59" id="Fig_59"></a>
+<img src="images/gs158.jpg" width="200" height="407" alt="Fig. 59." title="Fig. 59." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 59.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The method of paring with a French
+knife (<a href="#Fig_60">fig. 60</a>, A)&mdash;the only form of knife<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+in use by binders that gives sufficient control
+over the leather&mdash;is shown at <a href="#Fig_59">fig. 59</a>.
+To use this knife properly, practice is required.
+The main thing to learn is that
+the knife must be used quite flat, and
+made to cut by having a very slight burr<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+on the under side. This burr is got by rubbing
+the knife on the lithographic stone
+on which the paring is done. The handle
+of the knife should never be raised to such
+a height above the surface of the stone
+that it is possible to get the under fingers
+of the right hand over the edge of the
+stone. Another form of knife suitable
+for paring the edges of leather is shown
+at <a href="#Fig_60">fig. 60</a>, B.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_60" id="Fig_60"></a>
+<img src="images/gs159.jpg" width="200" height="100" alt="Fig. 60." title="Fig. 60." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 60.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To test if the leather has been sufficiently
+pared, fold it over where the edge
+of the board will come, and run the finger
+along the folded leather. If the paring
+has been done properly it will feel quite
+even the whole length of the fold; but if
+there are any irregularities, they will be
+very apparent, and the paring must be
+gone over again till they have disappeared.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+When even, the book must be again laid
+on the leather with the boards open, and a
+pencil line drawn round as before. If there
+are leather joints they will have been pared
+before the book was sewn, and care must
+be taken in paring the turn-in of the
+cover that it is of the same thickness as
+the leather joint, or it will be impossible
+to make a neat mitre at the back
+corners.</p>
+
+
+<h5>COVERING</h5>
+
+<p>Before covering, the book must be
+looked at to see that the bands are quite
+square and at equal distances apart. Any
+slight errors in this respect can be corrected
+by holding the book in the lying
+press between backing boards and gently
+tapping the bands from one side or the
+other with a piece of wood struck with
+a hammer. This is best done when the
+back is cleaned off, but by damping the
+bands slightly it may be done just before
+covering. The squares must be looked
+to, and the edges of the board well rubbed
+with a folder, or tapped with a hammer,
+to remove any burr that may have been
+caused by the plough knife, or any chance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+blow. The back is then moistened with
+paste, or, in the case of a very large book,
+with thin glue, and left to soak. The
+cover can then be well pasted with thickish
+paste, that has been previously well
+beaten up. When the cover is pasted, it
+can be folded with the pasted sides together
+and left to soak for a few minutes
+while the back is again looked to, and
+any roughness smoothed down with the
+folder. Before covering, the bands should
+be nipped up with band nippers (see <a href="#Fig_61">fig.
+61</a>) to make sure that they are sharp.
+The coverer should have ready before
+covering a clean paring stone, one or two
+folders, a pair of nickeled-band nippers,
+a clean sponge, a little water in a saucer,
+a piece of thread, and a strip of smooth
+wood (boxwood for preference), called a
+band stick, used for smoothing the leather
+between the bands, a pair of scissors, and
+a small sharp knife, a pair of waterproof
+sheets the size of the book, and, if the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+book is a large one, a pair of tying up
+boards, with tying up string, and two
+strips of wood covered in blotting-paper
+or leather. It is best to have the band
+nippers for covering nickeled to prevent
+the iron from staining the leather. The
+waterproof sheets recommended are thin
+sheets of celluloid, such as are used by
+photographers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_61" id="Fig_61"></a>
+<img src="images/gs161.jpg" width="250" height="79" alt="Fig. 61." title="Fig. 61." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 61.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When these things are ready, the pasted
+cover should be examined and repasted if
+it has dried in any place. The amount
+of paste to be used for covering can only
+be learned by experience. A thick leather
+will take more than a thin one, but,
+provided the cover sticks tight at every
+point, the less paste used the better. If
+there is too much, it will rub up and
+make very ugly, uneven places under the
+leather; and if there is too little, the
+cover will not stick.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_62" id="Fig_62"></a>
+<img src="images/gs163.jpg" width="300" height="203" alt="Fig. 62." title="Fig. 62." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 62.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Take the pasted cover and look to see
+which is the better side of the leather.
+Lay the front of the book down on this
+exactly up to the marks that show the
+beginning of the turn-in. Then draw
+the leather over the back and on to the
+other side, pulling it slightly, but not
+dragging it. Then stand the book on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+its fore-edge on a piece of waste paper,
+with the leather turned out on either side,
+as shown at <a href="#Fig_62">fig. 62</a>, and nip up the bands
+with nickeled band nippers (see <a href="#Fig_63">fig. 63</a>).
+After this is done there will probably be
+a good deal of loose leather on the back.
+This can be got rid of by dragging the
+leather on to the side; but by far the
+better plan, when the back is large enough
+to allow it, is to work up the surplus
+leather on to the back between the panels.
+This requires a good deal of practice, and
+is very seldom done; but it can be done
+with most satisfactory results. The book
+should now have the leather on the back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+stretched lengthways to make it cover
+the bands, but not stretched the other
+way, and the leather on the boards should
+lie perfectly flat and not be stretched at
+all. The leather on the fore-edge of the
+board is then rubbed with the hand on
+the outside, and then on to the edge,
+and then on the inside. The edge and
+the inside are smoothed down with a
+folder, and any excessive paste on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+inside squeezed out and removed. When
+the fore-edge of both boards has been
+turned in, the head and tail must also be
+turned in. A little paste is put on to
+that part of the leather that will turn in
+below the headband, and this portion is
+neatly tucked in between the boards and
+the back. The turned-in edge must lie
+quite evenly, or it will result in a ridge
+on the back. The leather is turned in
+on the two boards in the same way as
+described for the fore-edge, and the edge
+rubbed square with a folder. At <a href="#Fig_64">fig. 64</a>
+is shown a convenient form of folder for
+covering. At the corners the leather
+must be pulled over as far as possible
+with two folders meeting at the extreme
+point, the object being to avoid a cut in
+the leather at the corner of the board.
+The folds so formed must be cut off
+with the scissors (see <a href="#Fig_65">fig. 65</a>, A), then
+one edge tucked neatly under the other,
+(B). Care must be taken throughout not
+to soil the edges of the leaves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_63" id="Fig_63"></a>
+<img src="images/gs164.jpg" width="300" height="324" alt="Fig. 63." title="Fig. 63." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 63.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px; padding-top: 2em"><a name="Fig_64" id="Fig_64"></a>
+<img src="images/gs165.jpg" width="200" height="30" alt="Fig. 64." title="Fig. 64." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 64.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the headband the fold of leather,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+pared thin for the purpose, must be
+squeezed together with a folder and
+pulled out a little to leave an even
+projection that can be turned over to
+form a head-cap. When both ends have
+been turned in, in this way, the boards
+must each be opened and pressed against
+a straight-edge held in the joint (<a href="#Fig_66">fig. 66</a>)
+to ensure that there is enough leather
+in the turn-in of the joint to allow the
+cover to open freely; and the leather of
+the turn-in at the head and tail must<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+be carefully smoothed down with a
+folder.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_65" id="Fig_65"></a>
+<img src="images/gs166.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="Fig. 65." title="Fig. 65." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 65.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px; padding-top: 2em"><a name="Fig_66" id="Fig_66"></a>
+<img src="images/gs166a.jpg" width="300" height="87" alt="Fig. 66." title="Fig. 66." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 66.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 100px;"><a name="Fig_67" id="Fig_67"></a>
+<img src="images/gs167.jpg" width="100" height="133" alt="Fig. 67." title="Fig. 67." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 67.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The book may now be shut up if a
+waterproof sheet is put at each end to
+prevent the damp of the cover from cockling
+the paper. It must then be stood on
+its fore-edge and the bands
+again nipped up with a
+pair of nickeled band
+nippers, and the panels
+between the bands well
+pressed down with the
+band stick to cause the
+leather to stick at every
+point. A piece of thread
+is tied round the back
+from head to tail, squeezing
+the leather in the gap
+caused by the corners of the board having
+been cut off. The book is then turned
+up on end, resting the tail on a folder
+or anything that will keep the projecting
+leather for the head-cap from being prematurely
+flattened. The head-caps (<a href="#Fig_67">fig.
+67</a>) must now be set. To do this the
+first finger of the left hand is placed
+behind it, and a sharp folder is pressed
+into the corners of the head-cap between
+the headband and the thread. The leather<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+is then tapped over the headband, and the
+whole turned over on the stone and rubbed
+at the back with a folder. This operation
+requires great nicety. The shape of
+head-cap is shown at <a href="#Fig_67">fig. 67</a>. The nice
+adjustment of head-caps and corners, although
+of no constructional value, are the
+points by which the forwarding of a book
+is generally valued.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_68" id="Fig_68"></a>
+<img src="images/gs168.jpg" width="300" height="245" alt="Fig. 68." title="Fig. 68." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 68.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If the book is a large one, it will be
+best to tie it up. The method of tying
+up is shown in <a href="#Fig_68">fig. 68</a>. The tying up
+cords will make marks at the side of the
+bands, that are not unpleasant on a large<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+book. If they are objected to, it is best
+to tie the book up for about half-an-hour,
+and then to untie it, and smooth out the
+marks with the band stick. Even with
+small books, if the leather seems inclined
+to give trouble, it is well to tie them up
+for a short time, then to untie them,
+to smooth out any marks or inequalities,
+and to tie them up again.</p>
+
+
+<h5>MITRING CORNERS AND FILLING IN</h5>
+
+<p>A book that has been covered should
+be left under a light weight until the
+next day, with waterproof sheets between
+the damp cover and the end paper
+to prevent the sheets of the book from
+cockling through the damp. When the
+cover is thoroughly set the boards should
+be carefully opened, pressing them slightly
+to the joint to ensure a square and even
+joint. If, as is sometimes the case, the
+turn-in of the leather over the joint
+seems to be inclined to bind, the cover
+should be merely opened half-way, and
+the leather of the turns-in of the joint
+damped with a sponge, and left to soak
+for a short time, and then the cover can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+usually be opened without any dragging.
+A section of a good joint is shown at
+<a href="#Fig_69">fig. 69</a>, A, and a bad one at B.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_69" id="Fig_69"></a>
+<img src="images/gs170.jpg" width="300" height="69" alt="Fig. 69." title="Fig. 69." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 69.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px; padding-top: 2em"><a name="Fig_70" id="Fig_70"></a>
+<img src="images/gs171.jpg" width="300" height="88" alt="Fig. 70." title="Fig. 70." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 70.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next operation will be to fill in
+the board and mitre the corners. To fill
+in the boards, a piece of paper as thick as
+the turn-in of the leather (engineer&#8217;s
+cartridge paper answers very well) should
+be cut a little smaller than the board,
+with one edge cut straight; then with the
+straight edge adjusted to the back of the
+board, and a weight placed on the centre,
+the paper is marked round with dividers
+set to the intended width of the
+turn-in of the leather. Then with a
+sharp knife, paper and leather may be cut
+through together. The paper should
+then be marked to show its position on
+the board, and the ragged edges of the
+leather trimmed off. This will leave an
+even margin of leather on three sides of
+the inside of the board, and a piece of
+paper that will exactly fit the remaining
+space. The corners must next be mitred.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+To do this, both thicknesses of leather
+are cut through from the corner of the
+board to the corner of the inside margin.
+The knife should be held slightly slanting
+to make a cut, as shown at <a href="#Fig_70">fig. 70</a>. The
+corners should then be thoroughly damped,
+and the overlapping leather from both
+sides removed, leaving what should be a
+neat and straight join. If the leather at
+the extreme corner should prove to be, as
+is often the case, too thick to turn in
+neatly, the corners should be opened out
+and the leather pared against the thumb
+nail, and then well pasted and turned back
+again. The extreme corner may be
+slightly tapped on the stone with a hammer,
+and the sides rubbed with a folder,
+to ensure squareness and sharpness. When
+all four corners have been mitred, the filling
+in papers can be pasted in. As they will
+probably stretch a little with the paste, it
+will be well to cut off a slight shaving, and
+they should then fit exactly. When the
+boards have been filled in and well rubbed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+down, the book should be left for some
+hours with the boards standing open to
+enable the filling-in papers to draw the
+boards slightly inwards to overcome the
+pull of the leather.</p>
+
+<p>In cases where there are leather joints
+the operation is as follows: The waste
+end paper is removed, and the edge of the
+board and joint carefully cleaned from
+glue and all irregularities, and if, as is
+most likely, it is curved from the pull of
+the leather, the board must be tapped or
+ironed down until it is perfectly straight.
+If there is difficulty in making the board
+lie straight along the joint before pasting
+down, it will be well first to fill in with
+a well pasted and stretched thin paper,
+which, if the boards are left open, will
+draw them inwards. If the leather joint
+is pasted down while the board is curved,
+the result will be a most unsightly projection
+on the outside. When the joint
+has been cleaned out, and the board made
+to lie flat, the leather should be pasted
+down and mitred. The whole depth of
+the turn-in of the covering leather in the
+joint must not be removed, or it will be
+unduly weakened. The mitring line
+should not come from the extreme corner,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+but rather farther down, and there it is
+well to leave a certain amount of overlap
+in the joint, for which purpose the edge
+of the turn-in leather and the edge of the
+leather joint should be pared thin. After
+pasting down the leather joints the boards
+should be left open till they are dry (see
+<a href="#Fig_71">fig. 71</a>). The turn-in and leather joint are
+then trimmed out, leaving an even margin
+of leather all round the inside of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+board, and the panel in the centre filled in
+with a piece of thick paper.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_71" id="Fig_71"></a>
+<img src="images/gs173.jpg" width="300" height="364" alt="Fig. 71." title="Fig. 71." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 71.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When corners and filling in are dry, the
+boards may be shut up, and the book is
+ready for finishing.</p>
+
+<p>It is a common practice to wash up the
+covers of books that have become stained
+with a solution of oxalic acid in water.
+This is a dangerous thing to do, and is
+likely to seriously injure the leather.
+Leather, when damp, must not be brought
+in contact with iron or steel tools, or it
+may be badly stained.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle">Library Binding&mdash;Binding very Thin Books&mdash;Scrap-Books&mdash;Binding
+on Vellum&mdash;Books covered with
+Embroidery</p>
+
+
+<h5>LIBRARY BINDING</h5>
+
+
+<h5><i>Specifications III and IV</i></h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">To</span> produce cheaper bindings, as must be
+done in the case of large libraries, some
+alteration of design is necessary. Appearance
+must to some extent be sacrificed to
+strength and durability, and not, as is too<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+often the case, strength and durability
+sacrificed to appearance. The essentials
+of any good binding are, that the sections
+should be sound in themselves, and that
+there should be no plates or odd sheets
+&#8220;pasted on,&#8221; or anything that would prevent
+any leaf from opening right to the
+back; the sewing must be thoroughly
+sound; the sewing materials of good
+quality; the slips firmly attached to the
+boards; and the leather fairly thick and of
+a durable kind, although for the sake of
+cheapness it may be necessary to use skins
+with flaws on the surface. Such flawed
+skins cost half, or less than half, the price
+of perfect skins, and surface flaws do not
+injure the strength of the leather. By
+sewing on tape, great flexibility of the
+back is obtained, and much time, and consequent
+expense, in covering is saved. By
+using a French joint much thicker leather
+than usual can be used, with corresponding
+gain in strength.</p>
+
+<p>To bind an octavo or smaller book according
+to the specification given (III, page
+<a href="#Page_307">307</a>); first make all sections sound, and
+guard all plates or maps. Make end papers
+with zigzags. After the sections have been
+thoroughly pressed, the book will be ready<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+for marking up and sewing. In marking
+up for sewing on tapes, two marks will be
+necessary for each tape. When there are
+several books of the same size to be sewn,
+they may be placed one above the other
+in the sewing press, and sewn on to the
+same tapes. It will be found that the
+volumes when sewn can easily be slid along
+the tapes, which must be long enough to
+provide sufficient for the slips of each.
+The split boards may be &#8220;made&#8221; of a
+thin black mill-board with a thicker straw-board.
+To &#8220;make&#8221; a pair of split boards
+the pieces of straw-and mill-board large
+enough to make the two are got out, and
+the straw-board well glued, except in the
+centre, which should previously be covered
+with a strip of thin mill-board or tin about
+four inches wide. The strip is then removed,
+and the thin black board laid on
+the glued straw-board and nipped in the
+press. When dry, the made board is cut
+down the centre, which will leave two
+boards glued together all over except for
+two inches on one side of each. The
+boards then are squared to the book in a
+mill-board machine. The back of the
+book is glued up, and in the ordinary way
+rounded and backed. The edges may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+cut with a guillotine. The ends of the
+tapes are glued on the waste end paper,
+which should be cut off about an inch and
+a half from the back. The split boards
+are then opened and glued, and the waste
+end papers with slips attached are placed
+in them (see <a href="#Fig_72">fig. 72</a>), and the book nipped
+in the press. To form a &#8220;French joint&#8221;
+the boards should be kept about an eighth
+of an inch from the back of the book.
+The book is then ready for covering.
+The leather must not be pared too thin, as
+the French joint will give plenty of play
+and allow the use of much thicker leather
+than usual. If time and money can be
+spared, headbands can be worked, but
+they are not absolutely necessary, and a
+piece of string may be inserted into the
+turning of the leather at head and tail in
+the place of them. When the book is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+covered, a piece of string should be tied
+round the joints, and the whole given a
+nip in the press. The corners of the
+boards should be protected by small tips
+of vellum or parchment. The sides may
+be covered with good paper, which will
+wear quite as well as cloth, look better,
+and cost less.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_72" id="Fig_72"></a>
+<img src="images/gs177.jpg" width="300" height="125" alt="Fig. 72." title="Fig. 72." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 72.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The lettering of library books is very
+important (see <a href="#CHAPTER_XV">Chapter XV</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h5>BINDING VERY THIN BOOKS</h5>
+
+<p>Books consisting of only one section
+may be bound as follows:&mdash;A sheet of
+paper to match the book, and two coloured
+sheets for end papers, are folded round
+the section, and a &#8220;waste&#8221; paper put
+over all. A strip of linen is pasted to
+the back of the waste, and the whole sewn
+together by stitching through the fold.
+The waste may be cut off and inserted
+with the linen in a split board, as for
+library bindings. The back edges of the
+board should be filed thin, and should not
+be placed quite up to the back, to allow
+for a little play in the joints.</p>
+
+<p>The leather is put on in the ordinary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+way, except that the linen at the head and
+tail must be slit a little to allow for the
+turn in. If waterproof sheets are first
+inserted, the ends may be pasted, the
+boards shut, and the book nipped in the
+press. By substituting a piece of thin
+leather for the outside coloured paper, a
+leather joint can be made.</p>
+
+
+<h5>SCRAP-BOOKS</h5>
+
+<p>Scrap-books, into which autograph letters,
+sketches, or other papers can be
+pasted, may be made as follows:&mdash;Enough
+paper of good quality is folded up to the
+size desired, and pieces of the same paper,
+of the same height, and about two inches
+wide, are folded down the centre and
+inserted between the backs of the larger
+sheets, as shown at <a href="#Fig_73">fig. 73</a>. It is best not
+to insert these smaller pieces in the centre
+of the section, as they would be troublesome
+in sewing. If, after sewing, the
+book is filled up with waste paper laid
+between the leaves, it will make it manageable
+while being forwarded.</p>
+
+<p>It is best to use a rather darkly-toned
+or coloured paper, as, if a quite white
+paper is used, any letters or papers that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+have become soiled, will look unduly
+dirty.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_73" id="Fig_73"></a>
+<img src="images/gs180.jpg" width="200" height="54" alt="Fig. 73." title="Fig. 73." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 73.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Autograph letters may be mounted in
+the following ways:&mdash;If the letter is
+written upon both sides of a single leaf,
+it may be either &#8220;inlaid,&#8221; or guarded, as
+shown at <a href="#Fig_74">fig. 74</a>, A. A letter on a folded
+sheet of notepaper should have the folds
+strengthened with a guard of strong thin
+paper, and be attached by a guard made,
+as shown at <a href="#Fig_74">fig. 74</a>, B; or if on very heavy
+paper, by a double guard, as shown at
+<a href="#Fig_74">fig. 74</a>, C. Torn edges of letters may be
+strengthened with thin Japanese paper.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_74" id="Fig_74"></a>
+<img src="images/gs180a.jpg" width="300" height="66" alt="Fig. 74." title="Fig. 74." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 74.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Thin paper, written or printed only on
+one side, may be mounted on a page of
+the book. It is better to attach these by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+their extreme edges only, as if pasted
+down all over they may cause the leaves
+to curl up.</p>
+
+<p>Letters or any writing or drawing in
+lead pencil should be fixed with size before
+being inserted.</p>
+
+<p>Silver prints of photographs are best
+mounted with some very quick-drying
+paste, such as that sold for the purpose
+by the photographic dealers. If the leaf
+on which they are mounted is slightly
+damped before the photograph is pasted
+down, it will be less likely to cockle. If
+this is done, waterproof sheets should be
+put on each side of the leaf while it dries.
+If photographs are attached by the edges
+only, they will not be so liable to draw
+the paper on which they are mounted;
+but sometimes they will not lie flat themselves.</p>
+
+<p>In cases where very thick letters or
+papers have to be pasted in, a few more
+leaves of the book should be cut out, to
+make a corresponding thickness at the
+back.</p>
+
+
+<h5>VELLUM BINDINGS</h5>
+
+<p>Vellum covers may be limp without
+boards, and merely held in place by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+slips being laced through them, or they
+may be pasted down on boards in much
+the same way as leather.</p>
+
+<p>If the edges of a book for limp vellum
+binding are to be trimmed or gilt, that
+should be done before sewing. For the
+ends a folded piece of thin vellum may
+replace the paste-down paper. The sewing
+should be on strips of vellum. The back
+is left square after glueing, and headbands
+are worked as for leather binding, or may
+be worked on strips of leather, with ends
+left long enough to lace into the vellum
+(see p. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>). The back and headbands
+are lined with leather, and the book is
+ready for the cover.</p>
+
+<p>A piece of vellum should be cut out
+large enough to cover the book, and to
+leave a margin of an inch and a half all
+round. This is marked with a folder on
+the under side, as shown at <a href="#Fig_75">fig. 75</a>, A.
+Spaces 1 and 2 are the size of the sides of
+the book with surrounding squares; space
+3 is the width of the back, and space 4
+the width for the overlaps on the fore-edge.
+The corners are cut, as shown at 5, and
+the edges are folded over, as at B. The
+overlap 4 is then turned over, and the
+back folded, as at C. The slips are now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+laced through slits made in the vellum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_75" id="Fig_75"></a>
+<img src="images/gs183.jpg" width="300" height="437" alt="Fig. 75." title="Fig. 75." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 75.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A piece of loose, toned paper may be put<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+inside the cover to prevent any marks on
+the book from showing through; and
+pieces of silk ribbon of good quality are
+laced in as shown, going through both
+cover and vellum ends, if there are any,
+and are left with ends long enough to tie
+(see <a href="#Fig_76">fig. 76</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Fig_76" id="Fig_76"></a>
+<img src="images/gs184.jpg" width="150" height="126" alt="Fig. 76." title="Fig. 76." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 76.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If paper ends are used, the silk tape need
+only be laced through the cover, and the
+end paper pasted over it on the inside.</p>
+
+<p>Another simple way of keeping a vellum
+book shut is shown at <a href="#Fig_77">fig. 77</a>. A bead is
+attached to a piece of gut laced into the
+vellum, and a loop of catgut is laced in
+the other side, and looped over the bead
+as shown.</p>
+
+<p>If the book is to have stiff boards, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+the vellum is to be pasted to them, it is
+best to sew the sections on tapes or vellum
+slips, to back the book as for leather, and
+to insert the ends of the slips in a split
+board, leaving a French joint, as
+described for library bindings.
+Vellum is very stiff, and, if it is
+pasted directly to the back, the
+book would be hard to open.
+It is best in this case to use what
+is known as a hollow back.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 75px;"><a name="Fig_77" id="Fig_77"></a>
+<img src="images/gs185.jpg" width="75" height="91" alt="Fig. 77." title="Fig. 77." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 77.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To make a hollow back, a piece of stout
+paper is taken which measures once the
+length of the back and three times the
+width. This is folded in three. The
+centre portion is glued to the back and
+well rubbed down, and the overlapping
+edges turned back and glued one to the
+other (<a href="#Fig_78">fig. 78</a>). This will leave a flat, hollow
+casing, formed by the single paper glued to
+the back of the book and the double paper
+to which the vellum may be attached. Or
+it is better to line up the back with leather,
+and to place a piece of thick paper the size
+of the back on to the pasted vellum where
+the back will be when the book is covered.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 100px;"><a name="Fig_78" id="Fig_78"></a>
+<img src="images/gs186.jpg" width="100" height="207" alt="Fig. 78." title="Fig. 78." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 78.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the book is ready for covering,
+the vellum should be cut out and lined
+with paper. In lining vellum the paste<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+must be free from lumps, and great care
+must be taken not to leave brush marks.
+To avoid this, when the lining paper has
+been pasted it can be laid, paste downwards,
+on a piece of waste paper and quickly
+pulled up again; this
+should remove surplus
+paste and get rid of
+any marks left by the
+brush. When the vellum
+has been lined with paper,
+it should be given a light
+nip in the press between
+blotting-paper, and while
+still damp it is pasted, the
+book covered, and the
+corners mitred. A piece
+of thin string is tied
+round the head-caps and
+pressed into the French
+joint.</p>
+
+
+<p>Waterproof sheets are placed inside the
+covers, and the book then nipped in the
+press and left to dry under a light weight.
+If the vellum is very stiff and difficult to
+turn in, it may be moistened with a little
+warm water to soften it.</p>
+
+<p>Books with raised bands have sometimes
+been covered with vellum, but the back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+becomes so stiff and hard, that this method,
+though it looks well enough, cannot be
+recommended. Vellum is a durable
+material, and can be had of good quality,
+but it is so easily influenced by changes of
+temperature, that it is rather an unsuitable
+material for most bindings.</p>
+
+
+<h5>BOOKS COVERED WITH EMBROIDERY
+AND WOVEN MATERIAL</h5>
+
+<p>To cover a book with embroidered
+material bind it with split boards, a
+French joint, and a hollow back, as described
+for vellum (see <a href="#Fig_78">fig. 78</a>). Glue the
+back of the book with thin glue well
+worked up, and turning in the head and
+tail of the embroidery, put the book down
+on it so that the back will come exactly in
+the right place. Press down the embroidery
+with the hand to make sure that
+it sticks. When it is firmly attached to
+the back, first one board and then the other
+should be glued, and the embroidery laid
+down on it. Lastly, the edges are glued
+and stuck down on the inside of the board,
+and the corners mitred. Velvet or any
+other thick material can be put down in
+the same way. For very thin material<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+that the glue would penetrate and soil,
+the cover should be left loose, and only
+attached where it turns in. A loose lining
+of good paper may be put between the
+book and the cover.</p>
+
+<p>The inside corners where the cover has
+been cut should be neatly sewn up. The
+edges of the boards and head-caps may be
+protected all round with some edging
+worked in metal thread. It is well in
+embroidering book covers to arrange for
+some portion of the pattern to be of raised
+metal stitches, forming bosses that will
+protect the surface from wear.</p>
+
+<p>Should any glue chance to get on the
+surface, the cover should be held in the
+steam of a kettle and the glue wiped off,
+and the cover again steamed.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span></h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle">Decoration&mdash;Tools&mdash;Finishing&mdash;Tooling on
+Vellum&mdash;Inlaying on Leather</p>
+
+
+<h5>DECORATION OF BINDING&mdash;TOOLS</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> most usual, and perhaps the most
+characteristic, way of decorating book
+covers is by &#8220;tooling.&#8221; Tooling is the
+impression of heated (finishing) tools.
+Finishing tools are stamps of metal that
+have a device cut on the face, and are
+held in wooden handles (<a href="#Fig_79">fig. 79</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_79" id="Fig_79"></a>
+<img src="images/gs189.jpg" width="300" height="54" alt="Fig. 79." title="Fig. 79." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 79.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tooling may either be blind tooling,
+that is, a simple impression of the hot tools,
+or gold tooling, in which the impression
+of the tool is left in gold on the leather.</p>
+
+<p>Tools for blind tooling are best &#8220;die-sunk,&#8221;
+that is, cut like a seal. The
+&#8220;sunk&#8221; part of the face of the tool,
+which may be more or less modelled,
+forms the pattern, and the higher part<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+depresses the leather to form a ground.
+In tools for gold tooling, the surface of
+the tool gives the pattern.</p>
+
+<p>Tools may be either complex or simple
+in design, that is to say, each tool may
+form a complete
+design with enclosing
+border, as
+the lower ones on
+page <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, or it may
+be only one element
+of a design, as at
+<a href="#Fig_100">fig. 100</a>. Lines may
+be run with a fillet
+(see <a href="#Fig_88">fig. 88</a>), or
+made with gouges
+or pallets.</p>
+
+<p>Gouges are
+curved line tools.
+They are made in
+sets of arcs of concentric
+circles (see <a href="#Fig_80">fig. 80</a>, A). The portion
+of the curves cut off by the dotted line C
+will make a second set with flatter curves.
+Gouges are used for tooling curved lines.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_80" id="Fig_80"></a>
+<img src="images/gs190.jpg" width="200" height="298" alt="Fig. 80." title="Fig. 80." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 80.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A &#8220;pallet&#8221; may be described as a segment
+of a roll or fillet set in a handle, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+used chiefly for putting lines or other ornaments
+across the backs of books (see <a href="#Fig_81">fig.
+81</a>). A set of one-line pallets is shown at
+<a href="#Fig_80">fig. 80</a>, B.</p>
+
+<p>Fillets are cut with two or more lines
+on the edge. Although the use of double-line
+fillets saves time, I have found that a
+few single-line fillets with edges of different
+gauges are sufficient for running all straight
+lines, and that the advantage
+of being able to alter the distances
+between any parallel
+lines is ample compensation
+for the extra trouble involved
+by their use. In addition to
+the rigid stamps, an endless
+pattern for either blind or
+gold tooling may be engraved
+on the circumference of a roll,
+and impressed on the leather
+by wheeling.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 75px;"><a name="Fig_81" id="Fig_81"></a>
+<img src="images/gs191.jpg" width="75" height="160" alt="Fig. 81." title="Fig. 81." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 81.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The use of a roll in finishing dates from
+the end of the fifteenth century, and some
+satisfactory bindings were decorated with
+its aid. The ease with which it can be
+used has led in modern times to its abuse,
+and I hardly know of a single instance of
+a modern binding on which rolls have been
+used for the decoration with satisfactory
+results. The gain in time and trouble is
+at the expense of freedom and life in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+design; and for extra binding it is better
+to build up a pattern out of small tools of
+simple design, which can be arranged in
+endless variety, than to use rolls.</p>
+
+<p>Tools for hand-tooling must not be too
+large, or it will be impossible to obtain
+clear impressions. One inch square for
+blind tools, or three-quarters of an inch
+for gold tools, is about the maximum size
+for use with any certainty and comfort.
+Tools much larger than this have to be
+worked with the aid of a press, and are
+called blocks.</p>
+
+
+<h5>FINISHING</h5>
+
+<p>The first thing the finisher does to a
+book is to go over the back with a
+polisher and smooth out any irregularities.</p>
+
+<p>Two forms of polisher are shown at
+<a href="#Fig_82">fig. 82</a>. The lower one is suitable for
+polishing backs and inside margins, and
+the upper for sides. Polishers must be
+used warm, but not too hot, or the
+leather may be scorched, and they must
+be kept moving on the leather. Before
+using they should be rubbed bright on
+a piece of the finest emery paper, and
+polished on a piece of leather. New<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+polishers often have sharp edges that
+would mark the leather. These must
+be rubbed down with files and emery-paper.</p>
+
+<p>Leathers with a prominent grained surface,
+such as morocco, seal or pig skin,
+may either have the grain rough or
+crushed flat. If there is to be much
+finishing, the grain had better be crushed,
+but for large books that are to have only
+a small amount of finishing, the grain is
+best left unflattened.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_82" id="Fig_82"></a>
+<img src="images/gs193.jpg" width="300" height="103" alt="Fig. 82." title="Fig. 82." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 82.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If the grain of the leather is to be
+&#8220;crushed,&#8221; it may be done at this stage.
+To do this, one board at a time is damped
+with a sponge and put in the standing-press,
+with a pressing plate on the grained
+side, and a pad of blotting-paper, or some
+such yielding substance, on the other
+(see <a href="#Fig_83">fig. 83</a>). The press is then screwed
+up tight, and the board left for a short<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+time. For some leathers this operation is
+best done after the binding has been
+finished and varnished, in which case, of
+course, the boards cannot be damped
+before pressing. No flexibly sewn book
+should be subject to great pressure after
+it has been covered, or
+the leather on the back
+may crinkle up and
+become detached.</p>
+
+<p>The next thing will
+be to decide what
+lettering and what
+decoration, if any, is
+to be put on the volume.
+The lettering
+should be made out first (see page <a href="#Page_215">215</a>).
+If the book is to be at all elaborately decorated,
+paper patterns must be made out,
+as described in Chapter XVI.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Fig_83" id="Fig_83"></a>
+<img src="images/gs194.jpg" width="150" height="166" alt="Fig. 83." title="Fig. 83." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 83.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>For tooling the back, the book is held
+in the finishing press between a pair of
+backing boards lined with leather (see
+<a href="#Fig_84">fig. 84</a>), and the paper pattern put across
+the back, with the ends either slightly
+pasted to the backing boards, or caught
+between them and the book.</p>
+
+<p>For the sides, the pattern is very slightly
+pasted on to the leather at the four<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
+corners. The book is then put in the
+finishing press, with the board to be tooled
+open and flat on the cheek of the press,
+unless the book is a large one, when it is
+easier to tool the sides out of the press.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_84" id="Fig_84"></a>
+<img src="images/gs195.jpg" width="300" height="138" alt="Fig. 84." title="Fig. 84." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 84.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The selected tools, which should be
+ready on the stove (see <a href="#Fig_85">fig. 85</a>), are one
+at a time cooled on a wet pad, and then
+pressed in their former impressions upon
+the paper. The degree of heat required
+varies a good deal with the leather used,
+and will only be learned by experience.
+It is better to have the tool too cool than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+too hot, as it is easy to deepen impressions
+after the paper is removed; but if they are
+already too deep, or are burnt, it will be
+impossible to finish clearly. Generally
+speaking, tools should hiss very slightly
+when put on the cooling pad. In cooling,
+care must be taken to put the shank of
+the tools on to the wet pad, as, if the end<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+only is cooled, the heat is apt to run
+down again, and the tool will still be too
+hot.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_85" id="Fig_85"></a>
+<img src="images/gs196.jpg" width="200" height="300" alt="Fig. 85.&mdash;Finishing Stove" title="Fig. 85.&mdash;Finishing Stove" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 85.&mdash;Finishing Stove</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Before removing the paper, one corner
+at a time should be lifted up, and the
+leather examined to see that no part of
+the pattern has been missed.</p>
+
+<p>In some patterns where the design is
+close, or in which the background is
+dotted in, it will not be necessary to blind
+in every leaf and dot through the paper.
+If the lines with perhaps the terminal
+leaves are blinded in, the rest can be better
+worked directly through the gold. This
+method implies the &#8220;glairing in&#8221; of the
+whole surface. It is not suitable for open
+patterns, where the glaire might show on
+the surface of the leather.</p>
+
+<p>If the book is only to have lines, or
+some simple straight line pattern, it is
+often easier to mark it up without the
+paper, with a straight-edge and folder. In
+panelling a back, the side lines of all the
+panels should be marked in at the same
+time with a folder, working against the
+straight-edge, held firmly at the side of
+the back. If the panels are worked separately,
+it is difficult to get the side lines
+squarely above each other. The lines at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+the top and bottom of the panel may be
+marked in with a folder, guided by a
+piece of stiff vellum held squarely across
+the back. If there are lines to be run
+round the board, they can be marked in
+with a pair of dividers guided by the edge
+of the board, except those at the back.
+These must be measured from the fore-edge
+of the board and run in with straight-edge
+and folder.</p>
+
+<p>When straight lines occur in patterns
+that are blinded through the paper, it will
+be enough if the ends only are marked
+through with a small piece of straight line,
+and the lines completed with straight-edge
+and folder, after the paper has been removed.</p>
+
+<p>Unless the finisher has had considerable
+experience, it is best to deepen all folder
+lines by going over them in blind with a
+fillet or piece of straight line.</p>
+
+<p>When the pattern has been worked in
+blind, either through a paper pattern or
+directly on to the leather with the tools,
+and any inlays stuck on (see page <a href="#Page_213">213</a>), the
+cover should be well washed with clean
+water. Some finishers prefer to use
+common vinegar or diluted acetic acid for
+washing up books. If vinegar is used it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+must be of the best quality, and must not
+contain any sulphuric acid. Cheap, crude
+vinegar is certain to be injurious to the
+leather. Porous leather, such as calf or
+sheep skin, will need to be washed over
+with paste-water, and then sized.</p>
+
+<p>Paste-water is paste and water well
+beaten up to form a milky liquid, and is
+applied to the leather as evenly as possible
+with a sponge. When the paste-water is
+dry, the leather should be washed with size.
+Size can be made by boiling down vellum
+cuttings, or by dissolving gelatine or isinglass
+in warm water.</p>
+
+<p>For the less porous leathers, such as
+morocco, seal, or pig skin, no paste-water
+or size is necessary, unless the skin happens
+to be a specially open one, or the cover
+has been cut from the flank or belly.
+Then it is best to put a little paste in the
+vinegar or water used for washing up.
+When the leather is nearly, but not quite,
+dry the impressions of the tools must be
+painted with glaire. Finishers&#8217; glaire may
+be made from the white of eggs well beaten
+up, diluted with about half as much vinegar,
+and allowed to settle. Some finishers
+prefer to use old, evil-smelling glaire, but
+provided it is a day old, and has been well<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+beaten up, fresh glaire will work quite
+well.</p>
+
+<p>The impressions of any heavy or solid
+tools should be given a second coat of
+glaire when the first has ceased to be
+&#8220;tacky,&#8221; and if the leather is at all
+porous, all impressions had better have a
+second coat.</p>
+
+<p>As glaire is apt to show and disfigure
+the leather when dry, it is best to use it as
+sparingly as possible, and, excepting where
+the pattern is very close, to confine it to
+the impressions of the tools. It is not at
+all an uncommon thing to see the effect
+of an otherwise admirably tooled binding
+spoilt by a dark margin round the tools,
+caused by the careless use of glaire. Glaire
+should not be used unless it is quite liquid
+and clean. Directly it begins to get thick
+it should be strained or thrown away.</p>
+
+<p>The finisher should not glaire in more
+than he can tool the same day. When the
+glaire has ceased to be &#8220;tacky,&#8221; the gold
+is laid on.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_86" id="Fig_86"></a>
+<img src="images/gs201.jpg" width="300" height="91" alt="Fig. 86." title="Fig. 86." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 86.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>At first it will be found difficult to
+manage gold leaf. The essential conditions
+are, that there should be no draught,
+and that the cushion and knife should be
+quite free from grease. The gold cushion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+and knife are shown at <a href="#Fig_86">fig. 86</a>. A little
+powdered bath-brick rubbed into the
+cushion will make it easier to cut the
+gold cleanly. The blade of the gold knife
+should never be touched with the hand,
+and before using it, both sides should be
+rubbed on the cushion. A book of gold
+is laid open on the cushion, and a leaf of
+gold is lifted up on the gold knife, which
+is slipped under it, and turned over on to
+the cushion. A light breath exactly in
+the centre of the sheet should make it lie
+flat, when it may be cut into pieces of any
+size with a slightly sawing motion of the
+knife. The book with the pattern ready
+prepared, and the glaire sufficiently dry
+(not sticky), is rubbed lightly with a small
+piece of cotton-wool greased with a little
+cocoanut oil. The back of the hand is
+greased in the same way, and a pad of
+clean cotton-wool is held in the right hand,
+and having been made as flat as possible by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+being pressed on the table, is drawn over
+the back of the hand. This should make
+it just greasy enough to pick up the gold,
+but not too greasy to part with it readily
+when pressed on the book. As little grease
+as possible should be used on the book, as
+an excess is apt to stain the leather and to
+make the gold dull. After experiment it
+has been found that cocoanut oil stains the
+leather less than any other grease in common
+use by bookbinders, and is more
+readily washed out by benzine.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_87" id="Fig_87"></a>
+<img src="images/gs202.jpg" width="300" height="140" alt="Fig. 87." title="Fig. 87." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 87.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If the gold cracks, or is not solid when
+pressed on the book, a second thickness
+should be used. This will stay down if
+the under piece is lightly breathed upon.</p>
+
+<p>For narrow strips of gold for lines, a
+little pad covered with soft leather may
+be made, as in <a href="#Fig_87">fig. 87</a>.</p>
+
+<p>It will be found of advantage to first
+use the bottom leaf of gold in the book<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+and then to begin at the top and work
+through, or else the bottom leaf will
+almost certainly be found to be damaged
+by the time it is reached. The gold used
+should be as nearly pure as it can be got.
+The gold-beaters say that they are unable
+to beat pure gold as thin as is usual for
+gold leaf; but the quite pure gold is a
+better colour than when alloyed, and the
+additional thickness, although costly, results
+in a more solid impression of the
+tools.</p>
+
+<p>The cost of a book of twenty-four leaves
+three and a half inches square of English gold
+leaf of good ordinary quality is from 1s. 3d.
+to 1s. 6d., whereas the cost of a book of
+double thick pure gold leaf is 3s. to 3s. 6d.
+For tooled work it is worth paying the increased
+price for the sake of the advantages
+in colour and solidity; but for lines and
+edges, which use up an immense amount
+of gold, the thinner and cheaper gold may
+quite well be used.</p>
+
+<p>Besides pure gold leaf, gold alloyed with
+various metals to change its colour can be
+had. None of the alloys keep their colour
+as well as pure gold, and some of them,
+such as those alloyed with copper for red
+gold, and with silver for pale gold, tarnish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+very quickly. These last are not to be
+recommended.</p>
+
+<p>For silver tooling aluminium leaf may
+be used, as silver leaf tarnishes very quickly.</p>
+
+<p>When the gold is pressed into the impressions
+of the tools with the pad of
+cotton-wool, they should be plainly visible
+through it.</p>
+
+<p>The pattern must now be worked
+through the gold with the hot tools.
+The tools are taken from the stove, and
+if too hot cooled on a pad as for blinding-in.
+The heat required to leave the gold
+tooling solid and bright and the impressions
+clear will vary for different leathers,
+and even for different skins of the same
+leather. For trial a tool may be laid on
+the pad until it ceases to hiss, and one or
+two impressions worked with it. If the
+gold fails to stick, the heat may be slightly
+increased.</p>
+
+<p>If the leather is slightly damp from the
+preparation the tools will usually work
+better, and less heat is required than if it
+has been prepared for some time and has
+got dry.</p>
+
+<p>Before using, the faces of all tools must
+be rubbed bright on the flesh side of a
+piece of leather. It is impossible to tool<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+brightly with dirty tools. A tool should
+be held in the right hand, with the thumb
+on the top of the handle, and steadied with
+the thumb or first finger of the left hand.
+The shoulder should be brought well
+over the tool, and the upper part of the
+body used as a press. If the weight of
+the body is used in finishing, the tools
+can be worked with far greater firmness
+and certainty, and with less fatigue, than if
+the whole work is done with the muscles
+of the arms.</p>
+
+<p>Large and solid tools will require all
+the weight that can be put on them, and
+even then the gold will often fail to stick
+with one impression. Tools with small
+surfaces, such as gouges and dots, must
+not be worked too heavily, or the surface
+of the leather may be cut.</p>
+
+<p>To strike a large or solid tool, it should
+first be put down flat, and then slightly
+rocked from side to side and from top to
+bottom, but must not be twisted on the
+gold.</p>
+
+<p>A tool may be struck from whichever
+side the best &#8220;sight&#8221; can be got, and press
+and book turned round to the most convenient
+position.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to impress some tools,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+such as circular flower tools, twice in
+exactly the same place. Such tools should
+have a mark on one side as a guide. This
+should always be kept in the same position
+when blinding-in and tooling, and so make
+it possible to impress a second time without
+&#8220;doubling.&#8221; An impression is said
+to be &#8220;doubled&#8221; when the tool has been
+twisted in striking, or one impression does
+not fall exactly over the other.</p>
+
+<p>The hot tool should not be held hovering
+over the impression long, or the preparation
+will be dried up before the tool
+is struck. Tooling will generally be
+brighter if the tools are struck fairly
+sharply, and at once removed from the
+leather, than if they are kept down a long
+time.</p>
+
+<p>To &#8220;strike&#8221; dots, the book should be
+turned with the head to the worker, and
+the tool held with the handle inclining
+slightly towards him. This will make
+them appear bright when the book is held
+the right way up.</p>
+
+<p>Gouges must be &#8220;sighted&#8221; from the
+inside of the curve, and struck evenly,
+or the points may cut into the leather.
+Short straight lines may be put in with
+pieces of line, and longer ones with a fillet.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A one line fillet is shown at <a href="#Fig_88">fig. 88</a>;
+the space filed out of the circumference
+is to enable lines to be joined neatly at the
+corners. That the lines may be clearly
+visible through the gold, the book should
+be placed so that the light comes from the
+left hand of the worker and across the
+line. It is well to have a basin of water
+in which to cool fillets, as there is so
+much metal in them, that the damp sponge
+or cotton used for cooling tools would
+very rapidly be dried up. When the fillet
+has been cooled, the edge should be rubbed
+on the cleaning pad, and the point exactly
+adjusted to the corner of the line to be
+run (see <a href="#Fig_88">fig. 88</a>). The fillet is then run
+along the line with even pressure.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_88" id="Fig_88"></a>
+<img src="images/gs207.jpg" width="300" height="148" alt="Fig. 88." title="Fig. 88." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 88.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>For slightly curved lines, a very small
+fillet may be used.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When all the prepared part of a pattern
+has been tooled, it is well rubbed to remove
+the loose gold with a slightly greasy
+rag, or with a piece of bottle indiarubber
+which has been softened in paraffin. After
+a time the rubber or rag may be sold to
+the gold-beater, who recovers the gold.
+To prepare indiarubber for cleaning off
+gold, a piece of bottle rubber is cut into
+small pieces and soaked in paraffin for some
+hours. This should cause the pieces to
+reunite into a soft lump. This can be used
+until it is yellow with gold throughout.</p>
+
+<p>When all free gold is rubbed off,
+the finisher can see where the tooling is
+imperfect. Impressions which are not
+&#8220;solid&#8221; must be reglaired, have fresh gold
+laid on, and be retooled. But if, as will
+sometimes happen with the best finishers,
+the gold has failed to stick properly anywhere,
+it is best to wash the whole with
+water or vinegar, and prepare afresh.</p>
+
+<p>As an excess of grease is apt to dull
+the gold and soil the leather, it is better
+to use it very sparingly when laying on
+fresh gold for mending. For patching,
+benzine may be used instead of grease.
+When the gold is picked up on the
+cotton-wool pad, rapidly go over the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+leather with wool soaked in benzine, and
+at once lay down the gold. Benzine will
+not hold the gold long enough for much
+tooling, but it will answer for about half-an-hour,
+and give plenty of time for
+patching.</p>
+
+<p>Imperfect tooling arises from a variety
+of causes. If an impression is clear, but
+the gold not solid, it is probably because
+the tool was not hot enough, or was not put
+down firmly. If only one side of an impression
+fails to stick, it is usually because the
+tool was unevenly impressed. If an impression
+is blurred, and the gold has a
+frosted look, it is because the leather has
+been burned, either because the tool was
+too hot, or kept down too long, or the
+preparation was too fresh.</p>
+
+<p>To mend double or burnt impressions
+the leather should be wetted and left to
+soak a short time, and the gold can be
+picked out with a wooden point. When
+nearly dry the impressions should be put
+in again with a cool tool, reglaired and
+retooled.</p>
+
+<p>It is very difficult to mend neatly if the
+leather is badly burnt. Sometimes it may
+be advisable to paste a piece of new leather
+over a burnt impression before retooling.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If a tool is put down in the wrong
+place by mistake, it is difficult to get the
+impression out entirely. The best thing
+to do is to damp the leather thoroughly,
+leave it to soak for a little while, and
+pick up the impression with the point of a
+pin. It is best not to use an iron point for
+this, as iron is apt to blacken the leather.</p>
+
+<p>Leather is difficult to tool if it has not
+a firm surface, or if it is too thin to give
+a little when the tool is struck.</p>
+
+<p>When the tooling is finished, and the
+loose gold removed with the rubber, the
+leather should be washed with benzine, to remove
+any grease and any fragments of gold
+that may be adhering by the grease only.</p>
+
+<p>The inside margins of the boards are
+next polished and varnished, and the end
+papers pasted down. Or if there is a
+leather joint, the panel left on the board
+may be filled in (see <a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">Chapter XVII</a>).</p>
+
+<p>When the end papers are dry, the sides
+and back may be polished and varnished.</p>
+
+<p>It is important that the varnish should
+be of good quality, and not too thick, or
+it will in time turn brown and cause the
+gold to look dirty. Some of the light
+French spirit varnishes prepared for bookbinders
+answer well. Varnish must be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+used sparingly, and is best applied with a
+pad of cotton-wool. A little varnish is
+poured on to the pad, which is rubbed on
+a piece of paper until it is seen that the
+varnish comes out thinly and evenly. It
+is then rubbed on the book with a spiral
+motion. The quicker the surface is gone
+over, provided every part is covered, the
+better. Varnish will not work well if it
+is very cold, and in cold weather both the
+book and varnish bottle should be slightly
+warmed before use. Should an excess of
+varnish be put on in error, or should it be
+necessary to retool part of the book after
+it has been varnished, the varnish can be
+removed with spirits of wine. Varnish
+acts as a preservative to the leather, but
+has the disadvantage, if used in excess, of
+making it rather brittle on the surface.
+It must, therefore, be used very sparingly
+at the joints. It is to be hoped that a
+perfectly elastic varnish, that will not tarnish
+the gold, will soon be discovered.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the varnish is dry the boards
+may be pressed, one at a time, to give the
+leather a smooth surface (see <a href="#Fig_83">fig. 83</a>), leaving
+each board in the press for some hours.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_89" id="Fig_89"></a>
+<img src="images/gs212.jpg" width="250" height="390" alt="Fig. 89." title="Fig. 89." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 89.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>After each board has been pressed separately
+the book should be shut, and pressed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+again with pressing plates on each side of
+it, and with tins covered with paper placed
+inside each board. Light pressure should
+be given to books with tight backs, or the
+leather may become detached.</p>
+
+<p>If, on removing from the press, the
+boards will not keep shut, the book should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>
+be pressed again with a folded sheet of
+blotting-paper in each end. The blotting-paper
+should have the folded edge turned
+up, and be placed so that this turned-up
+edge will be in the joint behind the back
+edge of the board when the book is shut.</p>
+
+<p>A small nipping-press suitable for giving
+comparatively light pressure, is shown
+at <a href="#Fig_89">fig. 89</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h5>TOOLING ON VELLUM</h5>
+
+<p>Most covering vellum has a sticky
+surface, that marks if it is handled. This
+should be washed off with clean water
+before tooling. The pattern is blinded in
+through the paper as for leather, excepting
+that the paper must not be pasted directly
+to the vellum, but may be held with a
+band going right round the board or book.
+It is best to glaire twice, and to lay on
+a small portion of gold at a time with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+benzine. As vellum burns very readily,
+the tools must not be too hot, and some
+skill is needed to prevent them from slipping
+on the hard surface.</p>
+
+<p>Vellum must not be polished or varnished.</p>
+
+
+<h5>INLAYING ON LEATHER</h5>
+
+<p>Inlaying or onlaying is adding a different
+leather from that of the cover, as
+decoration. Thus on a red book, a panel
+or a border, or other portion, may be
+covered with thin green leather, or only
+flowers or leaves may be inlaid, while a
+jewel-like effect may be obtained by dots,
+leaves, and flowers, tooled over inlays of
+various colours. Leather for inlaying
+should be pared very thin. To do this
+the leather is cut into strips, wetted, and
+pared on a stone with a knife shaped
+somewhat as at <a href="#Fig_60">fig. 60</a>, B. When the
+thin leather is dry the inlays of the leaves
+and flowers, &amp;c., may be stamped out with
+steel punches cut to the shape of the
+tools; or if only a few inlays are needed,
+the tools may be impressed on the thin
+leather, and the inlays cut out with a
+sharp knife. The edges of the larger<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+inlays should be pared round carefully.
+For inlaying a panel or other large surface,
+the leather is pared very thin and
+evenly with a French knife, and a piece
+of paper pasted on to the grained side
+and left to dry. When dry, the shape
+of the panel, or other space to be inlaid,
+is marked on it through the paper pattern,
+and leather and paper cut through to the
+shape required. The edges must then be
+carefully pared, and the piece attached
+with paste, and nipped in the press to
+make it stick. When the paste is dry,
+the paper may be damped and washed
+off. The object of the paper is to prevent
+the thin leather from stretching
+when it is pasted.</p>
+
+<p>For white inlays it is better to use
+Japanese paper than leather, as white
+leather, when pared very thin, will show
+the colours of the under leather through,
+and look dirty. If paper is used, it should
+be sized with vellum size before tooling.</p>
+
+<p>When many dots or leaves are to be
+inlaid, the pieces of leather, cut out with
+the punch, may be laid face downwards
+on a paring stone, and a piece of paper,
+thickly covered with paste, laid on it.
+This, on being taken up, will carry with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+it the &#8220;inlays,&#8221; and they can be picked
+up one at a time on the point of a fine
+folder, and stuck on the book.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Inlays&#8221; of tools are attached after
+the pattern has been &#8220;blinded&#8221; in, and
+must be again worked over with the
+tool, in blind, when the paste is nearly
+dry.</p>
+
+<p>On vellum an effect, similar to that of
+inlays on leather, can be obtained by the
+use of stains.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle" style="text-align: center">Lettering&mdash;Blind Tooling&mdash;Heraldic Ornament</p>
+
+
+<h5>LETTERING ON THE BACK</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lettering</span> may be done either with
+separate letters, each on its own handle,
+or with type set in a type-holder and
+worked across the back as a pallet. Although
+by the use of type great regularity
+is ensured, and some time saved, the use
+of handle letters gives so much more
+freedom of arrangement, that their use
+is advocated for extra binding. Where
+a great many copies of the same work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+have to be lettered, the use of type has
+obvious advantages.</p>
+
+<p>A great deal depends on the design of
+the letters used. Nearly all bookbinders&#8217;
+letters are made too narrow, and with too
+great difference between the thick and
+thin strokes. At <a href="#Fig_90">fig. 90</a> is shown an
+alphabet, for which I am indebted to the
+kindness of Mr. Emery Walker. The
+long tail of the Q is meant to go under
+the U. It might be well to have a second
+R cut, with a shorter tail, to avoid
+the great space left when an A happens
+to follow it. I have found that four sizes
+of letters are sufficient for all books.<a name="Fig_91" id="Fig_91"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_90" id="Fig_90"></a>
+<img src="images/gs217.jpg" width="300" height="179" alt="Fig. 90." title="Fig. 90." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 90.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table summary="positioning illustrations" style="padding-top: 2em">
+<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/gs218.jpg" width="200" height="90" alt="Fig. 91." title="Fig. 91." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 91.</p>
+</div></td>
+
+<td style="vertical-align: bottom; padding-left: 2em"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_92" id="Fig_92"></a>
+<img src="images/gs218a.jpg" width="200" height="74" alt="Fig. 92." title="Fig. 92." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 92.</span>
+</div></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>To make out a lettering paper for the
+back of a book, cut a strip of good thin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
+paper as wide as the height of the panel
+to be lettered. Fold it near the centre,
+and mark the fold with a pencil. This
+should give a line exactly at right angles
+to the top and bottom of the strip. Then
+make another fold the distance from the
+first of the width of the back; then bring
+the two folds together, and make a third
+fold in the exact centre. The paper
+should then be as shown at <a href="#Fig_91">fig. 91</a>. Supposing
+the lettering to be THE WORKS
+OF ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON,
+select the size of letter you desire to use,
+and take an E and mark on a piece of
+spare paper a line of E&#8217;s, and laying your
+folded paper against it, see how many
+letters will go in comfortably. Supposing
+you find that four lines of five letters
+of the selected size can be put in, you
+must see if your title can be conveniently
+cut up into four lines of five letters, or
+less. It might be done as shown at <a href="#Fig_93">fig.
+93</a>. But if you prefer not to split the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
+name STEVENSON, a smaller letter
+must be employed, and then the lettering
+may be as at <a href="#Fig_94">fig. 94</a>.</p>
+
+<p>To find out the position of the lines
+of lettering on a panel, the letter E is
+again taken and impressed five times at
+the side of the panel, as shown at <a href="#Fig_92">fig. 92</a>,
+leaving a little greater distance between
+the lowest letter and the bottom of the
+panel, than between the letters. The
+paper is then folded on the centre fold,
+and, with dividers set to the average
+distance between the head of one letter
+and the head of the next, five points are
+made through the folded paper. The
+paper is opened, turned over, and the
+points joined with a fine folder worked
+against the straight-edge. It should
+leave on the front five raised lines, up
+to which the head of the letters must
+be put.</p>
+
+<table summary="positioning illustrations">
+<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Fig_93" id="Fig_93"></a>
+<img src="images/gs219.jpg" width="150" height="150" alt="Fig. 93." title="Fig. 93." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 93.</p>
+</div></td>
+
+<td style="padding-left: 3em"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 146px;"><a name="Fig_94" id="Fig_94"></a>
+<img src="images/gs219a.jpg" width="146" height="150" alt="Fig. 94." title="Fig. 94." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 94.</p>
+</div></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The letters in the top line are counted,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+and the centre letter marked. Spaces between
+words are counted as a letter; thus
+in &#8220;THE WORKS,&#8221; &#8220;W&#8221; will be the
+centre letter, and should be put on the
+paper first, and the others added on each
+side of it. Some thought is needed in
+judging where to put the centre, as the
+difference in the width of such letters as
+&#8220;M&#8221; and &#8220;W&#8221; and &#8220;I&#8221; and &#8220;J&#8221; have
+to be taken into account.</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule, lettering looks best
+if it comfortably fills the panel, but of
+course it cannot always be made to do
+this. The greatest difficulty will be found
+in making titles of books that consist of a
+single word, look well. Thus if you have
+&#8220;CORIOLANUS&#8221; to place on a back
+which is not more than <span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span>-inch wide, if it
+is put across as one word, as at <a href="#Fig_95">fig. 95</a> (1),
+it will be illegible from the smallness of
+the type, and will tell merely as a gold
+line at a little distance. If a reasonably
+large type is used, the word must be
+broken up somewhat, as at (2), which is
+perhaps better, but still not at all satisfactory.
+The word may be put straight
+along the back, as at fig. (3), but this
+hardly looks well on a book with raised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+bands, and should be avoided unless
+necessary.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_95" id="Fig_95"></a>
+<img src="images/gs221.jpg" width="300" height="279" alt="Fig. 95." title="Fig. 95." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 95.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The use of type of different sizes in
+lettering a book should be avoided when
+possible, and on no account whatever
+should letters of different design be introduced.
+Occasionally, when the reason for
+it is obvious, it may be allowable to make
+a word shorter by putting in a small
+letter, supposing that only thus could
+reasonably large type be used. It is
+especially allowable in cases where, in a
+set of volumes, there is one much thinner
+than the others. It is generally better to
+make some compromise with the lettering
+of the thin volume, than to spoil the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+lettering of the whole set by using too
+small a letter throughout (see <a href="#Fig_115">fig. 115</a>).</p>
+
+<p>On very thin books it is sometimes
+hardly possible to get any lettering at all
+on the back. In such cases the lettering
+is best put on the side.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of some special books that
+are to have elaborately decorated bindings,
+and are on that account sufficiently distinct
+from their neighbours, a certain
+amount of freedom is permissible with
+the lettering, and a little mystery is not
+perhaps out of place. But in most cases
+books have to be recognised by their titles,
+and it is of the utmost importance that
+the lettering should be as clear as possible,
+and should fully identify the volume.</p>
+
+<p>For lettering half-bindings and other
+books on which much time cannot be
+spared, it would take too long to make
+out a paper, as described for extra bindings,
+nor is there on such work much
+occasion for it. For such books the lettering
+should be written out carefully,
+the whole panel prepared and glaired in,
+and the gold laid on. Then with a piece
+of fine silk or thread lines may be marked
+across the gold as a guide to the finisher,
+and the letters worked from the centre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+outward, as described for making out the
+paper pattern. Of course this method
+does not allow of such nice calculation
+and adjustment as when a paper pattern
+is made out; but if a general principle of
+clear lettering is recognised and accepted,
+very good results may be obtained.</p>
+
+
+<h5>BLIND TOOLING</h5>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_96" id="Fig_96"></a>
+<img src="images/gs223.jpg" width="200" height="192" alt="Fig. 96." title="Fig. 96." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 96.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the end of the book characteristic
+examples of blind-tooled books are given
+(pages <a href="#Page_321">321</a>-<a href="#Page_325">25</a>). It will be seen that most
+of the tools form complete designs in themselves.
+Although the use of detached die-sunk
+tools was general, there were also
+simple tools used, which, when combined,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+made up more or less organic designs,
+and allowed more freedom to the finisher
+(see <a href="#Fig_96">figs. 96</a> and <a href="#Fig_97">97</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_97" id="Fig_97"></a>
+<img src="images/gs224.jpg" width="300" height="257" alt="Fig. 97." title="Fig. 97." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 97.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some use may also be made of interlaced
+strap-work designs, either worked
+with gouges, or a small fillet. A book
+bound in oaken boards, with a leather
+back with knotted decoration, is shown at
+page <a href="#Page_330">330</a>. I have found that such binding
+and decoration is more satisfactory in
+scheme for old books, than most forms of
+modern binding.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If a design is simple, the cover is marked
+up with dividers, and the tools impressed
+direct upon the leather; or, if it is elaborate,
+a paper pattern is made out, and
+the tools blinded through the paper, as
+described for gold tooling. The leather is
+then damped with water, and the impressions
+retooled.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 40px;"><a name="Fig_98" id="Fig_98"></a>
+<img src="images/gs225.jpg" width="40" height="100" alt="Fig. 98." title="Fig. 98." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 98.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The panel lines on most of the bindings
+before 1500 show evidence of having been
+put in with a tool which has been pushed
+along the leather, and not with a
+wheel. I have found that a tool
+guided by a straight-edge, and
+&#8220;jiggered&#8221; backwards and forwards,
+makes by far the best lines
+for blind-tool work. It should be borne
+in mind that the line is formed by the
+raised portion of leather, and so the tool
+should be cut somewhat as at <a href="#Fig_98">fig. 98</a>.
+This should leave three ridges on the
+leather. Blind tooling may be gone over
+and over until it is deep enough, and may
+be combined with various other methods
+of working. For instance, in tooling such
+a spray as is shown at <a href="#Fig_99">fig. 99</a>, the leaf
+would be formed by five impressions of
+the second tool, shown at A, the extremity
+of the impressions could be joined with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+gouges, the stalk and veining could either
+be run in with a fillet or worked with
+gouges. The grapes would best be worked
+with a tool cut for the purpose. One
+edge of all gouge or fillet impressions can
+be smoothed down with
+some such tool as shown
+in section at B. This
+has to be worked round
+the gouge lines with a
+steady hand, and may
+be fairly hot if it is
+kept moving. At C is
+shown a section of a
+gouge impression before
+and after the use of this
+tool. The ground can
+be dotted in, or otherwise
+gone over with
+some small tool to
+throw up the pattern.</p>
+
+<p>Blind tooling can
+sometimes be used in
+combination with gold
+tooling.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 133px;"><a name="Fig_99" id="Fig_99"></a>
+<img src="images/gs226.jpg" width="133" height="300" alt="Fig. 99." title="Fig. 99." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 99.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the fifteenth century the Venetian
+binders used little roundels of some gesso-like
+substance, that were brightly coloured
+or gilt, in combination with blind tooling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+(see p. <a href="#Page_325">325</a>). This is a method that
+might be revived.</p>
+
+<p>What is known as &#8220;leather work&#8221; is
+a further development of blind tooling.
+This method of decoration has been revived
+lately, but not generally with success.
+&#8220;Leather work&#8221; may be divided into two
+branches; in one the surface of the leather
+is cut to outline the pattern, and in the
+other the leather is embossed from the
+back, while wet, and the pattern outlined
+by an indented line. Sometimes the two
+methods are combined. As embossing
+from the back necessitates the work being
+done before the leather is on the book, it
+is not very suitable for decorating books.
+Leather first decorated and then stuck on
+the book, never looks as if it was an integral
+part of the binding. The cut leather
+work, which may be done after the book
+is bound, and leaves the surface comparatively
+flat, is a better method to employ
+for books, provided the cuts are not too
+deep, and are restricted to the boards, so
+as not to weaken the leather at the back
+and joints. Much of the leather used for
+&#8220;leather work&#8221; is of very poor quality,
+and will not last; for modelling it must
+be thick on the side of the book, and for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+the book to open it must be pared thin at
+the joint, thus making it necessary to use a
+thick skin very much pared down, and consequently
+weakened (see p. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>). Another
+very common fault in modelled &#8220;leather
+work&#8221; is, that the two sides and the back
+are often worked separately and stuck
+together on the book, necessitating a join,
+and consequently a weak place in the
+hinge, where strength is most wanted.
+Again, in most modern &#8220;leather work,&#8221;
+those who do the decoration do not, as a
+rule, do the binding, and often do not
+understand enough of the craft to do
+suitable work.</p>
+
+<p>All those engaged in leather work are
+advised to learn to bind their own books,
+and to only use such methods of decoration,
+as can be carried out on the bound
+book.</p>
+
+
+<h5>HERALDRY ON BOOK COVERS</h5>
+
+<p>It is an old and good custom to put
+the arms of the owner of a library on the
+covers of the books he has bound. The
+traditional, and certainly one of the best
+ways to do this, is to have an arms block
+designed and cut. To design an arms<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+block, knowledge of heraldry is needed,
+and also some clear idea of the effect to
+be aimed at. A very common mistake in
+designing blocks is to try and get the
+effect of hand tooling. Blocks should be
+and look something entirely different. In
+hand tooling much of the effect is got from
+the impressions of small tools reflecting
+the light at slightly different angles, giving
+the work life and interest. Blocked
+gold being all in one plane, has no such
+lights in it, and depends entirely on its
+design for its effect.</p>
+
+<p>Provided the heraldry identifies the
+owner, it should be as simply drawn as
+it can be; the custom of indicating the
+tinctures by lines and dots on the charges,
+generally makes a design confused, obscuring
+the coat it is intended to make clear.
+In designing heraldic blocks it is well to
+get a good deal of solid flat surface of
+gold to make the blocked design stand
+out from any gold-tooled work on the
+cover.</p>
+
+<p>Another way of putting armorial bearings
+on covers, is to paint them in oil
+paint. In the early sixteenth century the
+Venetians copied the Eastern custom of
+sinking panels in their book covers, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+painted coats of arms on these sunk
+portions very successfully. The groundwork
+of the shield itself was usually
+raised a little, either by something under
+the leather, or by some gesso-like substance
+on its surface.</p>
+
+<p>Arms blocks should be placed a little
+above the centre of the cover. Generally,
+if the centre of the block is in a line with
+the centre band of a book with five bands,
+it will look right.</p>
+
+<p>Blocks are struck with the aid of an
+arming or blocking press. The block is
+attached to the movable plate of the press
+called the &#8220;platen.&#8221; To do this some
+stout brown paper is first glued to the
+platen, and the block glued to this, and
+the platen fixed in its place at the bottom
+of the heating-box. In blocking arms on
+a number of books of different sizes, some
+nice adjustment of the movable bed is
+needed to get the blocks to fall in exactly
+the right place.</p>
+
+<p>For blocking, one coat of glaire will be
+enough for most leathers. The gold is
+laid on as for hand tooling. The block
+should be brought down and up again
+fairly sharply. The heat needed is about
+the same as for hand tooling.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span></h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle" style="text-align: center">Designing for Gold-Tooled Decoration</p>
+
+
+<h5>DESIGNING TOOLS</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">For</span> gold tooling, such tools as gouges,
+dots, pieces of straight line, and fillets are
+to be had ready-made at most dealers.
+Other tools are best designed and cut to
+order. At first only a few simple forms
+will be needed, such as one or two flowers
+of different sizes, and one or two sets of
+leaves (see <a href="#Fig_100">fig. 100</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_100" id="Fig_100"></a>
+<img src="images/gs231.jpg" width="300" height="77" alt="Fig. 100 (reduced)" title="Fig. 100 (reduced)" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 100 (reduced)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In designing tools, it must be borne in
+mind that they may appear on the book
+many times repeated, and so must be
+simple in outline and much conventionalised.
+A more or less naturalistic drawing
+of a flower, showing the natural
+irregularities, may look charming, but if a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+tool is cut from it, any marked irregularity
+becomes extremely annoying when repeated
+several times on a cover. So with leaves,
+unless they are perfectly symmetrical, there
+should be three of each shape cut, two
+curving in different directions, and the
+third quite straight (see <a href="#Fig_101">fig. 101</a>). To have
+only one leaf, and to have that curved, produces
+very restless patterns. The essence
+of gold-tool design, is that patterns are made
+up of repeats of impressions of tools, and
+that being so, the tools must be so designed
+that they will repeat pleasantly,
+and in practice it will be found that any
+but simple forms will become aggressive
+in repetition.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_101" id="Fig_101"></a>
+<img src="images/gs232.jpg" width="200" height="83" alt="Fig. 101." title="Fig. 101." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 101.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Designs for tools should be made out
+with Indian ink on white paper, and they
+may be larger than the size of the required
+tool. The tool-cutter will reduce
+any drawing to any desired size, and will,
+from one drawing, cut any number of
+tools of different sizes. Thus, if a set of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+five leaves of the same shape is wanted, it
+will only be necessary to draw one, and to
+indicate the sizes the others are to be in
+some such way as shown at <a href="#Fig_102">fig. 102</a>.</p>
+
+<p>It is not suggested that special tools
+should be cut for each pattern, but the
+need of new tools will naturally arise
+from time to time, and so the stock be
+gradually increased. It is better to begin
+with a very few, and add a tool or two as
+occasion arises, than to try to design a
+complete set when starting.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_102" id="Fig_102"></a>
+<img src="images/gs233.jpg" width="300" height="104" alt="Fig. 102." title="Fig. 102." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 102.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tools may be solid or in outline. If
+in outline they may be used as &#8220;inlay&#8221;
+tools, and in ordering them the tool-cutter
+should be asked to provide steel punches
+for cutting the inlays.</p>
+
+
+<h5>COMBINING TOOLS TO FORM PATTERNS</h5>
+
+<p>It is well for the student to begin with
+patterns arranged on some very simple<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+plan, making slight changes in each succeeding
+pattern. In this way an individual
+style may be established. The
+usual plan of studying the perfected styles
+of the old binders, and trying to begin
+where they left off, in practice only leads
+to the production of exact imitations, or
+poor lifeless parodies, of the old designs.
+Whereas a pattern developed by the student
+by slow degrees, through a series of
+designs, each slightly different from the
+one before it, will, if eccentricities are
+avoided, probably have life and individual
+interest.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the easiest way to decorate a
+binding is to cover it with some small repeating
+pattern. A simple form of diaper
+as a beginning is shown at <a href="#Fig_104">fig. 104</a>. To
+make such a pattern cut a piece of good,
+thin paper to the size of the board of a
+book, and with a pencil rule a line about
+an eighth of an inch inside the margin all
+round. Then with the point of a fine
+folder that will indent, but not cut the
+paper, mark up as shown in <a href="#Fig_103">fig. 103</a>.
+The position of the lines A A and B B
+are found by simply folding the paper,
+first side to side, and then head to tail.
+The other lines can be put in without any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+measurement by simply joining all points
+where lines cross. By continual re-crossing,
+the spaces into which the paper is
+divided can be reduced to any desired size.
+If the construction lines are accurately
+put in, the spaces will all be of the same
+size and shape. It is then evident that a
+repeating design to fill any one of the spaces
+can be made to cover the whole surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_103" id="Fig_103"></a>
+<img src="images/gs235.jpg" width="300" height="223" alt="Fig. 103." title="Fig. 103." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 103.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In <a href="#Fig_104">fig. 104</a>, it is the diagonal lines only
+that are utilised for the pattern. To avoid
+confusion, the cross lines that helped to
+determine the position of the diagonals
+are not shown.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_104" id="Fig_104"></a>
+<img src="images/gs236.jpg" width="300" height="462" alt="Fig. 104 (reduced)" title="Fig. 104 (reduced)" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 104 (reduced)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The advantage of using the point of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+folder to mark up the constructional
+lines of a pattern instead of a pencil, is
+that the lines so made are much finer, do
+not rub out, and do not cause confusion
+by interfering with the pattern. Any
+lines that will appear on the book, such
+as the marginal lines, may be put in with
+a pencil to distinguish them.</p>
+
+<p>Having marked up the paper, select a
+flower tool and impress it at the points
+where the diagonal lines cross, holding it
+in the smoke of a candle between every
+two or three impressions. When the
+flower has been impressed all over, select
+a small piece of straight line, and put a
+stalk in below each flower; then a leaf put
+in on each side of the straight line will
+complete the pattern.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_105" id="Fig_105"></a>
+<img src="images/gs238.jpg" width="300" height="467" alt="Fig. 105 (reduced)" title="Fig. 105 (reduced)" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 105 (reduced)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A development of the same principle is
+shown at <a href="#Fig_105">fig. 105</a>, in which some gouges
+are introduced. Any number of other
+combinations will occur to any one using
+the tools. Frequently questions will arise
+as to whether a tool is to be put this way
+or that way, and whether a line is to curve
+up or down. Whenever there is such an
+alternative open, there is the germ of
+another pattern. All-over diaper patterns<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+may be varied in any number of ways.
+One way is to vary the design in alternate
+spaces. If this is done one of the designs
+should be such that it will divide down
+the centre both ways and so finish off the
+pattern comfortably at the edges. The
+pattern may be based on the upright and
+the cross-lines of the marking up, or the
+marking up may be on a different principle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+altogether. The designer, after a little
+practice, will be bewildered by the infinite
+number of combinations that occur to
+him.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_106" id="Fig_106"></a>
+<img src="images/gs240.jpg" width="300" height="463" alt="Fig. 106 (reduced)" title="Fig. 106 (reduced)" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 106 (reduced)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The diaper is selected for a beginning,
+because it is the easiest form of pattern
+to make, as there is no question of getting
+round corners, and very little of studying
+proportion. It is selected also because it
+teaches the student the decorative value of
+simple forms repeated on some orderly
+system. When he has grasped this, he
+has grasped the underlying principle of
+nearly all successful tooled ornament.
+Diapers are good practice, because in a
+close, all-over pattern the tools must be
+put down in definite places, or an appalling
+muddle will result. In tooling; a repeat
+of the same few tools, is the best possible
+practice, giving as it does the same work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+over and over again under precisely the
+same conditions, and concentrating, on one
+book cover, the practice that might be
+spread over several backs and sides
+more sparingly decorated, when variety<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+of conditions would confuse the
+student.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 50px;"><a name="Fig_107" id="Fig_107"></a>
+<img src="images/gs241.jpg" width="50" height="94" alt="Fig. 107." title="Fig. 107." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 107.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the principles of the
+diaper have been mastered, and
+the student has become familiar
+with the limitations of his
+tools, other schemes of decoration
+may be attempted,
+such as borders, centres, or
+panels.</p>
+
+<p>A form of border connected with cross-lines
+is shown at <a href="#Fig_106">fig. 106</a>. This is made
+up of a repeat of the spray built up of
+three tools and four gouges shown at
+<a href="#Fig_107">fig. 107</a>, with slight modification at the
+corners. Other schemes for borders are
+those in which flowers grow inwards from
+the edge of the boards, or outwards from
+a panel at the centre, or on both sides of
+a line about half an inch from the edge.
+A pattern may also be made to grow all
+round the centre panel. Borders will be
+found more difficult to manage than
+simple diapers, and at first, are best<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+built up on the same principle&mdash;the repeat
+of some simple element.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Fig_108" id="Fig_108"></a>
+<img src="images/gs243.jpg" width="250" height="504" alt="Fig. 108 (reduced)" title="Fig. 108 (reduced)" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 108 (reduced)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The decoration may be concentrated on
+parts of the cover, such as the centre or
+corners. A design for a centre is shown
+at <a href="#Fig_108">fig. 108</a>, and below is shown the way to
+construct it. A piece of paper is folded,
+as shown by the dotted lines, and an eighth
+of the pattern drawn with a soft pencil
+and folded over on the line A, and transferred
+by being rubbed at the back with
+a folder. This is lined in with a pencil,
+and folded over on the line B and rubbed
+off. This is lined in and folded over on
+A and C, rubbed off as before, and the
+whole lined in. The overs and unders of
+the lines are then marked, and gouges
+selected to fit. Of course it will take
+several trials before the lines will interlace
+pleasantly, and the tools fit in. Another
+centre, in which a spray is repeated three
+times, is shown at <a href="#Fig_109">fig. 109</a>, and any number
+of others will occur to the student
+after a little practice. A change of tools,
+or the slight alteration of a line, will give
+an entirely new aspect to a pattern. At
+page <a href="#Page_334">334</a> is shown an all-over pattern
+growing from the bottom centre of the
+board. In this design the leather was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+dark green, with a lighter green panel
+in the centre. The berries were inlaid
+in bright red. Although at first glance it
+seems an intricate design, it is made up
+like the others of repetitions of simple<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+forms.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_109" id="Fig_109"></a>
+<img src="images/gs244.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="Fig. 109 (reduced)" title="Fig. 109 (reduced)" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 109 (reduced)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the student has become proficient
+in the arrangement of tools in
+combination with lines, a design consisting
+entirely, or almost entirely, of lines
+may be tried. This is more difficult,
+because the limitations are not so obvious;
+but here again the principle of repetition,
+and even distribution, should be followed.
+At <a href="#Fig_110">fig. 110</a> is shown a design almost entirely
+composed of lines, built up on the
+same principle as the centre at <a href="#Fig_108">fig. 108</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_110" id="Fig_110"></a>
+<img src="images/gs245.jpg" width="300" height="413" alt="Fig. 110 (reduced)" title="Fig. 110 (reduced)" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 110 (reduced)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ends of the bands form a very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+pleasant starting-place for patterns. At
+pp. <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>-<a href="#Page_336">6</a> are shown ways of utilising<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+this method. To look right, a pattern
+must be consistent throughout. The tools
+and their arrangement must have about
+the same amount of convention. Gold
+tooling, dealing, as it does, with flat forms
+in silhouette only, necessitates very considerable
+formality in the design of the tools
+and of their arrangement on the cover.
+Modern finishers have become so skilful,
+that they are able to produce in gold
+tooling almost any design that can be
+drawn in lines with a pencil, and some
+truly marvellous results are obtained by
+the use of inlays, and specially cut gouges.
+As a rule, such patterns simply serve to
+show the skill of the finisher, and to make
+one wonder who could have been foolish
+enough to select so limited and laborious
+a method as gold tooling for carrying
+them out.</p>
+
+<p>Generally speaking, successful gold-tooled
+patterns show evidence of having
+been designed with the tools; of being, in
+fact, mere arrangements of the tools, and
+not of having been first designed with a
+pencil, and then worked with tools cut to fit
+the drawing. This does not of course apply
+to patterns composed entirely of lines, or
+to patterns composed of lines of dots.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If artists wish to design for gold tooling
+without first mastering the details,
+probably the safest way will be for them
+to design in lines of gold dots. Some
+successful patterns carried out in this
+way were shown at the Arts and Crafts
+Exhibition some years ago.</p>
+
+<p>Designs for gold-tooled binding should
+always be constructed on some geometrical
+plan, and whatever pattern there is,
+symmetrically distributed over the cover.</p>
+
+<p>If lettering can be introduced, it will
+be found to be most useful when arranging
+a pattern. It gives dignity and purpose
+to a design, and is also highly
+decorative. Lettering may be arranged
+in panels, as at page <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, or in a border
+round the edge of the board, and in many
+other ways. It may either consist of the
+title of the book, or some line or verse
+from it or connected with it, or may
+refer to its history, or to the owner.
+Anything that gives a personal interest
+to a book, such as the arms of the owner,
+the initials or name of the giver or receiver
+of a present, with perhaps the date of the
+gift, is of value.</p>
+
+<p>The use of the small fillet makes it
+possible to employ long, slightly-curved<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>
+lines. Gold-tooled lines have in themselves
+such great beauty, that designers
+are often tempted to make them meander
+about the cover in a weak and aimless
+way. As the limitations enforced by the
+use of gouges tend to keep the curves
+strong and small, and as the use of the
+small fillet tends to the production of
+long, weak curves, students are advised
+at first to restrict the curved lines in their
+patterns to such as can be readily worked
+with gouges.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_111" id="Fig_111"></a>
+<img src="images/gs248.jpg" width="200" height="127" alt="Fig. 111." title="Fig. 111." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 111.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that a gouge
+or fillet line is very thin, and will look
+weak if it goes far without support. For
+this reason interlaced lines are advocated.</p>
+
+<p>Gouge lines are easier to work, and
+look better, if a small space is left where
+the gouges end. This is especially the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+case where lines bearing leaves or flowers
+branch from the main stem (see <a href="#Fig_111">fig. 111</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Gouges and fillets need not always be
+of the same thickness of line, and two or
+three sets of different gauges may be kept.
+A finisher can always alter the thickness
+of a gouge with emery paper.</p>
+
+<p>One method of arranging gold-tooled
+lines is to treat them in design as if they
+were wires in tension, and knot and twist
+them together. Provided the idea is consistently
+adhered to throughout, such a
+pattern is often very successful.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_112" id="Fig_112"></a>
+<img src="images/gs249.jpg" width="200" height="154" alt="Fig. 112." title="Fig. 112." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 112.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A simple arrangement of straight lines
+will be sufficient ornamentation for most
+books. Three schemes for such ornamentation
+are shown. In <a href="#Fig_112">fig. 112</a> the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
+&#8220;tie-downs&#8221; may be in &#8220;blind&#8221; and
+the lines in gold. The arrangement
+shown at <a href="#Fig_113">fig. 113</a> leaves a panel at the
+top which may be utilised for lettering.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_113" id="Fig_113"></a>
+<img src="images/gs250.jpg" width="200" height="153" alt="Fig. 113." title="Fig. 113." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 113.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px; padding-top: 2em"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+<img src="images/gs250a.jpg" width="200" height="160" alt="Fig. 114." title="Fig. 114." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 114.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table summary="positioning illustrations" style="padding-top: 2em">
+<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/gs251.jpg" width="300" height="526" alt="Fig. 115." title="Fig. 115." />
+</div></td>
+
+<td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 271px;"><a name="Fig_115" id="Fig_115"></a>
+<img src="images/gs252.jpg" width="271" height="524" alt="Fig. 115." title="Fig. 115." />
+</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><p class="caption">Fig. 115.</p></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h5>DESIGNING FOR BACKS<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></h5>
+
+<p>The decoration of the back of a book
+is difficult owing to the very small space
+usually available in the panels. The first
+consideration must be the lettering, and
+when that has been arranged, as described
+in Chapter XV, a second paper is got out
+for the pattern. The back panel should
+generally be treated in the same style and,
+if possible, with the same tools as the
+sides, if they are decorated. It will often
+be found far easier to design a full-gilt
+side than a satisfactory back.</p>
+
+<p>A design may be made to fit one panel
+of the book and repeated on all those not
+required for lettering (see pages <a href="#Page_332">332</a>-<a href="#Page_334">34</a>),
+or it may be made to grow up from panel
+to panel (see <a href="#Fig_115">fig. 115</a>). In the case of sets
+of books in which the volumes vary very
+much in thickness, some pattern must be
+made that can be contracted and expanded
+without altering the general look of the
+back (see <a href="#Fig_115">fig. 115</a>).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h5>DESIGNING FOR INSIDE OF BOARDS</h5>
+
+<p>The inside margins of the board permit
+of a little delicate decoration. At <a href="#Fig_116">fig. 116</a>
+are shown two ways of treating this part
+of the binding. The inside of the board
+is sometimes covered all over with leather,
+and tooled as elaborately, or more elaborately,
+than the outside. If there are
+vellum ends, they may be enriched with
+a little tooling.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_116" id="Fig_116"></a>
+<img src="images/gs254.jpg" width="300" height="142" alt="Fig. 116." title="Fig. 116." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 116.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The edges of the boards may have a
+gold line run on them, and the head-cap
+may be decorated with a few dots.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle" style="text-align: center">Pasting down End Papers&mdash;Opening Books</p>
+
+
+<h5>PASTING DOWN END PAPERS</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">When</span> the finishing is done, the end
+papers should be pasted down on to the
+board; or if there is a leather joint, the
+panel left should be filled in to match the
+end paper.</p>
+
+<p>To paste down end papers, the book
+is placed on the block with the board
+open (see <a href="#Fig_117">fig. 117</a>, A), the waste sheets
+are torn off, the joints cleared of any
+glue or paste, and the boards flattened, as
+described at page <a href="#Page_171">171</a> for pasting down
+leather joints. One of the paste-down
+papers is then stretched over the board
+and rubbed down in the joint, and the
+amount to be cut off to make it fit into
+the space left by the turn-in of the leather
+is marked on it with dividers, measuring
+from the edge of the board. A cutting
+tin is then placed on the book, the paste-down
+paper turned over it, and the edges
+trimmed off to the divider points with a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+knife and straight-edge, leaving small
+pieces to cover the ends of the joint
+(<a href="#Fig_117">fig. 117</a>, A, c).</p>
+
+<p>The cutting and pasting down of these
+small pieces in the joint are rather difficult;
+they should come exactly to the edges of
+the board.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_117" id="Fig_117"></a>
+<img src="images/gs256.jpg" width="300" height="292" alt="Fig. 117." title="Fig. 117." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 117.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When both paste-down papers are
+trimmed to size, one of them is well
+pasted with thin paste in which there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
+are no lumps, with a piece of waste paper
+under it to protect the book. The joints
+should also be pasted, and the paste rubbed
+in with the finger and any surplus removed.</p>
+
+<p>The pasted paper is then brought over
+on to the board, the edges adjusted exactly
+to their places, and rubbed down. The
+joint must next be rubbed down through
+paper. It is difficult to get the paper to
+stick evenly in the joint, and great nicety
+is needed here. All rubbing down must
+be done through paper, or the &#8220;paste-down&#8221;
+will be soiled or made shiny.</p>
+
+<p>Some papers stretch very much when
+pasted, and will need to be cut a little
+smaller than needed, and put down
+promptly after pasting. Thin vellum
+may be put down with paste in which
+there is a very little glue, but thicker
+vellum is better put down with thin glue.
+In pasting vellum, very great care is
+needed to prevent the brush-marks from
+showing through. If the vellum is thin,
+the board must be lined with white or
+toned paper with a smooth surface.
+This paper must be quite clean, as any
+marks will show through the vellum, and
+make it look dirty.</p>
+
+<p>When one side is pasted down the book<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
+can be turned over without shutting the
+board, and the other board opened and
+pasted down in the same way (see <a href="#Fig_117">fig. 117</a>,
+B). In turning over a book, a piece of
+white paper should be put under the newly-pasted
+side, as, being damp, it will soil very
+readily. When both ends have been pasted
+down the joints should be examined and
+rubbed down again, and the book stood up
+on end with the boards open until the end
+papers are dry. The boards may be held
+open with a piece of cardboard cut as
+shown at <a href="#Fig_71">fig. 71</a>.</p>
+
+<p>If there are cloth joints they are put
+down with glue, and the board paper is
+placed nearly to the edge of the joint,
+leaving very little cloth visible.</p>
+
+<p>In the process of finishing, the boards
+of a book will nearly always be warped a
+little outward, but the pasted end papers
+should draw the boards a little as they dry,
+causing them to curve slightly towards the
+book. With vellum ends there is a danger
+that the boards will be warped too much.</p>
+
+
+<h5>OPENING NEWLY BOUND BOOKS</h5>
+
+<p>Before sending out a newly bound book
+the binder should go through it, opening<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+it here and there to ease the back. The
+volume is laid on a table, and the leaves
+opened a short distance from the front,
+and then at an equal distance from the
+back, and then in one or two places nearer
+the centre of the book, the leaves being
+pressed down with the hand at each opening.
+If the book is a valuable one, every
+leaf should then be turned over separately
+and each opening pressed down, beginning
+from the centre and working first one way
+and then the other. In this way the back
+will be bent evenly at all points. When
+a book has been opened, it should be
+lightly pressed for a short time without
+anything in the joints.</p>
+
+<p>If a book is sent out unopened, the first
+person into whose hand it falls will probably
+open it somewhere in the centre,
+bending the covers back and &#8220;breaking&#8221;
+the back; and if any leaves chance to
+have been stuck together in edge-gilding,
+they are likely to be torn if carelessly
+opened. A book with a &#8220;broken&#8221; back
+will always have a tendency to open in the
+same place, and will not keep its shape.
+It would be worth while for librarians to
+have newly bound books carefully opened.
+An assistant could &#8220;open&#8221; a large number<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
+of books in a day, and the benefit to the
+bindings would amply compensate for the
+small trouble and cost involved.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle" style="text-align: center">Clasps and Ties&mdash;Metal on Bindings</p>
+
+
+<h5>CLASPS AND TIES</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Some</span> books need to be clasped to keep
+the leaves flat. All books written or
+printed on vellum should have clasps.
+Vellum unless kept flat is apt to cockle,
+and this in a book will force the leaves
+apart and admit dust. If a book is
+tightly wedged in a shelf the leaves will
+be kept flat, but as the chance removal of
+any other book from the row will remove
+the pressure, it is much better to provide
+clasps for vellum books.</p>
+
+<p>Very thick books, and those with a great
+many folded plates, are better for having
+clasps to prevent the leaves from sagging.
+As nearly all books are now kept in bookshelves,
+and as any projection on the side
+of a book is likely to injure the neighbouring<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
+volume, a form of clasp should
+be used that has no raised parts on the
+boards.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 100px;"><a name="Fig_118" id="Fig_118"></a>
+<img src="images/gs261.jpg" width="100" height="157" alt="Fig. 118." title="Fig. 118." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 118.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>At <a href="#Fig_118">fig. 118</a> is shown a simple clasp
+suitable for small books with mill-board
+sides, with details of the metal parts, made
+of thick silver wire
+below. Double boards
+must be &#8220;made,&#8221; and the
+flattened ends of the
+silver catch inserted between
+the two thicknesses,
+and glued in place.
+About one-eighth of an
+inch of the end should
+project. In covering, the
+leather must be pierced
+and carefully worked
+round the catch. To
+make the plait, three strips of thin
+leather are slipped through the ring, and
+the ends of each strip pasted together.
+The three doubled strips are then plaited
+and the end of the plait put through
+a hole in the lower board of the
+book about half an inch from the edge,
+and glued down inside. A groove may be
+cut in the mill-board from the hole to the
+edge before covering, to make a depression<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>
+in which the plait will lie, and a
+depression may be scooped out of the
+inner surface of the board to receive the
+ends.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_119" id="Fig_119"></a>
+<img src="images/gs262.jpg" width="200" height="235" alt="Fig. 119." title="Fig. 119." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 119.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>At <a href="#Fig_119">fig. 119</a> is a somewhat similar clasp
+with three plaits
+suitable for
+large books.
+The metal end
+and the method
+of inserting it
+into wooden
+boards are shown
+below. The
+turned-down end
+should go right
+through the
+board, and be
+riveted on the
+inside. When the three plaits are worked,
+a little band of silver may be riveted on
+just below the ring.</p>
+
+
+<p>A very simple fastening that is sometimes
+useful is shown at <a href="#Fig_77">fig. 77</a>. A very
+small bead is threaded on to a piece of
+catgut, and the two ends of the gut
+brought together and put through a
+larger bead. The ends of the gut with
+the beads on them are laced into the top<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
+board of the book, with the bead projecting
+over the edge, and a loop of gut
+is laced into the bottom board. If the
+loop can be made exactly the right length,
+this is a serviceable method.</p>
+
+<p>Silk or leather ties may be used to keep
+books shut, but they are apt to be in
+the way when the book is read, and as
+hardly anybody troubles to tie them, they
+are generally of very little use.</p>
+
+
+<h5>METAL ON BINDINGS</h5>
+
+<p>Metal corners and bosses are a great
+protection to bindings, but if the books
+are to go into shelves, the metal must
+be quite smooth and flat. A metal shoe
+on the lower edge of the boards is an
+excellent thing for preserving the binding
+of heavy books.</p>
+
+<p>Bosses and other raised metal work
+should be restricted to books that will
+be used on lecterns or reading desks.
+The frontispiece is from a drawing of an
+early sixteenth-century book, bound in
+white pigskin, and ornamented with brass
+corners, centres, and clasps; and at page
+<a href="#Page_323">323</a> is shown a fifteenth-century binding
+with plain protecting bosses. On this book<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+there were originally five bosses on each
+board, but the centre ones have been lost.</p>
+
+<p>Bindings may be entirely covered with
+metal, but the connection between the
+binding and the book is in that case
+seldom quite satisfactory. The most
+satisfactory metal-covered bindings that
+I have seen are those in which the metal
+is restricted to the boards. The book
+is bound in wooden boards, with thick
+leather at the back, and plaques of metal
+nailed to the wood. The metal may be
+set with jewels or decorated with enamel,
+and embossed or chased in various ways.</p>
+
+<p>Jewels are sometimes set in invisible
+settings below the leather of bindings,
+giving them the appearance of being set
+in the leather. This gives them an insecure
+look, and it is better to frankly
+show the metal settings and make a decorative
+feature of them.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX</h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle" style="text-align: center">Leather</p>
+
+
+<h5>LEATHER</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Of</span> all the materials used by the bookbinders,
+leather is the most important<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
+and the most difficult to select wisely.
+It is extremely difficult to judge a leather
+by its appearance.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;We find now, that instead of leather
+made from sheep, calf, goat, and pigskins,
+each having, when finished, its own
+characteristic surface, that sheepskins are
+got up to look like calf, morocco, or
+pigskin; that calf is grained to resemble
+morocco, or so polished and flattened as
+to have but little character left; while
+goatskins are grained in any number of
+ways, and pigskin is often grained like
+levant morocco. So clever are some of
+these imitations, that it takes a skilled
+expert to identify a leather when it is
+on a book.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>There have been complaints for a long
+time of the want of durability of modern
+bookbinding leather, but there has not
+been until lately any systematic investigation
+into the causes of its premature
+decay.</p>
+
+<p>By permission, I shall quote largely from
+the report of the committee appointed by
+the Society of Arts to inquire into the
+subject. There are on this special committee
+leather manufacturers, bookbinders,
+librarians, and owners of libraries. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>
+report issued is the result of an immense
+amount of work done. Many libraries
+were visited, and hundreds of experiments
+and tests were carried out by the
+sub-committees. There is much useful
+information in the report that all bookbinders
+and librarians should read. The
+work of the committee is not yet finished,
+but its findings may be accepted as conclusive
+as far as they go.</p>
+
+<p>The committee first set themselves to
+ascertain if the complaints of the premature
+decay of modern bookbinding
+leather are justified by facts, and on this
+point report that:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;As regards the common belief that
+modern binding leather does decay prematurely,
+the sub-committee satisfied
+themselves that books bound during the
+last eighty or hundred years showed far
+greater evidence of deterioration than
+those of an earlier date. Many recent
+bindings showed evidence of decay after so
+short a period as ten, or even five years.
+The sub-committee came to the conclusion
+that there is ample justification for
+the general complaint that modern leather
+is not so durable as that formerly used.
+To fix the date of the commencement<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>
+of this deterioration was a difficult matter;
+but they came to the conclusion that while
+leather of all periods showed some signs
+of decay, the deterioration becomes more
+general on books bound after 1830, while
+some leathers seem to be generally good
+until about 1860, after which date nearly
+all leathers seem to get worse. The
+deterioration of calf bindings at the
+latter end of the 19th century may be
+attributed as much to the excessive thinness
+as to the poor quality of the
+material.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The committee endeavoured to ascertain
+the relative durability of the leathers used
+for bookbinding, and after visiting many
+libraries, and comparing bindings, they
+report as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;As to the suitability of various
+leathers, the sub-committee came to the
+conclusion that of the old leathers (15th
+and 16th century), white pigskin, probably
+alum &#8216;tanned,&#8217; is the most durable, but
+its excessive hardness and want of flexibility
+renders this leather unsuitable for most
+modern work. Old brown calf has lasted
+fairly well, but loses its flexibility, and
+becomes stiff and brittle when exposed to
+light and air. Some of the white tawed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>
+skins of the 15th and 16th century, other
+than white pigskin, and probably deerskin,
+have lasted very well. Some 15th and
+16th century sheepskin bindings have
+remained soft and flexible, but the surface
+is soft, and usually much damaged by
+friction. Vellum seems to have lasted
+fairly well, but is easily influenced by
+atmospheric changes, and is much affected
+by light. Early specimens of red morocco
+from the 16th to the end of the 18th
+century were found in good condition, and
+of all the leathers noticed, this seems to
+be the least affected by the various conditions
+to which it had been subjected. In
+the opinion of the committee, most of this
+leather has been tanned with sumach or
+some closely allied tanning material.
+Morocco bindings earlier than 1860 were
+generally found to be in fairly good condition,
+but morocco after that date seems
+to be much less reliable, and in many cases
+has become utterly rotten. During the
+latter part of the 18th century it became
+customary to pare down calf until it was
+as thin as paper. Since about 1830 hardly
+any really sound calf seems to have been
+used, as, whether thick or thin, it appears
+generally to have perished. Sheepskin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>
+bindings of the early part of the century
+are many of them still in good condition.
+Since about 1860 sheepskin as sheepskin
+is hardly to be found. Sheepskins are
+grained in imitation of other leathers, and
+these imitation-grained leathers are generally
+found to be in a worse condition than
+any of the other bindings, except, perhaps,
+some of the very thin calfskin. Undyed
+modern pigskin seems to last well, but
+some coloured pigskin bindings had entirely
+perished. Modern leathers dyed with the
+aid of sulphuric acid are all to be condemned.
+In nearly every case Russia
+leather was found to have become rotten,
+at least in bindings of the last fifty
+years.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>On the question of the causes of the
+decay noticed and the best methods of
+preparing leather in the future, I may
+quote the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The work of a sub-committee, which
+was composed of chemists specially conversant
+with the treatment of leather, was
+directed specially to the elucidation of the
+following points: an investigation of the
+nature of the decay of leather used for
+bookbinding; an examination of the
+causes which produced this decay; a research<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>
+into the best methods of preparing
+leather for bookbinding; and a consideration
+of the points required to be dealt
+with in the preservation of books.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Taking these points in order, the
+first one dealt with is the question of
+the nature of the decay of leather. To
+arrive at their conclusions on this subject,
+the sub-committee made a number of
+tests and analyses of samples of decayed
+leather bookbindings, as well as of leathers
+used for binding. The committee found
+that the most prevalent decay was what
+they term a red decay, and this they
+think may be differentiated into old and
+new, the old red decay being noticeable
+up to about 1830, and the new decay
+since that date. In the old decay, the
+leather becomes hard and brittle, the surface
+not being easily abraded by friction.
+The older form is specially noticeable in
+calf-bound books, tanned presumably with
+oak bark. The new form affects nearly
+all leathers, and in extreme cases seems
+absolutely to destroy the fibres. Another
+form of deterioration, more noticeable in
+the newer books, renders the grain of the
+leather liable to peel off when exposed to
+the slightest friction. This is the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>
+common form of decay noted in the more
+recent leathers. In nearly all samples of
+Russia leather a very violent form of red
+decay was noticed. In many cases the
+leather was found to be absolutely rotten
+in all parts exposed to light and air, so
+that on the very slightest rubbing with
+a blunt instrument the leather fell into
+fine dust....</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The second point is the cause of the
+decay. An extensive series of experiments
+was carried out with a view of determining
+the causes of the decay of bindings. The
+sub-committee find that this is caused by
+both mechanical and by chemical influences.
+Of the latter, some are due to
+mistakes of the leather manufacturer and
+the bookbinder, others to the want of
+ventilation, and to improper heating and
+lighting of libraries. In some cases inferior
+leathers are finished (by methods
+in themselves injurious) so as to imitate
+the better class leathers, and of course
+where these are used durability cannot
+be expected. But in the main the injury
+for which the manufacturer and bookbinder
+are responsible must be attributed
+rather to ignorance of the effect of the
+means employed to give the leather the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
+outward qualities required for binding,
+than to the intentional production of an
+inferior article.... Leathers produced
+by different tanning materials, although
+they may be equally sound and durable
+mechanically, vary very much in their
+resistance to other influences, such as
+light, heat, and gas fumes.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;For bookbinding purposes, the sub-committee
+generally condemn the use of
+tanning materials belonging to the catechol
+group, although the leathers produced
+by the use of these materials are
+for many purposes excellent, and indeed
+superior. The class of tanning materials
+which produce the most suitable leather
+for this particular purpose belong to the
+pyrogallol group, of which a well known
+and important example is sumach. East
+Indian or &#8216;Persian&#8217; tanned sheep and
+goat skins, which are suitable for many
+purposes, and are now used largely for
+cheap bookbinding purposes, are considered
+extremely bad. Books bound in
+these materials have been found to show
+signs of decay in less than twelve months,
+and the sub-committee are inclined to
+believe that no book bound in these
+leathers, exposed on a shelf to sunlight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>
+or gas fumes, can ever be expected to
+last more than five or six years. Embossing
+leather under heavy pressure to
+imitate a grain has a very injurious effect,
+while the shaving of thick skins greatly
+reduces the strength of the leather
+by cutting away the tough fibres of the
+inner part of the skin. The use of
+mineral acids in brightening the colour
+of leather, and in the process of dyeing,
+has a serious effect in lessening its resistance
+to decay. A good deal yet remains
+to be learned about the relative permanency
+of the different dyes.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>On analysis free sulphuric acid was
+found to be present in nearly all bookbinding
+leather, and it is the opinion of
+the committee that even a small quantity
+of this acid materially lessens the durability
+of the leather.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It has been shown by careful experiment,
+that even a minute quantity of
+sulphuric acid used in the dye bath to
+liberate the colour is at once absorbed
+by the leather, and that no amount of
+subsequent washing will remove it. In a
+very large proportion of cases the decay
+of modern sumach-tanned leather has been
+due to the sulphuric acid used in the dye<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>
+bath, and retained in the skin. We have
+examined very many samples of leather
+manufactured and sold specially for bookbinding
+purposes, from different factories,
+bought from different dealers, or kindly
+supplied by bookbinders and by librarians,
+and have found them to contain, in a
+large number of cases, free sulphuric acid,
+from 0.5 up to 1.6 per cent.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The publication of the report should
+tend to fix a standard for bookbinding
+leather. Hitherto there has been no recognised
+standard. Bookbinders have
+selected leather almost entirely by its
+appearance. It has now been shown that
+appearance is no test of durability, and
+the mechanical test of tearing the leather
+is insufficient. Sound leather should tear
+with difficulty, and the torn edges
+should be fringed with long, silky fibres,
+and any leather which tears very easily,
+and shows short, curled-up fibres at the
+torn edges, should be discarded. But
+though good bookbinding leather will
+tear with difficulty, and show long fibres
+where torn, that is in itself not a sufficient
+test; because it has been shown
+that the leather that is mechanically the
+strongest, is not necessarily the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>
+durable and the best able to resist the
+adverse influences to which books are
+subject in libraries.</p>
+
+<p>The report shows that bookbinders
+and librarians are not, as a general rule,
+qualified to select leather for bookbinding.
+In the old days, when the manufacture
+of leather was comparatively simple,
+a bookbinder might reasonably be expected
+to know enough of the processes employed
+to be able to select his leather. But now
+so complicated is the manufacture, and so
+many are the factors to be considered, that
+an expert should be employed.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The committee have satisfied themselves
+that it is possible to test any leather
+in such a way as to guarantee its suitability
+for bookbinding. They have not
+come to any decision as to the desirability of
+establishing any formal or official standard,
+though they consider that this is a point
+which well deserves future consideration.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It is to be hoped that some system
+of examining and hall-marking leather
+by some recognised body, may be instituted.
+If librarians will specify that the
+leather to be employed must be certified
+to be manufactured according to the
+recommendations of the Society of Arts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>
+Committee, there is no reason why leathers
+should not be obtained as durable as any
+ever produced. This would necessitate
+the examining and testing of batches of
+leather by experts. At present this can
+be done more or less privately at various
+places, such as the Yorkshire College,
+Leeds, or the Herolds&#8217; Institute, Bermondsey.
+In the near future it is to
+be hoped that some recognised public
+body, such as one of the great City
+Companies interested in leather, may be
+induced to establish a standard, and to test
+such leathers as are submitted to them,
+hall-marking those that come up to the
+standard. This would enable bookbinders
+and librarians, in ordering leather, to
+be sure that it had not been injured
+in its manufacture. The testing, if done
+by batches, should not add greatly to the
+cost of the leather.</p>
+
+<p>On the question of the qualities of an
+ideal bookbinding leather the committee
+report:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is the opinion of the committee,
+that the ideal bookbinding leather must
+have, and retain, great flexibility.... (It)
+must have a firm grain surface, not easily
+damaged by friction, and should not be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>
+artificially grained.... The committee is
+of opinion that a pure sumach tannage
+will answer all these conditions, and that
+leather can, and will, be now produced
+that will prove to be as durable as any
+made in the past.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The committee has so far only dealt
+with vegetable-tanned leather. I have
+used, with some success, chrome-tanned
+calfskin. Chrome leather is difficult
+to pare, and to work, as it does not
+become soft when wet, like vegetable-tanned
+leather. It will stand any reasonable
+degree of heat, and so might perhaps
+be useful for top-shelf bindings and for
+shelf edging. It is extremely strong
+mechanically, but without further tests
+I cannot positively recommend it except
+for trial.</p>
+
+<p>While the strength and probable durability
+of leather can only be judged by a
+trained leather chemist, there remains for
+the binders selection, the kind of leather
+to use, and its colour.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the leather prepared for bookbinding
+is too highly finished. The
+finishing processes add a good deal to the
+cost of the leather, and are apt to be injurious
+to it, and as much of the high<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span>
+finish is lost in covering, it would be
+better for the bookbinder to get rougher
+leather and finish it himself when it is on
+the book.</p>
+
+<p>The leathers in common use for bookbinding
+are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Goatskin, known as morocco.</li>
+<li>Calf, known as calf and russia.</li>
+<li>Sheepskin, known as roan, basil, skiver, &amp;c.</li>
+<li>Pigskin, known as pigskin.</li>
+<li>Sealskin, known as seal.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<p><i>Morocco</i> is probably the best leather for
+extra binding if properly prepared, but
+experiment has shown that the expensive
+Levant moroccos are nearly always ruined
+in their manufacture. A great many
+samples of the most expensive Levant
+morocco were tested, with the result that
+they were all found to contain free sulphuric
+acid.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calf.</i>&mdash;Modern vegetable-tanned calf
+has become a highly unsatisfactory material,
+and until some radical changes
+are made in the methods of manufacturing
+it, it should not be used for bookbinding.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sheepskin.</i>&mdash;A properly tanned sheepskin
+makes a very durable, though rather<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>
+soft and woolly, leather. Much of the
+bookbinding leather now made from sheepskin
+is quite worthless. Bookbinders
+should refuse to have anything to do
+with any leather that has been artificially
+grained, as the process is apt to be highly
+injurious to the skin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pigskin.</i>&mdash;Pigskin is a thoroughly good
+leather naturally, and very strong, especially
+the alumed skins; but many of the
+dyed pigskins are found to be improperly
+tanned and dyed, and worthless for bookbinding.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sealskin</i> is highly recommended by one
+eminent librarian, but I have not yet had
+any experience of its use for bookbinding.</p>
+
+<p>The leather that I have found most
+useful is the Niger goatskin, brought
+from Africa by the Royal Niger Company;
+it is a very beautiful colour and
+texture, and has stood all the tests tried,
+without serious deterioration. The difficulty
+with this leather is that, being a
+native production, it is somewhat carelessly
+prepared, and is much spoiled by
+flaws and stains on the surface, and many
+skins are quite worthless. It is to be
+hoped that before long some of the manufacturers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>
+interested will produce skins as
+good in quality and colour as the best
+Niger morocco, and with fewer flaws.</p>
+
+<p>Much leather is ruined in order to
+obtain an absolutely even colour. A
+slight unevenness of colours is very pleasing,
+and should rather be encouraged than
+objected to. That the want of interest
+in absolutely flat colours has been felt, is
+shown by the frequency with which the
+binders get rid of flat, even colours by
+sprinkling and marbling.</p>
+
+<p>On this point I may quote from the committee:
+&#8220;The sprinkling of leather,
+either for the production of &#8216;sprinkled&#8217;
+calf or &#8216;tree&#8217; calf, with ferrous sulphate
+(green vitriol) must be most strongly
+condemned, as the iron combines with and
+destroys the tan in the leather, and free
+sulphuric acid is liberated, which is still
+more destructive. Iron acetate or lactate
+is somewhat less objectionable, but probably
+the same effects may be obtained
+with aniline colours without risk to the
+leather.&#8221;</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span></h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle" style="text-align: center">Paper&mdash;Pastes&mdash;Glue</p>
+
+
+<h5>PAPER</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Paper</span> may be made by hand or machinery,
+and either &#8220;laid&#8221; or &#8220;wove.&#8221; &#8220;Laid&#8221;
+papers are distinguished by wire marks,
+which are absent in &#8220;wove&#8221; paper.</p>
+
+<p>A sheet of hand-made paper has all
+round it a rough uneven edge called the
+&#8220;deckle,&#8221; that is a necessary result of
+its method of manufacture. The early
+printers looked upon this ragged edge as
+a defect, and almost invariably trimmed
+most of it off before putting books into
+permanent bindings. Book-lovers quite
+rightly like to find traces of the &#8220;deckle&#8221;
+edge, as evidence that a volume has not
+been unduly reduced by the binder. But
+it has now become the fashion to admire
+the &#8220;deckle&#8221; for its own sake, and to
+leave books on hand-made paper absolutely
+untrimmed, with ragged edges
+that collect the dirt, are unsightly, and
+troublesome to turn over. So far has
+this craze gone, that machine-made paper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>
+is often put through an extra process to
+give it a sham deckle edge.</p>
+
+<p>Roughly speaking, paper varies in quality
+according to the proportion of fibrous
+material, such as rag, used in the manufacture.
+To make paper satisfactorily by
+hand, a large proportion of such fibrous
+material is necessary, so that the fact that
+the paper is hand-made is to some extent
+a guarantee of its quality. There are
+various qualities of hand-made paper,
+made from different materials, chiefly
+linen and cotton rags. The best paper is
+made from pure linen rag, and poorer
+hand-made paper from cotton rag, while
+other qualities contain a mixture of the
+two or other substances.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible to make a thoroughly
+good paper by machinery if good materials
+are used. Some excellent papers
+are made by machinery; but the enormous
+demand for paper, together with
+the fact that now almost any fibrous
+material can be made into paper, has
+resulted in the production, in recent
+years, of, perhaps, the worst papers that
+have ever been seen.</p>
+
+<p>This would not matter if the use of
+the poor papers were restricted to newspapers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>
+and other ephemeral literature,
+but when, as is often the case, paper of
+very poor quality is used for books of
+permanent literary interest, the matter is
+serious enough.</p>
+
+<p>Among the worst papers made are the
+heavily loaded &#8220;Art&#8221; papers that are prepared
+for the printing of half-toned process
+blocks. It is to be hoped that
+before long the paper makers will produce
+a paper that, while suitable for
+printing half-toned blocks, will be more
+serviceable, and will have a less unpleasant
+surface.</p>
+
+<p>Several makers produce coloured handmade
+papers suitable for end papers.
+Machine-made papers can be had in endless
+variety from any number of makers.</p>
+
+<p>The paper known as &#8220;Japanese Vellum&#8221;
+is a very tough material, and will be
+found useful for repairing vellum books;
+the thinnest variety of it is very suitable
+for mending the backs of broken sections,
+or for strengthening weak places in paper.</p>
+
+<p>The following delightful account of
+paper making by hand is quoted from
+&#8220;Evelyn&#8217;s Diary, 1641-1706.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;I went to see my Lord of St. Alban&#8217;s
+house at Byflete, an old large building.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>
+Thence to the paper mills, where I found
+them making a coarse white paper. They
+cull the raggs, which are linnen, for white
+paper, woollen for brown, then they stamp
+them in troughs to a papp with pestles or
+hammers like the powder-mills, then put
+it into a vessell of water, in which they
+dip a frame closely wyred with a wyre as
+small as a haire, and as close as a weaver&#8217;s
+reede; on this they take up the papp,
+the superfluous water draining thro&#8217;
+the wyre; this they dextrously turning,
+shake out like a pancake on a smooth
+board between two pieces of flannell, then
+press it between a greate presse, the flannell
+sucking out the moisture; then taking
+it out they ply and dry it on strings,
+as they dry linnen in the laundry; then
+dip it in alum-water, lastly polish and
+make it up in quires. They put some
+gum in the water in which they macerate
+the raggs. The mark we find on the
+sheets is formed in the wyre.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The following are the more usual sizes
+of printing papers&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="printing papers">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td style="padding-left: 4.5em">Inches.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Foolscap</td><td style="padding-left: 4em">17 &times; 13&frac12;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Crown</td><td style="padding-left: 4em">20 &times; 15</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>Post</td><td style="padding-left: 3.3em">19&frac14; &times; 15&frac12;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Demy</td><td style="padding-left: 3.3em">22&frac12; &times; 17&frac12;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Medium</td><td style="padding-left: 4em">24 &times; 19</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Royal</td><td style="padding-left: 4em">25 &times; 20</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Double Pott</td><td style="padding-left: 4em">25 &times; 15</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="padding-left: 1.4em">"</span><span style="padding-left: 1.2em">Foolscap</span></td><td style="padding-left: 4em">27 &times; 17</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Super Royal</td><td style="padding-left: 4em">27 &times; 21</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Double Crown</td><td style="padding-left: 4em">30 &times; 20</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Imperial</td><td style="padding-left: 4em">30 &times; 22</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Double Post</td><td style="padding-left: 3.3em">31&frac12; &times; 19&frac12;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The corresponding sizes of hand-made
+papers may differ slightly from the above.</p>
+
+<p>Although the above are the principal
+sizes named, almost any size can be made
+to order.</p>
+
+<p>The following is an extract from the
+report of the Committee of the Society
+of Arts on the deterioration of paper,
+published in 1898: &#8220;The committee
+find that the paper-making fibres may
+be ranged into four classes:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>A. Cotton, flax, and hemp.</li>
+<li>B. Wood, celluloses (<i>a</i>) sulphite process, and (<i>b</i>) soda and sulphate process.</li>
+<li>C. Esparto and straw celluloses.</li>
+<li>D. Mechanical wood pulp.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<p>In regard, therefore, to papers for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>
+books and documents of permanent value,
+the selection must be taken in this order,
+and always with due regard to the fulfilment
+of the conditions of normal treatment
+above dealt with as common to all
+papers.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The committee have been desirous of
+bringing their investigations to a practical
+conclusion in specific terms, viz. by the
+suggestion of standards of quality. It is
+evident that in the majority of cases, there
+is little fault to find with the practical
+adjustments which rule the trade. They
+are, therefore, satisfied to limit their
+specific findings to the following, viz.,
+<i>Normal standard of quality for book papers
+required for publications of permanent value.</i>
+For such papers they would specify as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<i>Fibres.</i> Not less than 70 per cent. of
+fibres of Class A.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<i>Sizing.</i> Not more than 2 per cent.
+rosin, and finished with the normal
+acidity of pure alum.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<i>Loading.</i> Not more than 10 per cent.
+total mineral matter (ash).</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;With regard to written documents, it
+must be evident that the proper materials
+are those of Class A, and that the paper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>
+should be pure, and sized with gelatine,
+and not with rosin. All imitations of
+high-class writing papers, which are, in
+fact, merely disguised printing papers,
+should be carefully avoided.&#8221;</p>
+
+
+<h5>PASTES</h5>
+
+<p>To make paste for covering books,
+&amp;c., take 2 oz. of flour, and &frac14; oz. of
+powdered alum, and well mix with enough
+water to form a thin paste, taking care to
+break up any lumps. Add a pint of cold
+water, and heat gently in an enamelled
+saucepan. As it becomes warm, it should
+be stirred from time to time, and when it
+begins to boil it should be continually
+stirred for about five minutes. It should
+then form a thick paste that can be
+thinned with warm water. Of course
+any quantity can be made if the proportions
+are the same.</p>
+
+<p>Paste for use is best kept in a wooden
+trough, called a &#8220;paste tub.&#8221; The paste
+tub will need to be cleaned out from
+time to time, and all fragments of dry
+paste removed. This can easily be done
+if it is left, overnight, filled with water.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span>
+Before using, the paste should be well
+beaten up with a flat stick.</p>
+
+<p>For pasting paper, it should have about
+the consistency and smoothness of cream;
+for leather, it can be thicker. For very
+thick leather a little thin glue may be
+added. Paste made with alum will keep
+about a fortnight, but can be kept longer
+by the addition of corrosive sublimate in
+the proportion of one part of corrosive
+sublimate to a thousand parts of paste.
+Corrosive sublimate, being a deadly poison,
+will prevent the attack of bookworms or
+other insects, but for the same reason
+must only be used by responsible people,
+and paste in which it is used must be kept
+out of the way of domestic animals.</p>
+
+<p>Several makes of excellent prepared
+paste can be bought in London. These
+pastes are as cheap as can be made, and
+keep good a long time.</p>
+
+<p>Paste that has become sour should never
+be used, as there is danger that the products
+of its acid fermentation may injure
+the leather.</p>
+
+<p>Paste tubs as sold often have an iron
+bar across them to wipe the brush on.
+This should be removed, and replaced by
+a piece of twisted cord. Paste brushes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>
+should be bound with string or zinc;
+copper or iron will stain the paste.</p>
+
+
+<h5>WHITE PASTE FOR MENDING</h5>
+
+<p>A good paste for mending is made from
+a teaspoonful of ordinary flour, two teaspoonsful
+of cornflour, half a teaspoonful
+of alum, and three ounces of water. These
+should be carefully mixed, breaking up
+all lumps, and then should be heated in a
+clean saucepan, and stirred all the time
+with a wooden or bone spoon. The paste
+should boil for about five minutes, but
+not too fast, or it will burn and turn
+brown. Rice-flour or starch may be substituted
+for cornflour, and for very white
+paper the wheaten flour may be omitted.
+Ordinary paste is not nearly white enough
+for mending, and is apt to leave unsightly
+stains.</p>
+
+<p>Cornflour paste may be used directly
+after it is made, and will keep good under
+ordinary circumstances for about a week.
+Directly it gets hard or goes watery, a
+new batch must be made.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h5>GLUE</h5>
+
+<p>It is important for bookbinders that
+the glue used should be of good quality,
+and the best hide glue will be found to
+answer well. To prepare it for use, the
+glue should be broken up into small
+pieces and left to soak overnight in
+water. In the morning it should be
+soft and greatly swollen, but not melted,
+and can then be put in the glue-pot and
+gently simmered until it is fluid. It is
+then ready for use. Glue loses in quality
+by being frequently heated, so that it is
+well not to make a great quantity at a
+time. The glue-pot should be thoroughly
+cleaned out before new glue is put into
+it, and the old glue sticking round the
+sides taken out.</p>
+
+<p>Glue should be used hot and not too
+thick. If it is stringy and difficult to
+work, it can be broken up by rapidly
+twisting the brush in the glue-pot. For
+paper the glue should be very thin and
+well worked up with the brush before
+using.</p>
+
+<p>The following is quoted from &#8220;Chambers&#8217;
+Encyclop&aelig;dia&#8221; article on Glue:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;While England does not excel in the
+manufacture, it is a recognised fact that
+Scottish glue ... ranks in the front of
+the glues of all countries. A light-coloured
+glue is not necessarily good,
+nor a dark-coloured glue necessarily bad.
+A bright, clear, claret colour is the natural
+colour of hide glue, which is the best and
+most economical.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Light-coloured glues (as distinguished
+from gelatine) are made either from bones
+or sheepskins. The glue yielded by these
+materials cannot compare with the strength
+of that yielded by hides.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A great quantity is now made in
+France and Germany from bones. It is
+got as a by-product in the manufacture
+of animal charcoal. Although beautiful
+to look at, it is found when used to be
+far inferior to Scottish hide glue.&#8221;</p>
+
+
+
+<h2 style="line-height: 180%"><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II"></a>PART II<br />
+
+CARE OF BOOKS WHEN
+BOUND</h2>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span></h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle" style="text-align: center">Injurious Influences to which Books are Subjected</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Gas Fumes.</i>&mdash;The investigation of the
+Society of Arts Committee shows that&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Of all the influences to which books
+are exposed in libraries, gas fumes&mdash;no
+doubt because of the sulphuric and sulphurous
+acid which they contain&mdash;are
+shown to be the most injurious.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The injurious effects of gas fumes on
+leather have been recognised for a long
+time, and gas is being, very generally,
+given up in libraries in consequence. If
+books must be kept where gas is used,
+they should not be put high up in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span>
+room, and great attention should be paid
+to ventilation. It is far better, where
+possible, to avoid the use of gas at all
+in libraries.</p>
+
+<p><i>Light.</i>&mdash;The committee also report that
+&#8220;light, and especially direct sunlight and
+hot air, are shown to possess deleterious
+influences which had scarcely been suspected
+previously, and the importance of
+moderate temperature and thorough ventilation
+of libraries cannot be too much
+insisted on.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The action of light on leather has a
+disintegrating effect, very plainly seen
+when books have stood for long periods
+on shelves placed at right angles to
+windows. At Oxford and Cambridge
+and at the British Museum Library the
+same thing was noticed. The leather
+on that side, of the backs of books,
+next to the light, was absolutely rotten,
+crumbling to dust at the slightest friction,
+while at the side away from the light it
+was comparatively sound. Vellum bindings
+were even more affected than those of
+leather.</p>
+
+<p>The committee advise that library
+windows exposed to the direct sunlight
+should be glazed with tinted glass.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Some attempts have been made to
+determine the effect of light transmitted
+through glasses of different colours, and
+they point to the fact that blue and
+violet glass pass light of nearly as deleterious
+quality as white glass; while leathers
+under red, green, and yellow glasses were
+almost completely protected. There can
+be no doubt that the use of pale yellow
+or olive-green glass in library windows
+exposed to direct sunlight is desirable.
+A large number of experiments have been
+made on the tinted &#8216;cathedral&#8217; glasses of
+Messrs. Pilkington Bros., Limited, with
+the result that Nos. 812 and 712 afforded
+almost complete protection during two
+months&#8217; exposure to sunlight, while Nos.
+704 and 804 may be recommended where
+only very pale shades are permissible.
+The glasses employed were subjected to
+careful spectroscopic examination, and to
+colour-measurement by the tintometer,
+but neither were found to give precise
+indications as to the protective power of
+the glasses, which is no doubt due to the
+absorption of the violet, and especially
+of the invisible ultra-violet rays. An easy
+method of comparing glasses is to expose
+under them to sunlight the ordinary sensitised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span>
+albumenised photographic paper.
+Those glasses under which this is least
+darkened are also most protective to
+leather.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><i>Tobacco.</i>&mdash;Smoking was found to be
+injurious, and it is certainly a mistake to
+allow it in libraries.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The effect of ammonia vapour, and
+tobacco fumes, of which ammonia is one
+of the active ingredients, was also examined.
+The effect of ammonia fumes
+was very marked, darkening every description
+of leather, and it is known that in
+extreme cases it causes a rapid form of
+decay. Tobacco smoke had a very similar
+darkening and deleterious effect (least
+marked in the case of sumach tanned
+leathers), and there can be no doubt that
+the deterioration of bindings in a library
+where smoking was permitted and the
+rooms much used, must have been partly
+due to this cause.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><i>Damp.</i>&mdash;Books kept in damp places
+will develop mildew, and both leather
+and paper will be ruined.</p>
+
+<p>Where possible, naturally dry rooms
+should be used for libraries, and if not
+naturally dry, every means possible should
+be taken to render them so. It will some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span>times
+be found that the only way to keep
+the walls of an old house dry is to put in
+a proper dampcourse. There are various
+other methods employed, such as lining
+the walls with thin lead, or painting them
+inside and out with some waterproofing
+preparation: but as long as a wall remains
+in itself damp, it is doubtful if any
+of these things will permanently keep the
+damp from penetrating.</p>
+
+<p>Bookshelves should never be put against
+the wall, nor the books on the floor.
+There should always be space for air to
+circulate on all sides of the bookshelves.
+Damp is specially injurious if books are
+kept behind closely-fitting doors. The
+doors of bookcases should be left open
+from time to time on warm days.</p>
+
+<p>Should mildew make its appearance, the
+books should be taken out, dried and
+aired, and the bookshelves thoroughly
+cleaned. The cause of the damp should
+be sought for, and measures taken to
+remedy it. Library windows should not
+be left open at night, nor during damp
+weather, but in warm fine weather the
+more ventilation there is, the better.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heat.</i>&mdash;While damp is very injurious
+to books on account of the development<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span>
+of mildew, unduly hot dry air is almost
+as bad, causing leather to dry up and
+lose its flexibility. On this point the
+Chairman of the Society of Arts Committee
+says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Rooms in which books are kept should
+not be subject to extremes, whether of
+heat or cold, of moisture or dryness. It
+may be said that the better adapted a
+room is for human occupation, the better
+for the books it contains. Damp is, of
+course, most mischievous, but over-dryness
+induced by heated air, especially when
+the pipes are in close proximity to the
+bookcases, is also very injurious.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><i>Dust.</i>&mdash;Books should be taken from the
+shelves at least once a year, dusted and
+aired, and the bindings rubbed with a preservative.</p>
+
+<p>To dust a book, it should be removed
+from the shelf, and without being opened,
+turned upside down and flicked with a
+feather duster. If a book with the dust
+on the top is held loosely in the hand, and
+dusted right way up, dust may fall between
+the leaves. Dusting should be done
+in warm, dry weather; and afterwards,
+the books may be stood on the table
+slightly open, to air, with their leaves<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span>
+loose. Before being returned to the
+shelves, the bindings should be lightly
+rubbed with some preservative preparation
+(see <a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">chap. XXII</a>). Any bindings that
+are broken, or any leaves that are loose
+should be noted, and the books put on
+one side to be sent to the binder. It
+would be best when the library is large
+enough to warrant it, to employ a working
+bookbinder to do this work; such a
+man would be useful in many ways. He
+could stick on labels, repair bindings, and
+do many other odd jobs to keep the books
+in good repair.</p>
+
+<p>A bookbinder could be kept fully employed,
+binding and repairing the books of
+a comparatively small library under the
+direction of the librarian.</p>
+
+
+<h5>BOOKWORMS</h5>
+
+<p>The insects known as bookworms are
+the larv&aelig; of several sorts of beetles, most
+commonly perhaps of <i>Antobium domesticum</i>
+and <i>Niptus hololencus</i>. They are not
+in any way peculiar to books and will infest
+the wood of bookshelves, walls, or
+floors. A good deal can be done to keep
+&#8220;worms&#8221; away by using such substances<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span>
+as camphor or naphthaline in the bookcase.
+Bookworms do not attack modern books
+very much; probably they dislike the alum
+put in the paste and the mill-boards made
+of old tarred rope.</p>
+
+<p>In old books, especially such as come
+from Italy, it is often found that the
+ravages of the bookworms are almost
+entirely confined to the glue on the backs
+of the books, and it generally seems that
+the glue and paste attract them. Probably
+if corrosive sublimate were put in
+the glue and paste used it would stop
+their attacks. Alum is said to be a preventive,
+but I have known bookworms to
+eat their way through leather pasted on
+with paste containing alum, when, in recovering,
+the old wooden boards containing
+bookworms have been utilised in error.</p>
+
+<p>When on shaking the boards of an old
+book dust flies out, or when little heaps
+of dust are found on the shelf on which
+an old book has been standing, it may be
+considered likely that there are bookworms
+present. It is easy to kill any that may be
+hatched, by putting the book in an air-tight
+box surrounded with cotton wool soaked
+in ether; but that will not kill the eggs,
+and the treatment must be repeated from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span>
+time to time at intervals of a few
+weeks.</p>
+
+<p>Any book that is found to contain
+bookworms should be isolated and at once
+treated. Tins may be put inside the boards
+to prevent the &#8220;worms&#8221; eating into the
+leaves.</p>
+
+<p>Speaking of bookworms, Jules Cousin
+says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;One of the simplest means to be employed
+(to get rid of bookworms) is to
+place behind the books, especially in the
+place where the insects show their presence
+most, pieces of linen soaked with essence
+of turpentine, camphor, or an infusion of
+tobacco, and to renew them when the smell
+goes off. A little fine pepper might also
+be scattered on the shelf, the penetrating
+smell of which would produce the same
+effect.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Possibly Keating&#8217;s Insect Powder would
+answer as well or better than pepper.</p>
+
+
+<h5>RATS AND MICE</h5>
+
+<p>Rats and mice will gnaw the backs of
+books to get at the glue, so, means should
+be taken to get rid of these vermin if
+they should appear. Mice especially will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span>
+nibble vellum binding or the edges of
+vellum books that have become greasy
+with much handling.</p>
+
+
+<h5>COCKROACHES</h5>
+
+<p>Cockroaches are very troublesome in
+libraries, eating the bindings. Keating&#8217;s
+Insect Powder will keep them away from
+books, but only so long as it is renewed at
+short intervals.</p>
+
+
+<h5>PLACING THE BOOKS IN THE SHELVES</h5>
+
+<p>The Chairman of the Society of Arts
+Special Committee says on this point:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is important that a just medium
+should be observed between the close and
+loose disposition of books in the shelves.
+Tight packing causes the pulling off of
+the tops of book-backs, injurious friction
+between their sides, and undue pressure,
+which tends to force off their backs. But
+books should not stand loosely on the
+shelves. They require support and moderate
+lateral pressure, otherwise the leaves
+are apt to open and admit dust, damp, and
+mildew. The weight of the leaves also in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span>
+good-sized volumes loosely placed will
+often be found to be resting on the shelf,
+making the backs concave, and spoiling
+the shape and cohesion of the books.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In libraries where classification is attempted
+there must be a certain number
+of partially filled shelves. The books in
+these should be kept in place by some such
+device as that in use in the British Museum,
+namely, a simple flat angle piece of galvanised
+iron, on the lower flange of which the
+end books rest, keeping it down, the upright
+flange keeping the books close and
+preventing them from spreading.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>He also speaks of the danger to bindings
+of rough or badly-painted bookshelves:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Great care should be exercised when
+bookcases are painted or varnished that
+the surface should be left hard, smooth,
+and dry. Bindings, especially those of
+delicate texture, may be irreparably rubbed
+if brought in contact with rough or
+coarsely-painted surfaces, while the paint
+itself, years after its original application,
+is liable to come off upon the books, leaving
+indelible marks. In such cases pasteboard
+guards against the ends of the
+shelves are the only remedy.&#8221;</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a>CHAPTER XXII<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span></h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle" style="text-align: center">To Preserve Old Bindings&mdash;Re-backing</p>
+
+
+<h5>TO PRESERVE OLD BINDINGS</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is a well-known fact that the leather of
+bindings that are much handled lasts very
+much better than that on books which
+remain untouched on the shelves. There
+is little doubt that the reason for this is
+that the slight amount of grease the
+leather receives from the hands nourishes
+it and keeps it flexible. A coating of
+glair or varnish is found to some extent
+to protect leather from adverse outside
+influences, but, unfortunately, both glair
+and varnish tend rather to harden leather
+than to keep it flexible, and they fail just
+where failure is most serious, that is at
+the joints. In opening and shutting, any
+coat of glair or varnish that has become
+hard will crack, and expose the leather of
+the joint and back. Flexibility is an
+essential quality in bookbinding leather,
+for as soon as the leather at the joint of a
+binding becomes stiff it breaks away when
+the boards are opened.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It would add immensely to the life of
+old leather bindings if librarians would have
+them treated, say once a year, with some
+preservative. The consequent expense
+would be saved many times over by the
+reduction of the cost of rebinding. Such
+a preservative must not stain, must not
+evaporate, must not become hard, and
+must not be sticky. Vaseline has been
+recommended, and answers fairly well,
+but will evaporate, although slowly. I
+have found that a solution of paraffin wax
+in castor oil answers well. It is cheap and
+very simple to prepare. To prepare it,
+some castor oil is put into an earthenware
+jar, and about half its weight of paraffin
+wax shredded into it. On warming, the
+wax will melt, and the preparation is
+ready for use.</p>
+
+<p>A little of the preparation is well
+worked into a piece of flannel, and the
+books rubbed with it, special attention
+being paid to the back and joints. They
+may be further rubbed with the hand, and
+finally gone over with a clean, soft cloth.
+Very little of the preparation need be
+used on each book.</p>
+
+<p>If bindings have projecting metal corners
+or clasps that are likely to scratch the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>
+neighbouring books, pieces of mill-board,
+which may be lined with leather or good
+paper, should be placed next them, or they
+may have a cover made of a piece of mill-board
+bent round as shown at <a href="#Fig_120">fig. 120</a>, and
+strengthened at the folds with linen. This
+may be slipped into the shelf with the
+book with the open
+end outwards, and
+will then hardly be
+seen.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 100px;"><a name="Fig_120" id="Fig_120"></a>
+<img src="images/gs305.jpg" width="100" height="128" alt="Fig. 120." title="Fig. 120." />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 120.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Bindings which
+have previously had
+metal clasps, &amp;c.,
+often have projecting
+fragments of the
+old nails. These
+should be sought for
+and carefully removed
+or driven in,
+as they may seriously damage any bindings
+with which they come in contact.</p>
+
+<p>To protect valuable old bindings, cases
+may be made and lettered on the back
+with the title of the book.</p>
+
+<p>Loose covers that necessitate the bending
+back of the boards for their removal
+are not recommended.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h5>RE-BACKING</h5>
+
+<p>Bindings that have broken joints may
+be re-backed. Any of the leather of the
+back that remains should be carefully
+removed and preserved. It is impossible
+to get some leathers off tight backs without
+destroying them, but with care and
+by the use of a thin folder, many backs
+can be saved. The leather on the boards
+is cut a little back from the joint with a
+slanting cut, that will leave a thin edge,
+and is then lifted up with a folder. New
+leather, of the same colour is pasted on
+the back, and tucked in under the old
+leather on the board. The leather from
+the old back should have its edges pared
+and any lumps of glue or paper removed
+and be pasted on to the new leather and
+bound tightly with tape to make sure that
+it sticks.</p>
+
+<p>When the leather at the corners of the
+board needs repairing, the corner is glued
+and tapped with a hammer to make it
+hard and square, and when it is dry a
+little piece of new leather is slipped under
+the old and the corner covered.</p>
+
+<p>When the sewing cords or thread of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span>
+book have perished it should be rebound,
+but if there are any remains of the original
+binding they should be preserved and
+utilised. If the old boards have quite
+perished, new boards of the same nature
+and thickness should be got out and the
+old cover pasted over them. Such places
+as the old leather will not cover, must
+first be covered with new of the same
+colour. Generally speaking, it is desirable
+that the characteristics of an old book
+should be preserved, and that the new
+work should be as little in evidence as
+possible. It is far more pleasant to see
+an old book in a patched contemporary
+binding, than smug and tidy in the most
+immaculate modern cover.</p>
+
+<p>Part of the interest of any old book
+is its individual history, which can be
+gathered from the binding, book-plates,
+marginal notes, names of former owners,
+&amp;c., and anything that tends to obliterate
+these signs is to be deplored.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="SPECIFICATIONS" id="SPECIFICATIONS"></a>SPECIFICATIONS<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span></h2>
+
+<h2>SPECIFICATIONS FOR BOOKBINDING</h2>
+
+<p class="center">These specifications will require modification in special
+cases, and are only intended to be a general guide.</p>
+
+
+
+<table summary="bindings" class="bindings" cellpadding="4">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0em"> I. For Extra Binding suitable for Valuable Books. Whole Leather.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span></td>
+<td style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0em">II. For Good Binding for Books of Reference, Catalogues, &amp;c., and other
+heavy Books that may have a great deal of use. Whole or Half Leather.</td>
+<td style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0em">III. For Binding for Libraries, for Books in current use. Half Leather.</td>
+<td style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0em">IV. For Library Bindings of Books of little Interest or Value, Cloth or Half Linen.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SHEETS.</td>
+<td>To be carefully folded, or, if an old book, all damaged leaves to be carefully mended, the backs
+where damaged to be made sound. Single leaves to be guarded round the sections next them. All
+plates to be guarded. Guards to be sewn through. No pasting on or overcasting to be allowed.</td>
+<td>As No. I., excepting that any mending may be done rather with a
+view to strength than extreme neatness.</td>
+<td>Same as No. II.</td>
+<td>Any leaves damaged at the back or plates to be overcast into sections.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>END PAPERS.</td>
+<td>To be sewn on. To be of good paper made with zigzag, with board papers of self-coloured paper
+of good quality, or vellum. Or to be made with leather joint.</td>
+<td>To be of good paper made with zigzag, with board papers of self-coloured
+paper of good quality. Large or heavy books to have a cloth joint. To be sewn on.</td>
+<td>To be of good paper, sewn on, made with zigzag.</td>
+<td>Same as No. III.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PRESSING.</td>
+<td>Books on handmade paper not to be pressed unduly.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span></td>
+<td>Same as No. I.</td>
+<td>Same as No. I.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>EDGES.</td>
+<td>To be trimmed and gilt before sewing. To be uncut.</td>
+<td>To be cut and gilt in boards or coloured, or to be uncut.</td>
+<td>To be uncut, or to be cut in guillotine and gilt or coloured, or to have top
+edge only gilt.</td>
+<td>May be cut smooth in guillotine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SEWING.</td>
+<td>To be with ligature silk, flexible, round five bands of best sewing cord.</td>
+<td>To be with unbleached thread, flexible, round five bands of best sewing cord.</td>
+<td>To be with unbleached thread across not less than four unbleached linen tapes.</td>
+<td>With unbleached thread over three unbleached linen tapes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>BACK.</td>
+<td>To be kept as flat as it can be without forcing it and without
+danger of its becoming concave in use.</td>
+<td>Same as for No. I.</td>
+<td>Same as for Nos. I. and II.</td>
+<td>Back to be left square after glueing up.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>BOARDS.</td>
+<td>To be of the best black mill-board. Two boards to be made together for large books,
+and all five bands laced in through two holes.</td>
+<td>Same as No. I., or may be of good grey board.</td>
+<td>To be split grey boards, or straw-board with black board liner, with ends
+of tapes attached to portion of waste sheet, inserted between them. Boards
+to be left a short distance from the joint
+to form a French joint.</td>
+<td>To be split boards, two straw-boards made together and ends of slips
+inserted. French joint to be left.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>HEADBANDS.</td>
+<td>To be worked with silk on strips of vellum or catgut or cord, with frequent tie-downs.
+The headbands to be &#8220;set&#8221; by pieces of good paper or leather
+glued at head and tail. The back to be lined up with leather all over if the book is large.</td>
+<td> Same as No. I.</td>
+<td>To be worked with thread or vellum or cord, or to be omitted and a piece of
+cord inserted into the turn in of the leather at head and tail in their place.</td>
+<td>No headbands.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>COVERS.</td>
+<td>Goatskin (morocco), pigskin or seal-skin manufactured according to the
+recommendations of the Society of Arts&#8217; Committee on Leather for Bookbinding. Whole binding;
+leather to be attached directly to the back.</td>
+<td>Same as No. I., excepting that properly prepared sheepskin may
+be added. Half-binding, leather only at back. Corners to be strengthened with tips
+of vellum. Sides covered with good paper or linen.</td>
+<td>Same as Nos. I. and II., but skins may be used where there are surface
+flaws that do not affect the strength. Leather to be used thicker than is
+usual, there being French joints. Leather at back only; paper sides; vellum tips.</td>
+<td>Whole buckram or half linen and paper sides.</td></tr>
+<tr><td> LETTERING.</td>
+<td>To be legible and to identify the volume.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span></td>
+<td>Same as No. I.</td>
+<td>Same as Nos. I. and II.</td>
+<td>Same as Nos. I. II. and III.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>DECORATION.</td>
+<td>To be as much or as little as the nature of the book warrants.</td>
+<td>To be omitted, or only to consist of a few lines or dots or other
+quite simple ornament.</td>
+<td>To be omitted.</td>
+<td>To be omitted.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>All work to be done in the best manner.</td>
+<td>Work may be a little rougher, but not careless or dirty.</td>
+<td>Same as No. II.</td>
+<td>Same as No. II.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h2><a name="GLOSSARY" id="GLOSSARY"></a>GLOSSARY<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span></h2>
+
+<div class="glossary">
+<p><i>Arming press</i>, a small blocking press used for striking
+arms-blocks on the sides of books.</p>
+
+<p><i>Backing boards</i>, wedge-shaped bevelled boards used in
+backing (see <a href="#Fig_40">Fig. 40</a>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Backing machine</i>, used for backing cheap work in large
+quantities; it often crushes and damages the backs
+of the sections.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bands</i>, (1) the cords on which a book is sewn.
+(2) The ridges on the back caused by the bands
+showing through the leather.</p>
+
+<p><i>Band nippers</i>, pincers with flat jaws, used for straightening
+the bands (see <a href="#Fig_61">Fig. 61</a>). For nipping up
+the leather after covering, they should be nickelled
+to prevent the iron staining the leather.</p>
+
+<p><i>Beating stone</i>, the &#8220;stone&#8221; on which books were
+formerly beaten; now generally superseded by
+the rolling machine and standing press.</p>
+
+<p><i>Blind tooling</i>, the impression of finishing tools without
+gold.</p>
+
+<p><i>Blocking press</i>, a press used for impressing blocks such
+as those used in decorating cloth cases.</p>
+
+<p><i>Board papers</i>, the part of the end papers pasted on to
+the boards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bodkin</i>, an awl used for making the holes in the boards
+for the slips.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bolt</i>, folded edge of the sheets in an unopened book.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cancels</i>, leaves containing errors, which have to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span>
+discarded and replaced by corrected sheets. Such
+leaves are marked by the printer with a star.</p>
+
+<p><i>Catch-word</i>, a word printed at the foot of one page
+indicating the first word of the page following, as
+a guide in collating.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cutting boards</i>, wedge-shaped boards somewhat like
+backing boards, but with the top edge square;
+used in cutting the edge of a book and in edge-gilding.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cutting in boards</i>, cutting the edges of a book after the
+boards are laced on.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cutting press</i>, when the lying press is turned, so that
+the side with the runners is uppermost, it is called
+a cutting press (see <a href="#Fig_46">Fig. 46</a>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Diaper</i>, a term applied to a small repeating all-over
+pattern. From woven material decorated in this
+way.</p>
+
+<p><i>Doublure</i>, the inside face of the boards, especially
+applied to them when lined with leather and
+decorated.</p>
+
+<p><i>End papers</i>, papers added at the beginning and end of
+a book by the binder.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extra binding</i>, a trade term for the best work.</p>
+
+<p><i>Finishing</i>, comprises lettering, tooling, and polishing, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Finishing press</i>, a small press used for holding books
+when they are being tooled (see <a href="#Fig_84">Fig. 84</a>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Finishing stove</i>, used for heating finishing tools.</p>
+
+<p><i>Folder</i>, a flat piece of ivory or bone, like a paper
+knife, used in folding sheets and in various other
+operations.</p>
+
+<p><i>Foredge</i> (fore edge), the front edge of the leaves.
+Pronounced &#8220;forrege.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><i>Forwarding</i>, comprises all the operations between sewing
+and finishing, excepting headbanding.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gathering</i>, collecting one sheet from each pile in a
+printer&#8217;s warehouse to make up a volume.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Glaire</i>, white of eggs beaten up, and used in finishing
+and edge gilding.</p>
+
+<p><i>Half binding</i>, when the leather covers the back and only
+part of the sides, a book is said to be half bound.</p>
+
+<p><i>Head band</i>, a fillet of silk or thread, worked at the
+head and tail of the back.</p>
+
+<p><i>Head cap</i>, the fold of leather over the head band
+(see <a href="#Fig_67">Fig. 67</a>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Head and tail</i>, the top and bottom of a book.</p>
+
+<p><i>Imperfections</i>, sheets rejected by the binder and returned
+to the printer to be replaced.</p>
+
+<p><i>India proofs</i>, strictly first proofs only of an illustration
+pulled on &#8220;India paper,&#8221; but used indiscriminately
+for all illustrations printed on India paper.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inset</i>, the portion of a sheet cut off and inserted in
+folding certain sizes, such as duodecimo, &amp;c. (see
+<a href="#Fig_4">Fig. 4</a>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Inside margins</i>, the border made by the turn in of
+the leather on the inside face of the boards (see
+<a href="#Fig_116">Fig. 116</a>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Joints</i>, (1) the groove formed in backing to receive
+the ends of the mill-boards. (2) The part of the
+binding that bends when the boards are opened.
+(3) Strips of leather or cloth used to strengthen
+the end papers.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<i>Kettle stitch</i>,&#8221; catch stitch formed in sewing at the
+head and tail.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lacing in</i>, lacing the slips through holes in the boards
+to attach them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lying press</i>, the term applied to the under side of the
+cutting press used for backing, usually ungrammatically
+called &#8220;laying press.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><i>Marbling</i>, colouring the edges and end papers in various
+patterns, obtained by floating colours on a gum
+solution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Millboard machine</i>, machine used for squaring boards;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span>
+should only be used for cheap work, as an edge
+cut by it will not be as square as if cut by the
+plough.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mitring</i>, (1) lines meeting at a right angle without
+overrunning are said to be mitred. (2) A join
+at 45&deg; as in the leather on the inside of the
+boards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Overcasting</i>, over-sewing the back edges of single
+leaves or weak sections.</p>
+
+<p><i>Peel</i>, a thin board on a handle used for hanging up
+sheets for drying.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plate</i>, an illustration printed from a plate. Term often
+incorrectly applied to illustrations printed from
+woodcuts. Any full-page illustration printed
+on different paper to the book is usually called a
+&#8220;plate.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><i>Pressing plates</i>, plates of metal japanned or nickelled,
+used for giving finish to the leather on a book.</p>
+
+<p><i>Press pin</i>, an iron bar used for turning the screws of
+presses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Proof</i>, edges left uncut as &#8220;proof&#8221; that the book has
+not been unduly cut down.</p>
+
+<p><i>Register</i>, (i.) when the print on one side of a leaf falls
+exactly over that on the other it is said to register.
+(ii.) Ribbon placed in a book as a marker.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rolling machine</i>, a machine in which the sheets of a
+book are subject to heavy pressure by being passed
+between rollers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sawing in</i>, when grooves are made in the back with a
+saw to receive the bands.</p>
+
+<p><i>Section</i>, the folded sheet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sem&eacute;e</i> or <i>Semis</i>, an heraldic term signifying sprinkled.</p>
+
+<p><i>Set off</i>, print is said to &#8220;set off&#8221; when part of the ink
+from a page comes off on an opposite page. This
+will happen if a book is pressed too soon after
+printing.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Sheet</i>, the full size of the paper as printed, forming a
+section when folded.</p>
+
+<p><i>Signature</i>, the letter or figure placed on the first page
+of each sheet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Slips</i>, the ends of the sewing cord or tape that are attached
+to the boards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Squares</i>, the portion of the boards projecting beyond
+the edges of the book.</p>
+
+<p><i>Start</i>, when, after cutting, one or more sections of the
+book come forward, making the fore edge irregular,
+they are said to have started.</p>
+
+<p><i>Straight edge</i>, a flat ruler.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tacky</i>, sticky.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;G.</i>, top-edge gilt.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trimmed.</i> The edges of a book are said to be
+trimmed when the edges of the larger (or projecting)
+leaves only have been cut.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tub</i>, the stand which supports the lying press. Originally
+an actual tub to catch the shavings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Uncut</i>, a book is said to be uncut when the edges of
+the paper have not been cut with the plough or
+guillotine.</p>
+
+<p><i>Unopened</i>, the book is said to be unopened if the bolts
+of the sheets have not been cut.</p>
+
+<p><i>Waterproof sheets</i>, sheets of celluloid, such as are used
+by photographers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Whole binding</i>, when the leather covers the back and
+sides of a volume.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wire staples</i> are used by certain machines in the place
+of thread for securing the sections.</p>
+
+<p><i>Groove</i>, that part of the sections which is turned over
+in backing to receive the board.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="REPRODUCTIONS_OF_BINDINGS" id="REPRODUCTIONS_OF_BINDINGS"></a>REPRODUCTIONS OF BINDINGS<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span></h2>
+
+<p class="reproductions">I., II., AND III.<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Fifteenth Century Blind-Tooled Bindings</span></p>
+
+<p class="reproductions">IV.<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Sixteenth Century Binding with Simple Gold-Tooling</span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="reproductions">V., VI., VII., AND VIII.<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Modern Bindings Designed by the Author<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="padding-top: 2em"><a href="images/plate01.jpg"><img src="images/plate01_th.jpg"
+alt="German Fifteenth Century. Pigskin." title="German Fifteenth Century. Pigskin. Actual size, 8&frac34;&#8243; &times; 6&frac14;&#8243;." /></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="caption">I.&mdash;German Fifteenth Century. Pigskin. Actual size, 8&frac34;&#8243; &times; 6&frac14;&#8243;.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="padding-top: 2em"><a href="images/plate02.jpg"><img src="images/plate02_th.jpg"
+alt="German Fifteenth Century. Calf." title="German Fifteenth Century. Calf. Actual size 12&frac12;&#8243; &times; 8&frac12;&#8243;." /></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="caption">II.&mdash;German Fifteenth Century. Calf. Actual size 12&frac12;&#8243; &times; 8&frac12;&#8243;.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="padding-top: 2em"><a href="images/plate03.jpg"><img src="images/plate03_th.jpg"
+alt="Italian Fifteenth Century. Sheepskin, with coloured roundels." title="Italian Fifteenth Century. Sheepskin, with coloured roundels.
+Actual size, 11&frac12;&#8243; &times; 8&frac14;&#8243;." /></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="caption">III.&mdash;Italian Fifteenth Century. Sheepskin, with coloured roundels.
+Actual size, 11&frac12;&#8243; &times; 8&frac14;&#8243;.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span></p>
+<p class="figcenter"><a href="images/plate04.jpg"><img src="images/plate04_th.jpg"
+alt="Italian Sixteenth Century." title="Italian Sixteenth Century. Actual size, 12&frac12;&#8243; &times; 8&frac12;&#8243;. Goatskin." /></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="caption">IV.&mdash;Italian Sixteenth Century. Actual size, 12&frac12;&#8243; &times; 8&frac12;&#8243;. Goatskin.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="padding-top: 2em"><a href="images/plate05.jpg"><img src="images/plate05_th.jpg"
+alt="Half Niger morocco, with sides of English oak." title="V.&mdash;Half Niger morocco, with sides of English oak.
+Actual size, 17&#8243; &times; 11&frac12;&#8243;." /></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="caption">V.&mdash;Half Niger morocco, with sides of English oak.
+Actual size, 17&#8243; &times; 11&frac12;&#8243;.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="padding-top: 2em"><a href="images/plate06.jpg"><img src="images/plate06_th.jpg"
+alt="Niger morocco, inlaid green leaves." title="Niger morocco, inlaid green leaves. Actual size, 8&frac14;&#8243; &times; 5&frac12;&#8243;." /></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="caption">VI.&mdash;Niger morocco, inlaid green leaves. Actual size, 8&frac14;&#8243; &times; 5&frac12;&#8243;.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="padding-top: 2em"><a href="images/plate07.jpg"><img src="images/plate07_th.jpg"
+alt="Green levant, inlaid with lighter green panel and red dots." title="Green levant, inlaid with lighter green panel and red dots.
+Actual size, 6&frac34;&#8243; &times; 4&frac12;&#8243;." /></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="caption">VII.&mdash;Green levant, inlaid with lighter green panel and red dots.
+Actual size, 6&frac34;&#8243; &times; 4&frac12;&#8243;.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="padding-top: 2em"><a href="images/plate08.jpg"><img src="images/plate08_th.jpg"
+alt="Niger morocco, executed by a student of the Central
+School of Arts and Crafts." title="VIII.&mdash;Niger morocco, executed by a student of the Central
+School of Arts and Crafts. Actual size, 11&frac34;&#8243; &times; 9&frac14;&#8243;." /></a></p>
+
+<p class="caption">VIII.&mdash;Niger morocco, executed by a student of the Central
+School of Arts and Crafts. Actual size, 11&frac34;&#8243; &times; 9&frac14;&#8243;.</p>
+
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span></h2>
+
+
+
+<ul><li><span class="smcap">Arming press</span>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+
+<li>Arms blocks, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+<li>Art paper, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li>Autograph letters, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Backing</span>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+
+<li>Backing hammer, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li>Back, lining up, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li>Band nippers, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li>Bands, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+
+<li>Bandstick, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li>Beating, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li>Beating stone, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+
+<li>Benzine, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li>Binding, decoration of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+
+<li>Binding, collotype reproductions of, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>-<a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+<li>Binding, embroidered, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li>Binding early printed books, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li>Binding, extra, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li>Binding, jewelled, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li>Binding, library, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li>Binding, manuscripts, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>Binding, metal-covered, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li>Binding, vellum, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li>Binding very thin books, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li>Blind tooling, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li>Blocking press, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+
+<li>Blocks, striking, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li>Boards, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li>Boards, attaching, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li>Boards, cutting, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+
+<li>Boards, filling in, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>Boards, lining, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li>Boards, pressing, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Boards, split, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+
+<li>Bodkin, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li>Bookbinding as a profession, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li>Books in sheets, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Bookworms, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li>Borders, designing, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li>Borders, inside, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Calf</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>Cancelled sheets, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li>Cased books, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li>Castor oil, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li>Catch stitch, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li>Catch words, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li>Celluloid, sheets of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>Centres, designing, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li>Chrome leather, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li>Clasps and ties, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li>Cleaning off back, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+<li>Cloth casing, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li>Cloth joints, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li>Cobden-Sanderson, T.&nbsp;J., xii., <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li>Cockroaches, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li>Cocoanut oil, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span>Collating, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li>Colouring edges, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+<li>Combining tools to form patterns, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li>Compasses, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li>Cord sewing, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li>Corners, mitring, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+<li>Cousin, Jules, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+
+<li>Covering, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li>Crushing the grain of leather, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+
+<li>Cutting in boards, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>Cutting mill-boards, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li>Cutting press, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Damp</span>, effect of, on bindings, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li>Decoration of bindings, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+
+<li>Designing tools, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li>Diaper patterns, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li>Dividers, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li>Dots, striking, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li>Doubluves, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li>Dressing for old bindings, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li>Dust and dusting, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Early</span> printed books, binding, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li>Edge colouring, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+<li>Edge gauffering, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+<li>Edge gilding, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+<li>Edge sizing, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li>Edges, painted, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li>Embroidered bindings, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li>End papers, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li>End, painted, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+
+<li>End, vellum, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li>Ends, silk, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li>Entering, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li>Evelyn&#8217;s Diary (quotation), <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li>&#8220;Extra&#8221; binding, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">False</span> bands, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+<li>Fillet, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li>Fillet, small, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li>Filling in boards, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>Finishing, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+
+<li>Finishing press, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li>Finishing tools, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li>Finishing stove, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li>Flattening vellum, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li>Folder, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li>Folding, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li>Fraying out slips, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li>French joint, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li>French paring knife, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li>French standing press, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Gas</span> fumes, effect of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li>Gathering, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+
+<li>Gauffering edges, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+<li>Gelatine, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li>Gilding edges, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+<li>Gilt top, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li>Glaire, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li>Glass, tinted, for libraries, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li>Glossary, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+
+<li>Glue, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li>Glueing up, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li>Goatskin, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>Gold cushion, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li>Gold leaf, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>Gold knife, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li>Gold, net for, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li>Gold, pad for, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li>Gold tooling, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+
+<li>Gouges, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li>Groove (<i>see</i> <a href="#Joint">Joint</a>)</li>
+
+<li>Guarding, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li>Guarding plates, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Hammer</span>, backing, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li>Hand-made paper, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li>Headbanding, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li>Headcaps, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+<li>Heat, effect of, on bindings, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span>Heraldry on bindings, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li>Hinging plates, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+<li>Hollow backs, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Imperfections</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+
+<li>India proofs, soaking off, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li>India proofs, mounting, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li>Indiarubber for gold, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Inlaying leather, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li>Inlaying leaves or plates, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li>Inset, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li>Inside margins, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Jaconet</span>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li>Japanese paper, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li>Japanese vellum, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li>Jewelled bindings, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="Joint" id="Joint"></a>Joint, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Joint, cloth, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li>Joint, French, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li>Joint, knocking out, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li>Joint, leather, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Kettle</span> stitch, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+<li>Keys, sewing, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li>Knife, mountcutters&#8217;, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li>Knife, French paring, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li>Knife, gold, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li>Knife, plough, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>Knocking down iron, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li>Knocking out joints, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li>Knot, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Lacing</span> in slips, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li>Lay cords, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li>Laying press (<i>see</i> <a href="#Lying_press">Lying press</a>)</li>
+
+<li>Leather, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li>Leather, chrome, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li>Leather, crushing grain of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+
+<li>Leather, inlaying, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li>Leather joints, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li>Leather, paring, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>Leather, polishing, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+
+<li>Leather, sprinkling and marbling, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+<li>Leather, stretching, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>Leather, testing, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li>Leather work, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+<li>Leaves, inlaying, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li>Lettering, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li>Letters, autograph, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li>Library binding, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li>Light, effect of, on leather, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li>Lining up back, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li>Lithographic stone, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li>Loose covers, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="Lying_press" id="Lying_press"></a>Lying press, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Manuscripts</span>, binding of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>Manuscripts, collating, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li>Maps, throwing out, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li>Marbled paper, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+
+<li>Margins, inside, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li>Marking up, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li>Materials for sewing, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li>Mending, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+
+<li>Mending tooling, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Mending vellum, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+<li>Metal on bindings, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li>Millboards, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li>Millboard machine, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li>Millboard shears, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li>Mitring corners, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+<li>Morocco, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>Morocco, &#8220;Persian,&#8221; <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li>Mount-cutters&#8217; knife, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li>Mounting India-proofs, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li>Mounting very thin paper, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Net</span> for gilding edges, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li>Niger morocco, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Nipping press, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>Nippers, band, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span><span class="smcap">Oil</span>, cocoanut, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li>Opening newly-bound books, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li>Overcasting, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li>&#8220;Overs,&#8221; <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+
+<li>Oxalic acid, use of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pad</span> for gold, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li>Paging, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+
+<li>Painted edges, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li>Painted end papers, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+
+<li>Pallets, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li>Paper, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li>Paper, art, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Paper, hand-made, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li>Paper, Japanese, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li>Paper, marbled, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+
+<li>Paper, sizes of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Paper, sizing, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Paper, splitting, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li>Paper, washing, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+
+<li>Paraffin wax, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li>Paring leather, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>Paring paper, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+
+<li>Paring stone, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li>Pastes, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li>Paste water, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li>Pasting down end papers, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li>Patterns, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li>&#8220;Peel,&#8221; <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li>Permanent binding, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li>&#8220;Persian&#8221; morocco, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li>Pigskin, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Plates, detaching, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li>Plates, guarding, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+<li>Plates, hinging, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+<li>Plates, inlaying, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li>Plates, trimming, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+<li>Plough, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li>Plough knife, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>Polishing, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+
+<li>Preserving old bindings, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li>Press, arming, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+
+<li>Press, blocking, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+
+<li>Press, cutting, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li>Press, finishing, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li>Press, lying, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li>Press, nipping, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>Press pin, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li>Press, sewing (<i>see</i> <a href="#Sewing_frame">Sewing frame</a>)</li>
+
+<li>Press, standing, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li>Pressing boards, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Pressing in boards, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+
+<li>Pressing plates, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li>Pressing sections, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li>&#8220;Proof,&#8221; <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li>Publishers&#8217; binding, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li>Pulling to pieces, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Quarter</span> sections, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li>Quires, books in, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Rats</span> and mice, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+
+<li>Re-backing, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li>Re-binding, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li>Refolding, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li>Register of printing, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li>Representations of bindings, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>-<a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+<li>Roll, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+<li>Rounding, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Sawing</span> in, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li>Scrap books, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li>Sealskin, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Sections, pressing, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li>Sewing, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li>Sewing cord, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="Sewing_frame" id="Sewing_frame"></a>Sewing frame, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li>Sewing keys, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li>Sewing on tapes, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li>Sewing on vellum slips, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>Sewing silk, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li>Sewing, tape for, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li>Sewing thread, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li>Sheepskin, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>-<a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span>Sheets, books in, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Sheets, waterproof, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>Signatures, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li>Silk ends, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li>Silk sewing, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li>Sizes of paper, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Sizing, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Sizing edges, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>-<a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li>Sizing leather, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li>Sizing paper, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Slips, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li>Slips, fraying out, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li>Slips, lacing in, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li>Soaking off India proofs, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li>Society of Arts, Report of Committee on Leather for Bookbinding, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li>Society of Arts, Report of Committee on Paper, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li>Specifications, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li>Split boards, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+
+<li>Splitting paper, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li>Sprinkling leather, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+<li>Squares, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li>Standing press, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li>Standing press, French, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li>Staples, wire, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li>&#8220;Starred&#8221; sheets, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li>Stove, finishing, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li>Stone, lithographic, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li>Striking dots, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li>Striking tools, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Tape</span>, sewing on, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li>Temporary binding, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li>Testing leather, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li>Thin books, binding, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li>Thin paper, mounting, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li>Thread, sewing, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li>Throwing out maps, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li>Ties and clasps, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li>Tobacco smoke, effect of, on binding, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li>Tooling, blind, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li>Tooling, gold, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+
+<li>Tooling on vellum, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li>Tools, designing, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li>Tools, finishing, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li>Training for bookbinding, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li>Trimming before sewing, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li>Trimming machine, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li>Trimming plates, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+<li>Tub, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li>Tying up, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Varnish</span>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li>Vellum binders, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+<li>Vellum bindings, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li>Vellum ends, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li>Vellum, flattening, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li>Vellum, Japanese, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li>Vellum, mending, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+<li>Vellum slips, sewing on, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li>Vellum tooling on, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Walker</span>, Emery, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li>Washing, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+
+<li>Waterproof sheets, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>Weaver&#8217;s knot, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li>Wooden boards, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+
+<li>Worm holes, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="advertisements">
+<div class="bbox">
+<h2 style="padding-top: 0em"><a name="THE_ARTISTIC_CRAFTS_SERIES_OF" id="THE_ARTISTIC_CRAFTS_SERIES_OF"></a>THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF
+TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span></h2>
+
+<p class="center">Edited by <span class="smcap">W.&nbsp;R. Lethaby</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> series will appeal to handicraftsmen in the industrial
+and mechanic arts. It consists of authoritative statements
+by experts in every field for the exercise of ingenuity,
+taste, imagination&mdash;the whole sphere of the so-called &#8220;dependent
+arts.&#8221;</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="negative">BOOKBINDING AND THE CARE OF
+BOOKS. A Handbook for Amateurs, Bookbinders,
+and Librarians. By <span class="smcap">Douglas Cockerell</span>. With
+120 Illustrations and Diagrams by Noel Rooke, and
+8 collotype reproductions of binding. 12mo.
+$1.25 net.</p>
+
+<p class="negative">SILVERWORK AND JEWELRY. A Text-Book
+for Students and Workers in Metal. By <span class="smcap">H.
+Wilson</span>. With 160 Diagrams and 16 full-page
+Illustrations, 12mo. $1.40 net.</p>
+
+<p class="negative">WOOD CARVING: DESIGN AND
+WORKMANSHIP. By <span class="smcap">George Jack</span>. With
+Drawings by the Author and other Illustrations.
+$1.40 net.</p>
+
+<p class="negative">STAINED-GLASS WORK. A Text-Book for
+Students and Workers in Glass. By <span class="smcap">C.&nbsp;W. Whall</span>.
+With Diagrams by two of his Apprentices, and
+other Illustrations. $1.50 net; postage, 14 cents
+additional.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="center">D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="note">
+<h4>Transcriber's Note</h4>
+
+<p>Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. Spelling has
+been normalized. For the detailed list please see the list below.
+If your cursor turns into a hand while you hover it over an illustration,
+the click on that illustration will open its larger version.</p>
+
+<ul><li>page <a href="#Page_14">014</a>&mdash;typo fixed: changed 'Making' to 'Marking'</li>
+<li>page <a href="#Page_138">138</a>&mdash;spelling normalized: changed 'head-banding' to 'headbanding'</li>
+<li>page <a href="#Page_159">159</a>&mdash;typo fixed: changed 'wook' to 'wood'</li>
+<li>page <a href="#Page_173">173</a>&mdash;typo fixed: changed 'CHAPTER VIII' to 'CHAPTER XIII'</li>
+<li>page <a href="#Page_198">198</a>&mdash;typo fixed: changed 'isinglas' to 'isinglass'</li>
+<li>page <a href="#Page_249">249</a>&mdash;spelling normalized: changed 'tie downs' to 'tie-downs'</li>
+<li>page <a href="#Page_253">253</a>&mdash;spelling normalized: changed 'headcap' to 'head-cap'</li>
+<li>page <a href="#Page_298">298</a>&mdash;spelling normalized: changed 'millboard' to 'mill-board'</li>
+<li>page <a href="#Page_303">303</a>&mdash;spelling normalized: changed 're-binding' to 'rebinding'</li>
+<li>page <a href="#Page_304">304</a>&mdash;spelling normalized: changed 'millboard' to 'mill-board'</li>
+<li>page <a href="#Page_310">310</a>&mdash;spelling normalized: changed 'Goat-skin' to 'Goatskin'</li>
+<li>page <a href="#Page_314">314</a>&mdash;spelling normalized: changed 'head-banding' to 'headbanding'</li>
+<li>page <a href="#Page_315">315</a>&mdash;spelling normalized: changed 'millboards' to 'mill-boards'</li>
+<li>page <a href="#Page_339">339</a>&mdash;spelling normalized: changed 'millboards' to 'mill-boards'</li>
+<li>page <a href="#Page_341">341</a>&mdash;spelling normalized: changed 'Re-folding' to 'Refolding'</li></ul>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Bookbinding, and the Care of Books, by 
+Douglas Cockerell
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOOKBINDING, AND THE CARE OF BOOKS ***
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+***** This file should be named 26672-h.htm or 26672-h.zip *****
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+</body>
+</html>
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+Project Gutenberg's Bookbinding, and the Care of Books, by Douglas Cockerell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Bookbinding, and the Care of Books
+       A handbook for Amateurs, Bookbinders & Librarians
+
+Author: Douglas Cockerell
+
+Editor: W. R. Lethaby
+
+Illustrator: Noel Rooke
+
+Release Date: September 19, 2008 [EBook #26672]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOOKBINDING, AND THE CARE OF BOOKS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Shell, Irma Spehar and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                      THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES
+                        OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS
+                        EDITED BY W. R. LETHABY
+
+                              BOOKBINDING
+
+            [Illustration: WHITE PIGSKIN.--_Basle_, 1512.]
+
+
+
+
+                           BOOKBINDING, AND
+                           THE CARE OF BOOKS
+
+                        A HANDBOOK FOR AMATEURS
+                       BOOKBINDERS & LIBRARIANS
+                         BY DOUGLAS COCKERELL
+
+                                 WITH
+
+                        DRAWINGS BY NOEL ROOKE
+                        AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+
+                               NEW YORK
+                        D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
+                                 1910
+
+
+                           COPYRIGHT, 1901,
+                      BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
+
+                         _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+                           EDITOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+In issuing this volume of a series of Handbooks on the Artistic
+Crafts, it will be well to state what are our general aims.
+
+In the first place, we wish to provide trustworthy text-books of
+workshop practice, from the points of view of experts who have
+critically examined the methods current in the shops, and putting
+aside vain survivals, are prepared to say what is good workmanship,
+and to set up a standard of quality in the crafts which are more
+especially associated with design. Secondly, in doing this, we hope to
+treat design itself as an essential part of good workmanship. During
+the last century most of the arts, save painting and sculpture of an
+academic kind, were little considered, and there was a tendency to
+look on "design" as a mere matter of _appearance_. Such
+"ornamentation" as there was was usually obtained by following in a
+mechanical way a drawing provided by an artist who often knew little
+of the technical processes involved in production. With the critical
+attention given to the crafts by Ruskin and Morris, it came to be seen
+that it was impossible to detach design from craft in this way, and
+that, in the widest sense, true design is an inseparable element of
+good quality, involving as it does the selection of good and suitable
+material, contrivance for special purpose, expert workmanship, proper
+finish and so on, far more than mere ornament, and indeed, that
+ornamentation itself was rather an exuberance of fine workmanship than
+a matter of merely abstract lines. Workmanship when separated by too
+wide a gulf from fresh thought--that is, from design--inevitably
+decays, and, on the other hand, ornamentation, divorced from
+workmanship, is necessarily unreal, and quickly falls into
+affectation. Proper ornamentation may be defined as a language
+addressed to the eye; it is pleasant thought expressed in the speech
+of the tool.
+
+In the third place, we would have this series put artistic
+craftsmanship before people as furnishing reasonable occupation for
+those who would gain a livelihood. Although within the bounds of
+academic art, the competition, of its kind, is so acute that only a
+very few per cent. can fairly hope to succeed as painters and
+sculptors; yet, as artistic craftsmen, there is every probability that
+nearly every one who would pass through a sufficient period of
+apprenticeship to workmanship and design would reach a measure of
+success.
+
+In the blending of handwork and thought in such arts as we propose to
+deal with, happy careers may be found as far removed from the dreary
+routine of hack labour, as from the terrible uncertainty of academic
+art. It is desirable in every way that men of good education should be
+brought back into the productive crafts: there are more than enough of
+us "in the city," and it is probable that more consideration will be
+given in this century than in the last to Design and Workmanship.
+
+                                                   W. R. LETHABY.
+
+
+
+
+                             AUTHOR'S NOTE
+
+
+It is hoped that this book will help bookbinders and librarians to
+select sound methods of binding books.
+
+It is intended to supplement and not to supplant workshop training for
+bookbinders. No one can become a skilled workman by reading
+text-books, but to a man who has acquired skill and practical
+experience, a text-book, giving perhaps different methods from those
+to which he has been accustomed, may be helpful.
+
+My thanks are due to many friends, including the workmen in my
+workshop, for useful suggestions and other help, and to the Society of
+Arts for permission to quote from the report of their Special
+Committee on leather for bookbinding.
+
+I should also like to express my indebtedness to my master, Mr. T. J.
+Cobden-Sanderson, for it was in his workshop that I learned my craft,
+and anything that may be of value in this book is due to his
+influence.
+
+                                                            D. C.
+
+  _November_ 1901.
+
+
+
+
+                               CONTENTS
+
+
+                                PART I
+
+                               _BINDING_
+
+                                                                   PAGE
+
+Editor's Preface                                                     7
+
+Author's Note                                                       11
+
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+Introduction                                                        17
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+
+Entering--Books in Sheets--Folding--Collating--Pulling
+to Pieces--Refolding--Knocking out Joints                           33
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+Guarding--Throwing Out--Paring Paper--Soaking off India
+Proofs--Mounting very Thin Paper--Splitting
+Paper--Inlaying--Flattening Vellum                                  53
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV
+
+Sizing--Washing--Mending                                            67
+
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+End Papers--Leather Joints--Pressing                                80
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI
+
+Trimming Edges before Sewing--Edge Gilding                          92
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+
+Marking up--Sewing--Materials for Sewing                            98
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VIII
+
+Fraying out Slips--Glueing up--Rounding and Backing                114
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IX
+
+Cutting and Attaching Boards--Cleaning off Back--Pressing          124
+
+
+                               CHAPTER X
+
+Cutting in Boards--Gilding and Colouring Edges                     139
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XI
+
+Headbanding                                                        147
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XII
+
+Preparing for Covering--Paring Leather--Covering--Mitring
+Corners--Filling-in Boards                                         152
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XIII
+
+Library Binding--Binding very Thin Books--Scrap-Books--Binding
+in Vellum--Books covered with Embroidery                           173
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV
+
+Decoration--Tools--Finishing--Tooling on Vellum--Inlaying
+on Leather                                                         188
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XV
+
+Lettering--Blind Tooling--Heraldic Ornament                        215
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVI
+
+Designing for Gold-Tooled Decoration                               230
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XVII
+
+Pasting down End Papers--Opening Books                             254
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XVIII
+
+Clasps and Ties--Metal on Bindings                                 259
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIX
+
+Leather                                                            263
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XX
+
+Paper--Pastes--Glue                                                280
+
+
+                                PART II
+
+                      _CARE OF BOOKS WHEN BOUND_
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXI
+
+Injurious Influences to which Books are Subjected                  291
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XXII
+
+To Preserve Old Bindings--Re-backing                               302
+
+SPECIFICATIONS                                                     307
+
+GLOSSARY                                                           313
+
+REPRODUCTIONS OF BINDINGS (Eight Collotypes)                       319
+
+INDEX                                                              337
+
+
+
+
+                                PART I
+
+                                BINDING
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+                             INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The reasons for binding the leaves of a book are to keep them together
+in their proper order, and to protect them. That bindings can be made,
+that will adequately protect books, can be seen from the large number
+of fifteenth and sixteenth century bindings now existing on books
+still in excellent condition. That bindings are made, that fail to
+protect books, may be seen by visiting any large library, when it will
+be found that many bindings have their boards loose and the leather
+crumbling to dust. Nearly all librarians complain, that they have to
+be continually rebinding books, and this not after four hundred, but
+after only five or ten years.
+
+It is no exaggeration to say that ninety per cent. of the books bound
+in leather during the last thirty years will need rebinding during the
+next thirty. The immense expense involved must be a very serious drag
+on the usefulness of libraries; and as rebinding is always to some
+extent damaging to the leaves of a book, it is not only on account of
+the expense that the necessity for it is to be regretted.
+
+The reasons that have led to the production in modern times of
+bindings that fail to last for a reasonable time, are twofold. The
+materials are badly selected or prepared, and the method of binding is
+faulty. Another factor in the decay of bindings, both old and new, is
+the bad conditions under which they are often kept.
+
+The object of this text-book is to describe the best methods of
+bookbinding, and of keeping books when bound, taking into account the
+present-day conditions. No attempt has been made to describe all
+possible methods, but only such as appear to have answered best on old
+books. The methods described are for binding that can be done by hand
+with the aid of simple appliances. Large editions of books are now
+bound, or rather cased, at an almost incredible speed by the aid of
+machinery, but all work that needs personal care and thought on each
+book, is still done, and probably always will be done, by hand.
+Elaborate machinery can only be economically employed when very large
+numbers of books have to be turned out exactly alike.
+
+The ordinary cloth "binding" of the trade, is better described as
+casing. The methods being different, it is convenient to distinguish
+between casing and binding. In binding, the slips are firmly attached
+to the boards before covering; in casing, the boards are covered
+separately, and afterwards glued on to the book. Very great efforts
+have been made in the decoration of cloth covers, and it is a pity
+that the methods of construction have not been equally considered. If
+cloth cases are to be looked upon as a temporary binding, then it
+seems a pity to waste so much trouble on their decoration; and if they
+are to be looked upon as permanent binding, it is a pity the
+construction is not better.
+
+For books of only temporary interest, the usual cloth cases answer
+well enough; but for books expected to have permanent value, some
+change is desirable.
+
+Valuable books should either be issued in bindings that are obviously
+temporary, or else in bindings that are strong enough to be considered
+permanent. The usual cloth case fails as a temporary binding, because
+the methods employed result in serious damage to the sections of the
+book, often unfitting them for rebinding, and it fails as a permanent
+binding on account of the absence of sound construction.
+
+In a temporary publisher's binding, nothing should be done to the
+sections of a book that would injure them. Plates should be guarded,
+the sewing should be on tapes, without splitting the head and tail, or
+"sawing in" the backs, of the sections; the backs should be glued up
+square without backing. The case may be attached, as is now usual. For
+a permanent publisher's binding, something like that recommended for
+libraries (page 173) is suggested, with either leather or cloth on the
+back.
+
+At the end of the book four specifications are given (page 307). The
+first is suggested for binding books of special interest or value,
+where no restriction as to price is made. A binding under this
+specification may be decorated to any extent that the nature of the
+book justifies. The second is for good binding, for books of reference
+and other heavy books that may have a great deal of wear. All the
+features of the first that make for the strength of the binding are
+retained, while those less essential, that only add to the appearance,
+are omitted. Although the binding under this specification would be
+much cheaper than that carried out under the first, it would still be
+too expensive for the majority of books in most libraries; and as it
+would seem to be impossible to further modify this form of binding,
+without materially reducing its strength, for cheaper work, a somewhat
+different system is recommended. The third specification is
+recommended for the binding of the general run of small books in most
+libraries. The fourth is a modification of this for pamphlets and
+other books of little value, that need to be kept together tidily for
+occasional reference.
+
+Thanks, in a great measure, to the work of Mr. Cobden-Sanderson,
+there is in England the germ of a sound tradition for the best
+binding. The Report of the Committee appointed by the Society of Arts
+to investigate the cause of the decay of modern leather bindings,
+should tend to establish a sound tradition for cheaper work. The third
+specification at the end of this book is practically the same as that
+given in their Report, and was arrived at by selection, after many
+libraries had been examined, and many forms of binding compared.
+
+Up to the end of the eighteenth century the traditional methods of
+binding books had altered very little during three hundred years.
+Books were generally sewn round five cords, the ends of all of these
+laced into the boards, and the leather attached directly to the back.
+At the end of the eighteenth century it became customary to pare down
+leather until it was as thin as paper, and soon afterwards the use of
+hollow backs and false bands became general, and these two things
+together mark the beginning of the modern degradation of binding, so
+far as its utility as a protection is concerned.
+
+The Society of Arts Committee report that the bookbinders must share
+with the leather manufacturers and librarians the blame for the
+premature decay of modern bindings, because--
+
+"1. Books are sewn on too few, and too thin cords, and the slips are
+pared down unduly (for the sake of neatness), and are not in all cases
+firmly laced into the boards. This renders the attachment of the
+boards to the book almost entirely dependent on the strength of the
+leather.
+
+"2. The use of hollow backs throws all the strain of opening and
+shutting on the joints, and renders the back liable to come right off
+if the book is much used.
+
+"3. The leather of the back is apt to become torn through the use of
+insufficiently strong headbands, which are unable to stand the strain
+of the book being taken from the shelf.
+
+"4. It is a common practice to use far too thin leather; especially to
+use large thick skins very much pared down for small books.
+
+"5. The leather is often made very wet and stretched a great deal in
+covering, with the result that on drying it is further strained,
+almost to breaking point, by contraction, leaving a very small margin
+of strength to meet the accidents of use."
+
+The history of the general introduction of hollow backs is probably
+somewhat as follows: Leather was doubtless first chosen for covering
+the backs of books because of its toughness and flexibility; because,
+while protecting the back, it would bend when the book was opened and
+allow the back to "throw up" (see fig. 1, A). When gold tooling became
+common, and the backs of books were elaborately decorated, it was
+found that the creasing of the leather injured the brightness or the
+gold and caused it to crack. To avoid this the binders lined up the
+back until it was as stiff as a block of wood. The back would then not
+"throw up" as the book was opened, the leather would not be creased,
+and the gold would remain uninjured (see fig. 1, B). This was all very
+well for the gold, but a book so treated does not open fully, and
+indeed, if the paper is stiff, can hardly be got to open at all. To
+overcome both difficulties the hollow back was introduced, and as
+projecting bands would have been in the way, the sewing cord was sunk
+in saw cuts made across the back of the book.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+The use of hollow backs was a very ingenious way out of the
+difficulty, as with them the backs could be made to "throw up," and at
+the same time the leather was not disturbed (see fig. 1, C). The
+method of "sawing in" bands was known for a long time before the
+general use of hollow backs. It has been used to avoid the raised
+bands on books covered with embroidered material.
+
+If a book is sewn on tapes, and the back lined with leather, there is
+no serious objection to a carefully-made hollow back without bands.
+The vellum binders use hollow backs made in this way for great account
+books that stand an immense amount of wear. They make the "hollow"
+very stiff, so that it acts as a spring to throw the back up.
+
+But although, if carefully done, satisfactory bindings may be made
+with hollow backs, their use has resulted in the production of
+worthless bindings with little strength, and yet with the appearance
+of better work.
+
+The public having been accustomed to raised bands on the backs of
+books, and the real bands being sunk in the back, the binders put
+false ones over the "hollow." To save money or trouble, the bands
+being out of sight, the book would be sewn on only three or sometimes
+only two cords, the usual five false ones still showing at the back.
+Often only two out of the three bands would be laced into the board,
+and sometimes the slips would not be laced in at all. Again, false
+headbands worked by the yard by machinery would be stuck on at the
+head and tail, and a "hollow" made with brown paper. Then leather so
+thin as to have but little strength, but used because it is easy to
+work and needs no paring, would be stuck on. The back would often be
+full gilt and lettered, and the sides sprinkled or marbled, thus
+further damaging the leather.
+
+In every large library hundreds of books bound somewhat on these lines
+may be seen. When they are received from the binder they have the
+appearance of being well bound, they look smart on the shelf, but in a
+few years, whether they are used or not, the leather will have
+perished and the boards become detached, and they will have to be
+rebound.
+
+As long as librarians expect the appearance of a guinea binding for
+two or three shillings, such shams will be produced. The librarian
+generally gets his money's worth, for it would be impossible for the
+binder to do better work at the price usually paid without materially
+altering the appearance of the binding. The polished calf and
+imitation crushed morocco must go, and in its place a rougher,
+thicker leather must be employed. The full-gilt backs must go, the
+coloured lettering panel must go, the hollow backs must go, but in the
+place of these we may have the books sewn on tapes with the ends
+securely fastened into split boards, and the thick leather attached
+directly to the backs of the sections. (See specification III. page
+307.)
+
+Such a binding would look well and not be more expensive than the
+usual library binding. It should allow the book to open flat, and if
+the materials are well selected, be very durable, and specially strong
+in the joints, the weak place in most bindings. The lettering on the
+back may be damaged in time if the book is much used, but if so it can
+easily be renewed at a fraction of the cost of rebinding, and without
+injury to the book.
+
+While the majority of books in most libraries must be bound at a small
+cost, at most not exceeding a few shillings a volume, there is a large
+demand for good plain bindings, and a limited, but growing, demand for
+more or less decorated bindings for special books.
+
+Any decoration but the simplest should be restricted to books bound as
+well as the binder can do them. The presence of decoration should be
+evidence that the binder, after doing his best with the "forwarding,"
+has had time in which to try to make his work a beautiful, as well as
+a serviceable, production.
+
+Many books, although well bound, are better left plain, or with only a
+little decoration. But occasionally there are books that the binder
+can decorate as lavishly as he is able. As an instance of bindings
+that cannot be over-decorated, those books which are used in important
+ceremonies, such as Altar Books, may be mentioned. Such books may be
+decorated with gold and colour until they seem to be covered in a
+golden material. They will be but spots of gorgeousness in a great
+church or cathedral, and they cannot be said to be over-decorated as
+long as the decoration is good.
+
+So, occasionally some one may have a book to which he is for some
+reason greatly attached, and wishing to enshrine it, give the binder a
+free hand to do his best with it. The binder may wish to make a
+delicate pattern with nicely-balanced spots of ornament, leaving the
+leather for the most part bare, or he may wish to cover the outside
+with some close gold-tooled pattern, giving a richness of texture
+hardly to be got by other means. If he decides on the latter, many
+people will say that the cover is over-decorated. But as a book cover
+can never be seen absolutely alone, it should not be judged as an
+isolated thing covered with ornament without relief, but as a spot of
+brightness and interest among its surroundings. If a room and
+everything in it is covered with elaborate pattern, then anything with
+a plain surface would be welcome as a relief; but in a room which is
+reasonably free from ornament, a spot of rich decoration should be
+welcome.
+
+It is not contended that the only, or necessarily the best, method of
+decorating book covers is by elaborate all-over gold-tooled pattern;
+but it is contended that this is a legitimate method of decoration for
+exceptional books, and that by its use it is possible to get a
+beautiful effect well worth the trouble and expense involved.
+
+Good leather has a beautiful surface, and may sometimes be got of a
+fine colour. The binder may often wish to show this surface and
+colour, and to restrict his decoration to small portions of the
+cover, and this quite rightly, he aiming at, and getting, a totally
+different effect than that got by all-over patterns. Both methods are
+right if well done, and both methods can equally be vulgarised if
+badly done.
+
+A much debated question is, how far the decoration of a binding should
+be influenced by the contents of the book? A certain appropriateness
+there should be, but as a general thing, if the binder aims at making
+the cover beautiful, that is the best he can do. The hints given for
+designing are not intended to stop the development of the student's
+own ideas, but only to encourage their development on right lines.
+
+There should be a certain similarity of treatment between the general
+get-up of a book and its binding. It is a great pity that printers and
+binders have drifted so far apart; they are, or should be, working for
+one end, the production of a book, and some unity of aim should be
+evident in the work of the two.
+
+The binding of manuscripts and early printed books should be strong
+and simple. It should be as strong and durable as the original old
+bindings, and, like them, last with reasonable care for four hundred
+years or more. To this end the old bindings, with their stout sewing
+cord, wooden boards, and clasps, may be taken as models.
+
+The question is constantly asked, especially by women, if a living can
+be made by setting up as bookbinders. Cheap binding can most
+economically be done in large workshops, but probably the best
+bindings can be done more satisfactorily by binders working alone, or
+in very small workshops.
+
+If any one intends to set up as a bookbinder, doing all the work
+without help, it is necessary to charge very high prices to get any
+adequate return after the working expenses have been paid. In order to
+get high prices, the standard of work must be very high; and in order
+to attain a high enough standard of work, a very thorough training is
+necessary. It is desirable that any one hoping to make money at the
+craft should have at least a year's training in a workshop where good
+work is done, and after that, some time will be spent before quite
+satisfactory work can be turned out rapidly enough to pay, supposing
+that orders can be obtained or the books bound can be sold.
+
+There are some successful binders who have had less than a year's
+training, but they are exceptional. Those who have not been accustomed
+to manual work have usually, in addition to the necessary skill, to
+acquire the habit of continuous work. Bookbinding seems to offer an
+opening for well-educated youths who are willing to serve an
+apprenticeship in a good shop, and who have some small amount of
+capital at their command.
+
+In addition to the production of decorated bindings, there is much to
+be done by specialising in certain kinds of work requiring special
+knowledge. Repairing and binding early printed books and manuscripts,
+or the restoration of Parish Registers and Accounts, may be suggested.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+
+       Entering--Books in Sheets--Folding--Collating--Pulling to
+                Pieces--Refolding--Knocking out Joints
+
+
+                               ENTERING
+
+On receiving a book for binding, its title should be entered in a book
+kept for that purpose, with the date of entry, and customer's name
+and address, and any instructions he may have given, written out in
+full underneath, leaving room below to enter the time taken on the
+various operations and cost of the materials used. It is well to
+number the entry, and to give a corresponding number to the book. It
+should be at once collated, and any special features noted, such as
+pages that need washing or mending. If the book should prove to be
+imperfect, or to have any serious defect, the owner should be
+communicated with, before it is pulled to pieces. This is very
+important, as imperfect books that have been "pulled" are not
+returnable to the bookseller. Should defects only be discovered after
+the book has been taken to pieces, the bookbinder is liable to be
+blamed for the loss of any missing leaves.
+
+
+                            BOOKS IN SHEETS
+
+The sheets of a newly printed book are arranged in piles in the
+printer's warehouse, each pile being made up of repetitions of the
+same sheet or "signature." Plates or maps are in piles by themselves
+To make a complete book one sheet is gathered from each pile,
+beginning at the last sheet and working backwards to signature A. When
+a book is ordered from a publisher in sheets, it is such a "gathered"
+copy that the binder receives. Some books are printed "double," that
+is, the type is set up twice, two copies are printed at once at
+different ends of a sheet of paper, and the sheets have to be divided
+down the middle before the copies can be separated. Sometimes the
+title and introduction, or perhaps only the last sheet, will be
+printed in this way. Publishers usually decline to supply in sheets
+fewer than two copies of such double-printed books.
+
+If a book is received unfolded, it is generally advisable at once to
+fold up the sheets and put them in their proper order, with
+half-title, title, introduction, &c., and, if there are plates, to
+compare them with the printed list.
+
+Should there be in a recently published book defects of any kind, such
+as soiled sheets, the publisher will usually replace them on
+application, although they sometimes take a long time to do so. Such
+sheets are called "imperfections," and the printers usually keep a
+number of "overs" in order to make good such imperfections as may
+occur.
+
+
+                                FOLDING
+
+Books received in sheets must be folded. Folding requires care, or the
+margins of different leaves will be unequal, and the lines of printing
+not at right angles to the back.
+
+Books of various sizes are known as "folio," "quarto," "octavo,"
+"duodecimo," &c. These names signify the number of folds, and
+consequently the number of leaves the paper has been folded into.
+Thus, a folio is made up of sheets of paper folded once down the
+centre, forming two leaves and four pages. The sheets of a quarto have
+a second fold, making four leaves and eight pages, and in an octavo
+the sheet has a third fold, forming eight leaves and sixteen pages
+(see fig. 2), and so on. Each sheet of paper when folded constitutes a
+section, except in the case of folios, where it is usual to make up
+the sections by inserting two or more sheets, one within the other.
+
+Paper is made in several named sizes, such as "imperial," "royal,"
+"demy," "crown," "foolscap," &c. (see p. 283), so that the terms
+"imperial folio" or "crown octavo" imply that a sheet of a definite
+size has been folded a definite number of times.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Besides the traditional sizes, paper is now made of almost any length
+and width, resulting in books of odd shape, and the names folio,
+quarto, &c., are rather losing their true meaning, and are often used
+loosely to signify pages of certain sizes, irrespective of the number
+that go to a sheet.
+
+On receipt, for instance, of an octavo book for folding, the pile of
+sheets is laid flat on the table, and collated by the letter or
+signature of each sheet. The first sheet of the book proper will
+probably be signature B, as signature A usually consists of the
+half-title, title, introduction, &c., and often has to be folded up
+rather differently.
+
+The "outer" sides, known by the signature letters B, C, D, &c., should
+be downwards, and the inner sides facing upwards with the second
+signatures, if there are any, B2, C2, D2, &c., at the right-hand
+bottom corner.
+
+The pages of an octave book, commencing at page 1, are shown at fig.
+3. A folder is taken in the right hand, and held at the bottom of the
+sheet at about the centre, and the sheet taken by the left hand at the
+top right-hand corner and bent over until pages 3 and 6 come exactly
+over pages 2 and 7; and when it is seen that the headlines and figures
+exactly match, the paper, while being held in that position, is
+creased down the centre with the folder, and the fold cut up a little
+more than half-way. Pages 4, 13, 5, 12 will now be uppermost; pages 12
+and 5 are now folded over to exactly match pages 13 and 4, and the
+fold creased and cut up a little more than half-way, as before. Pages
+8 and 9 will now be uppermost, and will merely require folding
+together to make the pages of the section follow in their proper
+order. If the folding has been done carefully, and the "register" of
+the printing is good, the headlines should be exactly even throughout.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+The object of cutting past the centre at each fold is to avoid the
+unsightly creasing that results from folding two or more thicknesses
+of paper when joined at the top edge.
+
+A "duodecimo" sheet has the pages arranged as at fig. 4.
+
+The "inset" pages, 10, 15, 14, 11, must be cut off, and the rest of
+the section folded as for an octavo sheet. The inset is folded
+separately and inserted into the centre of the octavo portion.
+
+Other sizes are folded in much the same way, and the principle of
+folding one sheet having been mastered, no difficulty will be found in
+folding any other.
+
+Plates often require trimming, and this must be done with judgment.
+The plates should be trimmed to correspond as far as possible with the
+printing on the opposite page, but if this cannot be done, it is
+desirable that something approaching the proportion of margin shown at
+fig. 2 (folio) should be aimed at. That is to say, the back margin
+should be the smallest, the head margin the next, the fore-edge a
+little wider, and the tail widest of all. When a plate consists of a
+small portrait or diagram in the centre of the page, it looks better
+if it is put a little higher and a little nearer the back than the
+actual centre.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+Plates that have no numbers on them must be put in order by the list
+of printed plates, or "instructions to the binder." The half-title,
+title, dedication, &c., will often be found to be printed on odd
+sheets that have to be made up into section A. This preliminary matter
+is usually placed in the following order: Half-title, title,
+dedication, preface, contents, list of illustrations or other lists.
+If there is an index, it should be put at the end of the book.
+
+All plates should be "guarded," and any "quarter sections," that is,
+sections consisting of two leaves, should have their backs
+strengthened by a "guard," or they may very easily be torn in the
+sewing. Odd, single leaves may be guarded round sections in the same
+way as plates.
+
+When a book has been folded, it should be pressed (see p. 87).
+
+There will sometimes be pages marked by the printer with a star. These
+have some error in them, and are intended to be cut out. The printer
+should supply corrected pages to replace them.
+
+
+                               COLLATING
+
+In addition to the pagination each sheet or section of a printed book
+is lettered or numbered. Each letter or number is called the "sheet's
+signature." Printers usually leave out J W and V in lettering sheets.
+If there are more sections than there are letters in the alphabet, the
+printer doubles the letters, signing the sections A A, B B, and so on,
+after the single letters are exhausted. Some printers use an Arabic
+numeral before the section number to denote the second alphabet, as
+2A, 2B, &c., and others change the character of the letters, perhaps
+using capitals for the first alphabet and italics for the second. If
+the sheets are numbered, the numbers will of course follow
+consecutively. In books of more than one volume, the number of the
+volume is sometimes added in Roman numerals before the signature, as
+II A, II B.
+
+The main pagination of the book usually commences with Chapter I., and
+all before that is independently paged in Roman numerals. It is
+unusual to have actual numbers on the title or half-title, but if the
+pages are counted back from where the first numeral occurs, they
+should come right.
+
+There will sometimes be one or more blank leaves completing sections
+at the beginning or end. Such blank leaves must be retained, as
+without them the volume would be "imperfect."
+
+To collate a modern book the paging must be examined to see that the
+leaves are in order, and that nothing is defective or missing.
+
+The method of doing this is to insert the first finger of the right
+hand at the bottom of about the fiftieth page, crook the finger, and
+turn up the corners of the pages with it. When this is done the thumb
+is placed on page 1, and the hand twisted, so as to fan out the top of
+the pages. They can then be readily turned over by the thumb and first
+finger of the left hand (see fig. 5). This is repeated throughout the
+book, taking about fifty pages at a time. It will of course only be
+necessary to check the odd numbers, as if they are right, the even
+ones on the other side of the leaf must be so. If the pages are
+numbered at the foot, the leaves must be fanned out from the head.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+Plates or maps that are not paged can only be checked from the printed
+list. When checked it will save time if the number of the page which
+each faces is marked on the back in small pencil figures.
+
+In the case of early printed books or manuscripts, which are often not
+paged, special knowledge is needed for their collation. It may roughly
+be said, that if the sections are all complete, that is, if there are
+the same number of leaves at each side of the sewing in all the
+sections, the book may be taken to be perfect, unless of course whole
+sections are missing. All unpaged books should be paged through in
+pencil before they are taken apart; this is best done with a very fine
+pencil, at the bottom left-hand corner; it will only be necessary to
+number the front of each leaf.
+
+
+                           PULLING TO PIECES
+
+After the volume has been collated it must be "pulled," that is to
+say, the sections must be separated, and all plates or maps detached.
+
+If in a bound book there are slips laced in the front cover, they must
+be cut and the back torn off. It will sometimes happen that in tearing
+off the leather nearly all the glue will come too, leaving the backs
+of the pages detached except for the sewing. More usually the back
+will be left covered with a mass of glue and linen, or paper, which it
+is very difficult to remove without injury to the backs of the
+sections. By drawing a sharp knife along the bands, the sewing may be
+cut and the bands removed, leaving the sections only connected by the
+glue. Then the sections of the book can usually be separated with a
+fine folder, after the thread from the centre of each has been
+removed; the point of division being ascertained by finding the first
+signature of each section. In cases where the glue and leather form
+too hard a back to yield to this method, it is advisable to soak the
+glue with paste, and when soft to scrape it off with a folder. As this
+method is apt to injure the backs of the sections, it should not be
+resorted to unless necessary; and when it is, care must be taken not
+to let the damp penetrate into the book, or it will cause very ugly
+stains. The book must be pulled while damp, or else the glue will dry
+up harder than before. The separated sections must be piled up
+carefully to prevent pages being soiled by the damp glue.
+
+All plates or single leaves "pasted on" must be removed. These can
+usually be detached by carefully tearing apart, but if too securely
+pasted they must be soaked off in water, unless of course the plates
+have been painted with water-colour. If the plates must be soaked off,
+the leaf and attached plate should be put into a pan of slightly warm
+water and left to soak until they float apart, then with a soft brush
+any remaining glue or paste can be easily removed while in the water.
+Care must be taken not to soak modern books printed on what is called
+"Art Paper," as this paper will hardly stand ordinary handling, and is
+absolutely ruined if wetted. The growing use of this paper in
+important books is one of the greatest troubles the bookbinder has to
+face. The highly loaded and glazed surface of some of the heavy plate
+papers easily flakes off, so that any guard pasted on these plates is
+apt to come away, taking with it the surface of the paper. Moreover,
+should the plates chance to be fingered or in any way soiled, nothing
+can remove the marks; and should a corner get turned down, the paper
+breaks and the corner will fall off. It is the opinion of experts that
+this heavily loaded Art Paper will not last a reasonable time, and,
+apart from other considerations, this should be ample reason for not
+using it in books that are expected to have a permanent value.
+Printers like this paper, because it enables them to obtain brilliant
+impressions from blocks produced by cheap processes.
+
+In "cased" books, sewn by machinery, the head and tail of the sheets
+will often be found to be split up as far as the "kettle" stitches. If
+such a book is to be expensively bound, it will require mending
+throughout in these places, or the glue may soak into the torn ends,
+and make the book open stiffly.
+
+Some books are put together with staples of tinned iron wire, which
+rapidly rust and disfigure the book by circular brown marks. Such
+marks will usually have to be cut out and the places carefully mended.
+This process is lengthy, and consequently so costly, that it is
+generally cheaper, when possible, to obtain an unbound copy of the
+book from the publishers, than to waste time repairing the damage done
+by the cloth binder.
+
+Generally speaking, the sections of a book cased in cloth by modern
+methods are so injured as to make it unfit for more permanent binding
+unless an unreasonable amount of time is spent on it. It is a great
+pity that publishers do not, in the case of books expected to have a
+permanent literary value, issue a certain number of copies printed on
+good paper, and unbound, for the use of those who require permanent
+bindings; and in such copies it would be a great help if sufficient
+margin were left at the back of the plates for the binder to turn it
+up to form a guard. If the plates were very numerous, guards made of
+the substance of the plates themselves would make the book too thick;
+but in the case of books with not more than a dozen plates, printed on
+comparatively thin paper, it would be a great advantage.
+
+Some books in which there are a large number of plates are cut into
+single leaves, which are held together at the back by a coating of an
+indiarubber solution. For a short time such a volume is pleasant
+enough to handle, and opens freely, but before long the indiarubber
+perishes, and the leaves and plates fall apart. When a book of this
+kind comes to have a permanent binding, all the leaves and plates have
+to be pared at the back and made up into sections with guards--a
+troublesome and expensive business. The custom with binders is to
+overcast the backs of the leaves in sections, and to sew through the
+overcasting thread, but this, though an easy and quick process, makes
+a hopelessly stiff back, and no book so treated can open freely.
+
+
+                               REFOLDING
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Dividers]
+
+When the sheets of books that have to be rebound have been carelessly
+folded, a certain amount of readjustment is often advisable,
+especially in cases where the book has not been previously cut. The
+title-page and the half-title, when found to be out of square, should
+nearly always be put straight. The folding of the whole book may be
+corrected by taking each pair of leaves and holding them up to the
+light and adjusting the fold so that the print on one leaf comes
+exactly over the print on the other, and creasing the fold to make
+them stay in that position. With a pair of dividers (fig. 6) set to
+the height of the shortest top margin, points the same distance above
+the headline of the other leaves can be made. Then against a
+carpenter's square, adjusted to the back of the fold, the head of one
+pair of leaves at a time can be cut square (see fig. 7). If the book
+has been previously cut this process is apt to throw the leaves so far
+out of their original position as to make them unduly uneven.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+Accurate folding is impossible if the "register" of the printing is
+bad, that is to say, if the print on the back of a leaf does not lie
+exactly over that on the front.
+
+Crooked plates should usually be made straight by judicious trimming
+of the margins. It is better to leave a plate short at tail or
+fore-edge than to leave it out of square.
+
+
+                          KNOCKING OUT JOINTS
+
+The old "joints" must be knocked out of the sections of books that
+have been previously backed. To do this, one or two sections at a time
+are held firmly in the left hand, and well hammered on the
+knocking-down iron fixed into the lying press. It is important that
+the hammer face should fall exactly squarely upon the paper, or it may
+cut pieces out. The knocking-down iron should be covered with a piece
+of paper, and the hammer face must be perfectly clean, or the sheets
+may be soiled.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+        Guarding--Throwing Out--Paring Paper--Soaking off India
+              Proofs--Mounting very Thin Paper--Splitting
+                  Paper--Inlaying--Flattening Vellum
+
+
+                               GUARDING
+
+Guards are slips of thin paper or linen used for strengthening the
+fold of leaves that are damaged, or for attaching plates or single
+leaves.
+
+Guards should be of good thin paper. That known as Whatman's Banknote
+paper answers very well. An easy way to cut guards is shown in fig.
+8. Two or three pieces of paper of the height of the required guards
+are folded and pinned to the board by the right-hand corners. A series
+of points are marked at the head and tail with dividers set to the
+width desired for the guards, and with a knife guided by a
+straight-edge, cuts joining the points are made right through the
+paper, but not extending quite to either end. On a transverse cut
+being made near the bottom, the guards are left attached by one end
+only (see fig. 9), and can be torn off as wanted. This method prevents
+the paper from slipping while it is being cut.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+A mount cutter's knife (fig. 10) will be found to be a convenient form
+of knife to use for cutting guards.
+
+In using the knife and straight-edge a good deal of pressure should be
+put on the straight-edge, and comparatively little on the knife.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Mount Cutter's Knife]
+
+To mend the torn back of a pair of leaves, a guard should be selected
+a little longer than the height of the pages and well pasted with
+white paste (see page 288). If the pair of leaves are not quite
+separated, the pasted guard held by its extremities may be simply laid
+along the weak place and rubbed down through blotting-paper. If the
+leaves are quite apart, it is better to lay the pasted guard on a
+piece of glass and put the edges of first one and then the other leaf
+on to it and rub down.
+
+On an outside pair of leaves the guard should be inside, so that the
+glue may catch any ragged edges; while on the inside pair the guard
+should be outside, or it will be found to be troublesome in sewing. In
+handling the pasted guards care is needed not to stretch them, or they
+may cause the sheet to crinkle as they dry.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+Plates must be guarded round the sections next them. When there are a
+great many plates the back margin of each, to which a guard will be
+attached, must be pared (see fig. 11, A), or the additional thickness
+caused by the guards will make the back swell unduly. In guarding
+plates a number can be pasted at once if they are laid one on another,
+with about an eighth of an inch of the back of each exposed, the top
+of the pile being protected by a folded piece of waste paper (see fig.
+12). To paste, the brush is brought from the top to the bottom of the
+pile only, and not the other way, or paste will get between the plates
+and soil them. Guards should usually be attached to the backs of
+plates, and should be wide enough to turn up round the adjoining
+section, so that they may be sewn through. Should a plate come in the
+middle of a section, the guard is best turned back and slightly pasted
+to the inside of the sheet and then sewn through in the ordinary way.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+If plates are very thick, they must be hinged, as shown at fig. 11, B.
+This is done by cutting a strip of about a quarter of an inch off the
+back of the plate, and guarding with a wide guard of linen, leaving a
+small space between the plate and the piece cut off to form a hinge.
+It will save some swelling if the plate is pared and a piece of
+thinner paper substituted for the piece cut off (see fig. 11, C). If
+the plates are of cardboard, they should be guarded on both sides with
+linen, and may even need a second joint.
+
+A book that consists entirely of plates or single leaves must be made
+up into sections with guards, and sewn as usual. In books in which
+there are a great many plates, it is often found that two plates
+either come together in the centre of a section, or come at opposite
+sides of the same pair of leaves. Such plates should be guarded
+together and treated as folded sheets (see fig. 13).
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+In order to be sure that the pages of a book to be guarded throughout
+will come in their proper order, it is well to make a plan of the
+sections as follows, and to check each pair of leaves by it, as they
+are guarded:--
+
+Thus, if the book is to be made up into sections of eight leaves, the
+pairs of leaves to be guarded together can be seen at once if the
+number of the pages are written out--
+
+    1, 3, 5, 7,--9, 11, 13, 15.
+
+First the inside pair, 7 and 9, are guarded together with the guard
+outside, then the next pair, 5 and 11, then 3 and 13, and then the
+outside pair, 1 and 15, which should have the guard outside. A plan
+for the whole book would be more conveniently written thus--
+
+    1-15   17-31   33-47
+    3-13   19-29   35-45
+    5-11   21-27   37-43
+    7-9    23-25   39-41, and so on.
+
+To arrange a book of single leaves for guarding, it is convenient to
+take as many leaves as you intend to go to a section, and opening them
+in the centre, take a pair at a time as they come.
+
+The number of leaves it is advisable to put into a section will depend
+on the thickness of the paper and the size and thickness of the book.
+If the paper is thick, and the backs of the leaves have been pared,
+four leaves to a section will be found to answer. But if the paper is
+thin, and does not allow of much paring, it is better to have a larger
+section, in order to have as little thread in the back as possible.
+
+The sheets of any guarded book should be pressed before sewing, in
+order to reduce the swelling of the back caused by the guards.
+
+
+                             THROWING OUT
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+Maps or diagrams that are frequently referred to in the text of a
+book, should be "thrown out" on a guard as wide as the sheet of the
+book. Such maps, &c., should be placed at the end, so that they may
+lie open for reference while the book is being read (see fig. 14).
+Large folded maps or diagrams should be mounted on linen. To do this
+take a piece of jaconet and pin it out flat on the board, then evenly
+paste the back of the map with thin paste in which there are no lumps,
+and lay it on the linen, rub down through blotting-paper, and leave to
+dry. Unless the pasting is done evenly the marks of the paste-brush
+will show through the linen. If a folded map is printed on very thick
+paper each fold must be cut up, and the separate pieces mounted on the
+linen, with a slight space between them to form a flexible joint.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+A folded map must have in the back of the book sufficient guards to
+equal it in thickness at its thickest part when folded, or the book
+will not shut properly (see fig. 15).
+
+
+                             PARING PAPER
+
+For paring the edge of paper for mending or guarding, take a very
+sharp knife, and holding the blade at right angles to the
+covering-board, draw the edge once or twice along it from left to
+right. This should turn up enough of the edge to form a "burr," which
+causes the knife to cut while being held almost flat on the paper. The
+plate or paper should be laid face downwards on the glass with the
+edge to be pared away from the workman, the knife held in the right
+hand, with the burr downwards. The angle at which to hold the knife
+will depend on its shape and on the thickness and character of the
+paper to be pared, and can only be learned by practice. If the knife
+is in order, and is held at the proper angle, the shaving removed from
+a straight edge of paper should come off in a long spiral. If the
+knife is not in proper order, the paper may be badly jagged or
+creased.
+
+
+                       SOAKING OFF INDIA PROOFS
+
+Place a piece of well-sized paper in a pan of warm water, then lay the
+mounted India proof, face downwards, upon it and leave it to soak
+until the proof floats off. Then carefully take out the old mount, and
+the India proof can be readily removed from the water on the under
+paper, and dried between sheets of blotting-paper.
+
+
+                       MOUNTING VERY THIN PAPER
+
+Very thin paper, such as that of some "India" proofs, may be safely
+mounted as follows:--The mount, ready for use, is laid on a pad of
+blotting-paper. The thin paper to be mounted is laid face downwards on
+a piece of glass and very carefully pasted with thin, white paste. Any
+paste on the glass beyond the edges of the paper is carefully wiped
+off with a clean cloth. The glass may then be turned over, and the
+pasted plate laid on the mount, its exact position being seen through
+the glass.
+
+
+                            SPLITTING PAPER
+
+It is sometimes desirable to split pieces of paper when the matter on
+one side only is needed, or when the matter printed on each side is to
+be used in different places. The paper to be split should be well
+pasted on both sides with a thickish paste, and fine linen or jaconet
+placed on each side. It is then nipped in the press to make the linen
+stick all over, and left to dry.
+
+If the two pieces of jaconet are carefully pulled apart when dry, half
+the paper should be attached to each, unless at any point the paste
+has failed to stick, when the paper will tear. The jaconet and paper
+attached must be put into warm water until the split paper floats off.
+
+
+                       INLAYING LEAVES OR PLATES
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+When a small plate or leaf has to be inserted into a larger book, it
+is best to "inlay it"; that is to say, the plate or leaf is let into a
+sheet of paper the size of the page of the book. To do this, a piece
+of paper as thick as the plate to be inlaid, or a little thicker, is
+selected, and on this is laid the plate, which should have been
+previously squared, and the positions of the corners marked with a
+folder. A point is made about an eighth of an inch inside each corner
+mark, and the paper within these points is cut out (see fig. 16). This
+leaves a frame of paper, the inner edges of which will slightly
+overlap the edges of the plate. The under edge of the plate, and the
+upper edge of the mount, should then be pared and pasted, and the
+plate laid in its place (with the corners corresponding to the folder
+marks). If the edges have been properly pared, the thickness where
+they overlap should not exceed the thickness of the frame paper. If an
+irregular fragment is to be inlaid, it is done in the same way, except
+that the entire outline is traced on the new paper with a folder, and
+the paper cut away, allowing one eighth of an inch inside the indented
+line.
+
+
+                           FLATTENING VELLUM
+
+The leaves of a vellum book that have become cockled from damp or
+other causes may be flattened by damping them, pulling them out
+straight, and allowing them to dry under pressure. To do this take the
+book to pieces, clean out any dirt there may be in the folds of the
+leaves, and spread out each pair of leaves as flatly as possible.
+
+Damp some white blotting-paper by interleaving it with common white
+paper that has been wetted with a sponge. One sheet of wet paper to
+two of blotting-paper will be enough. The pile of blotting-paper and
+wet paper is put in the press and left for an hour or two under
+pressure, then taken out and the common paper removed.
+
+The blotting-paper should now be slightly and evenly damp. To flatten
+the vellum the open pairs of leaves are interleaved with the slightly
+damp blotting-paper, and are left for an hour under the weight of a
+pressing-board. After this time the vellum will have become quite
+soft, and can with care be flattened out and lightly pressed between
+the blotting-paper, and left for a night. The next day the vellum
+leaves should be looked at to see that they lie quite flat, and the
+blotting-paper changed for some that is dry. The vellum must remain
+under pressure until it is quite dry, or it will cockle up worse than
+ever when exposed to the air. The blotting-paper should be changed
+every day or two. The length of time that vellum leaves take to dry
+will vary with the state of the atmosphere, and the thickness of the
+vellum, from one to six weeks.
+
+Almost any manuscript or printed book on vellum can be successfully
+flattened in this way; miniatures should have pieces of waxed paper
+laid over them to prevent the chance of any of the fibres of the
+blotting-paper sticking. The pressure must not be great; only enough
+is needed to keep the vellum flat as it dries.
+
+This process of flattening, although so simple, requires the utmost
+care. If the blotting-paper is used too damp, a manuscript may be
+ruined; and if not damp enough, the pressing will have no effect.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV
+
+                       Sizing--Washing--Mending
+
+
+                                SIZING
+
+The paper in old books is sometimes soft and woolly. This is generally
+because the size has perished, and such paper can often be made
+perfectly sound by resizing.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+For size, an ounce of isinglass or good gelatine is dissolved in a
+quart of water. This should make a clear solution when gently warmed,
+and should be used at about a temperature of 120 deg. F. Care must be
+taken not to heat too quickly, or the solution may burn and turn
+brown. If the size is not quite clear, it should be strained through
+fine muslin or linen before being used. When it is ready it should be
+poured into an open pan (fig. 17), so arranged that it can be kept
+warm by a gas flame or spirit lamp underneath. When this is ready the
+sheets to be sized can be put in one after another and taken out at
+once. The hot size will be found to take out a great many stains, and
+especially those deep brown stains that come from water. If there are
+only a few sheets, they can be placed between blotting-paper as they
+are removed from the size; but if there is a whole book, it is best to
+lay them in a pile one on the other, and when all have been sized to
+squeeze them in the "lying press" between pressing-boards, a pan being
+put underneath to catch the liquid squeezed out. When the sheets have
+been squeezed they can be readily handled, and should be spread out to
+dry on a table upon clean paper. When they are getting dry and firm
+they can be hung on strings stretched across the room, slightly
+overlapping one another. The strings must first be covered with slips
+of clean paper, and the sized sheets should have more paper over them
+to keep them clean.
+
+Before sizing it will be necessary to go through a book and take out
+any pencil or dust marks that can be removed with indiarubber or bread
+crumbs, or the size will fix them, and it will be found exceedingly
+difficult to remove them afterwards.
+
+When the sheets are dry they should be carefully mended in any places
+that may be torn, and folded up into sections and pressed. A long,
+comparatively light pressure will be found to flatten them better and
+with less injury to the surface of the paper than a short, very heavy
+pressure, such as that of the rolling-machine.
+
+In some cases it will be found that sheets of old books are so far
+damaged as to be hardly strong enough to handle. Such sheets must be
+sized in rather a stronger size in the following way:--Take a sheet of
+heavily-sized paper, such as notepaper, and carefully lay your damaged
+sheet on that. Then put another sheet of strong paper on the top, and
+put all three sheets into the size. It will be found that the top
+sheet can then be easily lifted off, and the size be made to flow over
+the face of the damaged sheet. Then, if the top sheet be put on again,
+the three sheets, if handled as one, can be turned over and the
+operation repeated, and size induced to cover the back of the damaged
+leaf. The three sheets must then be taken out and laid between
+blotting-paper to take up the surplus moisture. The top sheet must
+then be carefully peeled off, and the damaged page laid face downwards
+on clean blotting-paper. Then the back sheet can be peeled off as
+well, leaving the damaged sheet to dry.
+
+The following is quoted from "Chambers' Encyclopaedia" on Gelatine:--
+
+"Gelatine should never be judged by the eye alone.
+
+"Its purity may be very easily tested thus: Soak it in cold water,
+then pour upon it a small quantity of boiling water. If pure, it will
+form a thickish, clear straw-coloured solution, free from smell; but
+if made of impure materials, it will give off a very offensive odour,
+and have a yellow, gluey consistency."
+
+
+                                WASHING
+
+When there are stains or ink marks on books that cannot be removed by
+the use of hot size or hot water, stronger measures may sometimes have
+to be taken. Many stains will be found to yield readily to hot water
+with a little alum in it, and others can be got out by a judicious
+application of curd soap with a very soft brush and plenty of warm
+water. But some, and especially ink stains, require further treatment.
+There are many ways of washing paper, and most of those in common use
+are extremely dangerous, and have in many cases resulted in the
+absolute destruction of fine books. If it is thought to be absolutely
+necessary that the sheets of a book should be washed, the safest
+method is as follows:--Take an ounce of permanganate of potash
+dissolved in a quart of water, and warmed slightly. In this put the
+sheets to be washed, and leave them until they turn a dark brown. This
+will usually take about an hour, but may take longer for some papers.
+Then turn the sheets out and wash them in running water until all
+trace of purple stain disappears from the water as it comes away. Then
+transfer them to a bath of sulphurous (not sulphuric) acid and water
+in the proportion of one ounce of acid to one pint of water. The
+sheets in this solution will rapidly turn white, and if left for some
+time nearly all stains will be removed. In case any stains refuse to
+come out, the sheets should be put in clear water for a short time,
+and then placed in the permanganate of potash solution again, and left
+there for a longer time than before; then after washing in clear
+water, again transferred to the sulphurous acid. When sheets are
+removed from the sulphurous acid they should be well washed for an
+hour or two in running water, and then may be blotted or squeezed off
+and hung up on lines to dry. Any sheets treated in this way will
+require sizing afterwards. And if, as is often the case, only a few
+sheets at the beginning or end of the book have to be washed, it will
+be necessary to tone down the washed sheets to match the rest of the
+book by putting some stain in the size. For staining there are many
+things used. A weak solution of permanganate of potash gives a
+yellowish stain that will be found to match many papers. Other stains
+are used, such as coffee, chicory, tea, liquorice, &c. Whatever is
+used should be put in the size. To ascertain that the right depth of
+colour has been obtained, a piece of unsized paper, such as white
+blotting-paper, is dipped in the stained size and blotted off and
+dried before the fire. It is impossible to judge of the depth of
+colour in a stain unless the test piece is thoroughly dried. If the
+stain is not right, add more water or more stain as is needed.
+Experience will tell what stain to use to match the paper of any given
+book.
+
+To remove grease or oil stains, ether may be used. Pour it freely in a
+circle round the spot, narrowing the circle gradually until the stain
+is covered. Then apply a warm iron through a piece of blotting-paper.
+
+Ether should only be used in a draught in a well-ventilated room on
+account of its well-known inflammable and anaesthetical properties.
+
+A very dilute (about one per cent.) solution of pure hydrochloric acid
+in cold water will be found to take out some stains if the paper is
+left in it for some hours. When the paper is removed from the
+solution, it must be thoroughly washed in running water. It is
+important that the hydrochloric acid used should be pure, as the
+commercial quality (spirits of salts) often contains sulphuric acid.
+
+The following recipes are quoted from _De l'organisation et de
+l'administration des Bibliotheques, par Jules Cusin_:--
+
+To remove stains from paper:--"_Mud Stains._--To take away these kinds
+of stains, spread some soap jelly very evenly over the stained places,
+and leave it there for thirty or forty minutes, according to the depth
+of the stain. Then dip the sheet in clean water, and then having
+spread it on a perfectly clean table, remove the soap lightly with a
+hog's hair brush or a fine sponge; all the mud will disappear at the
+same time. Put the sheet into the clear water again, to get rid of the
+last trace of soap. Let it drain a little, press it lightly between
+two sheets of blotting-paper, and finish by letting it dry slowly in
+a dry place in the shade.
+
+"_Stains of Tallow, Stearine, or Fat._--To take away these stains
+cover them with blotting-paper and pass over them a warm flat-iron.
+When the paper has soaked up the grease, change it and repeat the
+operation until the stains have been sufficiently removed. After that,
+touch both sides of the sheets where they have been stained with a
+brush dipped in essence of turpentine heated to boiling-point. Then to
+restore the whiteness of the paper, touch the places which were
+stained with a piece of fine linen soaked in purified spirits of wine
+warmed in the water-bath. This method may also be employed to get rid
+of sealing-wax stains.
+
+"_Oil Stains._--Make a mixture of 500 gr. of soap, 300 gr. of clay, 60
+gr. of quicklime, and sufficient water to make it of the right
+consistency, spread a thin layer of this on the stain, and leave it
+there about a quarter of an hour. Then dip the sheet in a bath of hot
+water; take it out, and let it dry slowly.
+
+"You can also use the following method, generally employed for
+finger-marks:--
+
+"_Finger-marks._--These stains are sometimes very obstinate. Still
+they can generally be mastered by the following method:--Spread over
+them a layer of white soap jelly (_savon blanc en gelee_), and leave
+it there for some hours. Then remove this with a fine sponge dipped in
+hot water, and more often than not all the dirt disappears at the same
+time. If this treatment is not sufficient, you might replace the soap
+jelly by soft soap (_savon noir_), but you must be careful not to
+leave it long on the printing, which might decompose and run, and that
+would do more harm than good."
+
+Sheets of very old books are best left with the stains of age upon
+them, excepting, perhaps, such as can be removed with hot water or
+size. Nearly all stains _can_ be removed, but in the process old paper
+is apt to lose more in character than it gains in appearance.
+
+
+                                MENDING
+
+For mending torn sheets of an old book, some paper that matches as
+nearly as possible must be found. For this purpose it is the custom
+for bookbinders to collect quantities of old paper. If a piece of the
+same tone cannot be found, paper of similar texture and substance may
+be stained to match.
+
+Supposing a corner to be missing, and a piece of paper to have been
+found that matches it, the torn page is laid over the new paper in
+such a way that the wire marks on both papers correspond. Then the
+point of a folder should be drawn along the edge of the torn sheet,
+leaving an indented line on the new paper. The new paper should then
+be cut off about an eighth of an inch beyond the indented line, and
+the edge carefully pared up to the line. The edge of the old paper
+must be similarly pared, so that the two edges when laid together will
+not exceed the thickness of the rest of the page. It is well to leave
+a little greater overlap at the edges of the page. Both cut edges must
+then be well pasted with white paste and rubbed down between
+blotting-paper. To ensure a perfectly clean joint the pasted edge
+should not be touched with the hand, and pasting-paper, brushes, and
+paste must be perfectly clean.
+
+In the case of a tear across the page, if there are any overlapping
+edges, they may merely be pasted together and the end of the tear at
+the edge of the paper strengthened by a small piece of pared paper. If
+the tear crosses print, and there are no overlapping edges, either
+tiny pieces of pared paper may be cut and laid across the tear between
+the lines of print, or else a piece of the thinnest Japanese paper,
+which is nearly transparent, may be pasted right along the tear over
+the print; in either case the mend should be strengthened at the edge
+of the page by an additional thickness of paper. In cases where the
+backs of the sections have been much damaged, it will be necessary to
+put a guard the entire length, or in the case of small holes, to fill
+them in with pieces of torn paper. The edges of any mend may, with
+great care, be scraped with a sharp knife having a slight burr on the
+under side, and then rubbed lightly with a piece of worn fine
+sand-paper, or a fragment of cuttle-fish bone. Care must be taken not
+to pare away too much, and especially not to weaken the mend at the
+edges of the sheet. As a general rule, the new mending paper should go
+on the back of a sheet.
+
+Sometimes it is thought necessary to fill up worm-holes in the paper.
+This may be done by boiling down some paper in size until it is of a
+pulpy consistency, and a little of this filled into the worm-holes
+will re-make the paper in those places. It is a very tedious
+operation, and seldom worth doing.
+
+Mending vellum is done in much the same way as mending paper,
+excepting that a little greater overlap must be left. It is well to
+put a stitch of silk at each end of a vellum patch, as you cannot
+depend on paste alone holding vellum securely. The overlapping edges
+must be well roughed up with a knife to make sure that the paste will
+stick. A cut in a vellum page is best mended with fine silk with a
+lacing stitch (see fig. 18).
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+Mending is most easily done on a sheet of plate-glass, of which the
+edges and corners have been rubbed down.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+                 End Papers--Leather Joints--Pressing
+
+
+                              END PAPERS
+
+If an old book that has had much wear is examined, it will generally
+be found that the leaves at the beginning and the end have suffered
+more than the rest of the book. On this ground, and also to enable
+people who must write notes in books to do so with the least injury to
+the book, it is advisable to put a good number of blank papers at each
+end. As these papers are part of the binding, and have an important
+protective function to perform, they should be of good quality. At all
+times difficulty has been found in preventing the first and last
+section of the book, whether end papers or not, from dragging away
+when the cover is opened, and various devices have been tried to
+overcome this defect. In the fifteenth century strips of vellum
+(usually cut from manuscripts) were pasted on to the back of the book
+and on the inside of the boards, or in some cases were merely folded
+round the first and last section and pasted on to the covers. The
+modern, and far less efficient, practice is to "overcast" the first
+and last sections. This is objectionable, because it prevents the
+leaves from opening right to the back, and it fails in the object
+aimed at, by merely transferring the strain to the back of the
+overcast section.
+
+In order to make provision for any strain there may be in opening the
+cover, it is better to adopt some such arrangement as shown in fig.
+19. In this end paper the zigzag opens slightly in response to any
+strain.
+
+The way to make this end paper is to take a folded sheet of paper a
+little larger than the book. Then with dividers mark two points an
+eighth of an inch from the back for the fold, and paste your
+paste-down paper, B B, up to these points (see fig. 19, II). When the
+paste is dry, fold back the sheet (A1) over the paste-down paper, and
+A2 the reverse way, leaving the form seen in fig. 19, III. A folded
+sheet of paper similar to A is inserted at C (fig. 19, V, H), and the
+sewing passes through this. When the book is pasted down the leaf A1
+is torn off, and B1 pasted down on the board. If marbled paper is
+desired, the marble should be "made," that is, pasted on to B1.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 19.]
+
+There are considerable disadvantages in using marbled papers, as if
+they are of thick enough paper to help the strength of the binding,
+the "made" sheet is very stiff, and in a small book is troublesome. On
+no account should any marble paper be used, unless it is tough and
+durable. The quality of the paper of which most marbled papers are
+made is so poor, that it is unsuitable for use as end papers. For most
+books a self-coloured paper of good quality answers well for the
+paste-down sheets.
+
+It is a mistake to leave end papers to be pasted on after the book has
+been forwarded, as in that case they have little constructive value.
+Every leaf of such an end paper as is described above will open right
+to the back, and the zigzag allows play for the drag of the board.
+
+Paper with a conventional pattern painted or printed on it may be used
+for end papers. If such a design is simple, such as a sprig repeated
+all over, or an arrangement of stars or dots, it may look very well;
+but over elaborate end papers, and especially those that aim at
+pictorial effect, are seldom successful.
+
+Ends may be made of thin vellum. If so, unless the board is very
+heavy, it is best to have leather joints.
+
+A single leaf of vellum (in the place of B1 and 2, II, fig. 19) should
+have an edge turned up into the zigzag with the leather joint, and
+sewn through. Vellum ends must always be sewn, as it is not safe to
+rely upon paste to hold them. They look well, and may be enriched by
+tooling. The disadvantage of vellum is, that it has a tendency to curl
+up if subjected to heat, and when it contracts it unduly draws the
+boards of the book. For large manuscripts, or printed books on vellum,
+which are bound in wooden or other thick boards and are clasped,
+thicker vellum may be used for the ends; that with a slightly brown
+surface looks best. The part that will come into the joint should be
+scraped thin with a knife, and a zigzag made of Japanese paper.
+
+Silk or other fine woven material may be used for ends. It is best
+used with a leather joint, and may be stuck on to the first paper of
+the end papers (B1, No. 2, fig. 19), and cut with the book. The
+glaire of the edge gilding will help to stop the edges fraying out. In
+attaching silk to paper, thin glue is the best thing to use; the
+paper, not the silk, being glued. Some little practice is needed to
+get sufficient glue on the paper to make the silk stick all over, and
+yet not to soil it. When the silk has been glued to the paper, it
+should be left under a light weight to dry. If put in the press, the
+glue may be squeezed through and the silk soiled.
+
+If the silk is very thin, or delicate in colour, or if it seems likely
+that it will fray out at the edges, it is better to turn the edges in
+over a piece of paper cut a little smaller than the page of the book
+and stick them down. This forms a pad, which may be attached to the
+first leaf of the end papers; a similar pad may be made for filling in
+the board.
+
+Before using, the silk should be damped and ironed flat on the wrong
+side.
+
+Silk ends give a book a rich finish, but seldom look altogether
+satisfactory. If the silk is merely stuck on to the first end paper,
+the edges will generally fray out if the book is much used. If the
+edges are turned in, an unpleasantly thick end is made.
+
+
+                            LEATHER JOINTS
+
+Leather joints are pieces of thin leather that are used to cover the
+joints on the inside (for paring, see page 154). They add very little
+strength to the book, but give a pleasant finish to the inside of the
+board.
+
+If there are to be leather joints, the end papers are made up without
+A 1, and the edge of the leather pasted and inserted at D, with a
+piece of common paper as a protection (see fig. 19, IV). When the
+paste is dry, the leather is folded over at E.
+
+A piece of blotting-paper may be pasted on to the inside of the waste
+leaf, leaving enough of it loose to go between the leather joint and
+the first sheet of the end paper. This will avoid any chance of the
+leather joint staining or marking the ends while the book is being
+bound. The blotting-paper, of course, is taken out with the waste
+sheet before the joint is pasted down.
+
+Joints may also be made of linen or cloth inserted in the same way. A
+cloth joint has greater strength than a leather one, as the latter has
+to be very thin in order that the board may shut properly.
+
+With leather or cloth joints, the sewing should go through both E and
+F.
+
+
+                               PRESSING
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 20.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Standing Press]
+
+While the end papers are being made, the sections of the book should
+be pressed. To do this a pressing-board is taken which is a little
+larger than the book, and a tin, covered with common paper, placed on
+that, then a few sections of the book, then another tin covered with
+paper, and then more sections, and so on, taking care that the
+sections are exactly over one another (see fig. 20). A second
+pressing-board having been placed on the last tin, the pile of
+sections, tins, and pressing-boards can be put into the standing-press
+and left under pressure till next day. Newly printed plates should be
+protected by thin tissue paper while being pressed. Any folded plates
+or maps, &c., or inserted letters, must either not be pressed, or have
+tins placed on each side of them to prevent them from indenting the
+adjoining leaves.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 22.--French Standing Press]
+
+Hand-printed books, such as the publications of the Kelmscott Press,
+should have very little pressure, or the "impression" of the print and
+the surface of the paper may be injured. Books newly printed on vellum
+or heavily coloured illustrations should not be pressed at all, or the
+print may "set off."
+
+The protecting tissues on the plates of a book that has been printed
+for more than a year can generally be left out, unless the titles of
+the plates are printed on them, as they are a nuisance to readers and
+often get crumpled up and mark the book.
+
+In order to make books solid, that is, to make the leaves lie evenly
+and closely to one another, it was formerly the custom to beat books
+on a "stone" with a heavy hammer. This process has been superseded by
+the rolling-press; but with the admirable presses that are now to be
+had, simple pressing will be found to be sufficient for the "extra"
+binder.
+
+At fig. 21 is shown an iron standing-press. This is screwed down first
+with a short bar, and finally with a long bar. This form of press is
+effective and simple, but needs a good deal of room for the long bar,
+and must have very firm supports, or it may be pulled over.
+
+At fig. 22 is shown a French standing-press, in which the pressure is
+applied by a weighted wheel, which will, in the first place, by being
+spun round, turn the screw until it is tight, and give additional
+pressure by a hammering action. This press I have found to answer for
+all ordinary purposes, and to give as great pressure as can be got by
+the iron standing-press, without any undue strain on supports or
+workmen.
+
+There are many other forms of press by which great pressure can be
+applied, some working by various arrangements of cog-wheels, screws,
+and levers, others by hydraulic pressure.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI
+
+              Trimming Edges before Sewing--Edge Gilding
+
+
+                        TRIMMING BEFORE SEWING
+
+When the sheets come from the press the treatment of the edges must be
+decided upon, that is, whether they are to be entirely uncut, trimmed
+before sewing, or cut in boards.
+
+Early printed books and manuscripts should on no account have their
+edges cut at all, and any modern books of value are better only
+slightly trimmed and gilt before sewing. But for books of reference
+that need good bindings, on account of the wear they have to
+withstand, cutting in boards is best, as the smooth edge so obtained
+makes the leaves easier to turn over. Gilt tops and rough edges give a
+book a look of unequal finish.
+
+If the edges are to remain uncut, or be cut "in boards" with the
+plough, the book will be ready for "marking up" as soon as it comes
+from the press; but if it is to be gilt before sewing, it must be
+first trimmed.
+
+    [Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+The sheets for trimming with end papers and all plates inserted must
+first be cut square at the head against a carpenter's square (see fig.
+7). Then a piece of mill-board may be cut to the size, it is desired
+to leave the leaves, and the sections trimmed to it. To do this three
+nails should be put into the covering board through a piece of
+straw-board, and the back of the section slid along nails 1 and 2
+until it touches No. 3 (see fig. 23). The board is slid in the same
+way, and anything projecting beyond it cut off. When the under
+straw-board has become inconveniently scored in the first position, by
+shifting the lower nail (1) a fresh surface will receive the cuts.
+Fig. 24 is a representation of a simple machine that I use in my
+workshop for trimming. The slides A A are adjustable to any width
+required, and are fixed by the screws B B. The brass-bound straight
+edge C fits on to slots in A A, and as this, by the adjustment of the
+slides, can be fixed at any distance from B B, all sizes of books can
+be trimmed. As by this machine several sections can be cut at once,
+the time taken is not very much greater than if the book were cut in
+the plough.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 24.]
+
+Considerable judgment is required in trimming. The edges of the larger
+pages only, on a previously uncut book, should be cut, leaving the
+smaller pages untouched. Such uncut pages are called "proof," and the
+existence of proof in a bound book is evidence that it has not been
+unduly cut.
+
+Before gilding the edges of the trimmed sections, any uncut folds
+that may remain should be opened with a folder, as if opened after
+gilding, they will show a ragged white edge.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 25.]
+
+
+                             EDGE GILDING
+
+To gild the edges of trimmed sections, the book must be "knocked up"
+to the fore-edge, getting as many of the short leaves as possible to
+the front. It is then put into the "lying press," with gilding boards
+on each side (see fig. No. 25), and screwed up tightly. Very little
+scraping will be necessary, and usually if well rubbed with fine
+sand-paper, to remove any chance finger-marks or loose fragments of
+paper, the edge will be smooth enough to gild. If the paper is very
+absorbent, the edges must be washed over with vellum size and left to
+dry.
+
+The next process is an application of red chalk. For this a piece of
+gilder's red chalk is rubbed down on a stone with water, making a
+thickish paste, and the edges are well brushed with a hard brush
+dipped in this mixture, care being taken not to have it wet enough to
+run between the leaves. Some gilders prefer to use blacklead or a
+mixture of chalk and blacklead. A further brushing with a dry brush
+will to some extent polish the leaves. It will then be ready for an
+application of glaire. Before glairing, the gold must be cut on the
+cushion to the width required (see p. 200), and may be either taken up
+on very slightly greased paper, a gilder's tip, or with a piece of net
+stretched on a little frame (see fig. 26). The gold leaf will adhere
+sufficiently to the net, and can be readily released by a light breath
+when it is exactly over the proper place on the edge.
+
+When the gold is ready, the glaire should be floated on to the edge
+with a soft brush, and the gold spread evenly over it and left until
+dry; that is, in a workshop of ordinary temperature, for about an
+hour. The edge is then lightly rubbed with a piece of leather that has
+been previously rubbed on beeswax, and is ready for burnishing. It is
+best to commence burnishing through a piece of thin slightly waxed
+paper to set the gold, and afterwards the burnisher can be used
+directly on the edge. A piece of bloodstone ground so as to have no
+sharp edges (see fig. 27) makes a good burnisher.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 26]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 27.]
+
+There are several different preparations used for gilding edges. One
+part of beaten up white of egg with four parts of water left to stand
+for a day and strained will be found to answer well.
+
+After the fore-edge is gilt the same operation is repeated at the head
+and tail. As it is desirable to have the gilding at the head as solid
+as possible, rather more scraping is advisable here, or the head may
+be left to be cut with a plough and gilt in boards.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+
+               Marking up--Sewing--Materials for Sewing
+
+
+                              MARKING UP
+
+This is drawing lines across the back of the sections to show the
+sewer the position of the sewing cords.
+
+Marking up for flexible sewing needs care and judgment, as on it
+depends the position of the bands on the back of the bound book.
+Nearly all books look best with five bands, but very large, thinnish
+folios may have six, and a very small, thick book may look better with
+four. Generally speaking, five is the best number. In marking up
+trimmed sheets for flexible sewing, the length of the back should be
+divided from the head into six portions, five equal, and one at the
+tail slightly longer. From the points so arrived at, strong pencil
+lines should be made across the back with a carpenter's square as
+guide, the book having been previously knocked up between
+pressing-boards, and placed in the lying press. It is important that
+the head should be knocked up exactly square, as otherwise the bands
+will be found to slope when the book is bound. In the case of a book
+which is to be cut and gilt in boards, before marking up it will be
+necessary to decide how much is to be cut off, and allowance made, or
+the head and tail division of the back will, when cut, be too small.
+It must also be remembered that to the height of the pages the amount
+of the "squares" will be added.
+
+About a quarter of an inch from either end of the back of a trimmed
+book, and a little more in the case of one that is to be cut in
+boards, a mark should be made for the "kettle" or "catch" stitch. This
+may be slightly sawn in, but before using the saw, the end papers are
+removed. If these were sawn, the holes would show in the joint when
+the ends are pasted down.
+
+If the book is to be sewn on double cords, or on slips of vellum or
+tape, two lines will be necessary for each band.
+
+It has become the custom to saw in the backs of books, and to sink the
+bands into the saw cuts, using "hollow backs," and putting false bands
+to appear when bound. This is a degenerate form, to which is due much
+of the want of durability of modern bindings. If the bands are not to
+show on the back, it is better to sew on tapes or strips of vellum
+than to use sawn-in string bands.
+
+
+                                SEWING
+
+The sewing-frame need by bookbinders is practically the same now as is
+shown in prints of the early sixteenth century, and probably dates
+from still earlier times. It consists of a bed with two uprights and a
+crossbar, which can be heightened or lowered by the turning of wooden
+nuts working on a screw thread cut in the uprights (see fig. 29).
+
+To set up for sewing, as many loops of cord, called "lay cords," as
+there are to be bands, are threaded on to the cross piece, and to
+these, by a simple knot, shown at fig. 28, cords are fastened to form
+the bands. The "lay cords" can be used again and again until worn
+out.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 28.]
+
+To fasten the cord below, a key is taken (see fig. 28) and held below
+the press by the right hand; the cord is then pulled up round it by
+the left, and held in position on the key by the first finger of the
+right hand. The key is then turned over, winding up a little of the
+string, and the prongs slipped over the main cord. It is then put
+through the slit in the bed of the sewing-press, with the prongs away
+from the front. The cord is then cut off, and the same operation
+repeated for each band. When all the bands have been set up, the book
+is laid against them, and they are moved to correspond with the marks
+previously made on the back of the book, care being taken that they
+are quite perpendicular. If they are of the same length and evenly set
+up, on screwing up the crossbar they should all tighten equally.
+
+It will be found to be convenient to set up the cords as far to the
+right hand of the press as possible, as then there will be room for
+the sewer's left arm on the inner side of the left hand upright.
+
+A roll of paper that will exactly fill the slot in the sewing-frame is
+pushed in in front of the upright cords to steady them and ensure
+that they are all in the same plane.
+
+When the sewing-frame is ready, with the cords set up and adjusted,
+the book must be collated to make sure that neither sheets nor plates
+have been lost or misplaced during the previous operations. Plates
+need special care to see that the guards go properly round the sheets
+next them.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 29.]
+
+The top back corner, on front and back waste end paper, should be
+marked. When this has been done, and all is found to be in order, the
+book is laid on a pressing-board behind the sewing-frame, the
+fore-edge towards the sewer, and the front end paper uppermost. As it
+is difficult to insert the needle into a section placed on the bed of
+the sewing-frame, it will be found convenient to sew upon a largish
+pressing-board, which will lie on the bed of the frame, and may have
+small catches to prevent it from shifting. When the board is in place,
+the first section (end paper) is taken in the left hand and turned
+over, so that the marks on the back come in the proper places against
+the strings. The left hand is inserted into the place where the sewing
+is to be, and with the right hand a needle and thread is passed
+through the kettle stitch mark (see fig. 29). It is grasped by the
+fingers of the left hand, is passed out through the back at the first
+mark on the left-hand side of the first upright cord, and pulled
+tight, leaving a loose end of thread at the kettle stitch. Then with
+the right hand it is inserted again in the same place, but from the
+other side of the cord, and so on round all five bands, and out again
+at the kettle stitch mark at the tail, using right and left hands
+alternately. The centre of the next section is then found, and it is
+sewn in the same way from tail to head, the thread being tied to the
+loose end hanging from the first kettle stitch. Another section is
+laid on and sewn, but when the kettle stitch is reached, the under
+thread is caught up in the way shown in fig. 30. These operations are
+repeated throughout the whole book. If the back seems likely to swell
+too much, the sections can be lightly tapped down with a loaded stick
+made for the purpose, care being taken not to drive the sections
+inwards, as it is difficult to get such sections out again. When all
+the sheets and the last end paper have been sewn on, a double catch
+stitch is made, and the end cut off. This method is known as flexible
+sewing "all along."
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 30.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 31.]
+
+When one needle full of thread is exhausted, another is tied on,
+making practically a continuous length of thread going all along each
+section and round every band. The weaver's knot is the best for
+joining the lengths of thread. A simple way of tying it is shown at
+fig. 31. A simple slip knot is made in the end of the new thread and
+put over the end of the old, and, on being pulled tight, the old
+thread should slip through, as shewn at B. The convenience of this
+knot is, that by its use a firm attachment can be made quite close up
+to the back of the book. This is a great advantage, as if the knot is
+made at some distance from the back, it will have to be dragged
+through the section two or three times, instead of only once. The
+knot, after having been made, must be pulled inside the section, and
+remain there. Considerable judgment is required in sewing. If a book
+is sewn too loosely, it is almost impossible to bind it firmly; and if
+too tightly, especially if the kettle stitches have been drawn too
+tight, the thread may break in "backing," and the book have to be
+resewn.
+
+One way to avoid having too much swelling in the back of a book
+consisting of a great many very thin sections is to sew "two sheets
+on." In this form of sewing two sections at a time are laid on the
+sewing-frame. The thread is inserted at the "kettle stitch" of the
+lower section, and brought out as usual at the first cord, but instead
+of being reinserted into the lower section, it is passed into the
+upper one, and so on, alternately passing into the upper and lower
+sections. This will give, if there are five bands, three stitches in
+each section instead of six, as there would be if the sewing were
+"all along," lessening the thread, consequently the swelling by half.
+It is usual to sew the first and last few sections "all along."
+
+The common method of sewing is to make saw cuts in the back, in which
+thin cords can be sunk, and the thread merely passes behind them and
+not round them, as in flexible sewing. This method, although very
+quick and cheap, is not to be recommended, on account of the injury
+done to the backs of the sections by the saw, and because the glue
+running into the saw cuts is apt to make the back stiff, and to
+prevent the book from opening right to the back. Indeed, were a
+sawn-in book to open right to the back, as it is expected a
+flexibly-sewn book will do, showing the sewing along the centre of
+each section, the saw marks with the band inserted would show, and be
+a serious disfigurement.
+
+Mediaeval books were usually sewn on double cords or strips of leather,
+and the headband was often sewn at the same time, as shown at fig. 32,
+A. This is an excellent method for very large books with heavy
+sections, and is specially suitable for large vellum manuscripts, in
+many of which the sections are very thick. An advantage of this
+method is, that the twist round the double cord virtually makes a knot
+at every band, and should a thread at any place break, there is no
+danger of the rest of the thread coming loose. This is the only mode
+of sewing by which a thread runs absolutely from end to end of the
+sections. The headband sewn at the same time, and so tied down in
+every section, is firmer and stronger than if worked on in the way now
+usual. In the fifteenth century it was the custom to lace the ends of
+the headbands into the boards in the same way as the other bands. This
+method, while giving additional strength at the head and tail, and
+avoiding the somewhat unfinished look of the cut-off ends of the
+modern headband, is, on the whole, of doubtful advantage, as it is
+necessary to cut the "turn in" at the point where strength in the
+leather is much wanted.
+
+At fig. 32 is shown in section the three methods of sewing mentioned.
+A is the old sewing round double bands; with the headbands worked at
+the same time with the same thread; B is the modern flexible sewing,
+and C the common sawn-in method.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 32.]
+
+Books that are very thin or are to be bound in vellum, are best sewn
+on tapes or vellum slips. The easiest way to set up the sewing-frame
+for such sewing is to sling a piece of wood through two of the lay
+cords, and to pin one end of the vellum or tape band round this, pull
+the other end tight, and secure it with a drawing-pin underneath the
+frame. The sewing, in the case of such flat bands, would not go round,
+but only across them. To avoid undue looseness, every three or four
+threads may be caught up at the back of the band, as shown in fig. 33.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 33.]
+
+
+                         MATERIALS FOR SEWING
+
+The cord used should be of the best hemp, specially made with only two
+strands of very long fibres to facilitate fraying out. For very large
+books where a double cord is to be used, the best water line will be
+found to answer, care being taken to select that which can be frayed
+out. If tape is used it should be unbleached, such as the sailmakers
+use. Thread should also be unbleached, as the unnecessary bleaching of
+most bookbinder's sewing-thread seems to cause it to rot in a
+comparatively short time. Silk of the best quality is better than any
+thread. The ligature silk, undyed, as used by surgeons, is perhaps the
+strongest material, and can be had in various thicknesses. It is
+impossible to pay too great attention to the selection of sewing
+materials, as the permanency of the binding depends on their
+durability. The rebinding of valuable books is at best a necessary
+evil, and anything that makes frequent rebinding necessary, is not
+only objectionable on account of the cost involved, but because it
+seriously shortens the life of the book.
+
+Experience is required to judge what thickness of thread to use for
+any given book. If the sections are very thin, a thin thread must be
+used, or the "swelling" of the back caused by the additional thickness
+of the thread in that part will be excessive, and make the book
+unmanageable in "backing." On the other hand, if the sections are
+large, and a too thin thread is used, there will not be enough
+swelling to make a firm "joint." Broadly speaking, when there are a
+great many very thin sections, the thinnest thread may be used; and
+coarser thread may be used when the sections are thicker, or fewer in
+number. In the case of large manuscripts on vellum it is best to use
+very thick silk, or even catgut. Vellum is so tough and durable, that
+any binding of a vellum book should be made as if it were expected to
+last for hundreds of years.
+
+In selecting the thickness of cord for a book, some judgment is
+required. On an old book the bands are best made rather prominent by
+the use of thick cord, but the exact thickness to be used is a matter
+for taste and experience to decide.
+
+A very thick band on a small book is clumsy, while a very thin band on
+the back of a heavy book suggests weakness, and is therefore
+unsightly.
+
+In bindings of early printed books and manuscripts an appearance of
+great strength is better than extreme neatness.
+
+When the sewing is completed, the cords are cut off close to the lay
+cords, and then the keys will be loose enough to be easily removed.
+The knots remaining on the lay bands are removed, and the keys slung
+through one of them.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VIII
+
+          Fraying out Slips--Glueing up--Rounding and Backing
+
+
+                   FRAYING OUT SLIPS AND GLUEING UP
+
+After sewing, the book should be looked through to see that all sheets
+and plates have been caught by the thread, and special attention
+should be given to end papers to see that the sewing lies evenly.
+
+The ends of the cords should next be cut off to within about two
+inches of the book on each side, and the free portions frayed out. If
+proper sewing cord is used, this will be found to be very easily done,
+if a binder's bodkin is first inserted between the two strands,
+separating them, and then again in the centre of each separated strand
+to still further straighten the fibres (see fig. 34).
+
+The fraying out of the thick cord recommended for heavy books is a
+more difficult operation, but with a little trouble the fibres of any
+good cord can be frayed out. Vellum or tape bands will only require
+cutting off, leaving about two inches free on each side. The free
+parts of the bands are called slips.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 34.]
+
+The book is now ready for glueing up. A piece of waste mill-board or
+an old cloth cover is put on each side over the slips, and the book
+knocked up squarely at the back and head. Then it is lowered into the
+lying press and screwed up, leaving the back with the protecting
+boards projecting about three-quarters of an inch. If the back has too
+much swelling in it or is spongy, it is better to leave the slips on
+one side free and to pull them as tight as possible while the book is
+held in the press, or a knocking-down iron may be placed on one side
+of the projecting back and the other side tapped with the backing
+hammer to make the sections lie close to one another, and then the
+slips pulled straight (fig. 35). The back must now be glued. The glue
+for this operation must be hot, and not too thick. It is very
+important that it should be worked well between the sections with the
+brush, and it is well after it has been applied to rub the back with a
+finger or folder to make quite sure that the glue goes between every
+section for its entire length. If the book is too tightly screwed up
+in the press, the glue is apt to remain too much on the surface; and
+if not tightly enough, it may penetrate too deeply between the
+sections. If the glue is thick, or stringy, it may be diluted with hot
+water and the glue-brush rapidly spun round in the glue-pot to break
+it up and to make it work freely.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 35.]
+
+Very great care is needed to see that the head of a previously trimmed
+book is knocked up exactly square before the back is glued, for if it
+is not, it will be very difficult to get it even afterwards.
+
+
+                         ROUNDING AND BACKING
+
+The amount of rounding on the back of a book should be determined by
+the necessities of the case; that is to say, a back that has, through
+guarding, or excess of sewing, a tendency to be round, is best not
+forced to be flat, and a back that would naturally be flat, is best
+not forced to be unduly round. A very round back is objectionable
+where it can be avoided, because it takes up so much of the back
+margins of the sheets, and is apt to make the book stiff in opening.
+On the other hand, a back that is quite flat has to be lined up
+stiffly, or it may become concave with use.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 36.]
+
+The method of rounding is to place the book with the back projecting a
+little over the edge of the press or table, then to draw the back over
+towards the workman, and, while in this position, to tap it carefully
+with a hammer (see fig. 36). This is repeated on the other side of the
+book, and, if properly done, will give the back an even, convex form
+that should be in section, a portion of a circle. Rounding and backing
+are best done after the glue has ceased to be tacky, but before it has
+set hard.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 37.]
+
+Backing is perhaps the most difficult and important operation in
+forwarding. The sewing threads in the back cause that part to be
+thicker than the rest of the book. Thus in a book with twenty sections
+there will be in the back, in addition to the thickness of the paper,
+twenty thicknesses of thread.
+
+If the boards were laced on to the book without rounding or backing,
+and the book were pressed, the additional thickness of the back,
+having to go somewhere, would cause it to go either convex or concave,
+or else perhaps to crease up (see fig. 37). The object of rounding is
+to control the distribution of this swelling, and to make the back
+take an even and permanently convex form.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 38.]
+
+If the boards were merely laced on after rounding, there would be a
+gap between the square ends of the board and the edge of the back (see
+fig. 38), though the convexity and even curve of the back would be to
+some extent assured. What is done in backing is to make a groove, into
+which the edges of the board will fit neatly, and to hammer the backs
+of the sections over one another from the centre outwards on both
+sides to form the "groove," to ensure that the back shall return to
+the same form after the book has been opened.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 39.]
+
+To back the book, backing boards are placed on each side (leaving the
+slips outside) a short distance below the edge of the back (fig. 39).
+The amount to leave here must be decided by the thickness of the
+boards to be used. When the backing boards are in position, the book
+and boards must be carefully lowered into the lying press and screwed
+up very tight, great care being taken to see that the boards do not
+slip, and that the book is put in evenly. Even the most experienced
+forwarder will sometimes have to take a book out of the press two or
+three times before he gets it in quite evenly and without allowing the
+boards to slip. Unless the back has a perfectly even curve when put in
+the press for backing, no amount of subsequent hammering will put it
+permanently right.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 40.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 41.]
+
+The backs of the sections should be evenly fanned out one over the
+other from the centre outwards on both sides. This is done by side
+strokes of the hammer, in fact by a sort of "riveting" blow, and not
+by a directly crushing blow (see fig. 41, in which the arrows show the
+direction of the hammer strokes). If the sections are not evenly
+fanned out from the centre, but are either zigzagged by being crushed
+by direct blows of the hammer, as shown in fig. 42, A, or are unevenly
+fanned over more to one side than the other, as shown in fig. 42, B,
+the back, although it may be even enough when first done, will
+probably become uneven with use. A book in which the sections have
+been crushed down, as at fig. 42, A, will be disfigured inside by
+creases in the paper.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 42.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 43.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 44.]
+
+It is a mistake to suppose that a very heavy hammer is necessary for
+backing any but the largest books. For flexible books a hammer with a
+comparatively small face should be used, as by its use the book can be
+backed without flattening the bands. It is well to have a hammer head
+of the shape shown in fig. 43. By using the thin end, the force of a
+comparatively light blow, because concentrated on a small surface, is
+effective.
+
+At fig. 44 is shown an ordinary backing hammer.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IX
+
+       Cutting and Attaching Boards--Cleaning off Back--Pressing
+
+
+                     CUTTING AND ATTACHING BOARDS
+
+The first quality of the best black board made from old rope is the
+best to use for "extra" binding. It will be found to be very hard, and
+not easily broken or bent at the corners. In selecting the thickness
+suitable for any given book, the size and thickness of the volume
+should be taken into account. The tendency of most modern binders is
+to use a rather over thick board, perhaps with a view to bulk out the
+volume. For manuscripts, or other books on vellum, it is best to use
+wooden boards, which should be clasped. From their stability they form
+a kind of permanent press, in which the vellum leaves are kept flat.
+In a damp climate like that of England, vellum, absorbing moisture
+from the atmosphere, soon cockles up unless it is held tightly in some
+way; and when it is once cockled, the book cannot be made to shut
+properly, except with very special treatment. Then also dust and damp
+have ready access to the interstices of the crinkled pages, resulting
+in the disfigurement so well known and so deplored by all lovers of
+fine books.
+
+For large books a "made" board, that is, two boards pasted together,
+is better than a single board of the same thickness. In making boards
+a thin and a thick board should be pasted together, the thin board to
+go nearest the book. It will not be necessary to put a double lining
+on the inside of such boards, as a thin board will always draw a thick
+one.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 45.]
+
+If mill-boards are used they are first cut roughly to size with the
+mill-board shears, screwed up in the "lying" press. The straight arm
+of the shears is the one to fix in the press, for if the bent arm be
+undermost, the knuckles are apt to be severely bruised against the
+end. A better way of fixing the shears is shown at fig. 45. Any
+blacksmith will bend the arm of the shears and make the necessary
+clips. This method saves trouble and considerable wear and tear to
+the "lying" press. Where a great many boards are needed, they may be
+quickly cut in a board machine, but for "extra" work they should be
+further trimmed in the plough, in the same way as those cut by the
+shears. After the boards have been roughly cut to size, they should
+have one edge cut straight with the plough. To do this one or two
+pairs of boards are knocked up to the back and inserted in the cutting
+side of the press, with those edges projecting which are to be cut
+off, and behind them, as a "cut against," a board protected by a waste
+piece of mill-board.
+
+The plough, held by the screw and handle, and guided by the runners on
+the press, is moved backwards and forwards. A slight turn of the screw
+at each movement brings the knife forward. In cutting mill-boards
+which are very hard, the screw should be turned very little each time.
+If press and plough are in proper order, that part of the board which
+projects above the cheek of the press should be cut off, leaving the
+edges perfectly square and straight. If the edge of the press has been
+damaged, or is out of "truth," a cutting board may be used between
+the cheek of the press and the board to be cut, making a true edge for
+the knife to run on.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 46.--Lying or Cutting Press]
+
+The position of the plough on the press is shown at fig. 46. The side
+of the press with runners should be reserved for cutting, the other
+side used for all other work.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 47.]
+
+The plough knife for mill-boards should not be ground at too acute an
+angle, or the edge will most likely break away at the first cut. The
+shape shown at fig. 47 is suitable. The knife should be very
+frequently ground, as it soon gets blunt, which adds greatly to the
+labour of cutting.
+
+After an edge has been cut, each side should be well rubbed with a
+folder to smooth down any burr left by the plough knife. Then a piece
+of common paper with one edge cut straight is pasted on to one side of
+the board, with the straight edge exactly up to the cut edge of the
+board. Then a piece of paper large enough to cover both sides of the
+board is pasted round it, and well rubbed down at the cut edge. After
+having been lined, the boards are nipped in the press to ensure that
+the lining paper shall stick. They are stood up to dry, with the
+doubly lined side outwards. The double paper is intended to warp the
+board slightly to that side, to compensate for the pull of the leather
+when the book is covered. If the board is a double one, a single
+lining paper will be sufficient, the thinner board helping to draw the
+thicker. The paste for lining boards must be fairly thin, and very
+well beaten up so as to be free from lumps. It is of the utmost
+importance that the lining papers should stick properly, for unless
+they stick, no subsequent covering of leather or paper can be made to
+lie flat.
+
+When the lined boards are quite dry, they should be paired with the
+doubly lined sides together, and the top back corner marked to
+correspond with the marks on the top back corners of the book. Then
+near the top edge, with the aid of a carpenter's square, two points
+are marked in a line at right angles to the cut edge. The pair of
+boards is then knocked up to the back and lowered into the press as
+before, so that the plough knife will exactly cut through the points.
+The same operation is repeated on the two remaining uncut edges. In
+marking out those for the fore-edge, the measurement is taken with a
+pair of compasses (fig. 48) from the joint of the book to the
+fore-edge of the first section. If the book has been trimmed, or is to
+remain uncut, a little more must be allowed for the "squares," and if
+it is to be cut in the plough, it must be now decided how much is to
+be cut off, remembering that it is much better to have the boards a
+little too large, and so have to reduce them after the book is cut,
+than to have them too small, and either be obliged to get out a new
+pair of boards, or unduly cut down the book.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 49.]
+
+The height of the boards for a book that has been trimmed, or is to
+remain uncut, will be the height of the page with a small allowance at
+each end for the squares. When a pair of boards has been cut all
+round, it can be tested for squareness by reversing one board, when
+any inequality that there may be will appear doubled. If the boards
+are out of truth they should generally be put on one side, to be used
+for a smaller book, and new boards got out. To correct a badly cut
+pair of boards, it is necessary to reduce them in size, and the book
+consequently suffers in proportion. If the boards have been found to
+be truly cut, they are laid on the book, and the position of the slips
+marked on them by lines at right angles to the back. A line is then
+made parallel to the back, about half an inch in (see fig. 49). At the
+points where the lines cross, a series of holes is punched from the
+front with a binder's bodkin on a lead plate, then the board is turned
+over, and a second series is punched from the back about half an inch
+from the first. If the groove of the back is shallower than the
+thickness of the board, the top back edge of the board should be
+bevelled off with a file. This will not be necessary if the groove is
+the exact depth. When the holes have been punched, it is well to cut a
+series of V-shaped depressions from the first series of holes to the
+back to receive the slips, or they may be too prominent when the book
+is bound. It will now be necessary to considerably reduce the slips
+that were frayed out after sewing, and to remove all glue or any other
+matter attached to them. The extent to which they may be reduced is a
+matter of nice judgment. In the desire to ensure absolute neatness in
+the covering, modern binders often reduce the slips to almost nothing.
+On the other hand, some go to the other extreme, and leave the cord
+entire, making great ridges on the sides of the book where it is laced
+in. It should be possible with the aid of the depressions, cut as
+described, to use slips with sufficient margin of strength, and yet to
+have no undue projection on the cover. A slight projection is not
+unsightly, as it gives an assurance of sound construction and
+strength, and, moreover, makes an excellent starting-point for any
+pattern that may be used. When the slips have been scraped and
+reduced, the portion left should consist of long straight silky
+fibres. These must be well pasted, and the ends very slightly twisted.
+The pointed ends are then threaded through the first series of holes
+in the front of the board, and back again through the second (fig.
+50). In lacing-in the slips must not be pulled so tight as to prevent
+the board from shutting freely, nor left so loose as to make a
+perceptible interval in the joint of the book. The pasted slips having
+been laced in, their ends are cut off with a sharp knife, flush with
+the surface of the board. The laced-in slips are then well hammered on
+a knocking-down iron (see fig. 51), first from the front and then from
+the back, care being taken that the hammer face should fall squarely,
+or the slips may be cut. This should rivet them into the board,
+leaving little or no projection. If in lacing in the fibres should
+get twisted, no amount of hammering will make them flat, so that it is
+important in pointing the ends for lacing in, that only the points are
+twisted just sufficiently to facilitate the threading through the
+holes, and not enough to twist the whole slip.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 50.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 51.]
+
+To lace slips into wooden boards, holes are made with a brace and fine
+twist bit, and the ends of the frayed out slips may be secured with a
+wooden plug (see fig. 52).
+
+Old books were sometimes sewn on bands of leather, but as those sewn
+on cord seem to have lasted on the whole much better, and as,
+moreover, modern cord is a far more trustworthy material than modern
+leather, it is better to use cord for any books bound now.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 52.]
+
+
+                  CLEANING OFF THE BACK AND PRESSING
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 53.]
+
+When the boards have been laced on and the slips hammered down, the
+book should be pressed. Before pressing, a tin is put on each side of
+both boards, one being pushed right up into the joint on the inside,
+and the other up to the joint, or a little over it, on the outside.
+While in the press, the back should be covered with paste and left to
+soak for a few minutes. When the glue is soft the surplus on the
+surface can be scraped off with a piece of wood shaped as shown in
+fig. 53. For important books it is best to do this in the lying press,
+but some binders prefer first to build up the books in the standing
+press, and then to paste the backs and clean them off there. This has
+the advantage of being a quicker method, and will, in many cases,
+answer quite well. But for books that require nice adjustment it will
+be found better to clean off each volume separately in the lying
+press, and afterwards to build up the books and boards in the
+standing press, putting the larger books at the bottom. It must be
+seen that the entire pile is exactly in the centre under the screw, or
+the pressure will be uneven. To ascertain if the books are built up
+truly, the pile must be examined from both the front and side of the
+press. Each volume must also be looked at carefully to see that it
+lies evenly, and that the back is not twisted or out of shape. This is
+important, as any form given to the book when it is pressed at this
+stage will be permanent.
+
+Any coloured or newly printed plates will need tissues, as in the
+former pressing; and any folded plates or diagrams or inserted letters
+will need a thin tin on each side of them to prevent them from marking
+the book.
+
+Again, the pressure on hand-printed books must not be excessive.
+
+The books should be left in the press at least a night. When taken out
+they will be ready for headbanding, unless the edges are to be cut in
+boards.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER X
+
+            Cutting in Boards--Gilding and Colouring Edges
+
+
+                           CUTTING IN BOARDS
+
+The knife for cutting edges may be ground more acutely than for
+cutting boards, and should be very sharp, or the paper may be torn.
+The plough knife should never be ground on the under side, as if the
+under side is not quite flat, it will tend to run up instead of
+cutting straight across. Before beginning to cut edges, the position
+of the knife should be tested carefully by screwing the plough up,
+with the press a little open, and noting whereabouts on the left-hand
+cheek the point of the knife comes. In a press that is true the knife
+should just clear the edge of the press. If there is too much packing
+the knife will cut below the edge of the press, and if too little, it
+will cut above.
+
+"Packing" is paper inserted between the knife and the metal plate on
+the plough, to correct the position of the knife. When by experiment
+the exact thickness of paper necessary for any given knife is found,
+the packing should be carefully kept when the knife is taken out for
+grinding, and put back with it into the plough.
+
+The first edge to be cut is the top, and the first thing to do is to
+place the boards in the position they will hold when the book is
+bound. The front board is then dropped the depth of the square
+required, care being taken that the back edge of the board remains
+evenly in the joint. A piece of cardboard, or two or three thicknesses
+of paper, are then slipped in between the end paper and the back board
+to prevent the latter from being cut by the knife. The book is then
+carefully lowered into the press, with the back towards the workman,
+until the top edge of the front board is exactly even with the
+right-hand cheek, and the press screwed up evenly. The back board
+should show the depth of the square above the left-hand cheek. It is
+very important that the edge of the back board should be exactly
+parallel with the press, and if at first it is not so, the book must
+be twisted until it is right.
+
+The edges can now be cut with the plough as in cutting mill-boards.
+The tail of the book is cut in the same way, still keeping the back
+of the book towards the workman, but cutting from the back board.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 54.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 55.]
+
+Cutting the fore-edge is more difficult. The waste sheets at each end
+of the book should be cut off flush with the edge of the board, and
+marks made on them below the edge showing the amount of the square,
+and consequently how much is to be cut off. The curve of the back, and
+consequent curve of the fore-edge, must first be got rid of, by
+inserting a pair of pieces of flat steel called "trindles" (fig. 54)
+across the back, from the inside of the boards. When these are
+inserted the back must be knocked quite flat, and, in the case of a
+heavy book, a piece of tape may be tied round the leaves (see fig. 55)
+to keep them in position. A pair of cutting boards is placed one on
+each side of the leaves, the back one exactly up to the point that the
+edge of the board came to, and the front one as much below that point
+as it is desired the square of the fore-edge should be. The trindles
+are removed while the book is held firmly between the cutting boards
+by the finger and thumb; book and boards are then lowered very
+carefully into the press. The top edge of the front cutting board
+should be flush with the right-hand cheek of the press, and that of
+the back a square above the left-hand cheek (see fig. 56). A further
+test is to look along the surface of the right-hand cheek, when, if
+the book has been inserted truly, the amount of the back cutting board
+in sight should exactly correspond with the amount of the paper to be
+cut showing above the front board. It will also be necessary before
+cutting to look at the back, and to see that it has remained flat. If
+it has gone back to its old curve, or the book has been put into the
+press crookedly, it must be taken right out again and the trindles
+inserted afresh, as it is usually a waste of time to try to adjust the
+book when it is in the press. The leaves are cut in the same way as
+those of the head and tail.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 56.]
+
+
+             GILDING OR COLOURING THE EDGES OF A CUT BOOK
+
+Gilding the edges of a book cut in boards is much the same process as
+that described for the trimmed book, excepting that when gilt in
+boards the edges can be scraped and slightly sand-papered. It is the
+custom to admire a perfectly solid gilt edge, looking more like a
+solid sheet of metal, than the leaves of a book. As the essential
+characteristic of a book is, that it is composed of leaves, this fact
+is better accepted and emphasised by leaving the edges a little rough,
+so that even when gilt they are evidently the edges of leaves of
+paper, and not the sides of a block, or of something solid.
+
+To gild the edges of a cut book the boards should be turned back, and
+cutting boards put on each side of the book flush with the edge to be
+gilt. For the fore-edge the book must be thrown up with trindles
+first, unless it is desired to gild in the round, a process which
+gives the objectionable solid metallic edge.
+
+After the edges have been gilt they may be decorated by tooling,
+called "gauffering."
+
+This may be done, either by tooling with hot tools directly on the
+gold while the leaves are screwed up tightly in the press, or by
+laying another coloured gold on the top of the first and tooling over
+that, leaving the pattern in the new gold on the original colour. But,
+to my mind, edges are best left undecorated, except for plain gold or
+colour.
+
+If the edges are to be coloured, they should be slightly scraped, and
+the colour put on with a sponge, commencing with the fore-edge, which
+should be slightly fanned out, and held firmly, by placing a
+pressing-board above it, and pressing with the hand on this. The
+colour must be put on very thinly, commencing from the centre of the
+fore-edge and working to either end, and as many coats put on as are
+necessary to get the depth of colour required. The head and tail are
+treated in the same way, excepting that they cannot be fanned out, and
+the colour should be applied from the back to the fore-edge. If in the
+fore-edge an attempt is made to colour from one end to the other, and
+if in the head or tail from the fore-edge to the back, the result will
+almost certainly be that the sponge will leave a thick deposit of
+colour round the corner from which it starts.
+
+For colouring edges almost any stain will answer, or ordinary
+water-colours may be used if moistened with size.
+
+When the colour is dry the edge should be lightly rubbed over with a
+little beeswax, and burnished with a tooth burnisher (see fig. 57).
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 57.]
+
+In addition to plain colour and gilding, the edges of a book may be
+decorated in a variety of ways. The fore-edge may be fanned out and
+painted in any device in water-colour and afterwards gilded; the
+painting will only show when the book is open. The fore-edge for this
+must be cut very solid, and if the paper is at all absorbent, must be
+sized with vellum size before being painted. The paints used must be
+simple water-colour, and the edge must not be touched with the hand
+before gilding, as if there is any grease or finger-mark on it, the
+gold will not stick evenly. Painting on the fore-edge should only be
+attempted when the paper of the book is thin and of good quality. More
+common methods of decorating edges are by marbling and sprinkling, but
+they are both inferior to plain colouring. Some pleasant effects are
+sometimes obtained by marbling edges and then gilding over the
+marbling.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XI
+
+                              Headbanding
+
+
+                               HEADBANDS
+
+Modern headbands are small pieces of vellum, gut, or cord sewn on to
+the head and tail of a book with silk or thread. They resist the
+strain on the book when it is taken from the shelf. The vellum slip or
+cord must be of such a depth, that when covered with silk it will be
+slightly lower than the square of the boards. The cut edge of the
+vellum always slants, and the slip must be placed in position so that
+it tilts back rather than forward on the book.
+
+To start, ease the boards slightly on the slips and pull them down
+with the top edges flush with the top edge of the leaves. If this is
+not done the silk catches on the projecting edges as the band is
+worked. Stand the book in a finishing press, fore-edge to the worker,
+and tilted forward so as to give a good view of the headband as it is
+worked. The light must come from the left, and well on to the work. A
+needle threaded with silk is put in at the head of the book, and
+through the centre of the first section after the end papers, and
+drawn out at the back below the kettle stitch with about two-thirds of
+the silk. The needle is again inserted in the same place, and drawn
+through until a loop of silk is left. The vellum slip is placed in the
+loop, with the end projecting slightly to the left. It must be held
+steady by a needle placed vertically behind it, with its point between
+the leaves of the first section. The needle end of silk is then behind
+the headband, and the shorter end in front. The needle end is brought
+over from the back with the right hand, passed into the left hand, and
+held taut. The short end is picked up with the right hand, brought
+over the needle end under the vellum, and pulled tight from the back.
+This is repeated; the back thread is again drawn up and over the band
+to the front, the needle end crosses it, and is drawn behind under the
+vellum slip, and so on. The crossing of the threads form a "bead,"
+which must be watched, and kept as tight as possible, and well down on
+the leaves of the book. Whenever the vellum or string begins to shift
+in position, it must be tied down. This is done when the needle end of
+silk is at the back. A finger of the left hand is placed on the thread
+of silk at the back, and holds it firmly just below the slip. The
+needle end is then brought up and over the slip, but instead of
+crossing it with the front thread, the needle is passed between the
+leaves and out at the back of the book, below the kettle stitch, and
+the thread gradually drawn tight, and from under the left-hand finger.
+The loop so made will hold the band firmly, and the silk can then be
+brought up and over the slip and crossed in the usual way. The band
+should be worked as far as the end papers, and should be finished with
+a double "tie down," after which the front thread is drawn under the
+slip to the back. Both the ends of silk are then cut off to about half
+an inch, frayed out, and pasted down as flatly as possible on the back
+of the book.
+
+The band should be tied down frequently. It is not too much to tie
+down every third time the needle end of the silk comes to the back.
+To make good headbands the pull on the silk must be even throughout.
+
+When the ends of the silk are pasted down, the ends of the vellum slip
+are cut off as near the silk as possible. The correct length of the
+headband is best judged by pressing the boards together with thumb and
+finger at the opposite ends of the band, so as to compress the
+sections into their final compass. If the band then buckles in the
+least, it is too long and must be shortened.
+
+The mediaeval headbands were sewn with the other bands (see fig. 32),
+and were very strong, as they were tied down at every section. Modern
+worked headbands, although not so strong, are, if frequently tied
+down, strong enough to resist any reasonable strain. There are many
+other ways of headbanding, but if the one described is mastered, the
+various other patterns will suggest themselves if variety is needed.
+For very large books a double headband may be worked on two pieces of
+gut or string--a thick piece with a thin piece in front. The string
+should first be soaked in thin glue and left to dry. Such a band is
+worked with a figure of eight stitch. Headbands may also be worked
+with two or three shades of silk. As vellum is apt to get hard and to
+break when it is used for headbanding, it is well to paste two pieces
+together with linen in between, and to cut into strips as required.
+
+Machine-made headbands can be bought by the yard. Such bands are
+merely glued on, but as they have but little strength, should not be
+used.
+
+Where leather joints are used, the headbands may be worked on pieces
+of soft leather sized and screwed up. If the ends are left long and
+tied in front while the book is being covered, they may be
+conveniently let into grooves in the boards before the leather joint
+is pasted down. This method, I think, has little constructive value,
+but it certainly avoids the rather unfinished look of the cut-off
+headband.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XII
+
+       Preparing for Covering--Paring Leather--Covering--Mitring
+                      Corners--Filling-in Boards
+
+
+                        PREPARING FOR COVERING
+
+After the headband is worked, a piece of brown or other stout paper
+should be well glued on at the head and tail, care being taken that it
+is firmly attached to the back and the headband. When dry, the part
+projecting above the headband is neatly cut off, and the part on the
+back well sand-papered, to remove any irregularity caused by the
+tie-downs attaching the headband. For most books this will be quite
+sufficient lining up, but very heavy books are best further lined up
+between the bands with linen, or thin leather. This can be put on by
+pasting the linen or leather and giving the back a very thin coat of
+glue.
+
+The only thing now left to do before covering will be to set the
+squares and to cut off a small piece of the back corner of each board
+at the head and tail, to make it possible for the boards to open and
+shut without dragging the head-cap out of place. The form of the
+little piece to be cut off varies with each individual binder, but I
+have found for an octavo book that a cut slightly sloping from the
+inside cutting off the corner about an eighth of an inch each way,
+gives the best result (see fig. 58). When the corner has been cut off,
+the boards should be thrown back, and the slips between the book and
+the board well pasted. When these have soaked a little, the squares of
+the boards are set; that is, the boards are fixed so that exactly the
+same square shows on each board above head and tail. A little larger
+square is sometimes an advantage at the tail to keep the head-cap well
+off the shelf, the essential thing being that both head and both tail
+squares should be the same. In the case of an old book that has not
+been recut, the edges will often be found to be uneven. In such cases
+the boards must be made square, and so set that the book stands up
+straight.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 58.]
+
+When the slips have been pasted and the squares set, tins can be put
+inside and outside the boards, and the book given a slight nip in the
+press to flatten the slips. Only a comparatively light pressure should
+be given, or the lining up of the headbands or back will become
+cockled and detached.
+
+
+                            PARING LEATHER
+
+While the slips are being set in the press the cover can be got out.
+Judgment is necessary in cutting out covers. One workman will be able,
+by careful cutting, to get six covers out of a skin where another will
+only get four. The firm part of the skin is the back and sides, and
+this only should be used for the best books. The fleshy parts on the
+flanks and belly will not wear sufficiently well to be suitable for
+good bookbinding.
+
+The skin should be cut out leaving about an inch all round for turning
+in when the book is covered, and when cut out it must be pared. If the
+leather is of European manufacture most of the paring will have been
+done before it is sold, and the leather manufacturer will have shaved
+it to any thickness required. This is a convenience that is partly
+responsible for the unduly thin leather that is commonly used. The
+better plan is to get the leather rather thick, and for the binder to
+pare it down where necessary. For small books it is essential, in
+order that the covers may open freely, and the boards not look clumsy,
+that the leather should be very thin at the joint and round the edges
+of the boards. For such books it is very important that a small,
+naturally thin skin should be used that will not have to be unduly
+pared down, and that the large and thicker skins should be kept for
+large books.
+
+Binders like using large skins because there is much less waste, but
+if these skins are used for small books, so much of the leather
+substance has to be pared away, that only the comparatively brittle
+grained surface remains. By the modern process of dyeing this surface
+is often to some extent injured, and its strength sometimes totally
+destroyed.
+
+When the cover has been cut to size the book is laid on it with the
+boards open, and a pencil line drawn round them, a mark being made to
+show where the back comes. The skin is then pared, making it thin
+where the edge of the boards will come. Great care must be taken that
+the thinning does not commence too abruptly, or a ridge will be
+apparent when the leather is on the book.
+
+The paring must be done quite smoothly and evenly. Every unevenness
+shows when the cover is polished and pressed. Care is needed in
+estimating the amount that will have to be pared off that part of the
+leather that covers the back and joints. The object of the binder
+should be to leave these portions as thick as he can consistently with
+the free opening of the boards. The leather at the head-caps must be
+pared quite thin, as the double thickness on the top of the headband
+is apt to make this part project above the edges of the board. This is
+a great trouble, especially at the tail, where, if the head-cap
+projects beyond the boards, the whole weight of the book rests on it,
+and it is certain to be rubbed off when the book is put on the shelf.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 59.]
+
+The method of paring with a French knife (fig. 60, A)--the only form
+of knife in use by binders that gives sufficient control over the
+leather--is shown at fig. 59. To use this knife properly, practice is
+required. The main thing to learn is that the knife must be used quite
+flat, and made to cut by having a very slight burr on the under
+side. This burr is got by rubbing the knife on the lithographic stone
+on which the paring is done. The handle of the knife should never be
+raised to such a height above the surface of the stone that it is
+possible to get the under fingers of the right hand over the edge of
+the stone. Another form of knife suitable for paring the edges of
+leather is shown at fig. 60, B.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 60.]
+
+To test if the leather has been sufficiently pared, fold it over where
+the edge of the board will come, and run the finger along the folded
+leather. If the paring has been done properly it will feel quite even
+the whole length of the fold; but if there are any irregularities,
+they will be very apparent, and the paring must be gone over again
+till they have disappeared. When even, the book must be again laid on
+the leather with the boards open, and a pencil line drawn round as
+before. If there are leather joints they will have been pared before
+the book was sewn, and care must be taken in paring the turn-in of the
+cover that it is of the same thickness as the leather joint, or it
+will be impossible to make a neat mitre at the back corners.
+
+
+                               COVERING
+
+Before covering, the book must be looked at to see that the bands are
+quite square and at equal distances apart. Any slight errors in this
+respect can be corrected by holding the book in the lying press
+between backing boards and gently tapping the bands from one side or
+the other with a piece of wood struck with a hammer. This is best done
+when the back is cleaned off, but by damping the bands slightly it may
+be done just before covering. The squares must be looked to, and the
+edges of the board well rubbed with a folder, or tapped with a hammer,
+to remove any burr that may have been caused by the plough knife, or
+any chance blow. The back is then moistened with paste, or, in the
+case of a very large book, with thin glue, and left to soak. The cover
+can then be well pasted with thickish paste, that has been previously
+well beaten up. When the cover is pasted, it can be folded with the
+pasted sides together and left to soak for a few minutes while the
+back is again looked to, and any roughness smoothed down with the
+folder. Before covering, the bands should be nipped up with band
+nippers (see fig. 61) to make sure that they are sharp. The coverer
+should have ready before covering a clean paring stone, one or two
+folders, a pair of nickeled-band nippers, a clean sponge, a little
+water in a saucer, a piece of thread, and a strip of smooth wood
+(boxwood for preference), called a band stick, used for smoothing the
+leather between the bands, a pair of scissors, and a small sharp
+knife, a pair of waterproof sheets the size of the book, and, if the
+book is a large one, a pair of tying up boards, with tying up string,
+and two strips of wood covered in blotting-paper or leather. It is
+best to have the band nippers for covering nickeled to prevent the
+iron from staining the leather. The waterproof sheets recommended are
+thin sheets of celluloid, such as are used by photographers.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 61.]
+
+When these things are ready, the pasted cover should be examined and
+repasted if it has dried in any place. The amount of paste to be used
+for covering can only be learned by experience. A thick leather will
+take more than a thin one, but, provided the cover sticks tight at
+every point, the less paste used the better. If there is too much, it
+will rub up and make very ugly, uneven places under the leather; and
+if there is too little, the cover will not stick.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 62.]
+
+Take the pasted cover and look to see which is the better side of the
+leather. Lay the front of the book down on this exactly up to the
+marks that show the beginning of the turn-in. Then draw the leather
+over the back and on to the other side, pulling it slightly, but not
+dragging it. Then stand the book on its fore-edge on a piece of waste
+paper, with the leather turned out on either side, as shown at fig.
+62, and nip up the bands with nickeled band nippers (see fig. 63).
+After this is done there will probably be a good deal of loose leather
+on the back. This can be got rid of by dragging the leather on to the
+side; but by far the better plan, when the back is large enough to
+allow it, is to work up the surplus leather on to the back between the
+panels. This requires a good deal of practice, and is very seldom
+done; but it can be done with most satisfactory results. The book
+should now have the leather on the back stretched lengthways to make
+it cover the bands, but not stretched the other way, and the leather
+on the boards should lie perfectly flat and not be stretched at all.
+The leather on the fore-edge of the board is then rubbed with the hand
+on the outside, and then on to the edge, and then on the inside. The
+edge and the inside are smoothed down with a folder, and any excessive
+paste on the inside squeezed out and removed. When the fore-edge of
+both boards has been turned in, the head and tail must also be turned
+in. A little paste is put on to that part of the leather that will
+turn in below the headband, and this portion is neatly tucked in
+between the boards and the back. The turned-in edge must lie quite
+evenly, or it will result in a ridge on the back. The leather is
+turned in on the two boards in the same way as described for the
+fore-edge, and the edge rubbed square with a folder. At fig. 64 is
+shown a convenient form of folder for covering. At the corners the
+leather must be pulled over as far as possible with two folders
+meeting at the extreme point, the object being to avoid a cut in the
+leather at the corner of the board. The folds so formed must be cut
+off with the scissors (see fig. 65, A), then one edge tucked neatly
+under the other, (B). Care must be taken throughout not to soil the
+edges of the leaves.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 63.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 64.]
+
+At the headband the fold of leather, pared thin for the purpose, must
+be squeezed together with a folder and pulled out a little to leave an
+even projection that can be turned over to form a head-cap. When both
+ends have been turned in, in this way, the boards must each be opened
+and pressed against a straight-edge held in the joint (fig. 66) to
+ensure that there is enough leather in the turn-in of the joint to
+allow the cover to open freely; and the leather of the turn-in at the
+head and tail must be carefully smoothed down with a folder.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 65.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 66.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 67.]
+
+The book may now be shut up if a waterproof sheet is put at each end
+to prevent the damp of the cover from cockling the paper. It must then
+be stood on its fore-edge and the bands again nipped up with a pair of
+nickeled band nippers, and the panels between the bands well pressed
+down with the band stick to cause the leather to stick at every point.
+A piece of thread is tied round the back from head to tail, squeezing
+the leather in the gap caused by the corners of the board having been
+cut off. The book is then turned up on end, resting the tail on a
+folder or anything that will keep the projecting leather for the
+head-cap from being prematurely flattened. The head-caps (fig. 67)
+must now be set. To do this the first finger of the left hand is
+placed behind it, and a sharp folder is pressed into the corners of
+the head-cap between the headband and the thread. The leather is then
+tapped over the headband, and the whole turned over on the stone and
+rubbed at the back with a folder. This operation requires great
+nicety. The shape of head-cap is shown at fig. 67. The nice adjustment
+of head-caps and corners, although of no constructional value, are the
+points by which the forwarding of a book is generally valued.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 68.]
+
+If the book is a large one, it will be best to tie it up. The method
+of tying up is shown in fig. 68. The tying up cords will make marks at
+the side of the bands, that are not unpleasant on a large book. If
+they are objected to, it is best to tie the book up for about
+half-an-hour, and then to untie it, and smooth out the marks with the
+band stick. Even with small books, if the leather seems inclined to
+give trouble, it is well to tie them up for a short time, then to
+untie them, to smooth out any marks or inequalities, and to tie them
+up again.
+
+
+                    MITRING CORNERS AND FILLING IN
+
+A book that has been covered should be left under a light weight until
+the next day, with waterproof sheets between the damp cover and the
+end paper to prevent the sheets of the book from cockling through the
+damp. When the cover is thoroughly set the boards should be carefully
+opened, pressing them slightly to the joint to ensure a square and
+even joint. If, as is sometimes the case, the turn-in of the leather
+over the joint seems to be inclined to bind, the cover should be
+merely opened half-way, and the leather of the turns-in of the joint
+damped with a sponge, and left to soak for a short time, and then the
+cover can usually be opened without any dragging. A section of a good
+joint is shown at fig. 69, A, and a bad one at B.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 69.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 70.]
+
+The next operation will be to fill in the board and mitre the corners.
+To fill in the boards, a piece of paper as thick as the turn-in of the
+leather (engineer's cartridge paper answers very well) should be cut a
+little smaller than the board, with one edge cut straight; then with
+the straight edge adjusted to the back of the board, and a weight
+placed on the centre, the paper is marked round with dividers set to
+the intended width of the turn-in of the leather. Then with a sharp
+knife, paper and leather may be cut through together. The paper should
+then be marked to show its position on the board, and the ragged edges
+of the leather trimmed off. This will leave an even margin of leather
+on three sides of the inside of the board, and a piece of paper that
+will exactly fit the remaining space. The corners must next be
+mitred. To do this, both thicknesses of leather are cut through from
+the corner of the board to the corner of the inside margin. The knife
+should be held slightly slanting to make a cut, as shown at fig. 70.
+The corners should then be thoroughly damped, and the overlapping
+leather from both sides removed, leaving what should be a neat and
+straight join. If the leather at the extreme corner should prove to
+be, as is often the case, too thick to turn in neatly, the corners
+should be opened out and the leather pared against the thumb nail, and
+then well pasted and turned back again. The extreme corner may be
+slightly tapped on the stone with a hammer, and the sides rubbed with
+a folder, to ensure squareness and sharpness. When all four corners
+have been mitred, the filling in papers can be pasted in. As they will
+probably stretch a little with the paste, it will be well to cut off a
+slight shaving, and they should then fit exactly. When the boards have
+been filled in and well rubbed down, the book should be left for some
+hours with the boards standing open to enable the filling-in papers to
+draw the boards slightly inwards to overcome the pull of the leather.
+
+In cases where there are leather joints the operation is as follows:
+The waste end paper is removed, and the edge of the board and joint
+carefully cleaned from glue and all irregularities, and if, as is most
+likely, it is curved from the pull of the leather, the board must be
+tapped or ironed down until it is perfectly straight. If there is
+difficulty in making the board lie straight along the joint before
+pasting down, it will be well first to fill in with a well pasted and
+stretched thin paper, which, if the boards are left open, will draw
+them inwards. If the leather joint is pasted down while the board is
+curved, the result will be a most unsightly projection on the outside.
+When the joint has been cleaned out, and the board made to lie flat,
+the leather should be pasted down and mitred. The whole depth of the
+turn-in of the covering leather in the joint must not be removed, or
+it will be unduly weakened. The mitring line should not come from the
+extreme corner, but rather farther down, and there it is well to
+leave a certain amount of overlap in the joint, for which purpose the
+edge of the turn-in leather and the edge of the leather joint should
+be pared thin. After pasting down the leather joints the boards should
+be left open till they are dry (see fig. 71). The turn-in and leather
+joint are then trimmed out, leaving an even margin of leather all
+round the inside of the board, and the panel in the centre filled in
+with a piece of thick paper.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 71.]
+
+When corners and filling in are dry, the boards may be shut up, and
+the book is ready for finishing.
+
+It is a common practice to wash up the covers of books that have
+become stained with a solution of oxalic acid in water. This is a
+dangerous thing to do, and is likely to seriously injure the leather.
+Leather, when damp, must not be brought in contact with iron or steel
+tools, or it may be badly stained.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XIII
+
+   Library Binding--Binding very Thin Books--Scrap-Books--Binding on
+                 Vellum--Books covered with Embroidery
+
+
+                            LIBRARY BINDING
+
+                      _Specifications III and IV_
+
+To produce cheaper bindings, as must be done in the case of large
+libraries, some alteration of design is necessary. Appearance must to
+some extent be sacrificed to strength and durability, and not, as is
+too often the case, strength and durability sacrificed to appearance.
+The essentials of any good binding are, that the sections should be
+sound in themselves, and that there should be no plates or odd sheets
+"pasted on," or anything that would prevent any leaf from opening
+right to the back; the sewing must be thoroughly sound; the sewing
+materials of good quality; the slips firmly attached to the boards;
+and the leather fairly thick and of a durable kind, although for the
+sake of cheapness it may be necessary to use skins with flaws on the
+surface. Such flawed skins cost half, or less than half, the price of
+perfect skins, and surface flaws do not injure the strength of the
+leather. By sewing on tape, great flexibility of the back is obtained,
+and much time, and consequent expense, in covering is saved. By using
+a French joint much thicker leather than usual can be used, with
+corresponding gain in strength.
+
+To bind an octavo or smaller book according to the specification given
+(III, page 307); first make all sections sound, and guard all plates
+or maps. Make end papers with zigzags. After the sections have been
+thoroughly pressed, the book will be ready for marking up and sewing.
+In marking up for sewing on tapes, two marks will be necessary for
+each tape. When there are several books of the same size to be sewn,
+they may be placed one above the other in the sewing press, and sewn
+on to the same tapes. It will be found that the volumes when sewn can
+easily be slid along the tapes, which must be long enough to provide
+sufficient for the slips of each. The split boards may be "made" of a
+thin black mill-board with a thicker straw-board. To "make" a pair of
+split boards the pieces of straw-and mill-board large enough to make
+the two are got out, and the straw-board well glued, except in the
+centre, which should previously be covered with a strip of thin
+mill-board or tin about four inches wide. The strip is then removed,
+and the thin black board laid on the glued straw-board and nipped in
+the press. When dry, the made board is cut down the centre, which will
+leave two boards glued together all over except for two inches on one
+side of each. The boards then are squared to the book in a mill-board
+machine. The back of the book is glued up, and in the ordinary way
+rounded and backed. The edges may be cut with a guillotine. The ends
+of the tapes are glued on the waste end paper, which should be cut off
+about an inch and a half from the back. The split boards are then
+opened and glued, and the waste end papers with slips attached are
+placed in them (see fig. 72), and the book nipped in the press. To
+form a "French joint" the boards should be kept about an eighth of an
+inch from the back of the book. The book is then ready for covering.
+The leather must not be pared too thin, as the French joint will give
+plenty of play and allow the use of much thicker leather than usual.
+If time and money can be spared, headbands can be worked, but they are
+not absolutely necessary, and a piece of string may be inserted into
+the turning of the leather at head and tail in the place of them. When
+the book is covered, a piece of string should be tied round the
+joints, and the whole given a nip in the press. The corners of the
+boards should be protected by small tips of vellum or parchment. The
+sides may be covered with good paper, which will wear quite as well as
+cloth, look better, and cost less.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 72.]
+
+The lettering of library books is very important (see Chapter XV).
+
+
+                        BINDING VERY THIN BOOKS
+
+Books consisting of only one section may be bound as follows:--A sheet
+of paper to match the book, and two coloured sheets for end papers,
+are folded round the section, and a "waste" paper put over all. A
+strip of linen is pasted to the back of the waste, and the whole sewn
+together by stitching through the fold. The waste may be cut off and
+inserted with the linen in a split board, as for library bindings. The
+back edges of the board should be filed thin, and should not be placed
+quite up to the back, to allow for a little play in the joints.
+
+The leather is put on in the ordinary way, except that the linen at
+the head and tail must be slit a little to allow for the turn in. If
+waterproof sheets are first inserted, the ends may be pasted, the
+boards shut, and the book nipped in the press. By substituting a piece
+of thin leather for the outside coloured paper, a leather joint can be
+made.
+
+
+                              SCRAP-BOOKS
+
+Scrap-books, into which autograph letters, sketches, or other papers
+can be pasted, may be made as follows:--Enough paper of good quality
+is folded up to the size desired, and pieces of the same paper, of the
+same height, and about two inches wide, are folded down the centre and
+inserted between the backs of the larger sheets, as shown at fig. 73.
+It is best not to insert these smaller pieces in the centre of the
+section, as they would be troublesome in sewing. If, after sewing, the
+book is filled up with waste paper laid between the leaves, it will
+make it manageable while being forwarded.
+
+It is best to use a rather darkly-toned or coloured paper, as, if a
+quite white paper is used, any letters or papers that have become
+soiled, will look unduly dirty.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 73.]
+
+Autograph letters may be mounted in the following ways:--If the letter
+is written upon both sides of a single leaf, it may be either
+"inlaid," or guarded, as shown at fig. 74, A. A letter on a folded
+sheet of notepaper should have the folds strengthened with a guard of
+strong thin paper, and be attached by a guard made, as shown at fig.
+74, B; or if on very heavy paper, by a double guard, as shown at fig.
+74, C. Torn edges of letters may be strengthened with thin Japanese
+paper.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 74.]
+
+Thin paper, written or printed only on one side, may be mounted on a
+page of the book. It is better to attach these by their extreme edges
+only, as if pasted down all over they may cause the leaves to curl up.
+
+Letters or any writing or drawing in lead pencil should be fixed with
+size before being inserted.
+
+Silver prints of photographs are best mounted with some very
+quick-drying paste, such as that sold for the purpose by the
+photographic dealers. If the leaf on which they are mounted is
+slightly damped before the photograph is pasted down, it will be less
+likely to cockle. If this is done, waterproof sheets should be put on
+each side of the leaf while it dries. If photographs are attached by
+the edges only, they will not be so liable to draw the paper on which
+they are mounted; but sometimes they will not lie flat themselves.
+
+In cases where very thick letters or papers have to be pasted in, a
+few more leaves of the book should be cut out, to make a corresponding
+thickness at the back.
+
+
+                            VELLUM BINDINGS
+
+Vellum covers may be limp without boards, and merely held in place by
+the slips being laced through them, or they may be pasted down on
+boards in much the same way as leather.
+
+If the edges of a book for limp vellum binding are to be trimmed or
+gilt, that should be done before sewing. For the ends a folded piece
+of thin vellum may replace the paste-down paper. The sewing should be
+on strips of vellum. The back is left square after glueing, and
+headbands are worked as for leather binding, or may be worked on
+strips of leather, with ends left long enough to lace into the vellum
+(see p. 151). The back and headbands are lined with leather, and the
+book is ready for the cover.
+
+A piece of vellum should be cut out large enough to cover the book,
+and to leave a margin of an inch and a half all round. This is marked
+with a folder on the under side, as shown at fig. 75, A. Spaces 1 and
+2 are the size of the sides of the book with surrounding squares;
+space 3 is the width of the back, and space 4 the width for the
+overlaps on the fore-edge. The corners are cut, as shown at 5, and the
+edges are folded over, as at B. The overlap 4 is then turned over, and
+the back folded, as at C. The slips are now laced through slits made
+in the vellum.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 75.]
+
+A piece of loose, toned paper may be put inside the cover to prevent
+any marks on the book from showing through; and pieces of silk ribbon
+of good quality are laced in as shown, going through both cover and
+vellum ends, if there are any, and are left with ends long enough to
+tie (see fig. 76).
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 76.]
+
+If paper ends are used, the silk tape need only be laced through the
+cover, and the end paper pasted over it on the inside.
+
+Another simple way of keeping a vellum book shut is shown at fig. 77.
+A bead is attached to a piece of gut laced into the vellum, and a loop
+of catgut is laced in the other side, and looped over the bead as
+shown.
+
+If the book is to have stiff boards, and the vellum is to be pasted
+to them, it is best to sew the sections on tapes or vellum slips, to
+back the book as for leather, and to insert the ends of the slips in a
+split board, leaving a French joint, as described for library
+bindings. Vellum is very stiff, and, if it is pasted directly to the
+back, the book would be hard to open. It is best in this case to use
+what is known as a hollow back.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 77.]
+
+To make a hollow back, a piece of stout paper is taken which measures
+once the length of the back and three times the width. This is folded
+in three. The centre portion is glued to the back and well rubbed
+down, and the overlapping edges turned back and glued one to the other
+(fig. 78). This will leave a flat, hollow casing, formed by the single
+paper glued to the back of the book and the double paper to which the
+vellum may be attached. Or it is better to line up the back with
+leather, and to place a piece of thick paper the size of the back on
+to the pasted vellum where the back will be when the book is covered.
+
+When the book is ready for covering, the vellum should be cut out and
+lined with paper. In lining vellum the paste must be free from lumps,
+and great care must be taken not to leave brush marks. To avoid this,
+when the lining paper has been pasted it can be laid, paste downwards,
+on a piece of waste paper and quickly pulled up again; this should
+remove surplus paste and get rid of any marks left by the brush. When
+the vellum has been lined with paper, it should be given a light nip
+in the press between blotting-paper, and while still damp it is
+pasted, the book covered, and the corners mitred. A piece of thin
+string is tied round the head-caps and pressed into the French joint.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 78.]
+
+Waterproof sheets are placed inside the covers, and the book then
+nipped in the press and left to dry under a light weight. If the
+vellum is very stiff and difficult to turn in, it may be moistened
+with a little warm water to soften it.
+
+Books with raised bands have sometimes been covered with vellum, but
+the back becomes so stiff and hard, that this method, though it looks
+well enough, cannot be recommended. Vellum is a durable material, and
+can be had of good quality, but it is so easily influenced by changes
+of temperature, that it is rather an unsuitable material for most
+bindings.
+
+
+           BOOKS COVERED WITH EMBROIDERY AND WOVEN MATERIAL
+
+To cover a book with embroidered material bind it with split boards, a
+French joint, and a hollow back, as described for vellum (see fig.
+78). Glue the back of the book with thin glue well worked up, and
+turning in the head and tail of the embroidery, put the book down on
+it so that the back will come exactly in the right place. Press down
+the embroidery with the hand to make sure that it sticks. When it is
+firmly attached to the back, first one board and then the other should
+be glued, and the embroidery laid down on it. Lastly, the edges are
+glued and stuck down on the inside of the board, and the corners
+mitred. Velvet or any other thick material can be put down in the same
+way. For very thin material that the glue would penetrate and soil,
+the cover should be left loose, and only attached where it turns in. A
+loose lining of good paper may be put between the book and the cover.
+
+The inside corners where the cover has been cut should be neatly sewn
+up. The edges of the boards and head-caps may be protected all round
+with some edging worked in metal thread. It is well in embroidering
+book covers to arrange for some portion of the pattern to be of raised
+metal stitches, forming bosses that will protect the surface from
+wear.
+
+Should any glue chance to get on the surface, the cover should be held
+in the steam of a kettle and the glue wiped off, and the cover again
+steamed.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV
+
+               Decoration--Tools--Finishing--Tooling on
+                      Vellum--Inlaying on Leather
+
+
+                     DECORATION OF BINDING--TOOLS
+
+The most usual, and perhaps the most characteristic, way of decorating
+book covers is by "tooling." Tooling is the impression of heated
+(finishing) tools. Finishing tools are stamps of metal that have a
+device cut on the face, and are held in wooden handles (fig. 79).
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 79.]
+
+Tooling may either be blind tooling, that is, a simple impression of
+the hot tools, or gold tooling, in which the impression of the tool is
+left in gold on the leather.
+
+Tools for blind tooling are best "die-sunk," that is, cut like a seal.
+The "sunk" part of the face of the tool, which may be more or less
+modelled, forms the pattern, and the higher part depresses the
+leather to form a ground. In tools for gold tooling, the surface of
+the tool gives the pattern.
+
+Tools may be either complex or simple in design, that is to say, each
+tool may form a complete design with enclosing border, as the lower
+ones on page 323, or it may be only one element of a design, as at
+fig. 100. Lines may be run with a fillet (see fig. 88), or made with
+gouges or pallets.
+
+Gouges are curved line tools. They are made in sets of arcs of
+concentric circles (see fig. 80, A). The portion of the curves cut off
+by the dotted line C will make a second set with flatter curves.
+Gouges are used for tooling curved lines.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 80.]
+
+A "pallet" may be described as a segment of a roll or fillet set in a
+handle, and used chiefly for putting lines or other ornaments across
+the backs of books (see fig. 81). A set of one-line pallets is shown
+at fig. 80, B.
+
+Fillets are cut with two or more lines on the edge. Although the use
+of double-line fillets saves time, I have found that a few single-line
+fillets with edges of different gauges are sufficient for running all
+straight lines, and that the advantage of being able to alter the
+distances between any parallel lines is ample compensation for the
+extra trouble involved by their use. In addition to the rigid stamps,
+an endless pattern for either blind or gold tooling may be engraved on
+the circumference of a roll, and impressed on the leather by wheeling.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 81.]
+
+The use of a roll in finishing dates from the end of the fifteenth
+century, and some satisfactory bindings were decorated with its aid.
+The ease with which it can be used has led in modern times to its
+abuse, and I hardly know of a single instance of a modern binding on
+which rolls have been used for the decoration with satisfactory
+results. The gain in time and trouble is at the expense of freedom and
+life in the design; and for extra binding it is better to build up a
+pattern out of small tools of simple design, which can be arranged in
+endless variety, than to use rolls.
+
+Tools for hand-tooling must not be too large, or it will be impossible
+to obtain clear impressions. One inch square for blind tools, or
+three-quarters of an inch for gold tools, is about the maximum size
+for use with any certainty and comfort. Tools much larger than this
+have to be worked with the aid of a press, and are called blocks.
+
+
+                               FINISHING
+
+The first thing the finisher does to a book is to go over the back
+with a polisher and smooth out any irregularities.
+
+Two forms of polisher are shown at fig. 82. The lower one is suitable
+for polishing backs and inside margins, and the upper for sides.
+Polishers must be used warm, but not too hot, or the leather may be
+scorched, and they must be kept moving on the leather. Before using
+they should be rubbed bright on a piece of the finest emery paper, and
+polished on a piece of leather. New polishers often have sharp edges
+that would mark the leather. These must be rubbed down with files and
+emery-paper.
+
+Leathers with a prominent grained surface, such as morocco, seal or
+pig skin, may either have the grain rough or crushed flat. If there is
+to be much finishing, the grain had better be crushed, but for large
+books that are to have only a small amount of finishing, the grain is
+best left unflattened.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 82.]
+
+If the grain of the leather is to be "crushed," it may be done at this
+stage. To do this, one board at a time is damped with a sponge and put
+in the standing-press, with a pressing plate on the grained side, and
+a pad of blotting-paper, or some such yielding substance, on the other
+(see fig. 83). The press is then screwed up tight, and the board left
+for a short time. For some leathers this operation is best done after
+the binding has been finished and varnished, in which case, of course,
+the boards cannot be damped before pressing. No flexibly sewn book
+should be subject to great pressure after it has been covered, or the
+leather on the back may crinkle up and become detached.
+
+The next thing will be to decide what lettering and what decoration,
+if any, is to be put on the volume. The lettering should be made out
+first (see page 215). If the book is to be at all elaborately
+decorated, paper patterns must be made out, as described in Chapter
+XVI.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 83.]
+
+For tooling the back, the book is held in the finishing press between
+a pair of backing boards lined with leather (see fig. 84), and the
+paper pattern put across the back, with the ends either slightly
+pasted to the backing boards, or caught between them and the book.
+
+For the sides, the pattern is very slightly pasted on to the leather
+at the four corners. The book is then put in the finishing press,
+with the board to be tooled open and flat on the cheek of the press,
+unless the book is a large one, when it is easier to tool the sides
+out of the press.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 84.]
+
+The selected tools, which should be ready on the stove (see fig. 85),
+are one at a time cooled on a wet pad, and then pressed in their
+former impressions upon the paper. The degree of heat required varies
+a good deal with the leather used, and will only be learned by
+experience. It is better to have the tool too cool than too hot, as it
+is easy to deepen impressions after the paper is removed; but if they
+are already too deep, or are burnt, it will be impossible to finish
+clearly. Generally speaking, tools should hiss very slightly when put
+on the cooling pad. In cooling, care must be taken to put the shank
+of the tools on to the wet pad, as, if the end only is cooled, the
+heat is apt to run down again, and the tool will still be too hot.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 85.--Finishing Stove]
+
+Before removing the paper, one corner at a time should be lifted up,
+and the leather examined to see that no part of the pattern has been
+missed.
+
+In some patterns where the design is close, or in which the background
+is dotted in, it will not be necessary to blind in every leaf and dot
+through the paper. If the lines with perhaps the terminal leaves are
+blinded in, the rest can be better worked directly through the gold.
+This method implies the "glairing in" of the whole surface. It is not
+suitable for open patterns, where the glaire might show on the surface
+of the leather.
+
+If the book is only to have lines, or some simple straight line
+pattern, it is often easier to mark it up without the paper, with a
+straight-edge and folder. In panelling a back, the side lines of all
+the panels should be marked in at the same time with a folder, working
+against the straight-edge, held firmly at the side of the back. If the
+panels are worked separately, it is difficult to get the side lines
+squarely above each other. The lines at the top and bottom of the
+panel may be marked in with a folder, guided by a piece of stiff
+vellum held squarely across the back. If there are lines to be run
+round the board, they can be marked in with a pair of dividers guided
+by the edge of the board, except those at the back. These must be
+measured from the fore-edge of the board and run in with straight-edge
+and folder.
+
+When straight lines occur in patterns that are blinded through the
+paper, it will be enough if the ends only are marked through with a
+small piece of straight line, and the lines completed with
+straight-edge and folder, after the paper has been removed.
+
+Unless the finisher has had considerable experience, it is best to
+deepen all folder lines by going over them in blind with a fillet or
+piece of straight line.
+
+When the pattern has been worked in blind, either through a paper
+pattern or directly on to the leather with the tools, and any inlays
+stuck on (see page 213), the cover should be well washed with clean
+water. Some finishers prefer to use common vinegar or diluted acetic
+acid for washing up books. If vinegar is used it must be of the best
+quality, and must not contain any sulphuric acid. Cheap, crude vinegar
+is certain to be injurious to the leather. Porous leather, such as
+calf or sheep skin, will need to be washed over with paste-water, and
+then sized.
+
+Paste-water is paste and water well beaten up to form a milky liquid,
+and is applied to the leather as evenly as possible with a sponge.
+When the paste-water is dry, the leather should be washed with size.
+Size can be made by boiling down vellum cuttings, or by dissolving
+gelatine or isinglass in warm water.
+
+For the less porous leathers, such as morocco, seal, or pig skin, no
+paste-water or size is necessary, unless the skin happens to be a
+specially open one, or the cover has been cut from the flank or belly.
+Then it is best to put a little paste in the vinegar or water used for
+washing up. When the leather is nearly, but not quite, dry the
+impressions of the tools must be painted with glaire. Finishers'
+glaire may be made from the white of eggs well beaten up, diluted with
+about half as much vinegar, and allowed to settle. Some finishers
+prefer to use old, evil-smelling glaire, but provided it is a day old,
+and has been well beaten up, fresh glaire will work quite well.
+
+The impressions of any heavy or solid tools should be given a second
+coat of glaire when the first has ceased to be "tacky," and if the
+leather is at all porous, all impressions had better have a second
+coat.
+
+As glaire is apt to show and disfigure the leather when dry, it is
+best to use it as sparingly as possible, and, excepting where the
+pattern is very close, to confine it to the impressions of the tools.
+It is not at all an uncommon thing to see the effect of an otherwise
+admirably tooled binding spoilt by a dark margin round the tools,
+caused by the careless use of glaire. Glaire should not be used unless
+it is quite liquid and clean. Directly it begins to get thick it
+should be strained or thrown away.
+
+The finisher should not glaire in more than he can tool the same day.
+When the glaire has ceased to be "tacky," the gold is laid on.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 86.]
+
+At first it will be found difficult to manage gold leaf. The essential
+conditions are, that there should be no draught, and that the cushion
+and knife should be quite free from grease. The gold cushion and
+knife are shown at fig. 86. A little powdered bath-brick rubbed into
+the cushion will make it easier to cut the gold cleanly. The blade of
+the gold knife should never be touched with the hand, and before using
+it, both sides should be rubbed on the cushion. A book of gold is laid
+open on the cushion, and a leaf of gold is lifted up on the gold
+knife, which is slipped under it, and turned over on to the cushion. A
+light breath exactly in the centre of the sheet should make it lie
+flat, when it may be cut into pieces of any size with a slightly
+sawing motion of the knife. The book with the pattern ready prepared,
+and the glaire sufficiently dry (not sticky), is rubbed lightly with a
+small piece of cotton-wool greased with a little cocoanut oil. The
+back of the hand is greased in the same way, and a pad of clean
+cotton-wool is held in the right hand, and having been made as flat as
+possible by being pressed on the table, is drawn over the back of the
+hand. This should make it just greasy enough to pick up the gold, but
+not too greasy to part with it readily when pressed on the book. As
+little grease as possible should be used on the book, as an excess is
+apt to stain the leather and to make the gold dull. After experiment
+it has been found that cocoanut oil stains the leather less than any
+other grease in common use by bookbinders, and is more readily washed
+out by benzine.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 87.]
+
+If the gold cracks, or is not solid when pressed on the book, a second
+thickness should be used. This will stay down if the under piece is
+lightly breathed upon.
+
+For narrow strips of gold for lines, a little pad covered with soft
+leather may be made, as in fig. 87.
+
+It will be found of advantage to first use the bottom leaf of gold in
+the book and then to begin at the top and work through, or else the
+bottom leaf will almost certainly be found to be damaged by the time
+it is reached. The gold used should be as nearly pure as it can be
+got. The gold-beaters say that they are unable to beat pure gold as
+thin as is usual for gold leaf; but the quite pure gold is a better
+colour than when alloyed, and the additional thickness, although
+costly, results in a more solid impression of the tools.
+
+The cost of a book of twenty-four leaves three and a half inches
+square of English gold leaf of good ordinary quality is from 1s. 3d.
+to 1s. 6d., whereas the cost of a book of double thick pure gold leaf
+is 3s. to 3s. 6d. For tooled work it is worth paying the increased
+price for the sake of the advantages in colour and solidity; but for
+lines and edges, which use up an immense amount of gold, the thinner
+and cheaper gold may quite well be used.
+
+Besides pure gold leaf, gold alloyed with various metals to change its
+colour can be had. None of the alloys keep their colour as well as
+pure gold, and some of them, such as those alloyed with copper for red
+gold, and with silver for pale gold, tarnish very quickly. These last
+are not to be recommended.
+
+For silver tooling aluminium leaf may be used, as silver leaf
+tarnishes very quickly.
+
+When the gold is pressed into the impressions of the tools with the
+pad of cotton-wool, they should be plainly visible through it.
+
+The pattern must now be worked through the gold with the hot tools.
+The tools are taken from the stove, and if too hot cooled on a pad as
+for blinding-in. The heat required to leave the gold tooling solid and
+bright and the impressions clear will vary for different leathers, and
+even for different skins of the same leather. For trial a tool may be
+laid on the pad until it ceases to hiss, and one or two impressions
+worked with it. If the gold fails to stick, the heat may be slightly
+increased.
+
+If the leather is slightly damp from the preparation the tools will
+usually work better, and less heat is required than if it has been
+prepared for some time and has got dry.
+
+Before using, the faces of all tools must be rubbed bright on the
+flesh side of a piece of leather. It is impossible to tool brightly
+with dirty tools. A tool should be held in the right hand, with the
+thumb on the top of the handle, and steadied with the thumb or first
+finger of the left hand. The shoulder should be brought well over the
+tool, and the upper part of the body used as a press. If the weight of
+the body is used in finishing, the tools can be worked with far
+greater firmness and certainty, and with less fatigue, than if the
+whole work is done with the muscles of the arms.
+
+Large and solid tools will require all the weight that can be put on
+them, and even then the gold will often fail to stick with one
+impression. Tools with small surfaces, such as gouges and dots, must
+not be worked too heavily, or the surface of the leather may be cut.
+
+To strike a large or solid tool, it should first be put down flat, and
+then slightly rocked from side to side and from top to bottom, but
+must not be twisted on the gold.
+
+A tool may be struck from whichever side the best "sight" can be got,
+and press and book turned round to the most convenient position.
+
+It is difficult to impress some tools, such as circular flower tools,
+twice in exactly the same place. Such tools should have a mark on one
+side as a guide. This should always be kept in the same position when
+blinding-in and tooling, and so make it possible to impress a second
+time without "doubling." An impression is said to be "doubled" when
+the tool has been twisted in striking, or one impression does not fall
+exactly over the other.
+
+The hot tool should not be held hovering over the impression long, or
+the preparation will be dried up before the tool is struck. Tooling
+will generally be brighter if the tools are struck fairly sharply, and
+at once removed from the leather, than if they are kept down a long
+time.
+
+To "strike" dots, the book should be turned with the head to the
+worker, and the tool held with the handle inclining slightly towards
+him. This will make them appear bright when the book is held the right
+way up.
+
+Gouges must be "sighted" from the inside of the curve, and struck
+evenly, or the points may cut into the leather. Short straight lines
+may be put in with pieces of line, and longer ones with a fillet.
+
+A one line fillet is shown at fig. 88; the space filed out of the
+circumference is to enable lines to be joined neatly at the corners.
+That the lines may be clearly visible through the gold, the book
+should be placed so that the light comes from the left hand of the
+worker and across the line. It is well to have a basin of water in
+which to cool fillets, as there is so much metal in them, that the
+damp sponge or cotton used for cooling tools would very rapidly be
+dried up. When the fillet has been cooled, the edge should be rubbed
+on the cleaning pad, and the point exactly adjusted to the corner of
+the line to be run (see fig. 88). The fillet is then run along the
+line with even pressure.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 88.]
+
+For slightly curved lines, a very small fillet may be used.
+
+When all the prepared part of a pattern has been tooled, it is well
+rubbed to remove the loose gold with a slightly greasy rag, or with a
+piece of bottle indiarubber which has been softened in paraffin. After
+a time the rubber or rag may be sold to the gold-beater, who recovers
+the gold. To prepare indiarubber for cleaning off gold, a piece of
+bottle rubber is cut into small pieces and soaked in paraffin for some
+hours. This should cause the pieces to reunite into a soft lump. This
+can be used until it is yellow with gold throughout.
+
+When all free gold is rubbed off, the finisher can see where the
+tooling is imperfect. Impressions which are not "solid" must be
+reglaired, have fresh gold laid on, and be retooled. But if, as will
+sometimes happen with the best finishers, the gold has failed to stick
+properly anywhere, it is best to wash the whole with water or vinegar,
+and prepare afresh.
+
+As an excess of grease is apt to dull the gold and soil the leather,
+it is better to use it very sparingly when laying on fresh gold for
+mending. For patching, benzine may be used instead of grease. When the
+gold is picked up on the cotton-wool pad, rapidly go over the leather
+with wool soaked in benzine, and at once lay down the gold. Benzine
+will not hold the gold long enough for much tooling, but it will
+answer for about half-an-hour, and give plenty of time for patching.
+
+Imperfect tooling arises from a variety of causes. If an impression is
+clear, but the gold not solid, it is probably because the tool was not
+hot enough, or was not put down firmly. If only one side of an
+impression fails to stick, it is usually because the tool was unevenly
+impressed. If an impression is blurred, and the gold has a frosted
+look, it is because the leather has been burned, either because the
+tool was too hot, or kept down too long, or the preparation was too
+fresh.
+
+To mend double or burnt impressions the leather should be wetted and
+left to soak a short time, and the gold can be picked out with a
+wooden point. When nearly dry the impressions should be put in again
+with a cool tool, reglaired and retooled.
+
+It is very difficult to mend neatly if the leather is badly burnt.
+Sometimes it may be advisable to paste a piece of new leather over a
+burnt impression before retooling.
+
+If a tool is put down in the wrong place by mistake, it is difficult
+to get the impression out entirely. The best thing to do is to damp
+the leather thoroughly, leave it to soak for a little while, and pick
+up the impression with the point of a pin. It is best not to use an
+iron point for this, as iron is apt to blacken the leather.
+
+Leather is difficult to tool if it has not a firm surface, or if it is
+too thin to give a little when the tool is struck.
+
+When the tooling is finished, and the loose gold removed with the
+rubber, the leather should be washed with benzine, to remove any
+grease and any fragments of gold that may be adhering by the grease
+only.
+
+The inside margins of the boards are next polished and varnished, and
+the end papers pasted down. Or if there is a leather joint, the panel
+left on the board may be filled in (see Chapter XVII).
+
+When the end papers are dry, the sides and back may be polished and
+varnished.
+
+It is important that the varnish should be of good quality, and not
+too thick, or it will in time turn brown and cause the gold to look
+dirty. Some of the light French spirit varnishes prepared for
+bookbinders answer well. Varnish must be used sparingly, and is best
+applied with a pad of cotton-wool. A little varnish is poured on to
+the pad, which is rubbed on a piece of paper until it is seen that the
+varnish comes out thinly and evenly. It is then rubbed on the book
+with a spiral motion. The quicker the surface is gone over, provided
+every part is covered, the better. Varnish will not work well if it is
+very cold, and in cold weather both the book and varnish bottle should
+be slightly warmed before use. Should an excess of varnish be put on
+in error, or should it be necessary to retool part of the book after
+it has been varnished, the varnish can be removed with spirits of
+wine. Varnish acts as a preservative to the leather, but has the
+disadvantage, if used in excess, of making it rather brittle on the
+surface. It must, therefore, be used very sparingly at the joints. It
+is to be hoped that a perfectly elastic varnish, that will not tarnish
+the gold, will soon be discovered.
+
+As soon as the varnish is dry the boards may be pressed, one at a
+time, to give the leather a smooth surface (see fig. 83), leaving each
+board in the press for some hours.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 89.]
+
+After each board has been pressed separately the book should be shut,
+and pressed again with pressing plates on each side of it, and with
+tins covered with paper placed inside each board. Light pressure
+should be given to books with tight backs, or the leather may become
+detached.
+
+If, on removing from the press, the boards will not keep shut, the
+book should be pressed again with a folded sheet of blotting-paper in
+each end. The blotting-paper should have the folded edge turned up,
+and be placed so that this turned-up edge will be in the joint behind
+the back edge of the board when the book is shut.
+
+A small nipping-press suitable for giving comparatively light
+pressure, is shown at fig. 89.
+
+
+                           TOOLING ON VELLUM
+
+Most covering vellum has a sticky surface, that marks if it is
+handled. This should be washed off with clean water before tooling.
+The pattern is blinded in through the paper as for leather, excepting
+that the paper must not be pasted directly to the vellum, but may be
+held with a band going right round the board or book. It is best to
+glaire twice, and to lay on a small portion of gold at a time with
+benzine. As vellum burns very readily, the tools must not be too hot,
+and some skill is needed to prevent them from slipping on the hard
+surface.
+
+Vellum must not be polished or varnished.
+
+
+                          INLAYING ON LEATHER
+
+Inlaying or onlaying is adding a different leather from that of the
+cover, as decoration. Thus on a red book, a panel or a border, or
+other portion, may be covered with thin green leather, or only flowers
+or leaves may be inlaid, while a jewel-like effect may be obtained by
+dots, leaves, and flowers, tooled over inlays of various colours.
+Leather for inlaying should be pared very thin. To do this the leather
+is cut into strips, wetted, and pared on a stone with a knife shaped
+somewhat as at fig. 60, B. When the thin leather is dry the inlays of
+the leaves and flowers, &c., may be stamped out with steel punches cut
+to the shape of the tools; or if only a few inlays are needed, the
+tools may be impressed on the thin leather, and the inlays cut out
+with a sharp knife. The edges of the larger inlays should be pared
+round carefully. For inlaying a panel or other large surface, the
+leather is pared very thin and evenly with a French knife, and a piece
+of paper pasted on to the grained side and left to dry. When dry, the
+shape of the panel, or other space to be inlaid, is marked on it
+through the paper pattern, and leather and paper cut through to the
+shape required. The edges must then be carefully pared, and the piece
+attached with paste, and nipped in the press to make it stick. When
+the paste is dry, the paper may be damped and washed off. The object
+of the paper is to prevent the thin leather from stretching when it is
+pasted.
+
+For white inlays it is better to use Japanese paper than leather, as
+white leather, when pared very thin, will show the colours of the
+under leather through, and look dirty. If paper is used, it should be
+sized with vellum size before tooling.
+
+When many dots or leaves are to be inlaid, the pieces of leather, cut
+out with the punch, may be laid face downwards on a paring stone, and
+a piece of paper, thickly covered with paste, laid on it. This, on
+being taken up, will carry with it the "inlays," and they can be
+picked up one at a time on the point of a fine folder, and stuck on
+the book.
+
+"Inlays" of tools are attached after the pattern has been "blinded"
+in, and must be again worked over with the tool, in blind, when the
+paste is nearly dry.
+
+On vellum an effect, similar to that of inlays on leather, can be
+obtained by the use of stains.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XV
+
+              Lettering--Blind Tooling--Heraldic Ornament
+
+
+                         LETTERING ON THE BACK
+
+Lettering may be done either with separate letters, each on its own
+handle, or with type set in a type-holder and worked across the back
+as a pallet. Although by the use of type great regularity is ensured,
+and some time saved, the use of handle letters gives so much more
+freedom of arrangement, that their use is advocated for extra binding.
+Where a great many copies of the same work have to be lettered, the
+use of type has obvious advantages.
+
+A great deal depends on the design of the letters used. Nearly all
+bookbinders' letters are made too narrow, and with too great
+difference between the thick and thin strokes. At fig. 90 is shown an
+alphabet, for which I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Emery Walker.
+The long tail of the Q is meant to go under the U. It might be well to
+have a second R cut, with a shorter tail, to avoid the great space
+left when an A happens to follow it. I have found that four sizes of
+letters are sufficient for all books.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 90.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 91.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 92.]
+
+To make out a lettering paper for the back of a book, cut a strip of
+good thin paper as wide as the height of the panel to be lettered.
+Fold it near the centre, and mark the fold with a pencil. This should
+give a line exactly at right angles to the top and bottom of the
+strip. Then make another fold the distance from the first of the width
+of the back; then bring the two folds together, and make a third fold
+in the exact centre. The paper should then be as shown at fig. 91.
+Supposing the lettering to be THE WORKS OF ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON,
+select the size of letter you desire to use, and take an E and mark on
+a piece of spare paper a line of E's, and laying your folded paper
+against it, see how many letters will go in comfortably. Supposing you
+find that four lines of five letters of the selected size can be put
+in, you must see if your title can be conveniently cut up into four
+lines of five letters, or less. It might be done as shown at fig. 93.
+But if you prefer not to split the name STEVENSON, a smaller letter
+must be employed, and then the lettering may be as at fig. 94.
+
+To find out the position of the lines of lettering on a panel, the
+letter E is again taken and impressed five times at the side of the
+panel, as shown at fig. 92, leaving a little greater distance between
+the lowest letter and the bottom of the panel, than between the
+letters. The paper is then folded on the centre fold, and, with
+dividers set to the average distance between the head of one letter
+and the head of the next, five points are made through the folded
+paper. The paper is opened, turned over, and the points joined with a
+fine folder worked against the straight-edge. It should leave on the
+front five raised lines, up to which the head of the letters must be
+put.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 93.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 94.]
+
+The letters in the top line are counted, and the centre letter marked.
+Spaces between words are counted as a letter; thus in "THE WORKS," "W"
+will be the centre letter, and should be put on the paper first, and
+the others added on each side of it. Some thought is needed in judging
+where to put the centre, as the difference in the width of such
+letters as "M" and "W" and "I" and "J" have to be taken into account.
+
+As a general rule, lettering looks best if it comfortably fills the
+panel, but of course it cannot always be made to do this. The greatest
+difficulty will be found in making titles of books that consist of a
+single word, look well. Thus if you have "CORIOLANUS" to place on a
+back which is not more than 5/8-inch wide, if it is put across as one
+word, as at fig. 95 (1), it will be illegible from the smallness of
+the type, and will tell merely as a gold line at a little distance. If
+a reasonably large type is used, the word must be broken up somewhat,
+as at (2), which is perhaps better, but still not at all satisfactory.
+The word may be put straight along the back, as at fig. (3), but this
+hardly looks well on a book with raised bands, and should be avoided
+unless necessary.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 95.]
+
+The use of type of different sizes in lettering a book should be
+avoided when possible, and on no account whatever should letters of
+different design be introduced. Occasionally, when the reason for it
+is obvious, it may be allowable to make a word shorter by putting in a
+small letter, supposing that only thus could reasonably large type be
+used. It is especially allowable in cases where, in a set of volumes,
+there is one much thinner than the others. It is generally better to
+make some compromise with the lettering of the thin volume, than to
+spoil the lettering of the whole set by using too small a letter
+throughout (see fig. 115).
+
+On very thin books it is sometimes hardly possible to get any
+lettering at all on the back. In such cases the lettering is best put
+on the side.
+
+In the case of some special books that are to have elaborately
+decorated bindings, and are on that account sufficiently distinct from
+their neighbours, a certain amount of freedom is permissible with the
+lettering, and a little mystery is not perhaps out of place. But in
+most cases books have to be recognised by their titles, and it is of
+the utmost importance that the lettering should be as clear as
+possible, and should fully identify the volume.
+
+For lettering half-bindings and other books on which much time cannot
+be spared, it would take too long to make out a paper, as described
+for extra bindings, nor is there on such work much occasion for it.
+For such books the lettering should be written out carefully, the
+whole panel prepared and glaired in, and the gold laid on. Then with a
+piece of fine silk or thread lines may be marked across the gold as a
+guide to the finisher, and the letters worked from the centre
+outward, as described for making out the paper pattern. Of course this
+method does not allow of such nice calculation and adjustment as when
+a paper pattern is made out; but if a general principle of clear
+lettering is recognised and accepted, very good results may be
+obtained.
+
+
+                             BLIND TOOLING
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 96.]
+
+At the end of the book characteristic examples of blind-tooled books
+are given (pages 321-25). It will be seen that most of the tools form
+complete designs in themselves. Although the use of detached die-sunk
+tools was general, there were also simple tools used, which, when
+combined, made up more or less organic designs, and allowed more
+freedom to the finisher (see figs. 96 and 97).
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 97.]
+
+Some use may also be made of interlaced strap-work designs, either
+worked with gouges, or a small fillet. A book bound in oaken boards,
+with a leather back with knotted decoration, is shown at page 330. I
+have found that such binding and decoration is more satisfactory in
+scheme for old books, than most forms of modern binding.
+
+If a design is simple, the cover is marked up with dividers, and the
+tools impressed direct upon the leather; or, if it is elaborate, a
+paper pattern is made out, and the tools blinded through the paper, as
+described for gold tooling. The leather is then damped with water, and
+the impressions retooled.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 98.]
+
+The panel lines on most of the bindings before 1500 show evidence of
+having been put in with a tool which has been pushed along the
+leather, and not with a wheel. I have found that a tool guided by a
+straight-edge, and "jiggered" backwards and forwards, makes by far the
+best lines for blind-tool work. It should be borne in mind that the
+line is formed by the raised portion of leather, and so the tool
+should be cut somewhat as at fig. 98. This should leave three ridges
+on the leather. Blind tooling may be gone over and over until it is
+deep enough, and may be combined with various other methods of
+working. For instance, in tooling such a spray as is shown at fig. 99,
+the leaf would be formed by five impressions of the second tool, shown
+at A, the extremity of the impressions could be joined with gouges,
+the stalk and veining could either be run in with a fillet or worked
+with gouges. The grapes would best be worked with a tool cut for the
+purpose. One edge of all gouge or fillet impressions can be smoothed
+down with some such tool as shown in section at B. This has to be
+worked round the gouge lines with a steady hand, and may be fairly hot
+if it is kept moving. At C is shown a section of a gouge impression
+before and after the use of this tool. The ground can be dotted in, or
+otherwise gone over with some small tool to throw up the pattern.
+
+Blind tooling can sometimes be used in combination with gold tooling.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 99.]
+
+In the fifteenth century the Venetian binders used little roundels of
+some gesso-like substance, that were brightly coloured or gilt, in
+combination with blind tooling (see p. 325). This is a method that
+might be revived.
+
+What is known as "leather work" is a further development of blind
+tooling. This method of decoration has been revived lately, but not
+generally with success. "Leather work" may be divided into two
+branches; in one the surface of the leather is cut to outline the
+pattern, and in the other the leather is embossed from the back, while
+wet, and the pattern outlined by an indented line. Sometimes the two
+methods are combined. As embossing from the back necessitates the work
+being done before the leather is on the book, it is not very suitable
+for decorating books. Leather first decorated and then stuck on the
+book, never looks as if it was an integral part of the binding. The
+cut leather work, which may be done after the book is bound, and
+leaves the surface comparatively flat, is a better method to employ
+for books, provided the cuts are not too deep, and are restricted to
+the boards, so as not to weaken the leather at the back and joints.
+Much of the leather used for "leather work" is of very poor quality,
+and will not last; for modelling it must be thick on the side of the
+book, and for the book to open it must be pared thin at the joint,
+thus making it necessary to use a thick skin very much pared down, and
+consequently weakened (see p. 155). Another very common fault in
+modelled "leather work" is, that the two sides and the back are often
+worked separately and stuck together on the book, necessitating a
+join, and consequently a weak place in the hinge, where strength is
+most wanted. Again, in most modern "leather work," those who do the
+decoration do not, as a rule, do the binding, and often do not
+understand enough of the craft to do suitable work.
+
+All those engaged in leather work are advised to learn to bind their
+own books, and to only use such methods of decoration, as can be
+carried out on the bound book.
+
+
+                        HERALDRY ON BOOK COVERS
+
+It is an old and good custom to put the arms of the owner of a library
+on the covers of the books he has bound. The traditional, and
+certainly one of the best ways to do this, is to have an arms block
+designed and cut. To design an arms block, knowledge of heraldry is
+needed, and also some clear idea of the effect to be aimed at. A very
+common mistake in designing blocks is to try and get the effect of
+hand tooling. Blocks should be and look something entirely different.
+In hand tooling much of the effect is got from the impressions of
+small tools reflecting the light at slightly different angles, giving
+the work life and interest. Blocked gold being all in one plane, has
+no such lights in it, and depends entirely on its design for its
+effect.
+
+Provided the heraldry identifies the owner, it should be as simply
+drawn as it can be; the custom of indicating the tinctures by lines
+and dots on the charges, generally makes a design confused, obscuring
+the coat it is intended to make clear. In designing heraldic blocks it
+is well to get a good deal of solid flat surface of gold to make the
+blocked design stand out from any gold-tooled work on the cover.
+
+Another way of putting armorial bearings on covers, is to paint them
+in oil paint. In the early sixteenth century the Venetians copied the
+Eastern custom of sinking panels in their book covers, and painted
+coats of arms on these sunk portions very successfully. The groundwork
+of the shield itself was usually raised a little, either by something
+under the leather, or by some gesso-like substance on its surface.
+
+Arms blocks should be placed a little above the centre of the cover.
+Generally, if the centre of the block is in a line with the centre
+band of a book with five bands, it will look right.
+
+Blocks are struck with the aid of an arming or blocking press. The
+block is attached to the movable plate of the press called the
+"platen." To do this some stout brown paper is first glued to the
+platen, and the block glued to this, and the platen fixed in its place
+at the bottom of the heating-box. In blocking arms on a number of
+books of different sizes, some nice adjustment of the movable bed is
+needed to get the blocks to fall in exactly the right place.
+
+For blocking, one coat of glaire will be enough for most leathers. The
+gold is laid on as for hand tooling. The block should be brought down
+and up again fairly sharply. The heat needed is about the same as for
+hand tooling.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVI
+
+                 Designing for Gold-Tooled Decoration
+
+
+                            DESIGNING TOOLS
+
+For gold tooling, such tools as gouges, dots, pieces of straight line,
+and fillets are to be had ready-made at most dealers. Other tools are
+best designed and cut to order. At first only a few simple forms will
+be needed, such as one or two flowers of different sizes, and one or
+two sets of leaves (see fig. 100).
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 100 (reduced)]
+
+In designing tools, it must be borne in mind that they may appear on
+the book many times repeated, and so must be simple in outline and
+much conventionalised. A more or less naturalistic drawing of a
+flower, showing the natural irregularities, may look charming, but if
+a tool is cut from it, any marked irregularity becomes extremely
+annoying when repeated several times on a cover. So with leaves,
+unless they are perfectly symmetrical, there should be three of each
+shape cut, two curving in different directions, and the third quite
+straight (see fig. 101). To have only one leaf, and to have that
+curved, produces very restless patterns. The essence of gold-tool
+design, is that patterns are made up of repeats of impressions of
+tools, and that being so, the tools must be so designed that they will
+repeat pleasantly, and in practice it will be found that any but
+simple forms will become aggressive in repetition.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 101.]
+
+Designs for tools should be made out with Indian ink on white paper,
+and they may be larger than the size of the required tool. The
+tool-cutter will reduce any drawing to any desired size, and will,
+from one drawing, cut any number of tools of different sizes. Thus, if
+a set of five leaves of the same shape is wanted, it will only be
+necessary to draw one, and to indicate the sizes the others are to be
+in some such way as shown at fig. 102.
+
+It is not suggested that special tools should be cut for each pattern,
+but the need of new tools will naturally arise from time to time, and
+so the stock be gradually increased. It is better to begin with a very
+few, and add a tool or two as occasion arises, than to try to design a
+complete set when starting.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 102.]
+
+Tools may be solid or in outline. If in outline they may be used as
+"inlay" tools, and in ordering them the tool-cutter should be asked to
+provide steel punches for cutting the inlays.
+
+
+                   COMBINING TOOLS TO FORM PATTERNS
+
+It is well for the student to begin with patterns arranged on some
+very simple plan, making slight changes in each succeeding pattern.
+In this way an individual style may be established. The usual plan of
+studying the perfected styles of the old binders, and trying to begin
+where they left off, in practice only leads to the production of exact
+imitations, or poor lifeless parodies, of the old designs. Whereas a
+pattern developed by the student by slow degrees, through a series of
+designs, each slightly different from the one before it, will, if
+eccentricities are avoided, probably have life and individual
+interest.
+
+Perhaps the easiest way to decorate a binding is to cover it with some
+small repeating pattern. A simple form of diaper as a beginning is
+shown at fig. 104. To make such a pattern cut a piece of good, thin
+paper to the size of the board of a book, and with a pencil rule a
+line about an eighth of an inch inside the margin all round. Then with
+the point of a fine folder that will indent, but not cut the paper,
+mark up as shown in fig. 103. The position of the lines A A and B B
+are found by simply folding the paper, first side to side, and then
+head to tail. The other lines can be put in without any measurement
+by simply joining all points where lines cross. By continual
+re-crossing, the spaces into which the paper is divided can be reduced
+to any desired size. If the construction lines are accurately put in,
+the spaces will all be of the same size and shape. It is then evident
+that a repeating design to fill any one of the spaces can be made to
+cover the whole surface.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 103.]
+
+In fig. 104, it is the diagonal lines only that are utilised for the
+pattern. To avoid confusion, the cross lines that helped to determine
+the position of the diagonals are not shown.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 104 (reduced)]
+
+The advantage of using the point of a folder to mark up the
+constructional lines of a pattern instead of a pencil, is that the
+lines so made are much finer, do not rub out, and do not cause
+confusion by interfering with the pattern. Any lines that will appear
+on the book, such as the marginal lines, may be put in with a pencil
+to distinguish them.
+
+Having marked up the paper, select a flower tool and impress it at the
+points where the diagonal lines cross, holding it in the smoke of a
+candle between every two or three impressions. When the flower has
+been impressed all over, select a small piece of straight line, and
+put a stalk in below each flower; then a leaf put in on each side of
+the straight line will complete the pattern.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 105 (reduced)]
+
+A development of the same principle is shown at fig. 105, in which
+some gouges are introduced. Any number of other combinations will
+occur to any one using the tools. Frequently questions will arise as
+to whether a tool is to be put this way or that way, and whether a
+line is to curve up or down. Whenever there is such an alternative
+open, there is the germ of another pattern. All-over diaper patterns
+may be varied in any number of ways. One way is to vary the design in
+alternate spaces. If this is done one of the designs should be such
+that it will divide down the centre both ways and so finish off the
+pattern comfortably at the edges. The pattern may be based on the
+upright and the cross-lines of the marking up, or the marking up may
+be on a different principle altogether. The designer, after a little
+practice, will be bewildered by the infinite number of combinations
+that occur to him.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 106 (reduced)]
+
+The diaper is selected for a beginning, because it is the easiest form
+of pattern to make, as there is no question of getting round corners,
+and very little of studying proportion. It is selected also because it
+teaches the student the decorative value of simple forms repeated on
+some orderly system. When he has grasped this, he has grasped the
+underlying principle of nearly all successful tooled ornament. Diapers
+are good practice, because in a close, all-over pattern the tools must
+be put down in definite places, or an appalling muddle will result. In
+tooling; a repeat of the same few tools, is the best possible
+practice, giving as it does the same work over and over again under
+precisely the same conditions, and concentrating, on one book cover,
+the practice that might be spread over several backs and sides more
+sparingly decorated, when variety of conditions would confuse the
+student.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 107.]
+
+When the principles of the diaper have been mastered, and the student
+has become familiar with the limitations of his tools, other schemes
+of decoration may be attempted, such as borders, centres, or panels.
+
+A form of border connected with cross-lines is shown at fig. 106. This
+is made up of a repeat of the spray built up of three tools and four
+gouges shown at fig. 107, with slight modification at the corners.
+Other schemes for borders are those in which flowers grow inwards from
+the edge of the boards, or outwards from a panel at the centre, or on
+both sides of a line about half an inch from the edge. A pattern may
+also be made to grow all round the centre panel. Borders will be found
+more difficult to manage than simple diapers, and at first, are best
+built up on the same principle--the repeat of some simple element.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 108 (reduced)]
+
+The decoration may be concentrated on parts of the cover, such as the
+centre or corners. A design for a centre is shown at fig. 108, and
+below is shown the way to construct it. A piece of paper is folded, as
+shown by the dotted lines, and an eighth of the pattern drawn with a
+soft pencil and folded over on the line A, and transferred by being
+rubbed at the back with a folder. This is lined in with a pencil, and
+folded over on the line B and rubbed off. This is lined in and folded
+over on A and C, rubbed off as before, and the whole lined in. The
+overs and unders of the lines are then marked, and gouges selected to
+fit. Of course it will take several trials before the lines will
+interlace pleasantly, and the tools fit in. Another centre, in which a
+spray is repeated three times, is shown at fig. 109, and any number of
+others will occur to the student after a little practice. A change of
+tools, or the slight alteration of a line, will give an entirely new
+aspect to a pattern. At page 334 is shown an all-over pattern growing
+from the bottom centre of the board. In this design the leather was
+dark green, with a lighter green panel in the centre. The berries were
+inlaid in bright red. Although at first glance it seems an intricate
+design, it is made up like the others of repetitions of simple forms.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 109 (reduced)]
+
+When the student has become proficient in the arrangement of tools in
+combination with lines, a design consisting entirely, or almost
+entirely, of lines may be tried. This is more difficult, because the
+limitations are not so obvious; but here again the principle of
+repetition, and even distribution, should be followed. At fig. 110 is
+shown a design almost entirely composed of lines, built up on the same
+principle as the centre at fig. 108.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 110 (reduced)]
+
+The ends of the bands form a very pleasant starting-place for
+patterns. At pp. 330, 332-6 are shown ways of utilising this method.
+To look right, a pattern must be consistent throughout. The tools and
+their arrangement must have about the same amount of convention. Gold
+tooling, dealing, as it does, with flat forms in silhouette only,
+necessitates very considerable formality in the design of the tools
+and of their arrangement on the cover. Modern finishers have become so
+skilful, that they are able to produce in gold tooling almost any
+design that can be drawn in lines with a pencil, and some truly
+marvellous results are obtained by the use of inlays, and specially
+cut gouges. As a rule, such patterns simply serve to show the skill of
+the finisher, and to make one wonder who could have been foolish
+enough to select so limited and laborious a method as gold tooling for
+carrying them out.
+
+Generally speaking, successful gold-tooled patterns show evidence of
+having been designed with the tools; of being, in fact, mere
+arrangements of the tools, and not of having been first designed with
+a pencil, and then worked with tools cut to fit the drawing. This does
+not of course apply to patterns composed entirely of lines, or to
+patterns composed of lines of dots.
+
+If artists wish to design for gold tooling without first mastering the
+details, probably the safest way will be for them to design in lines
+of gold dots. Some successful patterns carried out in this way were
+shown at the Arts and Crafts Exhibition some years ago.
+
+Designs for gold-tooled binding should always be constructed on some
+geometrical plan, and whatever pattern there is, symmetrically
+distributed over the cover.
+
+If lettering can be introduced, it will be found to be most useful
+when arranging a pattern. It gives dignity and purpose to a design,
+and is also highly decorative. Lettering may be arranged in panels, as
+at page 332, or in a border round the edge of the board, and in many
+other ways. It may either consist of the title of the book, or some
+line or verse from it or connected with it, or may refer to its
+history, or to the owner. Anything that gives a personal interest to a
+book, such as the arms of the owner, the initials or name of the giver
+or receiver of a present, with perhaps the date of the gift, is of
+value.
+
+The use of the small fillet makes it possible to employ long,
+slightly-curved lines. Gold-tooled lines have in themselves such
+great beauty, that designers are often tempted to make them meander
+about the cover in a weak and aimless way. As the limitations enforced
+by the use of gouges tend to keep the curves strong and small, and as
+the use of the small fillet tends to the production of long, weak
+curves, students are advised at first to restrict the curved lines in
+their patterns to such as can be readily worked with gouges.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 111.]
+
+It must be remembered that a gouge or fillet line is very thin, and
+will look weak if it goes far without support. For this reason
+interlaced lines are advocated.
+
+Gouge lines are easier to work, and look better, if a small space is
+left where the gouges end. This is especially the case where lines
+bearing leaves or flowers branch from the main stem (see fig. 111).
+
+Gouges and fillets need not always be of the same thickness of line,
+and two or three sets of different gauges may be kept. A finisher can
+always alter the thickness of a gouge with emery paper.
+
+One method of arranging gold-tooled lines is to treat them in design
+as if they were wires in tension, and knot and twist them together.
+Provided the idea is consistently adhered to throughout, such a
+pattern is often very successful.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 112.]
+
+A simple arrangement of straight lines will be sufficient
+ornamentation for most books. Three schemes for such ornamentation are
+shown. In fig. 112 the "tie-downs" may be in "blind" and the lines in
+gold. The arrangement shown at fig. 113 leaves a panel at the top
+which may be utilised for lettering.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 113.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 114.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 115.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 115.]
+
+
+                          DESIGNING FOR BACKS
+
+The decoration of the back of a book is difficult owing to the very
+small space usually available in the panels. The first consideration
+must be the lettering, and when that has been arranged, as described
+in Chapter XV, a second paper is got out for the pattern. The back
+panel should generally be treated in the same style and, if possible,
+with the same tools as the sides, if they are decorated. It will often
+be found far easier to design a full-gilt side than a satisfactory
+back.
+
+A design may be made to fit one panel of the book and repeated on all
+those not required for lettering (see pages 332-34), or it may be made
+to grow up from panel to panel (see fig. 115). In the case of sets of
+books in which the volumes vary very much in thickness, some pattern
+must be made that can be contracted and expanded without altering the
+general look of the back (see fig. 115).
+
+
+                    DESIGNING FOR INSIDE OF BOARDS
+
+The inside margins of the board permit of a little delicate
+decoration. At fig. 116 are shown two ways of treating this part of
+the binding. The inside of the board is sometimes covered all over
+with leather, and tooled as elaborately, or more elaborately, than the
+outside. If there are vellum ends, they may be enriched with a little
+tooling.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 116.]
+
+The edges of the boards may have a gold line run on them, and the
+head-cap may be decorated with a few dots.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XVII
+
+                Pasting down End Papers--Opening Books
+
+
+                        PASTING DOWN END PAPERS
+
+When the finishing is done, the end papers should be pasted down on to
+the board; or if there is a leather joint, the panel left should be
+filled in to match the end paper.
+
+To paste down end papers, the book is placed on the block with the
+board open (see fig. 117, A), the waste sheets are torn off, the
+joints cleared of any glue or paste, and the boards flattened, as
+described at page 171 for pasting down leather joints. One of the
+paste-down papers is then stretched over the board and rubbed down in
+the joint, and the amount to be cut off to make it fit into the space
+left by the turn-in of the leather is marked on it with dividers,
+measuring from the edge of the board. A cutting tin is then placed on
+the book, the paste-down paper turned over it, and the edges trimmed
+off to the divider points with a knife and straight-edge, leaving
+small pieces to cover the ends of the joint (fig. 117, A, c).
+
+The cutting and pasting down of these small pieces in the joint are
+rather difficult; they should come exactly to the edges of the board.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 117.]
+
+When both paste-down papers are trimmed to size, one of them is well
+pasted with thin paste in which there are no lumps, with a piece of
+waste paper under it to protect the book. The joints should also be
+pasted, and the paste rubbed in with the finger and any surplus
+removed.
+
+The pasted paper is then brought over on to the board, the edges
+adjusted exactly to their places, and rubbed down. The joint must next
+be rubbed down through paper. It is difficult to get the paper to
+stick evenly in the joint, and great nicety is needed here. All
+rubbing down must be done through paper, or the "paste-down" will be
+soiled or made shiny.
+
+Some papers stretch very much when pasted, and will need to be cut a
+little smaller than needed, and put down promptly after pasting. Thin
+vellum may be put down with paste in which there is a very little
+glue, but thicker vellum is better put down with thin glue. In pasting
+vellum, very great care is needed to prevent the brush-marks from
+showing through. If the vellum is thin, the board must be lined with
+white or toned paper with a smooth surface. This paper must be quite
+clean, as any marks will show through the vellum, and make it look
+dirty.
+
+When one side is pasted down the book can be turned over without
+shutting the board, and the other board opened and pasted down in the
+same way (see fig. 117, B). In turning over a book, a piece of white
+paper should be put under the newly-pasted side, as, being damp, it
+will soil very readily. When both ends have been pasted down the
+joints should be examined and rubbed down again, and the book stood up
+on end with the boards open until the end papers are dry. The boards
+may be held open with a piece of cardboard cut as shown at fig. 71.
+
+If there are cloth joints they are put down with glue, and the board
+paper is placed nearly to the edge of the joint, leaving very little
+cloth visible.
+
+In the process of finishing, the boards of a book will nearly always
+be warped a little outward, but the pasted end papers should draw the
+boards a little as they dry, causing them to curve slightly towards
+the book. With vellum ends there is a danger that the boards will be
+warped too much.
+
+
+                       OPENING NEWLY BOUND BOOKS
+
+Before sending out a newly bound book the binder should go through it,
+opening it here and there to ease the back. The volume is laid on a
+table, and the leaves opened a short distance from the front, and then
+at an equal distance from the back, and then in one or two places
+nearer the centre of the book, the leaves being pressed down with the
+hand at each opening. If the book is a valuable one, every leaf should
+then be turned over separately and each opening pressed down,
+beginning from the centre and working first one way and then the
+other. In this way the back will be bent evenly at all points. When a
+book has been opened, it should be lightly pressed for a short time
+without anything in the joints.
+
+If a book is sent out unopened, the first person into whose hand it
+falls will probably open it somewhere in the centre, bending the
+covers back and "breaking" the back; and if any leaves chance to have
+been stuck together in edge-gilding, they are likely to be torn if
+carelessly opened. A book with a "broken" back will always have a
+tendency to open in the same place, and will not keep its shape. It
+would be worth while for librarians to have newly bound books
+carefully opened. An assistant could "open" a large number of books
+in a day, and the benefit to the bindings would amply compensate for
+the small trouble and cost involved.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XVIII
+
+                  Clasps and Ties--Metal on Bindings
+
+
+                            CLASPS AND TIES
+
+Some books need to be clasped to keep the leaves flat. All books
+written or printed on vellum should have clasps. Vellum unless kept
+flat is apt to cockle, and this in a book will force the leaves apart
+and admit dust. If a book is tightly wedged in a shelf the leaves will
+be kept flat, but as the chance removal of any other book from the row
+will remove the pressure, it is much better to provide clasps for
+vellum books.
+
+Very thick books, and those with a great many folded plates, are
+better for having clasps to prevent the leaves from sagging. As nearly
+all books are now kept in bookshelves, and as any projection on the
+side of a book is likely to injure the neighbouring volume, a form of
+clasp should be used that has no raised parts on the boards.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 118.]
+
+At fig. 118 is shown a simple clasp suitable for small books with
+mill-board sides, with details of the metal parts, made of thick
+silver wire below. Double boards must be "made," and the flattened
+ends of the silver catch inserted between the two thicknesses, and
+glued in place. About one-eighth of an inch of the end should project.
+In covering, the leather must be pierced and carefully worked round
+the catch. To make the plait, three strips of thin leather are slipped
+through the ring, and the ends of each strip pasted together. The
+three doubled strips are then plaited and the end of the plait put
+through a hole in the lower board of the book about half an inch from
+the edge, and glued down inside. A groove may be cut in the mill-board
+from the hole to the edge before covering, to make a depression in
+which the plait will lie, and a depression may be scooped out of the
+inner surface of the board to receive the ends.
+
+At fig. 119 is a somewhat similar clasp with three plaits suitable for
+large books. The metal end and the method of inserting it into wooden
+boards are shown below. The turned-down end should go right through
+the board, and be riveted on the inside. When the three plaits are
+worked, a little band of silver may be riveted on just below the ring.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 119.]
+
+A very simple fastening that is sometimes useful is shown at fig. 77.
+A very small bead is threaded on to a piece of catgut, and the two
+ends of the gut brought together and put through a larger bead. The
+ends of the gut with the beads on them are laced into the top board
+of the book, with the bead projecting over the edge, and a loop of gut
+is laced into the bottom board. If the loop can be made exactly the
+right length, this is a serviceable method.
+
+Silk or leather ties may be used to keep books shut, but they are apt
+to be in the way when the book is read, and as hardly anybody troubles
+to tie them, they are generally of very little use.
+
+
+                           METAL ON BINDINGS
+
+Metal corners and bosses are a great protection to bindings, but if
+the books are to go into shelves, the metal must be quite smooth and
+flat. A metal shoe on the lower edge of the boards is an excellent
+thing for preserving the binding of heavy books.
+
+Bosses and other raised metal work should be restricted to books that
+will be used on lecterns or reading desks. The frontispiece is from a
+drawing of an early sixteenth-century book, bound in white pigskin,
+and ornamented with brass corners, centres, and clasps; and at page
+323 is shown a fifteenth-century binding with plain protecting bosses.
+On this book there were originally five bosses on each board, but the
+centre ones have been lost.
+
+Bindings may be entirely covered with metal, but the connection
+between the binding and the book is in that case seldom quite
+satisfactory. The most satisfactory metal-covered bindings that I have
+seen are those in which the metal is restricted to the boards. The
+book is bound in wooden boards, with thick leather at the back, and
+plaques of metal nailed to the wood. The metal may be set with jewels
+or decorated with enamel, and embossed or chased in various ways.
+
+Jewels are sometimes set in invisible settings below the leather of
+bindings, giving them the appearance of being set in the leather. This
+gives them an insecure look, and it is better to frankly show the
+metal settings and make a decorative feature of them.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIX
+
+                                Leather
+
+
+                                LEATHER
+
+Of all the materials used by the bookbinders, leather is the most
+important and the most difficult to select wisely. It is extremely
+difficult to judge a leather by its appearance.
+
+"We find now, that instead of leather made from sheep, calf, goat, and
+pigskins, each having, when finished, its own characteristic surface,
+that sheepskins are got up to look like calf, morocco, or pigskin;
+that calf is grained to resemble morocco, or so polished and flattened
+as to have but little character left; while goatskins are grained in
+any number of ways, and pigskin is often grained like levant morocco.
+So clever are some of these imitations, that it takes a skilled expert
+to identify a leather when it is on a book."
+
+There have been complaints for a long time of the want of durability
+of modern bookbinding leather, but there has not been until lately any
+systematic investigation into the causes of its premature decay.
+
+By permission, I shall quote largely from the report of the committee
+appointed by the Society of Arts to inquire into the subject. There
+are on this special committee leather manufacturers, bookbinders,
+librarians, and owners of libraries. The report issued is the result
+of an immense amount of work done. Many libraries were visited, and
+hundreds of experiments and tests were carried out by the
+sub-committees. There is much useful information in the report that
+all bookbinders and librarians should read. The work of the committee
+is not yet finished, but its findings may be accepted as conclusive as
+far as they go.
+
+The committee first set themselves to ascertain if the complaints of
+the premature decay of modern bookbinding leather are justified by
+facts, and on this point report that:--
+
+"As regards the common belief that modern binding leather does decay
+prematurely, the sub-committee satisfied themselves that books bound
+during the last eighty or hundred years showed far greater evidence of
+deterioration than those of an earlier date. Many recent bindings
+showed evidence of decay after so short a period as ten, or even five
+years. The sub-committee came to the conclusion that there is ample
+justification for the general complaint that modern leather is not so
+durable as that formerly used. To fix the date of the commencement of
+this deterioration was a difficult matter; but they came to the
+conclusion that while leather of all periods showed some signs of
+decay, the deterioration becomes more general on books bound after
+1830, while some leathers seem to be generally good until about 1860,
+after which date nearly all leathers seem to get worse. The
+deterioration of calf bindings at the latter end of the 19th century
+may be attributed as much to the excessive thinness as to the poor
+quality of the material."
+
+The committee endeavoured to ascertain the relative durability of the
+leathers used for bookbinding, and after visiting many libraries, and
+comparing bindings, they report as follows:--
+
+"As to the suitability of various leathers, the sub-committee came to
+the conclusion that of the old leathers (15th and 16th century), white
+pigskin, probably alum 'tanned,' is the most durable, but its
+excessive hardness and want of flexibility renders this leather
+unsuitable for most modern work. Old brown calf has lasted fairly
+well, but loses its flexibility, and becomes stiff and brittle when
+exposed to light and air. Some of the white tawed skins of the 15th
+and 16th century, other than white pigskin, and probably deerskin,
+have lasted very well. Some 15th and 16th century sheepskin bindings
+have remained soft and flexible, but the surface is soft, and usually
+much damaged by friction. Vellum seems to have lasted fairly well, but
+is easily influenced by atmospheric changes, and is much affected by
+light. Early specimens of red morocco from the 16th to the end of the
+18th century were found in good condition, and of all the leathers
+noticed, this seems to be the least affected by the various conditions
+to which it had been subjected. In the opinion of the committee, most
+of this leather has been tanned with sumach or some closely allied
+tanning material. Morocco bindings earlier than 1860 were generally
+found to be in fairly good condition, but morocco after that date
+seems to be much less reliable, and in many cases has become utterly
+rotten. During the latter part of the 18th century it became customary
+to pare down calf until it was as thin as paper. Since about 1830
+hardly any really sound calf seems to have been used, as, whether
+thick or thin, it appears generally to have perished. Sheepskin
+bindings of the early part of the century are many of them still in
+good condition. Since about 1860 sheepskin as sheepskin is hardly to
+be found. Sheepskins are grained in imitation of other leathers, and
+these imitation-grained leathers are generally found to be in a worse
+condition than any of the other bindings, except, perhaps, some of the
+very thin calfskin. Undyed modern pigskin seems to last well, but some
+coloured pigskin bindings had entirely perished. Modern leathers dyed
+with the aid of sulphuric acid are all to be condemned. In nearly
+every case Russia leather was found to have become rotten, at least in
+bindings of the last fifty years."
+
+On the question of the causes of the decay noticed and the best
+methods of preparing leather in the future, I may quote the
+following:--
+
+"The work of a sub-committee, which was composed of chemists specially
+conversant with the treatment of leather, was directed specially to
+the elucidation of the following points: an investigation of the
+nature of the decay of leather used for bookbinding; an examination of
+the causes which produced this decay; a research into the best
+methods of preparing leather for bookbinding; and a consideration of
+the points required to be dealt with in the preservation of books.
+
+"Taking these points in order, the first one dealt with is the
+question of the nature of the decay of leather. To arrive at their
+conclusions on this subject, the sub-committee made a number of tests
+and analyses of samples of decayed leather bookbindings, as well as of
+leathers used for binding. The committee found that the most prevalent
+decay was what they term a red decay, and this they think may be
+differentiated into old and new, the old red decay being noticeable up
+to about 1830, and the new decay since that date. In the old decay,
+the leather becomes hard and brittle, the surface not being easily
+abraded by friction. The older form is specially noticeable in
+calf-bound books, tanned presumably with oak bark. The new form
+affects nearly all leathers, and in extreme cases seems absolutely to
+destroy the fibres. Another form of deterioration, more noticeable in
+the newer books, renders the grain of the leather liable to peel off
+when exposed to the slightest friction. This is the most common form
+of decay noted in the more recent leathers. In nearly all samples of
+Russia leather a very violent form of red decay was noticed. In many
+cases the leather was found to be absolutely rotten in all parts
+exposed to light and air, so that on the very slightest rubbing with a
+blunt instrument the leather fell into fine dust....
+
+"The second point is the cause of the decay. An extensive series of
+experiments was carried out with a view of determining the causes of
+the decay of bindings. The sub-committee find that this is caused by
+both mechanical and by chemical influences. Of the latter, some are
+due to mistakes of the leather manufacturer and the bookbinder, others
+to the want of ventilation, and to improper heating and lighting of
+libraries. In some cases inferior leathers are finished (by methods in
+themselves injurious) so as to imitate the better class leathers, and
+of course where these are used durability cannot be expected. But in
+the main the injury for which the manufacturer and bookbinder are
+responsible must be attributed rather to ignorance of the effect of
+the means employed to give the leather the outward qualities required
+for binding, than to the intentional production of an inferior
+article.... Leathers produced by different tanning materials, although
+they may be equally sound and durable mechanically, vary very much in
+their resistance to other influences, such as light, heat, and gas
+fumes.
+
+"For bookbinding purposes, the sub-committee generally condemn the use
+of tanning materials belonging to the catechol group, although the
+leathers produced by the use of these materials are for many purposes
+excellent, and indeed superior. The class of tanning materials which
+produce the most suitable leather for this particular purpose belong
+to the pyrogallol group, of which a well known and important example
+is sumach. East Indian or 'Persian' tanned sheep and goat skins, which
+are suitable for many purposes, and are now used largely for cheap
+bookbinding purposes, are considered extremely bad. Books bound in
+these materials have been found to show signs of decay in less than
+twelve months, and the sub-committee are inclined to believe that no
+book bound in these leathers, exposed on a shelf to sunlight or gas
+fumes, can ever be expected to last more than five or six years.
+Embossing leather under heavy pressure to imitate a grain has a very
+injurious effect, while the shaving of thick skins greatly reduces the
+strength of the leather by cutting away the tough fibres of the inner
+part of the skin. The use of mineral acids in brightening the colour
+of leather, and in the process of dyeing, has a serious effect in
+lessening its resistance to decay. A good deal yet remains to be
+learned about the relative permanency of the different dyes."
+
+On analysis free sulphuric acid was found to be present in nearly all
+bookbinding leather, and it is the opinion of the committee that even
+a small quantity of this acid materially lessens the durability of the
+leather.
+
+"It has been shown by careful experiment, that even a minute quantity
+of sulphuric acid used in the dye bath to liberate the colour is at
+once absorbed by the leather, and that no amount of subsequent washing
+will remove it. In a very large proportion of cases the decay of
+modern sumach-tanned leather has been due to the sulphuric acid used
+in the dye bath, and retained in the skin. We have examined very many
+samples of leather manufactured and sold specially for bookbinding
+purposes, from different factories, bought from different dealers, or
+kindly supplied by bookbinders and by librarians, and have found them
+to contain, in a large number of cases, free sulphuric acid, from 0.5
+up to 1.6 per cent."
+
+The publication of the report should tend to fix a standard for
+bookbinding leather. Hitherto there has been no recognised standard.
+Bookbinders have selected leather almost entirely by its appearance.
+It has now been shown that appearance is no test of durability, and
+the mechanical test of tearing the leather is insufficient. Sound
+leather should tear with difficulty, and the torn edges should be
+fringed with long, silky fibres, and any leather which tears very
+easily, and shows short, curled-up fibres at the torn edges, should be
+discarded. But though good bookbinding leather will tear with
+difficulty, and show long fibres where torn, that is in itself not a
+sufficient test; because it has been shown that the leather that is
+mechanically the strongest, is not necessarily the most durable and
+the best able to resist the adverse influences to which books are
+subject in libraries.
+
+The report shows that bookbinders and librarians are not, as a general
+rule, qualified to select leather for bookbinding. In the old days,
+when the manufacture of leather was comparatively simple, a bookbinder
+might reasonably be expected to know enough of the processes employed
+to be able to select his leather. But now so complicated is the
+manufacture, and so many are the factors to be considered, that an
+expert should be employed.
+
+"The committee have satisfied themselves that it is possible to test
+any leather in such a way as to guarantee its suitability for
+bookbinding. They have not come to any decision as to the desirability
+of establishing any formal or official standard, though they consider
+that this is a point which well deserves future consideration."
+
+It is to be hoped that some system of examining and hall-marking
+leather by some recognised body, may be instituted. If librarians will
+specify that the leather to be employed must be certified to be
+manufactured according to the recommendations of the Society of Arts
+Committee, there is no reason why leathers should not be obtained as
+durable as any ever produced. This would necessitate the examining and
+testing of batches of leather by experts. At present this can be done
+more or less privately at various places, such as the Yorkshire
+College, Leeds, or the Herolds' Institute, Bermondsey. In the near
+future it is to be hoped that some recognised public body, such as one
+of the great City Companies interested in leather, may be induced to
+establish a standard, and to test such leathers as are submitted to
+them, hall-marking those that come up to the standard. This would
+enable bookbinders and librarians, in ordering leather, to be sure
+that it had not been injured in its manufacture. The testing, if done
+by batches, should not add greatly to the cost of the leather.
+
+On the question of the qualities of an ideal bookbinding leather the
+committee report:--
+
+"It is the opinion of the committee, that the ideal bookbinding
+leather must have, and retain, great flexibility.... (It) must have a
+firm grain surface, not easily damaged by friction, and should not be
+artificially grained.... The committee is of opinion that a pure
+sumach tannage will answer all these conditions, and that leather can,
+and will, be now produced that will prove to be as durable as any made
+in the past."
+
+The committee has so far only dealt with vegetable-tanned leather. I
+have used, with some success, chrome-tanned calfskin. Chrome leather
+is difficult to pare, and to work, as it does not become soft when
+wet, like vegetable-tanned leather. It will stand any reasonable
+degree of heat, and so might perhaps be useful for top-shelf bindings
+and for shelf edging. It is extremely strong mechanically, but without
+further tests I cannot positively recommend it except for trial.
+
+While the strength and probable durability of leather can only be
+judged by a trained leather chemist, there remains for the binders
+selection, the kind of leather to use, and its colour.
+
+Most of the leather prepared for bookbinding is too highly finished.
+The finishing processes add a good deal to the cost of the leather,
+and are apt to be injurious to it, and as much of the high finish is
+lost in covering, it would be better for the bookbinder to get rougher
+leather and finish it himself when it is on the book.
+
+The leathers in common use for bookbinding are:--
+
+    Goatskin, known as morocco.
+    Calf, known as calf and russia.
+    Sheepskin, known as roan, basil, skiver, &c.
+    Pigskin, known as pigskin.
+    Sealskin, known as seal.
+
+_Morocco_ is probably the best leather for extra binding if properly
+prepared, but experiment has shown that the expensive Levant moroccos
+are nearly always ruined in their manufacture. A great many samples of
+the most expensive Levant morocco were tested, with the result that
+they were all found to contain free sulphuric acid.
+
+_Calf._--Modern vegetable-tanned calf has become a highly
+unsatisfactory material, and until some radical changes are made in
+the methods of manufacturing it, it should not be used for
+bookbinding.
+
+_Sheepskin._--A properly tanned sheepskin makes a very durable, though
+rather soft and woolly, leather. Much of the bookbinding leather now
+made from sheepskin is quite worthless. Bookbinders should refuse to
+have anything to do with any leather that has been artificially
+grained, as the process is apt to be highly injurious to the skin.
+
+_Pigskin._--Pigskin is a thoroughly good leather naturally, and very
+strong, especially the alumed skins; but many of the dyed pigskins are
+found to be improperly tanned and dyed, and worthless for bookbinding.
+
+_Sealskin_ is highly recommended by one eminent librarian, but I have
+not yet had any experience of its use for bookbinding.
+
+The leather that I have found most useful is the Niger goatskin,
+brought from Africa by the Royal Niger Company; it is a very beautiful
+colour and texture, and has stood all the tests tried, without serious
+deterioration. The difficulty with this leather is that, being a
+native production, it is somewhat carelessly prepared, and is much
+spoiled by flaws and stains on the surface, and many skins are quite
+worthless. It is to be hoped that before long some of the
+manufacturers interested will produce skins as good in quality and
+colour as the best Niger morocco, and with fewer flaws.
+
+Much leather is ruined in order to obtain an absolutely even colour. A
+slight unevenness of colours is very pleasing, and should rather be
+encouraged than objected to. That the want of interest in absolutely
+flat colours has been felt, is shown by the frequency with which the
+binders get rid of flat, even colours by sprinkling and marbling.
+
+On this point I may quote from the committee: "The sprinkling of
+leather, either for the production of 'sprinkled' calf or 'tree' calf,
+with ferrous sulphate (green vitriol) must be most strongly condemned,
+as the iron combines with and destroys the tan in the leather, and
+free sulphuric acid is liberated, which is still more destructive.
+Iron acetate or lactate is somewhat less objectionable, but probably
+the same effects may be obtained with aniline colours without risk to
+the leather."
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XX
+
+                          Paper--Pastes--Glue
+
+
+                                 PAPER
+
+Paper may be made by hand or machinery, and either "laid" or "wove."
+"Laid" papers are distinguished by wire marks, which are absent in
+"wove" paper.
+
+A sheet of hand-made paper has all round it a rough uneven edge called
+the "deckle," that is a necessary result of its method of manufacture.
+The early printers looked upon this ragged edge as a defect, and
+almost invariably trimmed most of it off before putting books into
+permanent bindings. Book-lovers quite rightly like to find traces of
+the "deckle" edge, as evidence that a volume has not been unduly
+reduced by the binder. But it has now become the fashion to admire the
+"deckle" for its own sake, and to leave books on hand-made paper
+absolutely untrimmed, with ragged edges that collect the dirt, are
+unsightly, and troublesome to turn over. So far has this craze gone,
+that machine-made paper is often put through an extra process to give
+it a sham deckle edge.
+
+Roughly speaking, paper varies in quality according to the proportion
+of fibrous material, such as rag, used in the manufacture. To make
+paper satisfactorily by hand, a large proportion of such fibrous
+material is necessary, so that the fact that the paper is hand-made is
+to some extent a guarantee of its quality. There are various qualities
+of hand-made paper, made from different materials, chiefly linen and
+cotton rags. The best paper is made from pure linen rag, and poorer
+hand-made paper from cotton rag, while other qualities contain a
+mixture of the two or other substances.
+
+It is possible to make a thoroughly good paper by machinery if good
+materials are used. Some excellent papers are made by machinery; but
+the enormous demand for paper, together with the fact that now almost
+any fibrous material can be made into paper, has resulted in the
+production, in recent years, of, perhaps, the worst papers that have
+ever been seen.
+
+This would not matter if the use of the poor papers were restricted to
+newspapers and other ephemeral literature, but when, as is often the
+case, paper of very poor quality is used for books of permanent
+literary interest, the matter is serious enough.
+
+Among the worst papers made are the heavily loaded "Art" papers that
+are prepared for the printing of half-toned process blocks. It is to
+be hoped that before long the paper makers will produce a paper that,
+while suitable for printing half-toned blocks, will be more
+serviceable, and will have a less unpleasant surface.
+
+Several makers produce coloured handmade papers suitable for end
+papers. Machine-made papers can be had in endless variety from any
+number of makers.
+
+The paper known as "Japanese Vellum" is a very tough material, and
+will be found useful for repairing vellum books; the thinnest variety
+of it is very suitable for mending the backs of broken sections, or
+for strengthening weak places in paper.
+
+The following delightful account of paper making by hand is quoted
+from "Evelyn's Diary, 1641-1706."
+
+"I went to see my Lord of St. Alban's house at Byflete, an old large
+building. Thence to the paper mills, where I found them making a
+coarse white paper. They cull the raggs, which are linnen, for white
+paper, woollen for brown, then they stamp them in troughs to a papp
+with pestles or hammers like the powder-mills, then put it into a
+vessell of water, in which they dip a frame closely wyred with a wyre
+as small as a haire, and as close as a weaver's reede; on this they
+take up the papp, the superfluous water draining thro' the wyre; this
+they dextrously turning, shake out like a pancake on a smooth board
+between two pieces of flannell, then press it between a greate presse,
+the flannell sucking out the moisture; then taking it out they ply and
+dry it on strings, as they dry linnen in the laundry; then dip it in
+alum-water, lastly polish and make it up in quires. They put some gum
+in the water in which they macerate the raggs. The mark we find on the
+sheets is formed in the wyre."
+
+The following are the more usual sizes of printing papers--
+
+                      Inches.
+
+    Foolscap          17  x 13-1/2
+    Crown             20  x 15
+    Post              19-1/4 x 15-1/2
+    Demy              22-1/2 x 17-1/2
+    Medium             24 x 19
+    Royal              25 x 20
+    Double Pott        25 x 15
+      "    Foolscap    27 x 17
+    Super Royal        27 x 21
+    Double Crown       30 x 20
+    Imperial           30 x 22
+    Double Post       31-1/2 x 19-1/2
+
+The corresponding sizes of hand-made papers may differ slightly from
+the above.
+
+Although the above are the principal sizes named, almost any size can
+be made to order.
+
+The following is an extract from the report of the Committee of the
+Society of Arts on the deterioration of paper, published in 1898: "The
+committee find that the paper-making fibres may be ranged into four
+classes:--
+
+    A. Cotton, flax, and hemp.
+    B. Wood, celluloses (_a_) sulphite process,
+       and (_b_) soda and sulphate process.
+    C. Esparto and straw celluloses.
+    D. Mechanical wood pulp.
+
+In regard, therefore, to papers for books and documents of permanent
+value, the selection must be taken in this order, and always with due
+regard to the fulfilment of the conditions of normal treatment above
+dealt with as common to all papers."
+
+"The committee have been desirous of bringing their investigations to
+a practical conclusion in specific terms, viz. by the suggestion of
+standards of quality. It is evident that in the majority of cases,
+there is little fault to find with the practical adjustments which
+rule the trade. They are, therefore, satisfied to limit their specific
+findings to the following, viz., _Normal standard of quality for book
+papers required for publications of permanent value._ For such papers
+they would specify as follows:--
+
+"_Fibres._ Not less than 70 per cent. of fibres of Class A.
+
+"_Sizing._ Not more than 2 per cent. rosin, and finished with the
+normal acidity of pure alum.
+
+"_Loading._ Not more than 10 per cent. total mineral matter (ash).
+
+"With regard to written documents, it must be evident that the proper
+materials are those of Class A, and that the paper should be pure,
+and sized with gelatine, and not with rosin. All imitations of
+high-class writing papers, which are, in fact, merely disguised
+printing papers, should be carefully avoided."
+
+
+                                PASTES
+
+To make paste for covering books, &c., take 2 oz. of flour, and 1/4
+oz. of powdered alum, and well mix with enough water to form a thin
+paste, taking care to break up any lumps. Add a pint of cold water,
+and heat gently in an enamelled saucepan. As it becomes warm, it
+should be stirred from time to time, and when it begins to boil it
+should be continually stirred for about five minutes. It should then
+form a thick paste that can be thinned with warm water. Of course any
+quantity can be made if the proportions are the same.
+
+Paste for use is best kept in a wooden trough, called a "paste tub."
+The paste tub will need to be cleaned out from time to time, and all
+fragments of dry paste removed. This can easily be done if it is left,
+overnight, filled with water. Before using, the paste should be well
+beaten up with a flat stick.
+
+For pasting paper, it should have about the consistency and smoothness
+of cream; for leather, it can be thicker. For very thick leather a
+little thin glue may be added. Paste made with alum will keep about a
+fortnight, but can be kept longer by the addition of corrosive
+sublimate in the proportion of one part of corrosive sublimate to a
+thousand parts of paste. Corrosive sublimate, being a deadly poison,
+will prevent the attack of bookworms or other insects, but for the
+same reason must only be used by responsible people, and paste in
+which it is used must be kept out of the way of domestic animals.
+
+Several makes of excellent prepared paste can be bought in London.
+These pastes are as cheap as can be made, and keep good a long time.
+
+Paste that has become sour should never be used, as there is danger
+that the products of its acid fermentation may injure the leather.
+
+Paste tubs as sold often have an iron bar across them to wipe the
+brush on. This should be removed, and replaced by a piece of twisted
+cord. Paste brushes should be bound with string or zinc; copper or
+iron will stain the paste.
+
+
+                        WHITE PASTE FOR MENDING
+
+A good paste for mending is made from a teaspoonful of ordinary flour,
+two teaspoonsful of cornflour, half a teaspoonful of alum, and three
+ounces of water. These should be carefully mixed, breaking up all
+lumps, and then should be heated in a clean saucepan, and stirred all
+the time with a wooden or bone spoon. The paste should boil for about
+five minutes, but not too fast, or it will burn and turn brown.
+Rice-flour or starch may be substituted for cornflour, and for very
+white paper the wheaten flour may be omitted. Ordinary paste is not
+nearly white enough for mending, and is apt to leave unsightly stains.
+
+Cornflour paste may be used directly after it is made, and will keep
+good under ordinary circumstances for about a week. Directly it gets
+hard or goes watery, a new batch must be made.
+
+
+                                 GLUE
+
+It is important for bookbinders that the glue used should be of good
+quality, and the best hide glue will be found to answer well. To
+prepare it for use, the glue should be broken up into small pieces and
+left to soak overnight in water. In the morning it should be soft and
+greatly swollen, but not melted, and can then be put in the glue-pot
+and gently simmered until it is fluid. It is then ready for use. Glue
+loses in quality by being frequently heated, so that it is well not to
+make a great quantity at a time. The glue-pot should be thoroughly
+cleaned out before new glue is put into it, and the old glue sticking
+round the sides taken out.
+
+Glue should be used hot and not too thick. If it is stringy and
+difficult to work, it can be broken up by rapidly twisting the brush
+in the glue-pot. For paper the glue should be very thin and well
+worked up with the brush before using.
+
+The following is quoted from "Chambers' Encyclopaedia" article on
+Glue:--
+
+"While England does not excel in the manufacture, it is a recognised
+fact that Scottish glue ... ranks in the front of the glues of all
+countries. A light-coloured glue is not necessarily good, nor a
+dark-coloured glue necessarily bad. A bright, clear, claret colour is
+the natural colour of hide glue, which is the best and most
+economical.
+
+"Light-coloured glues (as distinguished from gelatine) are made either
+from bones or sheepskins. The glue yielded by these materials cannot
+compare with the strength of that yielded by hides.
+
+"A great quantity is now made in France and Germany from bones. It is
+got as a by-product in the manufacture of animal charcoal. Although
+beautiful to look at, it is found when used to be far inferior to
+Scottish hide glue."
+
+
+
+
+                                PART II
+
+                       CARE OF BOOKS WHEN BOUND
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXI
+
+           Injurious Influences to which Books are Subjected
+
+
+_Gas Fumes._--The investigation of the Society of Arts Committee shows
+that--
+
+"Of all the influences to which books are exposed in libraries, gas
+fumes--no doubt because of the sulphuric and sulphurous acid which
+they contain--are shown to be the most injurious."
+
+The injurious effects of gas fumes on leather have been recognised for
+a long time, and gas is being, very generally, given up in libraries
+in consequence. If books must be kept where gas is used, they should
+not be put high up in the room, and great attention should be paid to
+ventilation. It is far better, where possible, to avoid the use of gas
+at all in libraries.
+
+_Light._--The committee also report that "light, and especially direct
+sunlight and hot air, are shown to possess deleterious influences
+which had scarcely been suspected previously, and the importance of
+moderate temperature and thorough ventilation of libraries cannot be
+too much insisted on."
+
+The action of light on leather has a disintegrating effect, very
+plainly seen when books have stood for long periods on shelves placed
+at right angles to windows. At Oxford and Cambridge and at the British
+Museum Library the same thing was noticed. The leather on that side,
+of the backs of books, next to the light, was absolutely rotten,
+crumbling to dust at the slightest friction, while at the side away
+from the light it was comparatively sound. Vellum bindings were even
+more affected than those of leather.
+
+The committee advise that library windows exposed to the direct
+sunlight should be glazed with tinted glass.
+
+"Some attempts have been made to determine the effect of light
+transmitted through glasses of different colours, and they point to
+the fact that blue and violet glass pass light of nearly as
+deleterious quality as white glass; while leathers under red, green,
+and yellow glasses were almost completely protected. There can be no
+doubt that the use of pale yellow or olive-green glass in library
+windows exposed to direct sunlight is desirable. A large number of
+experiments have been made on the tinted 'cathedral' glasses of
+Messrs. Pilkington Bros., Limited, with the result that Nos. 812 and
+712 afforded almost complete protection during two months' exposure to
+sunlight, while Nos. 704 and 804 may be recommended where only very
+pale shades are permissible. The glasses employed were subjected to
+careful spectroscopic examination, and to colour-measurement by the
+tintometer, but neither were found to give precise indications as to
+the protective power of the glasses, which is no doubt due to the
+absorption of the violet, and especially of the invisible ultra-violet
+rays. An easy method of comparing glasses is to expose under them to
+sunlight the ordinary sensitised albumenised photographic paper.
+Those glasses under which this is least darkened are also most
+protective to leather."
+
+_Tobacco._--Smoking was found to be injurious, and it is certainly a
+mistake to allow it in libraries.
+
+"The effect of ammonia vapour, and tobacco fumes, of which ammonia is
+one of the active ingredients, was also examined. The effect of
+ammonia fumes was very marked, darkening every description of leather,
+and it is known that in extreme cases it causes a rapid form of decay.
+Tobacco smoke had a very similar darkening and deleterious effect
+(least marked in the case of sumach tanned leathers), and there can be
+no doubt that the deterioration of bindings in a library where smoking
+was permitted and the rooms much used, must have been partly due to
+this cause."
+
+_Damp._--Books kept in damp places will develop mildew, and both
+leather and paper will be ruined.
+
+Where possible, naturally dry rooms should be used for libraries, and
+if not naturally dry, every means possible should be taken to render
+them so. It will sometimes be found that the only way to keep the
+walls of an old house dry is to put in a proper dampcourse. There are
+various other methods employed, such as lining the walls with thin
+lead, or painting them inside and out with some waterproofing
+preparation: but as long as a wall remains in itself damp, it is
+doubtful if any of these things will permanently keep the damp from
+penetrating.
+
+Bookshelves should never be put against the wall, nor the books on the
+floor. There should always be space for air to circulate on all sides
+of the bookshelves. Damp is specially injurious if books are kept
+behind closely-fitting doors. The doors of bookcases should be left
+open from time to time on warm days.
+
+Should mildew make its appearance, the books should be taken out,
+dried and aired, and the bookshelves thoroughly cleaned. The cause of
+the damp should be sought for, and measures taken to remedy it.
+Library windows should not be left open at night, nor during damp
+weather, but in warm fine weather the more ventilation there is, the
+better.
+
+_Heat._--While damp is very injurious to books on account of the
+development of mildew, unduly hot dry air is almost as bad, causing
+leather to dry up and lose its flexibility. On this point the Chairman
+of the Society of Arts Committee says:--
+
+"Rooms in which books are kept should not be subject to extremes,
+whether of heat or cold, of moisture or dryness. It may be said that
+the better adapted a room is for human occupation, the better for the
+books it contains. Damp is, of course, most mischievous, but
+over-dryness induced by heated air, especially when the pipes are in
+close proximity to the bookcases, is also very injurious."
+
+_Dust._--Books should be taken from the shelves at least once a year,
+dusted and aired, and the bindings rubbed with a preservative.
+
+To dust a book, it should be removed from the shelf, and without being
+opened, turned upside down and flicked with a feather duster. If a
+book with the dust on the top is held loosely in the hand, and dusted
+right way up, dust may fall between the leaves. Dusting should be done
+in warm, dry weather; and afterwards, the books may be stood on the
+table slightly open, to air, with their leaves loose. Before being
+returned to the shelves, the bindings should be lightly rubbed with
+some preservative preparation (see chap. XXII). Any bindings that are
+broken, or any leaves that are loose should be noted, and the books
+put on one side to be sent to the binder. It would be best when the
+library is large enough to warrant it, to employ a working bookbinder
+to do this work; such a man would be useful in many ways. He could
+stick on labels, repair bindings, and do many other odd jobs to keep
+the books in good repair.
+
+A bookbinder could be kept fully employed, binding and repairing the
+books of a comparatively small library under the direction of the
+librarian.
+
+
+                               BOOKWORMS
+
+The insects known as bookworms are the larvae of several sorts of
+beetles, most commonly perhaps of _Antobium domesticum_ and _Niptus
+hololencus_. They are not in any way peculiar to books and will infest
+the wood of bookshelves, walls, or floors. A good deal can be done to
+keep "worms" away by using such substances as camphor or naphthaline
+in the bookcase. Bookworms do not attack modern books very much;
+probably they dislike the alum put in the paste and the mill-boards
+made of old tarred rope.
+
+In old books, especially such as come from Italy, it is often found
+that the ravages of the bookworms are almost entirely confined to the
+glue on the backs of the books, and it generally seems that the glue
+and paste attract them. Probably if corrosive sublimate were put in
+the glue and paste used it would stop their attacks. Alum is said to
+be a preventive, but I have known bookworms to eat their way through
+leather pasted on with paste containing alum, when, in recovering, the
+old wooden boards containing bookworms have been utilised in error.
+
+When on shaking the boards of an old book dust flies out, or when
+little heaps of dust are found on the shelf on which an old book has
+been standing, it may be considered likely that there are bookworms
+present. It is easy to kill any that may be hatched, by putting the
+book in an air-tight box surrounded with cotton wool soaked in ether;
+but that will not kill the eggs, and the treatment must be repeated
+from time to time at intervals of a few weeks.
+
+Any book that is found to contain bookworms should be isolated and at
+once treated. Tins may be put inside the boards to prevent the "worms"
+eating into the leaves.
+
+Speaking of bookworms, Jules Cousin says:--
+
+"One of the simplest means to be employed (to get rid of bookworms) is
+to place behind the books, especially in the place where the insects
+show their presence most, pieces of linen soaked with essence of
+turpentine, camphor, or an infusion of tobacco, and to renew them when
+the smell goes off. A little fine pepper might also be scattered on
+the shelf, the penetrating smell of which would produce the same
+effect."
+
+Possibly Keating's Insect Powder would answer as well or better than
+pepper.
+
+
+                             RATS AND MICE
+
+Rats and mice will gnaw the backs of books to get at the glue, so,
+means should be taken to get rid of these vermin if they should
+appear. Mice especially will nibble vellum binding or the edges of
+vellum books that have become greasy with much handling.
+
+
+                              COCKROACHES
+
+Cockroaches are very troublesome in libraries, eating the bindings.
+Keating's Insect Powder will keep them away from books, but only so
+long as it is renewed at short intervals.
+
+
+                   PLACING THE BOOKS IN THE SHELVES
+
+The Chairman of the Society of Arts Special Committee says on this
+point:--
+
+"It is important that a just medium should be observed between the
+close and loose disposition of books in the shelves. Tight packing
+causes the pulling off of the tops of book-backs, injurious friction
+between their sides, and undue pressure, which tends to force off
+their backs. But books should not stand loosely on the shelves. They
+require support and moderate lateral pressure, otherwise the leaves
+are apt to open and admit dust, damp, and mildew. The weight of the
+leaves also in good-sized volumes loosely placed will often be found
+to be resting on the shelf, making the backs concave, and spoiling the
+shape and cohesion of the books.
+
+"In libraries where classification is attempted there must be a
+certain number of partially filled shelves. The books in these should
+be kept in place by some such device as that in use in the British
+Museum, namely, a simple flat angle piece of galvanised iron, on the
+lower flange of which the end books rest, keeping it down, the upright
+flange keeping the books close and preventing them from spreading."
+
+He also speaks of the danger to bindings of rough or badly-painted
+bookshelves:--
+
+"Great care should be exercised when bookcases are painted or
+varnished that the surface should be left hard, smooth, and dry.
+Bindings, especially those of delicate texture, may be irreparably
+rubbed if brought in contact with rough or coarsely-painted surfaces,
+while the paint itself, years after its original application, is
+liable to come off upon the books, leaving indelible marks. In such
+cases pasteboard guards against the ends of the shelves are the only
+remedy."
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XXII
+
+                 To Preserve Old Bindings--Re-backing
+
+
+                       TO PRESERVE OLD BINDINGS
+
+It is a well-known fact that the leather of bindings that are much
+handled lasts very much better than that on books which remain
+untouched on the shelves. There is little doubt that the reason for
+this is that the slight amount of grease the leather receives from the
+hands nourishes it and keeps it flexible. A coating of glair or
+varnish is found to some extent to protect leather from adverse
+outside influences, but, unfortunately, both glair and varnish tend
+rather to harden leather than to keep it flexible, and they fail just
+where failure is most serious, that is at the joints. In opening and
+shutting, any coat of glair or varnish that has become hard will
+crack, and expose the leather of the joint and back. Flexibility is an
+essential quality in bookbinding leather, for as soon as the leather
+at the joint of a binding becomes stiff it breaks away when the boards
+are opened.
+
+It would add immensely to the life of old leather bindings if
+librarians would have them treated, say once a year, with some
+preservative. The consequent expense would be saved many times over by
+the reduction of the cost of rebinding. Such a preservative must not
+stain, must not evaporate, must not become hard, and must not be
+sticky. Vaseline has been recommended, and answers fairly well, but
+will evaporate, although slowly. I have found that a solution of
+paraffin wax in castor oil answers well. It is cheap and very simple
+to prepare. To prepare it, some castor oil is put into an earthenware
+jar, and about half its weight of paraffin wax shredded into it. On
+warming, the wax will melt, and the preparation is ready for use.
+
+A little of the preparation is well worked into a piece of flannel,
+and the books rubbed with it, special attention being paid to the back
+and joints. They may be further rubbed with the hand, and finally gone
+over with a clean, soft cloth. Very little of the preparation need be
+used on each book.
+
+If bindings have projecting metal corners or clasps that are likely to
+scratch the neighbouring books, pieces of mill-board, which may be
+lined with leather or good paper, should be placed next them, or they
+may have a cover made of a piece of mill-board bent round as shown at
+fig. 120, and strengthened at the folds with linen. This may be
+slipped into the shelf with the book with the open end outwards, and
+will then hardly be seen.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 120.]
+
+Bindings which have previously had metal clasps, &c., often have
+projecting fragments of the old nails. These should be sought for and
+carefully removed or driven in, as they may seriously damage any
+bindings with which they come in contact.
+
+To protect valuable old bindings, cases may be made and lettered on
+the back with the title of the book.
+
+Loose covers that necessitate the bending back of the boards for their
+removal are not recommended.
+
+
+                              RE-BACKING
+
+Bindings that have broken joints may be re-backed. Any of the leather
+of the back that remains should be carefully removed and preserved. It
+is impossible to get some leathers off tight backs without destroying
+them, but with care and by the use of a thin folder, many backs can be
+saved. The leather on the boards is cut a little back from the joint
+with a slanting cut, that will leave a thin edge, and is then lifted
+up with a folder. New leather, of the same colour is pasted on the
+back, and tucked in under the old leather on the board. The leather
+from the old back should have its edges pared and any lumps of glue or
+paper removed and be pasted on to the new leather and bound tightly
+with tape to make sure that it sticks.
+
+When the leather at the corners of the board needs repairing, the
+corner is glued and tapped with a hammer to make it hard and square,
+and when it is dry a little piece of new leather is slipped under the
+old and the corner covered.
+
+When the sewing cords or thread of a book have perished it should be
+rebound, but if there are any remains of the original binding they
+should be preserved and utilised. If the old boards have quite
+perished, new boards of the same nature and thickness should be got
+out and the old cover pasted over them. Such places as the old leather
+will not cover, must first be covered with new of the same colour.
+Generally speaking, it is desirable that the characteristics of an old
+book should be preserved, and that the new work should be as little in
+evidence as possible. It is far more pleasant to see an old book in a
+patched contemporary binding, than smug and tidy in the most
+immaculate modern cover.
+
+Part of the interest of any old book is its individual history, which
+can be gathered from the binding, book-plates, marginal notes, names
+of former owners, &c., and anything that tends to obliterate these
+signs is to be deplored.
+
+
+
+
+                            SPECIFICATIONS
+
+
+                    SPECIFICATIONS FOR BOOKBINDING
+
+These specifications will require modification in special cases, and
+are only intended to be a general guide.
+
+------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+-------
+            | SHEETS. | END PAPERS. | PRESSING.| EDGES. |  SEWING. | BACK.
+------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+-------
+            |To be    |To be sewn   |Books on  |To be   |To be with|To be
+     I.     |carefully|on. To be of |handmade  |trimmed |ligature  |kept
+For Extra   |folded,  |good paper   |paper not |and gilt|silk,     |as
+Binding     |or, if   |made with    |to be     |before  |flexible, |flat
+suitable    |an old   |zigzag, with |pressed   |sewing. |round five|as it
+for Valuable|book, all|board papers |unduly.   |To be   |bands of  |can be
+Books. Whole|damaged  |of self-     |          |uncut.  |best      |without
+Leather.    |leaves to|coloured     |          |        |sewing    |forcing
+            |be       |paper of good|          |        |cord.     |it and
+            |carefully|quality, or  |          |        |          |without
+            |mended,  |vellum. Or to|          |        |          |danger
+            |the backs|be made with |          |        |          |of its
+            |where    |leather      |          |        |          |becom-
+            |damaged  |joint.       |          |        |          |ing
+            |to be    |             |          |        |          |concave
+            |made     |             |          |        |          |in use.
+            |sound.   |             |          |        |          |
+            |Single   |             |          |        |          |
+            |leaves   |             |          |        |          |
+            |to be    |             |          |        |          |
+            |guarded  |             |          |        |          |
+            |round    |             |          |        |          |
+            |the      |             |          |        |          |
+            |sections |             |          |        |          |
+            |next     |             |          |        |          |
+            |them. All|             |          |        |          |
+            |plates to|             |          |        |          |
+            |be       |             |          |        |          |
+            |guarded. |             |          |        |          |
+            |Guards to|             |          |        |          |
+            |be sewn  |             |          |        |          |
+            |through. |             |          |        |          |
+            |No past- |             |          |        |          |
+            |ing on   |             |          |        |          |
+            |or over- |             |          |        |          |
+            |casting  |             |          |        |          |
+            |to be    |             |          |        |          |
+            |allowed. |             |          |        |          |
+------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+-------
+            |As No.   |To be of good|Same as   |To be   |To be with|Same as
+     II.    |I.,      |paper made   |No. I.    |cut and |unbleached|for No.
+For Good    |excepting|with zigzag, |          |gilt in |thread,   |I.
+Binding for |that any |with board   |          |boards  |flexible, |
+Books of    |mending  |papers of    |          |or      |round five|
+Reference,  |may be   |self-coloured|          |coloured|bands of  |
+Catalogues, |done     |paper of good|          |or to be|best      |
+&c., and    |rather   |quality.     |          |uncut.  |sewing    |
+other heavy |with a   |Large or     |          |        |cord.     |
+Books that  |view to  |heavy books  |          |        |          |
+may have a  |strength |to have a    |          |        |          |
+great deal  |than     |cloth joint. |          |        |          |
+of use.     |extreme  |To be sewn   |          |        |          |
+Whole or    |neatness.|on.          |          |        |          |
+Half        |         |             |          |        |          |
+Leather.    |         |             |          |        |          |
+------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+-------
+            |Same as  |To be of good|Same as   |To be   |To be with|Same as
+    III.    |No. II.  |paper, sewn  |No. I.    |uncut,  |unbleached|for
+For Binding |         |on, made with|          |or to be|thread    |Nos. I.
+for         |         |zigzag.      |          |cut in  |across not|and II.
+Libraries,  |         |             |          |guillo- |less than |
+IV. for     |         |             |          |tine and|four      |
+Books in    |         |             |          |gilt or |unbleached|
+current     |         |             |          |coloured|linen     |
+use. Half   |         |             |          |or to   |tapes.    |
+Leather.    |         |             |          |have top|          |
+            |         |             |          |edge    |          |
+            |         |             |          |only    |          |
+            |         |             |          |gilt.   |          |
+------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+-------
+            |Any      |Same as No.  |          |May be  |With      |Back to
+    IV.     |leaves   |III.         |          |cut     |unbleached|be left
+For Library |damaged  |             |          |smooth  |thread    |square
+Bindings of |at the   |             |          |in      |over three|after
+Books of    |back or  |             |          |guillo- |unbleached|glueing
+little      |plates   |             |          |tine.   |linen     |up.
+Interest or |to be    |             |          |        |tapes.    |
+Value,      |overcast |             |          |        |          |
+Cloth or    |into     |             |          |        |          |
+Half Linen. |sections.|             |          |        |          |
+------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+-------
+
+
+            SPECIFICATIONS FOR BOOKBINDING--(_continued_).
+
+------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+--------
+            |BOARDS. |HEADBANDS.|  COVERS. |LETTERING.|DECORATION.|
+------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+--------
+            |To be of|To be     |Goatskin  |To be     |To be as   |All work
+     I.	    |the best|worked    |(morocco),|legible   |much or as |to be
+For Extra   |black   |with silk |pigskin   |and to    |little as  |done in
+Binding     |mill-   |on strips |or seal-  |identify  |the nature |the best
+suitable    |board.  |of vellum |skin manu-|the       |of the book|manner.
+for Valuable|Two     |or catgut |factured  |volume.   |warrants.  |
+Books. Whole|boards  |or cord,  |according |          |           |
+Leather.    |to be   |with      |to the    |          |           |
+            |made    |frequent  |recommend-|          |           |
+            |together|tie-downs.|ations of |          |           |
+            |for     |The head- |the       |          |           |
+            |large   |bands to  |Society   |          |           |
+            |books,  |be "set"  |of Arts'  |          |           |
+            |and all |by pieces |Committee |          |           |
+            |five    |of good   |on Leather|          |           |
+            |bands   |paper or  |for       |          |           |
+            |laced in|leather   |Book-     |          |           |
+            |through |glued at  |binding.  |          |           |
+            |two     |head and  |Whole     |          |           |
+            |holes.  |tail. The |binding;  |          |           |
+            |        |back to be|leather   |          |           |
+            |        |lined up  |to be     |          |           |
+            |        |with      |attached  |          |           |
+            |        |leather   |directly  |          |           |
+            |        |all over  |to the    |          |           |
+            |        |if the    |back.     |          |           |
+            |        |book is   |          |          |           |
+            |        |large.    |          |          |           |
+------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+--------
+            |Same as |Same as   |Same as   |Same as   |To be      |Work may
+    II.     |No. I., |No. I.    |No. I.,   |No. I.    |omitted, or|be a
+For Good    |or may  |          |excepting |          |only to    |little
+Binding for |be of   |          |that      |          |consist of |rougher,
+Books of    |good    |          |properly  |          |a few lines|but not
+Reference,  |grey    |          |prepared  |          |or dots or |careless
+Catalogues, |board.  |          |sheepskin |          |other      |or
+&c., and    |        |          |may be    |          |quite      |dirty.
+other heavy |        |          |added.    |          |simple     |
+Books that  |        |          |Half-     |          |ornament.  |
+may have    |        |          |binding,  |          |           |
+a great deal|        |          |leather   |          |           |
+of use.     |        |          |only at   |          |           |
+Whole or    |        |          |back.     |          |           |
+Half        |        |          |Corners   |          |           |
+Leather.    |        |          |to be     |          |           |
+            |        |          |strength- |          |           |
+            |        |          |ened with |          |           |
+            |        |          |tips of   |          |           |
+            |        |          |vellum.   |          |           |
+            |        |          |Sides     |          |           |
+            |        |          |covered   |          |           |
+            |        |          |with good |          |           |
+            |        |          |paper     |          |           |
+            |        |          |or linen. |          |           |
+------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+--------
+            |To be   |To be     |Same as   |Same as   |To be      |Same as
+    III.    |split   |worked    |Nos. I.   |Nos. I.   |omitted.   |No. II.
+For Binding |grey    |with      |and II.,  |and II.   |           |
+for         |boards, |thread    |but skins |          |           |
+Libraries,  |or      |or vellum |may be    |          |           |
+for Books   |straw-  |or cord,  |used where|          |           |
+in current  |board   |or to be  |there are |          |           |
+use. Half   |with    |omitted   |surface   |          |           |
+Leather.    |black   |and a     |flaws that|          |           |
+            |board   |piece of  |do not    |          |           |
+            |liner,  |cord      |affect the|          |           |
+            |with    |inserted  |strength. |          |           |
+            |ends    |into the  |Leather to|          |           |
+            |of tapes|turn in   |be used   |          |           |
+            |attached|of the    |thicker   |          |           |
+            |to      |leather at|than is   |          |           |
+            |portion |head and  |usual,    |          |           |
+            |of waste|tail in   |there     |          |           |
+            |sheet,  |their     |being     |          |           |
+            |inserted|place.    |French    |          |           |
+            |between |          |joints.   |          |           |
+            |them.   |          |Leather at|          |           |
+            |Boards  |          |back only;|          |           |
+            |to be   |          |paper     |          |           |
+            |left a  |          |sides;    |          |           |
+            |short   |          |vellum    |          |           |
+            |distance|          |tips.     |          |           |
+            |from the|          |          |          |           |
+            |joint   |          |          |          |           |
+            |to form |          |          |          |           |
+            |a French|          |          |          |           |
+            |joint.  |          |          |          |           |
+------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+--------
+            |To be   |No        |Whole     |Same as   |To be      |Same as
+    IV.     |split   |headbands.|buckram   |Nos. I.   |omitted.   |No. II.
+For Library |boards, |          |or half   |II. and   |           |
+Bindings of |two     |          |linen and |III.      |           |
+Books of    |straw-  |          |paper     |          |           |
+little      |boards  |          |sides.    |          |           |
+Interest or |made    |          |          |          |           |
+Value, Cloth|together|          |          |          |           |
+or Half     |and ends|          |          |          |           |
+Linen.      |of slips|          |          |          |           |
+            |insert- |          |          |          |           |
+            |ed.     |          |          |          |           |
+            |French  |          |          |          |           |
+            |joint to|          |          |          |           |
+            |be left.|          |          |          |           |
+------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+--------
+
+
+
+
+                               GLOSSARY
+
+
+_Arming press_, a small blocking press used for striking arms-blocks
+on the sides of books.
+
+_Backing boards_, wedge-shaped bevelled boards used in backing (see
+Fig. 40).
+
+_Backing machine_, used for backing cheap work in large quantities; it
+often crushes and damages the backs of the sections.
+
+_Bands_, (1) the cords on which a book is sewn. (2) The ridges on the
+back caused by the bands showing through the leather.
+
+_Band nippers_, pincers with flat jaws, used for straightening the
+bands (see Fig. 61). For nipping up the leather after covering, they
+should be nickelled to prevent the iron staining the leather.
+
+_Beating stone_, the "stone" on which books were formerly beaten; now
+generally superseded by the rolling machine and standing press.
+
+_Blind tooling_, the impression of finishing tools without gold.
+
+_Blocking press_, a press used for impressing blocks such as those
+used in decorating cloth cases.
+
+_Board papers_, the part of the end papers pasted on to the boards.
+
+_Bodkin_, an awl used for making the holes in the boards for the
+slips.
+
+_Bolt_, folded edge of the sheets in an unopened book.
+
+_Cancels_, leaves containing errors, which have to be discarded and
+replaced by corrected sheets. Such leaves are marked by the printer
+with a star.
+
+_Catch-word_, a word printed at the foot of one page indicating the
+first word of the page following, as a guide in collating.
+
+_Cutting boards_, wedge-shaped boards somewhat like backing boards,
+but with the top edge square; used in cutting the edge of a book and
+in edge-gilding.
+
+_Cutting in boards_, cutting the edges of a book after the boards are
+laced on.
+
+_Cutting press_, when the lying press is turned, so that the side with
+the runners is uppermost, it is called a cutting press (see Fig. 46).
+
+_Diaper_, a term applied to a small repeating all-over pattern. From
+woven material decorated in this way.
+
+_Doublure_, the inside face of the boards, especially applied to them
+when lined with leather and decorated.
+
+_End papers_, papers added at the beginning and end of a book by the
+binder.
+
+_Extra binding_, a trade term for the best work.
+
+_Finishing_, comprises lettering, tooling, and polishing, &c.
+
+_Finishing press_, a small press used for holding books when they are
+being tooled (see Fig. 84).
+
+_Finishing stove_, used for heating finishing tools.
+
+_Folder_, a flat piece of ivory or bone, like a paper knife, used in
+folding sheets and in various other operations.
+
+_Foredge_ (fore edge), the front edge of the leaves. Pronounced
+"forrege."
+
+_Forwarding_, comprises all the operations between sewing and
+finishing, excepting headbanding.
+
+_Gathering_, collecting one sheet from each pile in a printer's
+warehouse to make up a volume.
+
+_Glaire_, white of eggs beaten up, and used in finishing and edge
+gilding.
+
+_Half binding_, when the leather covers the back and only part of the
+sides, a book is said to be half bound.
+
+_Head band_, a fillet of silk or thread, worked at the head and tail
+of the back.
+
+_Head cap_, the fold of leather over the head band (see Fig. 67).
+
+_Head and tail_, the top and bottom of a book.
+
+_Imperfections_, sheets rejected by the binder and returned to the
+printer to be replaced.
+
+_India proofs_, strictly first proofs only of an illustration pulled
+on "India paper," but used indiscriminately for all illustrations
+printed on India paper.
+
+_Inset_, the portion of a sheet cut off and inserted in folding
+certain sizes, such as duodecimo, &c. (see Fig. 4).
+
+_Inside margins_, the border made by the turn in of the leather on the
+inside face of the boards (see Fig. 116).
+
+_Joints_, (1) the groove formed in backing to receive the ends of the
+mill-boards. (2) The part of the binding that bends when the boards
+are opened. (3) Strips of leather or cloth used to strengthen the end
+papers.
+
+"_Kettle stitch_," catch stitch formed in sewing at the head and tail.
+
+_Lacing in_, lacing the slips through holes in the boards to attach
+them.
+
+_Lying press_, the term applied to the under side of the cutting press
+used for backing, usually ungrammatically called "laying press."
+
+_Marbling_, colouring the edges and end papers in various patterns,
+obtained by floating colours on a gum solution.
+
+_Millboard machine_, machine used for squaring boards; should only be
+used for cheap work, as an edge cut by it will not be as square as if
+cut by the plough.
+
+_Mitring_, (1) lines meeting at a right angle without overrunning are
+said to be mitred. (2) A join at 45 deg. as in the leather on the inside
+of the boards.
+
+_Overcasting_, over-sewing the back edges of single leaves or weak
+sections.
+
+_Peel_, a thin board on a handle used for hanging up sheets for
+drying.
+
+_Plate_, an illustration printed from a plate. Term often incorrectly
+applied to illustrations printed from woodcuts. Any full-page
+illustration printed on different paper to the book is usually called
+a "plate."
+
+_Pressing plates_, plates of metal japanned or nickelled, used for
+giving finish to the leather on a book.
+
+_Press pin_, an iron bar used for turning the screws of presses.
+
+_Proof_, edges left uncut as "proof" that the book has not been unduly
+cut down.
+
+_Register_, (i.) when the print on one side of a leaf falls exactly
+over that on the other it is said to register. (ii.) Ribbon placed in
+a book as a marker.
+
+_Rolling machine_, a machine in which the sheets of a book are subject
+to heavy pressure by being passed between rollers.
+
+_Sawing in_, when grooves are made in the back with a saw to receive
+the bands.
+
+_Section_, the folded sheet.
+
+_Semee_ or _Semis_, an heraldic term signifying sprinkled.
+
+_Set off_, print is said to "set off" when part of the ink from a page
+comes off on an opposite page. This will happen if a book is pressed
+too soon after printing.
+
+_Sheet_, the full size of the paper as printed, forming a section when
+folded.
+
+_Signature_, the letter or figure placed on the first page of each
+sheet.
+
+_Slips_, the ends of the sewing cord or tape that are attached to the
+boards.
+
+_Squares_, the portion of the boards projecting beyond the edges of
+the book.
+
+_Start_, when, after cutting, one or more sections of the book come
+forward, making the fore edge irregular, they are said to have
+started.
+
+_Straight edge_, a flat ruler.
+
+_Tacky_, sticky.
+
+_T. E. G._, top-edge gilt.
+
+_Trimmed._ The edges of a book are said to be trimmed when the edges
+of the larger (or projecting) leaves only have been cut.
+
+_Tub_, the stand which supports the lying press. Originally an actual
+tub to catch the shavings.
+
+_Uncut_, a book is said to be uncut when the edges of the paper have
+not been cut with the plough or guillotine.
+
+_Unopened_, the book is said to be unopened if the bolts of the sheets
+have not been cut.
+
+_Waterproof sheets_, sheets of celluloid, such as are used by
+photographers.
+
+_Whole binding_, when the leather covers the back and sides of a
+volume.
+
+_Wire staples_ are used by certain machines in the place of thread for
+securing the sections.
+
+_Groove_, that part of the sections which is turned over in backing to
+receive the board.
+
+
+
+
+                       REPRODUCTIONS OF BINDINGS
+
+                           I., II., AND III.
+
+                FIFTEENTH CENTURY BLIND-TOOLED BINDINGS
+
+                                  IV.
+
+          SIXTEENTH CENTURY BINDING WITH SIMPLE GOLD-TOOLING
+
+                       V., VI., VII., AND VIII.
+
+                MODERN BINDINGS DESIGNED BY THE AUTHOR
+
+    [Illustration: I.--German Fifteenth Century. Pigskin. Actual
+    size, 8-3/4" x 6-1/4".]
+
+    [Illustration: II.--German Fifteenth Century. Calf. Actual
+    size 12-1/2" x 8-1/2".]
+
+    [Illustration: III.--Italian Fifteenth Century. Sheepskin,
+    with coloured roundels. Actual size, 11-1/2" x 8-1/4".]
+
+    [Illustration: IV.--Italian Sixteenth Century. Actual size,
+    12-1/2" x 8-1/2". Goatskin.]
+
+    [Illustration: V.--Half Niger morocco, with sides of English
+    oak. Actual size, 17" x 11-1/2".]
+
+    [Illustration: VI.--Niger morocco, inlaid green leaves.
+    Actual size, 8-1/4" x 5-1/2".]
+
+    [Illustration: VII.--Green levant, inlaid with lighter green
+    panel and red dots. Actual size, 6-3/4" x 4-1/2".]
+
+    [Illustration: VIII.--Niger morocco, executed by a student of
+    the Central School of Arts and Crafts. Actual size, 11-3/4" x 9-1/4".]
+
+
+
+
+                                 INDEX
+
+
+ARMING PRESS, 229, 313
+
+Arms blocks, 228
+
+Art paper, 48, 282
+
+Autograph letters, 179
+
+
+BACKING, 117
+
+Backing hammer, 123
+
+Back, lining up, 152
+
+Band nippers, 160, 163
+
+Bands, 313
+
+Bandstick, 160
+
+Beating, 90
+
+Beating stone, 90, 313
+
+Benzine, 207, 209
+
+Binding, decoration of, 21, 30, 188, 233
+
+Binding, collotype reproductions of, 321-336
+
+Binding, embroidered, 186
+
+Binding early printed books, 31, 46, 113
+
+Binding, extra, 308
+
+Binding, jewelled, 263
+
+Binding, library, 27, 173, 308
+
+Binding, manuscripts, 31, 108, 113, 125, 135, 223
+
+Binding, metal-covered, 263
+
+Binding, vellum, 180
+
+Binding very thin books, 177
+
+Blind tooling, 188, 222
+
+Blocking press, 229, 313
+
+Blocks, striking, 229
+
+Boards, 124
+
+Boards, attaching, 132
+
+Boards, cutting, 125
+
+Boards, filling in, 170
+
+Boards, lining, 129
+
+Boards, pressing, 193, 210
+
+Boards, split, 28, 175, 311
+
+Bodkin, 114
+
+Bookbinding as a profession, 32
+
+Books in sheets, 34
+
+Bookworms, 297
+
+Borders, designing, 240
+
+Borders, inside, 253
+
+
+CALF, 27, 277
+
+Cancelled sheets, 43
+
+Cased books, 19, 49
+
+Castor oil, 303
+
+Catch stitch, 99
+
+Catch words, 314
+
+Celluloid, sheets of, 161
+
+Centres, designing, 241
+
+Chrome leather, 276
+
+Clasps and ties, 183, 259
+
+Cleaning off back, 137
+
+Cloth casing, 19, 49
+
+Cloth joints, 86, 257
+
+Cobden-Sanderson, T. J., xii., 22
+
+Cockroaches, 300
+
+Cocoanut oil, 200
+
+Collating, 43
+
+Colouring edges, 144
+
+Combining tools to form patterns, 232
+
+Compasses, 131
+
+Cord sewing, 111
+
+Corners, mitring, 165, 168
+
+Cousin, Jules, 74, 299
+
+Covering, 23, 159, 176, 310
+
+Crushing the grain of leather, 192
+
+Cutting in boards, 139
+
+Cutting mill-boards, 124
+
+Cutting press, 128
+
+
+DAMP, effect of, on bindings, 294
+
+Decoration of bindings, 21, 30, 188, 233
+
+Designing tools, 230
+
+Diaper patterns, 236
+
+Dividers, 51
+
+Dots, striking, 205
+
+Doubluves, 253, 314
+
+Dressing for old bindings, 302
+
+Dust and dusting, 296
+
+
+EARLY printed books, binding, 31, 46, 113
+
+Edge colouring, 144
+
+Edge gauffering, 144
+
+Edge gilding, 95, 144
+
+Edge sizing, 95, 146
+
+Edges, painted, 146
+
+Embroidered bindings, 186
+
+End papers, 80, 254
+
+End, painted, 83
+
+End, vellum, 84
+
+Ends, silk, 84
+
+Entering, 33
+
+Evelyn's Diary (quotation), 282
+
+"Extra" binding, 308, 314
+
+
+FALSE bands, 26
+
+Fillet, 190, 206
+
+Fillet, small, 206, 246
+
+Filling in boards, 170
+
+Finishing, 191
+
+Finishing press, 194
+
+Finishing tools, 188
+
+Finishing stove, 195
+
+Flattening vellum, 65
+
+Folder, 164
+
+Folding, 36
+
+Fraying out slips, 114
+
+French joint, 176
+
+French paring knife, 156
+
+French standing press, 91
+
+
+GAS fumes, effect of, 291
+
+Gathering, 35
+
+Gauffering edges, 144
+
+Gelatine, 70
+
+Gilding edges, 95, 144
+
+Gilt top, 92
+
+Glaire, 97, 198
+
+Glass, tinted, for libraries, 292
+
+Glossary, 313
+
+Glue, 289
+
+Glueing up, 115
+
+Goatskin, 277
+
+Gold cushion, 200
+
+Gold leaf, 199
+
+Gold knife, 200
+
+Gold, net for, 96
+
+Gold, pad for, 201
+
+Gold tooling, 188, 191
+
+Gouges, 189, 205, 247
+
+Groove (_see_ Joint)
+
+Guarding, 42, 53
+
+Guarding plates, 50, 56, 316
+
+
+HAMMER, backing, 123
+
+Hand-made paper, 280
+
+Headbanding, 108, 147, 176
+
+Headcaps, 156, 166
+
+Heat, effect of, on bindings, 295
+
+Heraldry on bindings, 227
+
+Hinging plates, 57
+
+Hollow backs, 25, 185
+
+
+IMPERFECTIONS, 35
+
+India proofs, soaking off, 62
+
+India proofs, mounting, 63
+
+Indiarubber for gold, 207
+
+Inlaying leather, 213, 232, 243
+
+Inlaying leaves or plates, 64
+
+Inset, 40, 315
+
+Inside margins, 253
+
+
+JACONET, 60, 64
+
+Japanese paper, 282
+
+Japanese vellum, 282
+
+Jewelled bindings, 263
+
+Joint, 165, 169
+
+Joint, cloth, 86, 257
+
+Joint, French, 176
+
+Joint, knocking out, 53
+
+Joint, leather, 86, 171
+
+
+KETTLE stitch, 49, 99, 105
+
+Keys, sewing, 101
+
+Knife, mountcutters', 54
+
+Knife, French paring, 156
+
+Knife, gold, 200
+
+Knife, plough, 129, 139
+
+Knocking down iron, 53, 134
+
+Knocking out joints, 53
+
+Knot, 100, 106
+
+
+LACING in slips, 132
+
+Lay cords, 100
+
+Laying press (_see_ Lying press)
+
+Leather, 27, 263
+
+Leather, chrome, 276
+
+Leather, crushing grain of, 192
+
+Leather, inlaying, 213, 232, 243
+
+Leather joints, 86, 171
+
+Leather, paring, 154
+
+Leather, polishing, 191
+
+Leather, sprinkling and marbling, 27, 279
+
+Leather, stretching, 23, 161
+
+Leather, testing, 274
+
+Leather work, 226
+
+Leaves, inlaying, 64
+
+Lettering, 28, 215, 246
+
+Letters, autograph, 179
+
+Library binding, 27, 173, 308
+
+Light, effect of, on leather, 292
+
+Lining up back, 152
+
+Lithographic stone, 157, 160
+
+Loose covers, 304
+
+Lying press, 128
+
+
+MANUSCRIPTS, binding of, 31, 108, 113, 125, 135, 223
+
+Manuscripts, collating, 46
+
+Maps, throwing out, 60
+
+Marbled paper, 83
+
+Margins, inside, 253
+
+Marking up, 98
+
+Materials for sewing, 111
+
+Mending, 76
+
+Mending tooling, 208
+
+Mending vellum, 79
+
+Metal on bindings, 262
+
+Millboards, 124
+
+Millboard machine, 127, 315
+
+Millboard shears, 126
+
+Mitring corners, 165, 168
+
+Morocco, 277
+
+Morocco, "Persian," 271
+
+Mount-cutters' knife, 54
+
+Mounting India-proofs, 63
+
+Mounting very thin paper, 63
+
+
+NET for gilding edges, 96
+
+Niger morocco, 278
+
+Nipping press, 211
+
+Nippers, band, 160, 163
+
+
+OIL, cocoanut, 200
+
+Opening newly-bound books, 257
+
+Overcasting, 51
+
+"Overs," 35
+
+Oxalic acid, use of, 173
+
+
+PAD for gold, 201
+
+Paging, 44
+
+Painted edges, 146
+
+Painted end papers, 83
+
+Pallets, 189
+
+Paper, 280
+
+Paper, art, 48, 283
+
+Paper, hand-made, 280
+
+Paper, Japanese, 282
+
+Paper, marbled, 83
+
+Paper, sizes of, 36, 283
+
+Paper, sizing, 67
+
+Paper, splitting, 63
+
+Paper, washing, 71
+
+Paraffin wax, 303
+
+Paring leather, 154
+
+Paring paper, 61
+
+Paring stone, 157, 160
+
+Pastes, 286
+
+Paste water, 198
+
+Pasting down end papers, 254
+
+Patterns, 232
+
+"Peel," 316
+
+Permanent binding, 19
+
+"Persian" morocco, 271
+
+Pigskin, 278
+
+Plates, detaching, 48
+
+Plates, guarding, 56
+
+Plates, hinging, 57
+
+Plates, inlaying, 64
+
+Plates, trimming, 40
+
+Plough, 128
+
+Plough knife, 129, 139
+
+Polishing, 191
+
+Preserving old bindings, 302
+
+Press, arming, 229, 313
+
+Press, blocking, 229, 313
+
+Press, cutting, 128
+
+Press, finishing, 194
+
+Press, lying, 128
+
+Press, nipping, 211
+
+Press pin, 316
+
+Press, sewing (_see_ Sewing frame)
+
+Press, standing, 88
+
+Pressing boards, 193, 210
+
+Pressing in boards, 138
+
+Pressing plates, 192, 316
+
+Pressing sections, 87
+
+"Proof," 316
+
+Publishers' binding, 20
+
+Pulling to pieces, 46
+
+
+QUARTER sections, 42
+
+Quires, books in, 34
+
+
+RATS and mice, 299
+
+Re-backing, 305
+
+Re-binding, 18, 306
+
+Refolding, 51
+
+Register of printing, 52, 316
+
+Representations of bindings, 321-336
+
+Roll, 190
+
+Rounding, 117
+
+
+SAWING in, 20, 25, 100, 108
+
+Scrap books, 178
+
+Sealskin, 278
+
+Sections, pressing, 87
+
+Sewing, 100
+
+Sewing cord, 111
+
+Sewing frame, 100
+
+Sewing keys, 101
+
+Sewing on tapes, 26, 111, 174
+
+Sewing on vellum slips, 111, 181
+
+Sewing silk, 112
+
+Sewing, tape for, 112
+
+Sewing thread, 112
+
+Sheepskin, 277-308
+
+Sheets, books in, 34
+
+Sheets, waterproof, 161
+
+Signatures, 34, 43
+
+Silk ends, 84
+
+Silk sewing, 112
+
+Sizes of paper, 36, 283
+
+Sizing, 67
+
+Sizing edges, 95-146
+
+Sizing leather, 198
+
+Sizing paper, 67
+
+Slips, 317
+
+Slips, fraying out, 114
+
+Slips, lacing in, 132
+
+Soaking off India proofs, 62
+
+Society of Arts, Report of Committee on Leather for Bookbinding, 22, 264
+
+Society of Arts, Report of Committee on Paper, 284
+
+Specifications, 308
+
+Split boards, 28, 175, 311
+
+Splitting paper, 63
+
+Sprinkling leather, 27, 279
+
+Squares, 131, 153, 317
+
+Standing press, 88
+
+Standing press, French, 89, 91
+
+Staples, wire, 49
+
+"Starred" sheets, 43
+
+Stove, finishing, 195
+
+Stone, lithographic, 157, 160
+
+Striking dots, 205
+
+Striking tools, 204
+
+
+TAPE, sewing on, 26, 112, 174
+
+Temporary binding, 20
+
+Testing leather, 274
+
+Thin books, binding, 177
+
+Thin paper, mounting, 63
+
+Thread, sewing, 112
+
+Throwing out maps, 60
+
+Ties and clasps, 183, 259
+
+Tobacco smoke, effect of, on binding, 294
+
+Tooling, blind, 188, 222
+
+Tooling, gold, 24, 188, 191
+
+Tooling on vellum, 212
+
+Tools, designing, 188, 230
+
+Tools, finishing, 188, 230
+
+Training for bookbinding, 32
+
+Trimming before sewing, 93
+
+Trimming machine, 94
+
+Trimming plates, 40
+
+Tub, 317
+
+Tying up, 167
+
+
+VARNISH, 209
+
+Vellum binders, 26
+
+Vellum bindings, 180
+
+Vellum ends, 84
+
+Vellum, flattening, 65
+
+Vellum, Japanese, 282
+
+Vellum, mending, 79
+
+Vellum slips, sewing on, 111, 183
+
+Vellum tooling on, 212
+
+
+WALKER, Emery, 216
+
+Washing, 71
+
+Waterproof sheets, 161
+
+Weaver's knot, 106
+
+Wooden boards, 32, 135, 223, 330
+
+Worm holes, 78, 297
+
+
+
+
+                     THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF
+                         TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS.
+
+                       Edited by W. R. LETHABY.
+
+
+The series will appeal to handicraftsmen in the industrial and
+mechanic arts. It consists of authoritative statements by experts in
+every field for the exercise of ingenuity, taste, imagination--the
+whole sphere of the so-called "dependent arts."
+
+    BOOKBINDING AND THE CARE OF BOOKS. A Handbook for Amateurs,
+    Bookbinders, and Librarians. By DOUGLAS COCKERELL. With 120
+    Illustrations and Diagrams by Noel Rooke, and 8 collotype
+    reproductions of binding. 12mo. $1.25 net.
+
+    SILVERWORK AND JEWELRY. A Text-Book for Students and Workers
+    in Metal. By H. WILSON. With 160 Diagrams and 16 full-page
+    Illustrations, 12mo. $1.40 net.
+
+    WOOD CARVING: DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP. By GEORGE JACK. With
+    Drawings by the Author and other Illustrations. $1.40 net.
+
+    STAINED-GLASS WORK. A Text-Book for Students and Workers in
+    Glass. By C. W. WHALL. With Diagrams by two of his
+    Apprentices, and other Illustrations. $1.50 net; postage, 14
+    cents additional.
+
+                  D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.
+
+
+
+
+                          TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+Obvious typographic errors have been corrected. For the detailed list
+see below. The tables have been slightly modified to optimize
+presentation.
+
+page 014--typo fixed: changed 'Making' to 'Marking'
+page 138--spelling normalized: changed 'head-banding' to 'headbanding'
+page 159--typo fixed: changed 'wook' to 'wood'
+page 173--typo fixed: changed 'CHAPTER VIII' to 'CHAPTER XIII'
+page 198--typo fixed: changed 'isinglas' to 'isinglass'
+page 249--spelling normalized: changed 'tie downs' to 'tie-downs'
+page 253--spelling normalized: changed 'headcap' to 'head-cap'
+page 298--spelling normalized: changed 'millboard' to 'mill-board'
+page 303--spelling normalized: changed 're-binding' to 'rebinding'
+page 304--spelling normalized: changed 'millboard' to 'mill-board'
+page 310--spelling normalized: changed 'Goat-skin' to 'Goatskin'
+page 314--spelling normalized: changed 'head-banding' to 'headbanding'
+page 315--spelling normalized: changed 'millboards' to 'mill-boards'
+page 339--spelling normalized: changed 'millboards' to 'mill-boards'
+page 341--spelling normalized: changed 'Re-folding' to 'Refolding'
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Bookbinding, and the Care of Books, by
+Douglas Cockerell
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOOKBINDING, AND THE CARE OF BOOKS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 26672.txt or 26672.zip *****
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