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diff --git a/26672-8.txt b/26672-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d69009a --- /dev/null +++ b/26672-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7088 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Bookbinding, and the Care of Books, by Douglas Cockerell + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Bookbinding, and the Care of Books + A handbook for Amateurs, Bookbinders & Librarians + +Author: Douglas Cockerell + +Editor: W. R. Lethaby + +Illustrator: Noel Rooke + +Release Date: September 19, 2008 [EBook #26672] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOOKBINDING, AND THE CARE OF BOOKS *** + + + + +Produced by Suzanne Shell, Irma Spehar and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES + OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS + EDITED BY W. R. LETHABY + + BOOKBINDING + + [Illustration: WHITE PIGSKIN.--_Basle_, 1512.] + + + + + BOOKBINDING, AND + THE CARE OF BOOKS + + A HANDBOOK FOR AMATEURS + BOOKBINDERS & LIBRARIANS + BY DOUGLAS COCKERELL + + WITH + + DRAWINGS BY NOEL ROOKE + AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS + + + [Illustration] + + + NEW YORK + D. APPLETON AND COMPANY + 1910 + + + COPYRIGHT, 1901, + BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY + + _All rights reserved_ + + + + + EDITOR'S PREFACE + + +In issuing this volume of a series of Handbooks on the Artistic +Crafts, it will be well to state what are our general aims. + +In the first place, we wish to provide trustworthy text-books of +workshop practice, from the points of view of experts who have +critically examined the methods current in the shops, and putting +aside vain survivals, are prepared to say what is good workmanship, +and to set up a standard of quality in the crafts which are more +especially associated with design. Secondly, in doing this, we hope to +treat design itself as an essential part of good workmanship. During +the last century most of the arts, save painting and sculpture of an +academic kind, were little considered, and there was a tendency to +look on "design" as a mere matter of _appearance_. Such +"ornamentation" as there was was usually obtained by following in a +mechanical way a drawing provided by an artist who often knew little +of the technical processes involved in production. With the critical +attention given to the crafts by Ruskin and Morris, it came to be seen +that it was impossible to detach design from craft in this way, and +that, in the widest sense, true design is an inseparable element of +good quality, involving as it does the selection of good and suitable +material, contrivance for special purpose, expert workmanship, proper +finish and so on, far more than mere ornament, and indeed, that +ornamentation itself was rather an exuberance of fine workmanship than +a matter of merely abstract lines. Workmanship when separated by too +wide a gulf from fresh thought--that is, from design--inevitably +decays, and, on the other hand, ornamentation, divorced from +workmanship, is necessarily unreal, and quickly falls into +affectation. Proper ornamentation may be defined as a language +addressed to the eye; it is pleasant thought expressed in the speech +of the tool. + +In the third place, we would have this series put artistic +craftsmanship before people as furnishing reasonable occupation for +those who would gain a livelihood. Although within the bounds of +academic art, the competition, of its kind, is so acute that only a +very few per cent. can fairly hope to succeed as painters and +sculptors; yet, as artistic craftsmen, there is every probability that +nearly every one who would pass through a sufficient period of +apprenticeship to workmanship and design would reach a measure of +success. + +In the blending of handwork and thought in such arts as we propose to +deal with, happy careers may be found as far removed from the dreary +routine of hack labour, as from the terrible uncertainty of academic +art. It is desirable in every way that men of good education should be +brought back into the productive crafts: there are more than enough of +us "in the city," and it is probable that more consideration will be +given in this century than in the last to Design and Workmanship. + + W. R. LETHABY. + + + + + AUTHOR'S NOTE + + +It is hoped that this book will help bookbinders and librarians to +select sound methods of binding books. + +It is intended to supplement and not to supplant workshop training for +bookbinders. No one can become a skilled workman by reading +text-books, but to a man who has acquired skill and practical +experience, a text-book, giving perhaps different methods from those +to which he has been accustomed, may be helpful. + +My thanks are due to many friends, including the workmen in my +workshop, for useful suggestions and other help, and to the Society of +Arts for permission to quote from the report of their Special +Committee on leather for bookbinding. + +I should also like to express my indebtedness to my master, Mr. T. J. +Cobden-Sanderson, for it was in his workshop that I learned my craft, +and anything that may be of value in this book is due to his +influence. + + D. C. + + _November_ 1901. + + + + + CONTENTS + + + PART I + + _BINDING_ + + PAGE + +Editor's Preface 7 + +Author's Note 11 + + + CHAPTER I + +Introduction 17 + + + CHAPTER II + +Entering--Books in Sheets--Folding--Collating--Pulling +to Pieces--Refolding--Knocking out Joints 33 + + + CHAPTER III + +Guarding--Throwing Out--Paring Paper--Soaking off India +Proofs--Mounting very Thin Paper--Splitting +Paper--Inlaying--Flattening Vellum 53 + + + CHAPTER IV + +Sizing--Washing--Mending 67 + + + CHAPTER V + +End Papers--Leather Joints--Pressing 80 + + + CHAPTER VI + +Trimming Edges before Sewing--Edge Gilding 92 + + + CHAPTER VII + +Marking up--Sewing--Materials for Sewing 98 + + + CHAPTER VIII + +Fraying out Slips--Glueing up--Rounding and Backing 114 + + + CHAPTER IX + +Cutting and Attaching Boards--Cleaning off Back--Pressing 124 + + + CHAPTER X + +Cutting in Boards--Gilding and Colouring Edges 139 + + + CHAPTER XI + +Headbanding 147 + + + CHAPTER XII + +Preparing for Covering--Paring Leather--Covering--Mitring +Corners--Filling-in Boards 152 + + + CHAPTER XIII + +Library Binding--Binding very Thin Books--Scrap-Books--Binding +in Vellum--Books covered with Embroidery 173 + + + CHAPTER XIV + +Decoration--Tools--Finishing--Tooling on Vellum--Inlaying +on Leather 188 + + + CHAPTER XV + +Lettering--Blind Tooling--Heraldic Ornament 215 + + + CHAPTER XVI + +Designing for Gold-Tooled Decoration 230 + + + CHAPTER XVII + +Pasting down End Papers--Opening Books 254 + + + CHAPTER XVIII + +Clasps and Ties--Metal on Bindings 259 + + + CHAPTER XIX + +Leather 263 + + + CHAPTER XX + +Paper--Pastes--Glue 280 + + + PART II + + _CARE OF BOOKS WHEN BOUND_ + + + CHAPTER XXI + +Injurious Influences to which Books are Subjected 291 + + + CHAPTER XXII + +To Preserve Old Bindings--Re-backing 302 + +SPECIFICATIONS 307 + +GLOSSARY 313 + +REPRODUCTIONS OF BINDINGS (Eight Collotypes) 319 + +INDEX 337 + + + + + PART I + + BINDING + + + + + CHAPTER I + + INTRODUCTION + + +The reasons for binding the leaves of a book are to keep them together +in their proper order, and to protect them. That bindings can be made, +that will adequately protect books, can be seen from the large number +of fifteenth and sixteenth century bindings now existing on books +still in excellent condition. That bindings are made, that fail to +protect books, may be seen by visiting any large library, when it will +be found that many bindings have their boards loose and the leather +crumbling to dust. Nearly all librarians complain, that they have to +be continually rebinding books, and this not after four hundred, but +after only five or ten years. + +It is no exaggeration to say that ninety per cent. of the books bound +in leather during the last thirty years will need rebinding during the +next thirty. The immense expense involved must be a very serious drag +on the usefulness of libraries; and as rebinding is always to some +extent damaging to the leaves of a book, it is not only on account of +the expense that the necessity for it is to be regretted. + +The reasons that have led to the production in modern times of +bindings that fail to last for a reasonable time, are twofold. The +materials are badly selected or prepared, and the method of binding is +faulty. Another factor in the decay of bindings, both old and new, is +the bad conditions under which they are often kept. + +The object of this text-book is to describe the best methods of +bookbinding, and of keeping books when bound, taking into account the +present-day conditions. No attempt has been made to describe all +possible methods, but only such as appear to have answered best on old +books. The methods described are for binding that can be done by hand +with the aid of simple appliances. Large editions of books are now +bound, or rather cased, at an almost incredible speed by the aid of +machinery, but all work that needs personal care and thought on each +book, is still done, and probably always will be done, by hand. +Elaborate machinery can only be economically employed when very large +numbers of books have to be turned out exactly alike. + +The ordinary cloth "binding" of the trade, is better described as +casing. The methods being different, it is convenient to distinguish +between casing and binding. In binding, the slips are firmly attached +to the boards before covering; in casing, the boards are covered +separately, and afterwards glued on to the book. Very great efforts +have been made in the decoration of cloth covers, and it is a pity +that the methods of construction have not been equally considered. If +cloth cases are to be looked upon as a temporary binding, then it +seems a pity to waste so much trouble on their decoration; and if they +are to be looked upon as permanent binding, it is a pity the +construction is not better. + +For books of only temporary interest, the usual cloth cases answer +well enough; but for books expected to have permanent value, some +change is desirable. + +Valuable books should either be issued in bindings that are obviously +temporary, or else in bindings that are strong enough to be considered +permanent. The usual cloth case fails as a temporary binding, because +the methods employed result in serious damage to the sections of the +book, often unfitting them for rebinding, and it fails as a permanent +binding on account of the absence of sound construction. + +In a temporary publisher's binding, nothing should be done to the +sections of a book that would injure them. Plates should be guarded, +the sewing should be on tapes, without splitting the head and tail, or +"sawing in" the backs, of the sections; the backs should be glued up +square without backing. The case may be attached, as is now usual. For +a permanent publisher's binding, something like that recommended for +libraries (page 173) is suggested, with either leather or cloth on the +back. + +At the end of the book four specifications are given (page 307). The +first is suggested for binding books of special interest or value, +where no restriction as to price is made. A binding under this +specification may be decorated to any extent that the nature of the +book justifies. The second is for good binding, for books of reference +and other heavy books that may have a great deal of wear. All the +features of the first that make for the strength of the binding are +retained, while those less essential, that only add to the appearance, +are omitted. Although the binding under this specification would be +much cheaper than that carried out under the first, it would still be +too expensive for the majority of books in most libraries; and as it +would seem to be impossible to further modify this form of binding, +without materially reducing its strength, for cheaper work, a somewhat +different system is recommended. The third specification is +recommended for the binding of the general run of small books in most +libraries. The fourth is a modification of this for pamphlets and +other books of little value, that need to be kept together tidily for +occasional reference. + +Thanks, in a great measure, to the work of Mr. Cobden-Sanderson, +there is in England the germ of a sound tradition for the best +binding. The Report of the Committee appointed by the Society of Arts +to investigate the cause of the decay of modern leather bindings, +should tend to establish a sound tradition for cheaper work. The third +specification at the end of this book is practically the same as that +given in their Report, and was arrived at by selection, after many +libraries had been examined, and many forms of binding compared. + +Up to the end of the eighteenth century the traditional methods of +binding books had altered very little during three hundred years. +Books were generally sewn round five cords, the ends of all of these +laced into the boards, and the leather attached directly to the back. +At the end of the eighteenth century it became customary to pare down +leather until it was as thin as paper, and soon afterwards the use of +hollow backs and false bands became general, and these two things +together mark the beginning of the modern degradation of binding, so +far as its utility as a protection is concerned. + +The Society of Arts Committee report that the bookbinders must share +with the leather manufacturers and librarians the blame for the +premature decay of modern bindings, because-- + +"1. Books are sewn on too few, and too thin cords, and the slips are +pared down unduly (for the sake of neatness), and are not in all cases +firmly laced into the boards. This renders the attachment of the +boards to the book almost entirely dependent on the strength of the +leather. + +"2. The use of hollow backs throws all the strain of opening and +shutting on the joints, and renders the back liable to come right off +if the book is much used. + +"3. The leather of the back is apt to become torn through the use of +insufficiently strong headbands, which are unable to stand the strain +of the book being taken from the shelf. + +"4. It is a common practice to use far too thin leather; especially to +use large thick skins very much pared down for small books. + +"5. The leather is often made very wet and stretched a great deal in +covering, with the result that on drying it is further strained, +almost to breaking point, by contraction, leaving a very small margin +of strength to meet the accidents of use." + +The history of the general introduction of hollow backs is probably +somewhat as follows: Leather was doubtless first chosen for covering +the backs of books because of its toughness and flexibility; because, +while protecting the back, it would bend when the book was opened and +allow the back to "throw up" (see fig. 1, A). When gold tooling became +common, and the backs of books were elaborately decorated, it was +found that the creasing of the leather injured the brightness or the +gold and caused it to crack. To avoid this the binders lined up the +back until it was as stiff as a block of wood. The back would then not +"throw up" as the book was opened, the leather would not be creased, +and the gold would remain uninjured (see fig. 1, B). This was all very +well for the gold, but a book so treated does not open fully, and +indeed, if the paper is stiff, can hardly be got to open at all. To +overcome both difficulties the hollow back was introduced, and as +projecting bands would have been in the way, the sewing cord was sunk +in saw cuts made across the back of the book. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +The use of hollow backs was a very ingenious way out of the +difficulty, as with them the backs could be made to "throw up," and at +the same time the leather was not disturbed (see fig. 1, C). The +method of "sawing in" bands was known for a long time before the +general use of hollow backs. It has been used to avoid the raised +bands on books covered with embroidered material. + +If a book is sewn on tapes, and the back lined with leather, there is +no serious objection to a carefully-made hollow back without bands. +The vellum binders use hollow backs made in this way for great account +books that stand an immense amount of wear. They make the "hollow" +very stiff, so that it acts as a spring to throw the back up. + +But although, if carefully done, satisfactory bindings may be made +with hollow backs, their use has resulted in the production of +worthless bindings with little strength, and yet with the appearance +of better work. + +The public having been accustomed to raised bands on the backs of +books, and the real bands being sunk in the back, the binders put +false ones over the "hollow." To save money or trouble, the bands +being out of sight, the book would be sewn on only three or sometimes +only two cords, the usual five false ones still showing at the back. +Often only two out of the three bands would be laced into the board, +and sometimes the slips would not be laced in at all. Again, false +headbands worked by the yard by machinery would be stuck on at the +head and tail, and a "hollow" made with brown paper. Then leather so +thin as to have but little strength, but used because it is easy to +work and needs no paring, would be stuck on. The back would often be +full gilt and lettered, and the sides sprinkled or marbled, thus +further damaging the leather. + +In every large library hundreds of books bound somewhat on these lines +may be seen. When they are received from the binder they have the +appearance of being well bound, they look smart on the shelf, but in a +few years, whether they are used or not, the leather will have +perished and the boards become detached, and they will have to be +rebound. + +As long as librarians expect the appearance of a guinea binding for +two or three shillings, such shams will be produced. The librarian +generally gets his money's worth, for it would be impossible for the +binder to do better work at the price usually paid without materially +altering the appearance of the binding. The polished calf and +imitation crushed morocco must go, and in its place a rougher, +thicker leather must be employed. The full-gilt backs must go, the +coloured lettering panel must go, the hollow backs must go, but in the +place of these we may have the books sewn on tapes with the ends +securely fastened into split boards, and the thick leather attached +directly to the backs of the sections. (See specification III. page +307.) + +Such a binding would look well and not be more expensive than the +usual library binding. It should allow the book to open flat, and if +the materials are well selected, be very durable, and specially strong +in the joints, the weak place in most bindings. The lettering on the +back may be damaged in time if the book is much used, but if so it can +easily be renewed at a fraction of the cost of rebinding, and without +injury to the book. + +While the majority of books in most libraries must be bound at a small +cost, at most not exceeding a few shillings a volume, there is a large +demand for good plain bindings, and a limited, but growing, demand for +more or less decorated bindings for special books. + +Any decoration but the simplest should be restricted to books bound as +well as the binder can do them. The presence of decoration should be +evidence that the binder, after doing his best with the "forwarding," +has had time in which to try to make his work a beautiful, as well as +a serviceable, production. + +Many books, although well bound, are better left plain, or with only a +little decoration. But occasionally there are books that the binder +can decorate as lavishly as he is able. As an instance of bindings +that cannot be over-decorated, those books which are used in important +ceremonies, such as Altar Books, may be mentioned. Such books may be +decorated with gold and colour until they seem to be covered in a +golden material. They will be but spots of gorgeousness in a great +church or cathedral, and they cannot be said to be over-decorated as +long as the decoration is good. + +So, occasionally some one may have a book to which he is for some +reason greatly attached, and wishing to enshrine it, give the binder a +free hand to do his best with it. The binder may wish to make a +delicate pattern with nicely-balanced spots of ornament, leaving the +leather for the most part bare, or he may wish to cover the outside +with some close gold-tooled pattern, giving a richness of texture +hardly to be got by other means. If he decides on the latter, many +people will say that the cover is over-decorated. But as a book cover +can never be seen absolutely alone, it should not be judged as an +isolated thing covered with ornament without relief, but as a spot of +brightness and interest among its surroundings. If a room and +everything in it is covered with elaborate pattern, then anything with +a plain surface would be welcome as a relief; but in a room which is +reasonably free from ornament, a spot of rich decoration should be +welcome. + +It is not contended that the only, or necessarily the best, method of +decorating book covers is by elaborate all-over gold-tooled pattern; +but it is contended that this is a legitimate method of decoration for +exceptional books, and that by its use it is possible to get a +beautiful effect well worth the trouble and expense involved. + +Good leather has a beautiful surface, and may sometimes be got of a +fine colour. The binder may often wish to show this surface and +colour, and to restrict his decoration to small portions of the +cover, and this quite rightly, he aiming at, and getting, a totally +different effect than that got by all-over patterns. Both methods are +right if well done, and both methods can equally be vulgarised if +badly done. + +A much debated question is, how far the decoration of a binding should +be influenced by the contents of the book? A certain appropriateness +there should be, but as a general thing, if the binder aims at making +the cover beautiful, that is the best he can do. The hints given for +designing are not intended to stop the development of the student's +own ideas, but only to encourage their development on right lines. + +There should be a certain similarity of treatment between the general +get-up of a book and its binding. It is a great pity that printers and +binders have drifted so far apart; they are, or should be, working for +one end, the production of a book, and some unity of aim should be +evident in the work of the two. + +The binding of manuscripts and early printed books should be strong +and simple. It should be as strong and durable as the original old +bindings, and, like them, last with reasonable care for four hundred +years or more. To this end the old bindings, with their stout sewing +cord, wooden boards, and clasps, may be taken as models. + +The question is constantly asked, especially by women, if a living can +be made by setting up as bookbinders. Cheap binding can most +economically be done in large workshops, but probably the best +bindings can be done more satisfactorily by binders working alone, or +in very small workshops. + +If any one intends to set up as a bookbinder, doing all the work +without help, it is necessary to charge very high prices to get any +adequate return after the working expenses have been paid. In order to +get high prices, the standard of work must be very high; and in order +to attain a high enough standard of work, a very thorough training is +necessary. It is desirable that any one hoping to make money at the +craft should have at least a year's training in a workshop where good +work is done, and after that, some time will be spent before quite +satisfactory work can be turned out rapidly enough to pay, supposing +that orders can be obtained or the books bound can be sold. + +There are some successful binders who have had less than a year's +training, but they are exceptional. Those who have not been accustomed +to manual work have usually, in addition to the necessary skill, to +acquire the habit of continuous work. Bookbinding seems to offer an +opening for well-educated youths who are willing to serve an +apprenticeship in a good shop, and who have some small amount of +capital at their command. + +In addition to the production of decorated bindings, there is much to +be done by specialising in certain kinds of work requiring special +knowledge. Repairing and binding early printed books and manuscripts, +or the restoration of Parish Registers and Accounts, may be suggested. + + + + + CHAPTER II + + Entering--Books in Sheets--Folding--Collating--Pulling to + Pieces--Refolding--Knocking out Joints + + + ENTERING + +On receiving a book for binding, its title should be entered in a book +kept for that purpose, with the date of entry, and customer's name +and address, and any instructions he may have given, written out in +full underneath, leaving room below to enter the time taken on the +various operations and cost of the materials used. It is well to +number the entry, and to give a corresponding number to the book. It +should be at once collated, and any special features noted, such as +pages that need washing or mending. If the book should prove to be +imperfect, or to have any serious defect, the owner should be +communicated with, before it is pulled to pieces. This is very +important, as imperfect books that have been "pulled" are not +returnable to the bookseller. Should defects only be discovered after +the book has been taken to pieces, the bookbinder is liable to be +blamed for the loss of any missing leaves. + + + BOOKS IN SHEETS + +The sheets of a newly printed book are arranged in piles in the +printer's warehouse, each pile being made up of repetitions of the +same sheet or "signature." Plates or maps are in piles by themselves +To make a complete book one sheet is gathered from each pile, +beginning at the last sheet and working backwards to signature A. When +a book is ordered from a publisher in sheets, it is such a "gathered" +copy that the binder receives. Some books are printed "double," that +is, the type is set up twice, two copies are printed at once at +different ends of a sheet of paper, and the sheets have to be divided +down the middle before the copies can be separated. Sometimes the +title and introduction, or perhaps only the last sheet, will be +printed in this way. Publishers usually decline to supply in sheets +fewer than two copies of such double-printed books. + +If a book is received unfolded, it is generally advisable at once to +fold up the sheets and put them in their proper order, with +half-title, title, introduction, &c., and, if there are plates, to +compare them with the printed list. + +Should there be in a recently published book defects of any kind, such +as soiled sheets, the publisher will usually replace them on +application, although they sometimes take a long time to do so. Such +sheets are called "imperfections," and the printers usually keep a +number of "overs" in order to make good such imperfections as may +occur. + + + FOLDING + +Books received in sheets must be folded. Folding requires care, or the +margins of different leaves will be unequal, and the lines of printing +not at right angles to the back. + +Books of various sizes are known as "folio," "quarto," "octavo," +"duodecimo," &c. These names signify the number of folds, and +consequently the number of leaves the paper has been folded into. +Thus, a folio is made up of sheets of paper folded once down the +centre, forming two leaves and four pages. The sheets of a quarto have +a second fold, making four leaves and eight pages, and in an octavo +the sheet has a third fold, forming eight leaves and sixteen pages +(see fig. 2), and so on. Each sheet of paper when folded constitutes a +section, except in the case of folios, where it is usual to make up +the sections by inserting two or more sheets, one within the other. + +Paper is made in several named sizes, such as "imperial," "royal," +"demy," "crown," "foolscap," &c. (see p. 283), so that the terms +"imperial folio" or "crown octavo" imply that a sheet of a definite +size has been folded a definite number of times. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Besides the traditional sizes, paper is now made of almost any length +and width, resulting in books of odd shape, and the names folio, +quarto, &c., are rather losing their true meaning, and are often used +loosely to signify pages of certain sizes, irrespective of the number +that go to a sheet. + +On receipt, for instance, of an octavo book for folding, the pile of +sheets is laid flat on the table, and collated by the letter or +signature of each sheet. The first sheet of the book proper will +probably be signature B, as signature A usually consists of the +half-title, title, introduction, &c., and often has to be folded up +rather differently. + +The "outer" sides, known by the signature letters B, C, D, &c., should +be downwards, and the inner sides facing upwards with the second +signatures, if there are any, B2, C2, D2, &c., at the right-hand +bottom corner. + +The pages of an octave book, commencing at page 1, are shown at fig. +3. A folder is taken in the right hand, and held at the bottom of the +sheet at about the centre, and the sheet taken by the left hand at the +top right-hand corner and bent over until pages 3 and 6 come exactly +over pages 2 and 7; and when it is seen that the headlines and figures +exactly match, the paper, while being held in that position, is +creased down the centre with the folder, and the fold cut up a little +more than half-way. Pages 4, 13, 5, 12 will now be uppermost; pages 12 +and 5 are now folded over to exactly match pages 13 and 4, and the +fold creased and cut up a little more than half-way, as before. Pages +8 and 9 will now be uppermost, and will merely require folding +together to make the pages of the section follow in their proper +order. If the folding has been done carefully, and the "register" of +the printing is good, the headlines should be exactly even throughout. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +The object of cutting past the centre at each fold is to avoid the +unsightly creasing that results from folding two or more thicknesses +of paper when joined at the top edge. + +A "duodecimo" sheet has the pages arranged as at fig. 4. + +The "inset" pages, 10, 15, 14, 11, must be cut off, and the rest of +the section folded as for an octavo sheet. The inset is folded +separately and inserted into the centre of the octavo portion. + +Other sizes are folded in much the same way, and the principle of +folding one sheet having been mastered, no difficulty will be found in +folding any other. + +Plates often require trimming, and this must be done with judgment. +The plates should be trimmed to correspond as far as possible with the +printing on the opposite page, but if this cannot be done, it is +desirable that something approaching the proportion of margin shown at +fig. 2 (folio) should be aimed at. That is to say, the back margin +should be the smallest, the head margin the next, the fore-edge a +little wider, and the tail widest of all. When a plate consists of a +small portrait or diagram in the centre of the page, it looks better +if it is put a little higher and a little nearer the back than the +actual centre. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +Plates that have no numbers on them must be put in order by the list +of printed plates, or "instructions to the binder." The half-title, +title, dedication, &c., will often be found to be printed on odd +sheets that have to be made up into section A. This preliminary matter +is usually placed in the following order: Half-title, title, +dedication, preface, contents, list of illustrations or other lists. +If there is an index, it should be put at the end of the book. + +All plates should be "guarded," and any "quarter sections," that is, +sections consisting of two leaves, should have their backs +strengthened by a "guard," or they may very easily be torn in the +sewing. Odd, single leaves may be guarded round sections in the same +way as plates. + +When a book has been folded, it should be pressed (see p. 87). + +There will sometimes be pages marked by the printer with a star. These +have some error in them, and are intended to be cut out. The printer +should supply corrected pages to replace them. + + + COLLATING + +In addition to the pagination each sheet or section of a printed book +is lettered or numbered. Each letter or number is called the "sheet's +signature." Printers usually leave out J W and V in lettering sheets. +If there are more sections than there are letters in the alphabet, the +printer doubles the letters, signing the sections A A, B B, and so on, +after the single letters are exhausted. Some printers use an Arabic +numeral before the section number to denote the second alphabet, as +2A, 2B, &c., and others change the character of the letters, perhaps +using capitals for the first alphabet and italics for the second. If +the sheets are numbered, the numbers will of course follow +consecutively. In books of more than one volume, the number of the +volume is sometimes added in Roman numerals before the signature, as +II A, II B. + +The main pagination of the book usually commences with Chapter I., and +all before that is independently paged in Roman numerals. It is +unusual to have actual numbers on the title or half-title, but if the +pages are counted back from where the first numeral occurs, they +should come right. + +There will sometimes be one or more blank leaves completing sections +at the beginning or end. Such blank leaves must be retained, as +without them the volume would be "imperfect." + +To collate a modern book the paging must be examined to see that the +leaves are in order, and that nothing is defective or missing. + +The method of doing this is to insert the first finger of the right +hand at the bottom of about the fiftieth page, crook the finger, and +turn up the corners of the pages with it. When this is done the thumb +is placed on page 1, and the hand twisted, so as to fan out the top of +the pages. They can then be readily turned over by the thumb and first +finger of the left hand (see fig. 5). This is repeated throughout the +book, taking about fifty pages at a time. It will of course only be +necessary to check the odd numbers, as if they are right, the even +ones on the other side of the leaf must be so. If the pages are +numbered at the foot, the leaves must be fanned out from the head. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +Plates or maps that are not paged can only be checked from the printed +list. When checked it will save time if the number of the page which +each faces is marked on the back in small pencil figures. + +In the case of early printed books or manuscripts, which are often not +paged, special knowledge is needed for their collation. It may roughly +be said, that if the sections are all complete, that is, if there are +the same number of leaves at each side of the sewing in all the +sections, the book may be taken to be perfect, unless of course whole +sections are missing. All unpaged books should be paged through in +pencil before they are taken apart; this is best done with a very fine +pencil, at the bottom left-hand corner; it will only be necessary to +number the front of each leaf. + + + PULLING TO PIECES + +After the volume has been collated it must be "pulled," that is to +say, the sections must be separated, and all plates or maps detached. + +If in a bound book there are slips laced in the front cover, they must +be cut and the back torn off. It will sometimes happen that in tearing +off the leather nearly all the glue will come too, leaving the backs +of the pages detached except for the sewing. More usually the back +will be left covered with a mass of glue and linen, or paper, which it +is very difficult to remove without injury to the backs of the +sections. By drawing a sharp knife along the bands, the sewing may be +cut and the bands removed, leaving the sections only connected by the +glue. Then the sections of the book can usually be separated with a +fine folder, after the thread from the centre of each has been +removed; the point of division being ascertained by finding the first +signature of each section. In cases where the glue and leather form +too hard a back to yield to this method, it is advisable to soak the +glue with paste, and when soft to scrape it off with a folder. As this +method is apt to injure the backs of the sections, it should not be +resorted to unless necessary; and when it is, care must be taken not +to let the damp penetrate into the book, or it will cause very ugly +stains. The book must be pulled while damp, or else the glue will dry +up harder than before. The separated sections must be piled up +carefully to prevent pages being soiled by the damp glue. + +All plates or single leaves "pasted on" must be removed. These can +usually be detached by carefully tearing apart, but if too securely +pasted they must be soaked off in water, unless of course the plates +have been painted with water-colour. If the plates must be soaked off, +the leaf and attached plate should be put into a pan of slightly warm +water and left to soak until they float apart, then with a soft brush +any remaining glue or paste can be easily removed while in the water. +Care must be taken not to soak modern books printed on what is called +"Art Paper," as this paper will hardly stand ordinary handling, and is +absolutely ruined if wetted. The growing use of this paper in +important books is one of the greatest troubles the bookbinder has to +face. The highly loaded and glazed surface of some of the heavy plate +papers easily flakes off, so that any guard pasted on these plates is +apt to come away, taking with it the surface of the paper. Moreover, +should the plates chance to be fingered or in any way soiled, nothing +can remove the marks; and should a corner get turned down, the paper +breaks and the corner will fall off. It is the opinion of experts that +this heavily loaded Art Paper will not last a reasonable time, and, +apart from other considerations, this should be ample reason for not +using it in books that are expected to have a permanent value. +Printers like this paper, because it enables them to obtain brilliant +impressions from blocks produced by cheap processes. + +In "cased" books, sewn by machinery, the head and tail of the sheets +will often be found to be split up as far as the "kettle" stitches. If +such a book is to be expensively bound, it will require mending +throughout in these places, or the glue may soak into the torn ends, +and make the book open stiffly. + +Some books are put together with staples of tinned iron wire, which +rapidly rust and disfigure the book by circular brown marks. Such +marks will usually have to be cut out and the places carefully mended. +This process is lengthy, and consequently so costly, that it is +generally cheaper, when possible, to obtain an unbound copy of the +book from the publishers, than to waste time repairing the damage done +by the cloth binder. + +Generally speaking, the sections of a book cased in cloth by modern +methods are so injured as to make it unfit for more permanent binding +unless an unreasonable amount of time is spent on it. It is a great +pity that publishers do not, in the case of books expected to have a +permanent literary value, issue a certain number of copies printed on +good paper, and unbound, for the use of those who require permanent +bindings; and in such copies it would be a great help if sufficient +margin were left at the back of the plates for the binder to turn it +up to form a guard. If the plates were very numerous, guards made of +the substance of the plates themselves would make the book too thick; +but in the case of books with not more than a dozen plates, printed on +comparatively thin paper, it would be a great advantage. + +Some books in which there are a large number of plates are cut into +single leaves, which are held together at the back by a coating of an +indiarubber solution. For a short time such a volume is pleasant +enough to handle, and opens freely, but before long the indiarubber +perishes, and the leaves and plates fall apart. When a book of this +kind comes to have a permanent binding, all the leaves and plates have +to be pared at the back and made up into sections with guards--a +troublesome and expensive business. The custom with binders is to +overcast the backs of the leaves in sections, and to sew through the +overcasting thread, but this, though an easy and quick process, makes +a hopelessly stiff back, and no book so treated can open freely. + + + REFOLDING + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Dividers] + +When the sheets of books that have to be rebound have been carelessly +folded, a certain amount of readjustment is often advisable, +especially in cases where the book has not been previously cut. The +title-page and the half-title, when found to be out of square, should +nearly always be put straight. The folding of the whole book may be +corrected by taking each pair of leaves and holding them up to the +light and adjusting the fold so that the print on one leaf comes +exactly over the print on the other, and creasing the fold to make +them stay in that position. With a pair of dividers (fig. 6) set to +the height of the shortest top margin, points the same distance above +the headline of the other leaves can be made. Then against a +carpenter's square, adjusted to the back of the fold, the head of one +pair of leaves at a time can be cut square (see fig. 7). If the book +has been previously cut this process is apt to throw the leaves so far +out of their original position as to make them unduly uneven. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +Accurate folding is impossible if the "register" of the printing is +bad, that is to say, if the print on the back of a leaf does not lie +exactly over that on the front. + +Crooked plates should usually be made straight by judicious trimming +of the margins. It is better to leave a plate short at tail or +fore-edge than to leave it out of square. + + + KNOCKING OUT JOINTS + +The old "joints" must be knocked out of the sections of books that +have been previously backed. To do this, one or two sections at a time +are held firmly in the left hand, and well hammered on the +knocking-down iron fixed into the lying press. It is important that +the hammer face should fall exactly squarely upon the paper, or it may +cut pieces out. The knocking-down iron should be covered with a piece +of paper, and the hammer face must be perfectly clean, or the sheets +may be soiled. + + + + + CHAPTER III + + Guarding--Throwing Out--Paring Paper--Soaking off India + Proofs--Mounting very Thin Paper--Splitting + Paper--Inlaying--Flattening Vellum + + + GUARDING + +Guards are slips of thin paper or linen used for strengthening the +fold of leaves that are damaged, or for attaching plates or single +leaves. + +Guards should be of good thin paper. That known as Whatman's Banknote +paper answers very well. An easy way to cut guards is shown in fig. +8. Two or three pieces of paper of the height of the required guards +are folded and pinned to the board by the right-hand corners. A series +of points are marked at the head and tail with dividers set to the +width desired for the guards, and with a knife guided by a +straight-edge, cuts joining the points are made right through the +paper, but not extending quite to either end. On a transverse cut +being made near the bottom, the guards are left attached by one end +only (see fig. 9), and can be torn off as wanted. This method prevents +the paper from slipping while it is being cut. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + +A mount cutter's knife (fig. 10) will be found to be a convenient form +of knife to use for cutting guards. + +In using the knife and straight-edge a good deal of pressure should be +put on the straight-edge, and comparatively little on the knife. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Mount Cutter's Knife] + +To mend the torn back of a pair of leaves, a guard should be selected +a little longer than the height of the pages and well pasted with +white paste (see page 288). If the pair of leaves are not quite +separated, the pasted guard held by its extremities may be simply laid +along the weak place and rubbed down through blotting-paper. If the +leaves are quite apart, it is better to lay the pasted guard on a +piece of glass and put the edges of first one and then the other leaf +on to it and rub down. + +On an outside pair of leaves the guard should be inside, so that the +glue may catch any ragged edges; while on the inside pair the guard +should be outside, or it will be found to be troublesome in sewing. In +handling the pasted guards care is needed not to stretch them, or they +may cause the sheet to crinkle as they dry. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +Plates must be guarded round the sections next them. When there are a +great many plates the back margin of each, to which a guard will be +attached, must be pared (see fig. 11, A), or the additional thickness +caused by the guards will make the back swell unduly. In guarding +plates a number can be pasted at once if they are laid one on another, +with about an eighth of an inch of the back of each exposed, the top +of the pile being protected by a folded piece of waste paper (see fig. +12). To paste, the brush is brought from the top to the bottom of the +pile only, and not the other way, or paste will get between the plates +and soil them. Guards should usually be attached to the backs of +plates, and should be wide enough to turn up round the adjoining +section, so that they may be sewn through. Should a plate come in the +middle of a section, the guard is best turned back and slightly pasted +to the inside of the sheet and then sewn through in the ordinary way. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.] + +If plates are very thick, they must be hinged, as shown at fig. 11, B. +This is done by cutting a strip of about a quarter of an inch off the +back of the plate, and guarding with a wide guard of linen, leaving a +small space between the plate and the piece cut off to form a hinge. +It will save some swelling if the plate is pared and a piece of +thinner paper substituted for the piece cut off (see fig. 11, C). If +the plates are of cardboard, they should be guarded on both sides with +linen, and may even need a second joint. + +A book that consists entirely of plates or single leaves must be made +up into sections with guards, and sewn as usual. In books in which +there are a great many plates, it is often found that two plates +either come together in the centre of a section, or come at opposite +sides of the same pair of leaves. Such plates should be guarded +together and treated as folded sheets (see fig. 13). + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.] + +In order to be sure that the pages of a book to be guarded throughout +will come in their proper order, it is well to make a plan of the +sections as follows, and to check each pair of leaves by it, as they +are guarded:-- + +Thus, if the book is to be made up into sections of eight leaves, the +pairs of leaves to be guarded together can be seen at once if the +number of the pages are written out-- + + 1, 3, 5, 7,--9, 11, 13, 15. + +First the inside pair, 7 and 9, are guarded together with the guard +outside, then the next pair, 5 and 11, then 3 and 13, and then the +outside pair, 1 and 15, which should have the guard outside. A plan +for the whole book would be more conveniently written thus-- + + 1-15 17-31 33-47 + 3-13 19-29 35-45 + 5-11 21-27 37-43 + 7-9 23-25 39-41, and so on. + +To arrange a book of single leaves for guarding, it is convenient to +take as many leaves as you intend to go to a section, and opening them +in the centre, take a pair at a time as they come. + +The number of leaves it is advisable to put into a section will depend +on the thickness of the paper and the size and thickness of the book. +If the paper is thick, and the backs of the leaves have been pared, +four leaves to a section will be found to answer. But if the paper is +thin, and does not allow of much paring, it is better to have a larger +section, in order to have as little thread in the back as possible. + +The sheets of any guarded book should be pressed before sewing, in +order to reduce the swelling of the back caused by the guards. + + + THROWING OUT + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.] + +Maps or diagrams that are frequently referred to in the text of a +book, should be "thrown out" on a guard as wide as the sheet of the +book. Such maps, &c., should be placed at the end, so that they may +lie open for reference while the book is being read (see fig. 14). +Large folded maps or diagrams should be mounted on linen. To do this +take a piece of jaconet and pin it out flat on the board, then evenly +paste the back of the map with thin paste in which there are no lumps, +and lay it on the linen, rub down through blotting-paper, and leave to +dry. Unless the pasting is done evenly the marks of the paste-brush +will show through the linen. If a folded map is printed on very thick +paper each fold must be cut up, and the separate pieces mounted on the +linen, with a slight space between them to form a flexible joint. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.] + +A folded map must have in the back of the book sufficient guards to +equal it in thickness at its thickest part when folded, or the book +will not shut properly (see fig. 15). + + + PARING PAPER + +For paring the edge of paper for mending or guarding, take a very +sharp knife, and holding the blade at right angles to the +covering-board, draw the edge once or twice along it from left to +right. This should turn up enough of the edge to form a "burr," which +causes the knife to cut while being held almost flat on the paper. The +plate or paper should be laid face downwards on the glass with the +edge to be pared away from the workman, the knife held in the right +hand, with the burr downwards. The angle at which to hold the knife +will depend on its shape and on the thickness and character of the +paper to be pared, and can only be learned by practice. If the knife +is in order, and is held at the proper angle, the shaving removed from +a straight edge of paper should come off in a long spiral. If the +knife is not in proper order, the paper may be badly jagged or +creased. + + + SOAKING OFF INDIA PROOFS + +Place a piece of well-sized paper in a pan of warm water, then lay the +mounted India proof, face downwards, upon it and leave it to soak +until the proof floats off. Then carefully take out the old mount, and +the India proof can be readily removed from the water on the under +paper, and dried between sheets of blotting-paper. + + + MOUNTING VERY THIN PAPER + +Very thin paper, such as that of some "India" proofs, may be safely +mounted as follows:--The mount, ready for use, is laid on a pad of +blotting-paper. The thin paper to be mounted is laid face downwards on +a piece of glass and very carefully pasted with thin, white paste. Any +paste on the glass beyond the edges of the paper is carefully wiped +off with a clean cloth. The glass may then be turned over, and the +pasted plate laid on the mount, its exact position being seen through +the glass. + + + SPLITTING PAPER + +It is sometimes desirable to split pieces of paper when the matter on +one side only is needed, or when the matter printed on each side is to +be used in different places. The paper to be split should be well +pasted on both sides with a thickish paste, and fine linen or jaconet +placed on each side. It is then nipped in the press to make the linen +stick all over, and left to dry. + +If the two pieces of jaconet are carefully pulled apart when dry, half +the paper should be attached to each, unless at any point the paste +has failed to stick, when the paper will tear. The jaconet and paper +attached must be put into warm water until the split paper floats off. + + + INLAYING LEAVES OR PLATES + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.] + +When a small plate or leaf has to be inserted into a larger book, it +is best to "inlay it"; that is to say, the plate or leaf is let into a +sheet of paper the size of the page of the book. To do this, a piece +of paper as thick as the plate to be inlaid, or a little thicker, is +selected, and on this is laid the plate, which should have been +previously squared, and the positions of the corners marked with a +folder. A point is made about an eighth of an inch inside each corner +mark, and the paper within these points is cut out (see fig. 16). This +leaves a frame of paper, the inner edges of which will slightly +overlap the edges of the plate. The under edge of the plate, and the +upper edge of the mount, should then be pared and pasted, and the +plate laid in its place (with the corners corresponding to the folder +marks). If the edges have been properly pared, the thickness where +they overlap should not exceed the thickness of the frame paper. If an +irregular fragment is to be inlaid, it is done in the same way, except +that the entire outline is traced on the new paper with a folder, and +the paper cut away, allowing one eighth of an inch inside the indented +line. + + + FLATTENING VELLUM + +The leaves of a vellum book that have become cockled from damp or +other causes may be flattened by damping them, pulling them out +straight, and allowing them to dry under pressure. To do this take the +book to pieces, clean out any dirt there may be in the folds of the +leaves, and spread out each pair of leaves as flatly as possible. + +Damp some white blotting-paper by interleaving it with common white +paper that has been wetted with a sponge. One sheet of wet paper to +two of blotting-paper will be enough. The pile of blotting-paper and +wet paper is put in the press and left for an hour or two under +pressure, then taken out and the common paper removed. + +The blotting-paper should now be slightly and evenly damp. To flatten +the vellum the open pairs of leaves are interleaved with the slightly +damp blotting-paper, and are left for an hour under the weight of a +pressing-board. After this time the vellum will have become quite +soft, and can with care be flattened out and lightly pressed between +the blotting-paper, and left for a night. The next day the vellum +leaves should be looked at to see that they lie quite flat, and the +blotting-paper changed for some that is dry. The vellum must remain +under pressure until it is quite dry, or it will cockle up worse than +ever when exposed to the air. The blotting-paper should be changed +every day or two. The length of time that vellum leaves take to dry +will vary with the state of the atmosphere, and the thickness of the +vellum, from one to six weeks. + +Almost any manuscript or printed book on vellum can be successfully +flattened in this way; miniatures should have pieces of waxed paper +laid over them to prevent the chance of any of the fibres of the +blotting-paper sticking. The pressure must not be great; only enough +is needed to keep the vellum flat as it dries. + +This process of flattening, although so simple, requires the utmost +care. If the blotting-paper is used too damp, a manuscript may be +ruined; and if not damp enough, the pressing will have no effect. + + + + + CHAPTER IV + + Sizing--Washing--Mending + + + SIZING + +The paper in old books is sometimes soft and woolly. This is generally +because the size has perished, and such paper can often be made +perfectly sound by resizing. + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.] + +For size, an ounce of isinglass or good gelatine is dissolved in a +quart of water. This should make a clear solution when gently warmed, +and should be used at about a temperature of 120° F. Care must be +taken not to heat too quickly, or the solution may burn and turn +brown. If the size is not quite clear, it should be strained through +fine muslin or linen before being used. When it is ready it should be +poured into an open pan (fig. 17), so arranged that it can be kept +warm by a gas flame or spirit lamp underneath. When this is ready the +sheets to be sized can be put in one after another and taken out at +once. The hot size will be found to take out a great many stains, and +especially those deep brown stains that come from water. If there are +only a few sheets, they can be placed between blotting-paper as they +are removed from the size; but if there is a whole book, it is best to +lay them in a pile one on the other, and when all have been sized to +squeeze them in the "lying press" between pressing-boards, a pan being +put underneath to catch the liquid squeezed out. When the sheets have +been squeezed they can be readily handled, and should be spread out to +dry on a table upon clean paper. When they are getting dry and firm +they can be hung on strings stretched across the room, slightly +overlapping one another. The strings must first be covered with slips +of clean paper, and the sized sheets should have more paper over them +to keep them clean. + +Before sizing it will be necessary to go through a book and take out +any pencil or dust marks that can be removed with indiarubber or bread +crumbs, or the size will fix them, and it will be found exceedingly +difficult to remove them afterwards. + +When the sheets are dry they should be carefully mended in any places +that may be torn, and folded up into sections and pressed. A long, +comparatively light pressure will be found to flatten them better and +with less injury to the surface of the paper than a short, very heavy +pressure, such as that of the rolling-machine. + +In some cases it will be found that sheets of old books are so far +damaged as to be hardly strong enough to handle. Such sheets must be +sized in rather a stronger size in the following way:--Take a sheet of +heavily-sized paper, such as notepaper, and carefully lay your damaged +sheet on that. Then put another sheet of strong paper on the top, and +put all three sheets into the size. It will be found that the top +sheet can then be easily lifted off, and the size be made to flow over +the face of the damaged sheet. Then, if the top sheet be put on again, +the three sheets, if handled as one, can be turned over and the +operation repeated, and size induced to cover the back of the damaged +leaf. The three sheets must then be taken out and laid between +blotting-paper to take up the surplus moisture. The top sheet must +then be carefully peeled off, and the damaged page laid face downwards +on clean blotting-paper. Then the back sheet can be peeled off as +well, leaving the damaged sheet to dry. + +The following is quoted from "Chambers' Encyclopædia" on Gelatine:-- + +"Gelatine should never be judged by the eye alone. + +"Its purity may be very easily tested thus: Soak it in cold water, +then pour upon it a small quantity of boiling water. If pure, it will +form a thickish, clear straw-coloured solution, free from smell; but +if made of impure materials, it will give off a very offensive odour, +and have a yellow, gluey consistency." + + + WASHING + +When there are stains or ink marks on books that cannot be removed by +the use of hot size or hot water, stronger measures may sometimes have +to be taken. Many stains will be found to yield readily to hot water +with a little alum in it, and others can be got out by a judicious +application of curd soap with a very soft brush and plenty of warm +water. But some, and especially ink stains, require further treatment. +There are many ways of washing paper, and most of those in common use +are extremely dangerous, and have in many cases resulted in the +absolute destruction of fine books. If it is thought to be absolutely +necessary that the sheets of a book should be washed, the safest +method is as follows:--Take an ounce of permanganate of potash +dissolved in a quart of water, and warmed slightly. In this put the +sheets to be washed, and leave them until they turn a dark brown. This +will usually take about an hour, but may take longer for some papers. +Then turn the sheets out and wash them in running water until all +trace of purple stain disappears from the water as it comes away. Then +transfer them to a bath of sulphurous (not sulphuric) acid and water +in the proportion of one ounce of acid to one pint of water. The +sheets in this solution will rapidly turn white, and if left for some +time nearly all stains will be removed. In case any stains refuse to +come out, the sheets should be put in clear water for a short time, +and then placed in the permanganate of potash solution again, and left +there for a longer time than before; then after washing in clear +water, again transferred to the sulphurous acid. When sheets are +removed from the sulphurous acid they should be well washed for an +hour or two in running water, and then may be blotted or squeezed off +and hung up on lines to dry. Any sheets treated in this way will +require sizing afterwards. And if, as is often the case, only a few +sheets at the beginning or end of the book have to be washed, it will +be necessary to tone down the washed sheets to match the rest of the +book by putting some stain in the size. For staining there are many +things used. A weak solution of permanganate of potash gives a +yellowish stain that will be found to match many papers. Other stains +are used, such as coffee, chicory, tea, liquorice, &c. Whatever is +used should be put in the size. To ascertain that the right depth of +colour has been obtained, a piece of unsized paper, such as white +blotting-paper, is dipped in the stained size and blotted off and +dried before the fire. It is impossible to judge of the depth of +colour in a stain unless the test piece is thoroughly dried. If the +stain is not right, add more water or more stain as is needed. +Experience will tell what stain to use to match the paper of any given +book. + +To remove grease or oil stains, ether may be used. Pour it freely in a +circle round the spot, narrowing the circle gradually until the stain +is covered. Then apply a warm iron through a piece of blotting-paper. + +Ether should only be used in a draught in a well-ventilated room on +account of its well-known inflammable and anæsthetical properties. + +A very dilute (about one per cent.) solution of pure hydrochloric acid +in cold water will be found to take out some stains if the paper is +left in it for some hours. When the paper is removed from the +solution, it must be thoroughly washed in running water. It is +important that the hydrochloric acid used should be pure, as the +commercial quality (spirits of salts) often contains sulphuric acid. + +The following recipes are quoted from _De l'organisation et de +l'administration des Bibliothèques, par Jules Cusin_:-- + +To remove stains from paper:--"_Mud Stains._--To take away these kinds +of stains, spread some soap jelly very evenly over the stained places, +and leave it there for thirty or forty minutes, according to the depth +of the stain. Then dip the sheet in clean water, and then having +spread it on a perfectly clean table, remove the soap lightly with a +hog's hair brush or a fine sponge; all the mud will disappear at the +same time. Put the sheet into the clear water again, to get rid of the +last trace of soap. Let it drain a little, press it lightly between +two sheets of blotting-paper, and finish by letting it dry slowly in +a dry place in the shade. + +"_Stains of Tallow, Stearine, or Fat._--To take away these stains +cover them with blotting-paper and pass over them a warm flat-iron. +When the paper has soaked up the grease, change it and repeat the +operation until the stains have been sufficiently removed. After that, +touch both sides of the sheets where they have been stained with a +brush dipped in essence of turpentine heated to boiling-point. Then to +restore the whiteness of the paper, touch the places which were +stained with a piece of fine linen soaked in purified spirits of wine +warmed in the water-bath. This method may also be employed to get rid +of sealing-wax stains. + +"_Oil Stains._--Make a mixture of 500 gr. of soap, 300 gr. of clay, 60 +gr. of quicklime, and sufficient water to make it of the right +consistency, spread a thin layer of this on the stain, and leave it +there about a quarter of an hour. Then dip the sheet in a bath of hot +water; take it out, and let it dry slowly. + +"You can also use the following method, generally employed for +finger-marks:-- + +"_Finger-marks._--These stains are sometimes very obstinate. Still +they can generally be mastered by the following method:--Spread over +them a layer of white soap jelly (_savon blanc en gelée_), and leave +it there for some hours. Then remove this with a fine sponge dipped in +hot water, and more often than not all the dirt disappears at the same +time. If this treatment is not sufficient, you might replace the soap +jelly by soft soap (_savon noir_), but you must be careful not to +leave it long on the printing, which might decompose and run, and that +would do more harm than good." + +Sheets of very old books are best left with the stains of age upon +them, excepting, perhaps, such as can be removed with hot water or +size. Nearly all stains _can_ be removed, but in the process old paper +is apt to lose more in character than it gains in appearance. + + + MENDING + +For mending torn sheets of an old book, some paper that matches as +nearly as possible must be found. For this purpose it is the custom +for bookbinders to collect quantities of old paper. If a piece of the +same tone cannot be found, paper of similar texture and substance may +be stained to match. + +Supposing a corner to be missing, and a piece of paper to have been +found that matches it, the torn page is laid over the new paper in +such a way that the wire marks on both papers correspond. Then the +point of a folder should be drawn along the edge of the torn sheet, +leaving an indented line on the new paper. The new paper should then +be cut off about an eighth of an inch beyond the indented line, and +the edge carefully pared up to the line. The edge of the old paper +must be similarly pared, so that the two edges when laid together will +not exceed the thickness of the rest of the page. It is well to leave +a little greater overlap at the edges of the page. Both cut edges must +then be well pasted with white paste and rubbed down between +blotting-paper. To ensure a perfectly clean joint the pasted edge +should not be touched with the hand, and pasting-paper, brushes, and +paste must be perfectly clean. + +In the case of a tear across the page, if there are any overlapping +edges, they may merely be pasted together and the end of the tear at +the edge of the paper strengthened by a small piece of pared paper. If +the tear crosses print, and there are no overlapping edges, either +tiny pieces of pared paper may be cut and laid across the tear between +the lines of print, or else a piece of the thinnest Japanese paper, +which is nearly transparent, may be pasted right along the tear over +the print; in either case the mend should be strengthened at the edge +of the page by an additional thickness of paper. In cases where the +backs of the sections have been much damaged, it will be necessary to +put a guard the entire length, or in the case of small holes, to fill +them in with pieces of torn paper. The edges of any mend may, with +great care, be scraped with a sharp knife having a slight burr on the +under side, and then rubbed lightly with a piece of worn fine +sand-paper, or a fragment of cuttle-fish bone. Care must be taken not +to pare away too much, and especially not to weaken the mend at the +edges of the sheet. As a general rule, the new mending paper should go +on the back of a sheet. + +Sometimes it is thought necessary to fill up worm-holes in the paper. +This may be done by boiling down some paper in size until it is of a +pulpy consistency, and a little of this filled into the worm-holes +will re-make the paper in those places. It is a very tedious +operation, and seldom worth doing. + +Mending vellum is done in much the same way as mending paper, +excepting that a little greater overlap must be left. It is well to +put a stitch of silk at each end of a vellum patch, as you cannot +depend on paste alone holding vellum securely. The overlapping edges +must be well roughed up with a knife to make sure that the paste will +stick. A cut in a vellum page is best mended with fine silk with a +lacing stitch (see fig. 18). + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.] + +Mending is most easily done on a sheet of plate-glass, of which the +edges and corners have been rubbed down. + + + + + CHAPTER V + + End Papers--Leather Joints--Pressing + + + END PAPERS + +If an old book that has had much wear is examined, it will generally +be found that the leaves at the beginning and the end have suffered +more than the rest of the book. On this ground, and also to enable +people who must write notes in books to do so with the least injury to +the book, it is advisable to put a good number of blank papers at each +end. As these papers are part of the binding, and have an important +protective function to perform, they should be of good quality. At all +times difficulty has been found in preventing the first and last +section of the book, whether end papers or not, from dragging away +when the cover is opened, and various devices have been tried to +overcome this defect. In the fifteenth century strips of vellum +(usually cut from manuscripts) were pasted on to the back of the book +and on the inside of the boards, or in some cases were merely folded +round the first and last section and pasted on to the covers. The +modern, and far less efficient, practice is to "overcast" the first +and last sections. This is objectionable, because it prevents the +leaves from opening right to the back, and it fails in the object +aimed at, by merely transferring the strain to the back of the +overcast section. + +In order to make provision for any strain there may be in opening the +cover, it is better to adopt some such arrangement as shown in fig. +19. In this end paper the zigzag opens slightly in response to any +strain. + +The way to make this end paper is to take a folded sheet of paper a +little larger than the book. Then with dividers mark two points an +eighth of an inch from the back for the fold, and paste your +paste-down paper, B B, up to these points (see fig. 19, II). When the +paste is dry, fold back the sheet (A1) over the paste-down paper, and +A2 the reverse way, leaving the form seen in fig. 19, III. A folded +sheet of paper similar to A is inserted at C (fig. 19, V, H), and the +sewing passes through this. When the book is pasted down the leaf A1 +is torn off, and B1 pasted down on the board. If marbled paper is +desired, the marble should be "made," that is, pasted on to B1. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.] + +There are considerable disadvantages in using marbled papers, as if +they are of thick enough paper to help the strength of the binding, +the "made" sheet is very stiff, and in a small book is troublesome. On +no account should any marble paper be used, unless it is tough and +durable. The quality of the paper of which most marbled papers are +made is so poor, that it is unsuitable for use as end papers. For most +books a self-coloured paper of good quality answers well for the +paste-down sheets. + +It is a mistake to leave end papers to be pasted on after the book has +been forwarded, as in that case they have little constructive value. +Every leaf of such an end paper as is described above will open right +to the back, and the zigzag allows play for the drag of the board. + +Paper with a conventional pattern painted or printed on it may be used +for end papers. If such a design is simple, such as a sprig repeated +all over, or an arrangement of stars or dots, it may look very well; +but over elaborate end papers, and especially those that aim at +pictorial effect, are seldom successful. + +Ends may be made of thin vellum. If so, unless the board is very +heavy, it is best to have leather joints. + +A single leaf of vellum (in the place of B1 and 2, II, fig. 19) should +have an edge turned up into the zigzag with the leather joint, and +sewn through. Vellum ends must always be sewn, as it is not safe to +rely upon paste to hold them. They look well, and may be enriched by +tooling. The disadvantage of vellum is, that it has a tendency to curl +up if subjected to heat, and when it contracts it unduly draws the +boards of the book. For large manuscripts, or printed books on vellum, +which are bound in wooden or other thick boards and are clasped, +thicker vellum may be used for the ends; that with a slightly brown +surface looks best. The part that will come into the joint should be +scraped thin with a knife, and a zigzag made of Japanese paper. + +Silk or other fine woven material may be used for ends. It is best +used with a leather joint, and may be stuck on to the first paper of +the end papers (B1, No. 2, fig. 19), and cut with the book. The +glaire of the edge gilding will help to stop the edges fraying out. In +attaching silk to paper, thin glue is the best thing to use; the +paper, not the silk, being glued. Some little practice is needed to +get sufficient glue on the paper to make the silk stick all over, and +yet not to soil it. When the silk has been glued to the paper, it +should be left under a light weight to dry. If put in the press, the +glue may be squeezed through and the silk soiled. + +If the silk is very thin, or delicate in colour, or if it seems likely +that it will fray out at the edges, it is better to turn the edges in +over a piece of paper cut a little smaller than the page of the book +and stick them down. This forms a pad, which may be attached to the +first leaf of the end papers; a similar pad may be made for filling in +the board. + +Before using, the silk should be damped and ironed flat on the wrong +side. + +Silk ends give a book a rich finish, but seldom look altogether +satisfactory. If the silk is merely stuck on to the first end paper, +the edges will generally fray out if the book is much used. If the +edges are turned in, an unpleasantly thick end is made. + + + LEATHER JOINTS + +Leather joints are pieces of thin leather that are used to cover the +joints on the inside (for paring, see page 154). They add very little +strength to the book, but give a pleasant finish to the inside of the +board. + +If there are to be leather joints, the end papers are made up without +A 1, and the edge of the leather pasted and inserted at D, with a +piece of common paper as a protection (see fig. 19, IV). When the +paste is dry, the leather is folded over at E. + +A piece of blotting-paper may be pasted on to the inside of the waste +leaf, leaving enough of it loose to go between the leather joint and +the first sheet of the end paper. This will avoid any chance of the +leather joint staining or marking the ends while the book is being +bound. The blotting-paper, of course, is taken out with the waste +sheet before the joint is pasted down. + +Joints may also be made of linen or cloth inserted in the same way. A +cloth joint has greater strength than a leather one, as the latter has +to be very thin in order that the board may shut properly. + +With leather or cloth joints, the sewing should go through both E and +F. + + + PRESSING + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Standing Press] + +While the end papers are being made, the sections of the book should +be pressed. To do this a pressing-board is taken which is a little +larger than the book, and a tin, covered with common paper, placed on +that, then a few sections of the book, then another tin covered with +paper, and then more sections, and so on, taking care that the +sections are exactly over one another (see fig. 20). A second +pressing-board having been placed on the last tin, the pile of +sections, tins, and pressing-boards can be put into the standing-press +and left under pressure till next day. Newly printed plates should be +protected by thin tissue paper while being pressed. Any folded plates +or maps, &c., or inserted letters, must either not be pressed, or have +tins placed on each side of them to prevent them from indenting the +adjoining leaves. + + [Illustration: FIG. 22.--French Standing Press] + +Hand-printed books, such as the publications of the Kelmscott Press, +should have very little pressure, or the "impression" of the print and +the surface of the paper may be injured. Books newly printed on vellum +or heavily coloured illustrations should not be pressed at all, or the +print may "set off." + +The protecting tissues on the plates of a book that has been printed +for more than a year can generally be left out, unless the titles of +the plates are printed on them, as they are a nuisance to readers and +often get crumpled up and mark the book. + +In order to make books solid, that is, to make the leaves lie evenly +and closely to one another, it was formerly the custom to beat books +on a "stone" with a heavy hammer. This process has been superseded by +the rolling-press; but with the admirable presses that are now to be +had, simple pressing will be found to be sufficient for the "extra" +binder. + +At fig. 21 is shown an iron standing-press. This is screwed down first +with a short bar, and finally with a long bar. This form of press is +effective and simple, but needs a good deal of room for the long bar, +and must have very firm supports, or it may be pulled over. + +At fig. 22 is shown a French standing-press, in which the pressure is +applied by a weighted wheel, which will, in the first place, by being +spun round, turn the screw until it is tight, and give additional +pressure by a hammering action. This press I have found to answer for +all ordinary purposes, and to give as great pressure as can be got by +the iron standing-press, without any undue strain on supports or +workmen. + +There are many other forms of press by which great pressure can be +applied, some working by various arrangements of cog-wheels, screws, +and levers, others by hydraulic pressure. + + + + + CHAPTER VI + + Trimming Edges before Sewing--Edge Gilding + + + TRIMMING BEFORE SEWING + +When the sheets come from the press the treatment of the edges must be +decided upon, that is, whether they are to be entirely uncut, trimmed +before sewing, or cut in boards. + +Early printed books and manuscripts should on no account have their +edges cut at all, and any modern books of value are better only +slightly trimmed and gilt before sewing. But for books of reference +that need good bindings, on account of the wear they have to +withstand, cutting in boards is best, as the smooth edge so obtained +makes the leaves easier to turn over. Gilt tops and rough edges give a +book a look of unequal finish. + +If the edges are to remain uncut, or be cut "in boards" with the +plough, the book will be ready for "marking up" as soon as it comes +from the press; but if it is to be gilt before sewing, it must be +first trimmed. + + [Illustration: Fig. 23.] + +The sheets for trimming with end papers and all plates inserted must +first be cut square at the head against a carpenter's square (see fig. +7). Then a piece of mill-board may be cut to the size, it is desired +to leave the leaves, and the sections trimmed to it. To do this three +nails should be put into the covering board through a piece of +straw-board, and the back of the section slid along nails 1 and 2 +until it touches No. 3 (see fig. 23). The board is slid in the same +way, and anything projecting beyond it cut off. When the under +straw-board has become inconveniently scored in the first position, by +shifting the lower nail (1) a fresh surface will receive the cuts. +Fig. 24 is a representation of a simple machine that I use in my +workshop for trimming. The slides A A are adjustable to any width +required, and are fixed by the screws B B. The brass-bound straight +edge C fits on to slots in A A, and as this, by the adjustment of the +slides, can be fixed at any distance from B B, all sizes of books can +be trimmed. As by this machine several sections can be cut at once, +the time taken is not very much greater than if the book were cut in +the plough. + + [Illustration: FIG. 24.] + +Considerable judgment is required in trimming. The edges of the larger +pages only, on a previously uncut book, should be cut, leaving the +smaller pages untouched. Such uncut pages are called "proof," and the +existence of proof in a bound book is evidence that it has not been +unduly cut. + +Before gilding the edges of the trimmed sections, any uncut folds +that may remain should be opened with a folder, as if opened after +gilding, they will show a ragged white edge. + + [Illustration: FIG. 25.] + + + EDGE GILDING + +To gild the edges of trimmed sections, the book must be "knocked up" +to the fore-edge, getting as many of the short leaves as possible to +the front. It is then put into the "lying press," with gilding boards +on each side (see fig. No. 25), and screwed up tightly. Very little +scraping will be necessary, and usually if well rubbed with fine +sand-paper, to remove any chance finger-marks or loose fragments of +paper, the edge will be smooth enough to gild. If the paper is very +absorbent, the edges must be washed over with vellum size and left to +dry. + +The next process is an application of red chalk. For this a piece of +gilder's red chalk is rubbed down on a stone with water, making a +thickish paste, and the edges are well brushed with a hard brush +dipped in this mixture, care being taken not to have it wet enough to +run between the leaves. Some gilders prefer to use blacklead or a +mixture of chalk and blacklead. A further brushing with a dry brush +will to some extent polish the leaves. It will then be ready for an +application of glaire. Before glairing, the gold must be cut on the +cushion to the width required (see p. 200), and may be either taken up +on very slightly greased paper, a gilder's tip, or with a piece of net +stretched on a little frame (see fig. 26). The gold leaf will adhere +sufficiently to the net, and can be readily released by a light breath +when it is exactly over the proper place on the edge. + +When the gold is ready, the glaire should be floated on to the edge +with a soft brush, and the gold spread evenly over it and left until +dry; that is, in a workshop of ordinary temperature, for about an +hour. The edge is then lightly rubbed with a piece of leather that has +been previously rubbed on beeswax, and is ready for burnishing. It is +best to commence burnishing through a piece of thin slightly waxed +paper to set the gold, and afterwards the burnisher can be used +directly on the edge. A piece of bloodstone ground so as to have no +sharp edges (see fig. 27) makes a good burnisher. + + [Illustration: FIG. 26] + + [Illustration: FIG. 27.] + +There are several different preparations used for gilding edges. One +part of beaten up white of egg with four parts of water left to stand +for a day and strained will be found to answer well. + +After the fore-edge is gilt the same operation is repeated at the head +and tail. As it is desirable to have the gilding at the head as solid +as possible, rather more scraping is advisable here, or the head may +be left to be cut with a plough and gilt in boards. + + + + + CHAPTER VII + + Marking up--Sewing--Materials for Sewing + + + MARKING UP + +This is drawing lines across the back of the sections to show the +sewer the position of the sewing cords. + +Marking up for flexible sewing needs care and judgment, as on it +depends the position of the bands on the back of the bound book. +Nearly all books look best with five bands, but very large, thinnish +folios may have six, and a very small, thick book may look better with +four. Generally speaking, five is the best number. In marking up +trimmed sheets for flexible sewing, the length of the back should be +divided from the head into six portions, five equal, and one at the +tail slightly longer. From the points so arrived at, strong pencil +lines should be made across the back with a carpenter's square as +guide, the book having been previously knocked up between +pressing-boards, and placed in the lying press. It is important that +the head should be knocked up exactly square, as otherwise the bands +will be found to slope when the book is bound. In the case of a book +which is to be cut and gilt in boards, before marking up it will be +necessary to decide how much is to be cut off, and allowance made, or +the head and tail division of the back will, when cut, be too small. +It must also be remembered that to the height of the pages the amount +of the "squares" will be added. + +About a quarter of an inch from either end of the back of a trimmed +book, and a little more in the case of one that is to be cut in +boards, a mark should be made for the "kettle" or "catch" stitch. This +may be slightly sawn in, but before using the saw, the end papers are +removed. If these were sawn, the holes would show in the joint when +the ends are pasted down. + +If the book is to be sewn on double cords, or on slips of vellum or +tape, two lines will be necessary for each band. + +It has become the custom to saw in the backs of books, and to sink the +bands into the saw cuts, using "hollow backs," and putting false bands +to appear when bound. This is a degenerate form, to which is due much +of the want of durability of modern bindings. If the bands are not to +show on the back, it is better to sew on tapes or strips of vellum +than to use sawn-in string bands. + + + SEWING + +The sewing-frame need by bookbinders is practically the same now as is +shown in prints of the early sixteenth century, and probably dates +from still earlier times. It consists of a bed with two uprights and a +crossbar, which can be heightened or lowered by the turning of wooden +nuts working on a screw thread cut in the uprights (see fig. 29). + +To set up for sewing, as many loops of cord, called "lay cords," as +there are to be bands, are threaded on to the cross piece, and to +these, by a simple knot, shown at fig. 28, cords are fastened to form +the bands. The "lay cords" can be used again and again until worn +out. + + [Illustration: FIG. 28.] + +To fasten the cord below, a key is taken (see fig. 28) and held below +the press by the right hand; the cord is then pulled up round it by +the left, and held in position on the key by the first finger of the +right hand. The key is then turned over, winding up a little of the +string, and the prongs slipped over the main cord. It is then put +through the slit in the bed of the sewing-press, with the prongs away +from the front. The cord is then cut off, and the same operation +repeated for each band. When all the bands have been set up, the book +is laid against them, and they are moved to correspond with the marks +previously made on the back of the book, care being taken that they +are quite perpendicular. If they are of the same length and evenly set +up, on screwing up the crossbar they should all tighten equally. + +It will be found to be convenient to set up the cords as far to the +right hand of the press as possible, as then there will be room for +the sewer's left arm on the inner side of the left hand upright. + +A roll of paper that will exactly fill the slot in the sewing-frame is +pushed in in front of the upright cords to steady them and ensure +that they are all in the same plane. + +When the sewing-frame is ready, with the cords set up and adjusted, +the book must be collated to make sure that neither sheets nor plates +have been lost or misplaced during the previous operations. Plates +need special care to see that the guards go properly round the sheets +next them. + + [Illustration: FIG. 29.] + +The top back corner, on front and back waste end paper, should be +marked. When this has been done, and all is found to be in order, the +book is laid on a pressing-board behind the sewing-frame, the +fore-edge towards the sewer, and the front end paper uppermost. As it +is difficult to insert the needle into a section placed on the bed of +the sewing-frame, it will be found convenient to sew upon a largish +pressing-board, which will lie on the bed of the frame, and may have +small catches to prevent it from shifting. When the board is in place, +the first section (end paper) is taken in the left hand and turned +over, so that the marks on the back come in the proper places against +the strings. The left hand is inserted into the place where the sewing +is to be, and with the right hand a needle and thread is passed +through the kettle stitch mark (see fig. 29). It is grasped by the +fingers of the left hand, is passed out through the back at the first +mark on the left-hand side of the first upright cord, and pulled +tight, leaving a loose end of thread at the kettle stitch. Then with +the right hand it is inserted again in the same place, but from the +other side of the cord, and so on round all five bands, and out again +at the kettle stitch mark at the tail, using right and left hands +alternately. The centre of the next section is then found, and it is +sewn in the same way from tail to head, the thread being tied to the +loose end hanging from the first kettle stitch. Another section is +laid on and sewn, but when the kettle stitch is reached, the under +thread is caught up in the way shown in fig. 30. These operations are +repeated throughout the whole book. If the back seems likely to swell +too much, the sections can be lightly tapped down with a loaded stick +made for the purpose, care being taken not to drive the sections +inwards, as it is difficult to get such sections out again. When all +the sheets and the last end paper have been sewn on, a double catch +stitch is made, and the end cut off. This method is known as flexible +sewing "all along." + + [Illustration: FIG. 30.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 31.] + +When one needle full of thread is exhausted, another is tied on, +making practically a continuous length of thread going all along each +section and round every band. The weaver's knot is the best for +joining the lengths of thread. A simple way of tying it is shown at +fig. 31. A simple slip knot is made in the end of the new thread and +put over the end of the old, and, on being pulled tight, the old +thread should slip through, as shewn at B. The convenience of this +knot is, that by its use a firm attachment can be made quite close up +to the back of the book. This is a great advantage, as if the knot is +made at some distance from the back, it will have to be dragged +through the section two or three times, instead of only once. The +knot, after having been made, must be pulled inside the section, and +remain there. Considerable judgment is required in sewing. If a book +is sewn too loosely, it is almost impossible to bind it firmly; and if +too tightly, especially if the kettle stitches have been drawn too +tight, the thread may break in "backing," and the book have to be +resewn. + +One way to avoid having too much swelling in the back of a book +consisting of a great many very thin sections is to sew "two sheets +on." In this form of sewing two sections at a time are laid on the +sewing-frame. The thread is inserted at the "kettle stitch" of the +lower section, and brought out as usual at the first cord, but instead +of being reinserted into the lower section, it is passed into the +upper one, and so on, alternately passing into the upper and lower +sections. This will give, if there are five bands, three stitches in +each section instead of six, as there would be if the sewing were +"all along," lessening the thread, consequently the swelling by half. +It is usual to sew the first and last few sections "all along." + +The common method of sewing is to make saw cuts in the back, in which +thin cords can be sunk, and the thread merely passes behind them and +not round them, as in flexible sewing. This method, although very +quick and cheap, is not to be recommended, on account of the injury +done to the backs of the sections by the saw, and because the glue +running into the saw cuts is apt to make the back stiff, and to +prevent the book from opening right to the back. Indeed, were a +sawn-in book to open right to the back, as it is expected a +flexibly-sewn book will do, showing the sewing along the centre of +each section, the saw marks with the band inserted would show, and be +a serious disfigurement. + +Mediæval books were usually sewn on double cords or strips of leather, +and the headband was often sewn at the same time, as shown at fig. 32, +A. This is an excellent method for very large books with heavy +sections, and is specially suitable for large vellum manuscripts, in +many of which the sections are very thick. An advantage of this +method is, that the twist round the double cord virtually makes a knot +at every band, and should a thread at any place break, there is no +danger of the rest of the thread coming loose. This is the only mode +of sewing by which a thread runs absolutely from end to end of the +sections. The headband sewn at the same time, and so tied down in +every section, is firmer and stronger than if worked on in the way now +usual. In the fifteenth century it was the custom to lace the ends of +the headbands into the boards in the same way as the other bands. This +method, while giving additional strength at the head and tail, and +avoiding the somewhat unfinished look of the cut-off ends of the +modern headband, is, on the whole, of doubtful advantage, as it is +necessary to cut the "turn in" at the point where strength in the +leather is much wanted. + +At fig. 32 is shown in section the three methods of sewing mentioned. +A is the old sewing round double bands; with the headbands worked at +the same time with the same thread; B is the modern flexible sewing, +and C the common sawn-in method. + + [Illustration: FIG. 32.] + +Books that are very thin or are to be bound in vellum, are best sewn +on tapes or vellum slips. The easiest way to set up the sewing-frame +for such sewing is to sling a piece of wood through two of the lay +cords, and to pin one end of the vellum or tape band round this, pull +the other end tight, and secure it with a drawing-pin underneath the +frame. The sewing, in the case of such flat bands, would not go round, +but only across them. To avoid undue looseness, every three or four +threads may be caught up at the back of the band, as shown in fig. 33. + + [Illustration: FIG. 33.] + + + MATERIALS FOR SEWING + +The cord used should be of the best hemp, specially made with only two +strands of very long fibres to facilitate fraying out. For very large +books where a double cord is to be used, the best water line will be +found to answer, care being taken to select that which can be frayed +out. If tape is used it should be unbleached, such as the sailmakers +use. Thread should also be unbleached, as the unnecessary bleaching of +most bookbinder's sewing-thread seems to cause it to rot in a +comparatively short time. Silk of the best quality is better than any +thread. The ligature silk, undyed, as used by surgeons, is perhaps the +strongest material, and can be had in various thicknesses. It is +impossible to pay too great attention to the selection of sewing +materials, as the permanency of the binding depends on their +durability. The rebinding of valuable books is at best a necessary +evil, and anything that makes frequent rebinding necessary, is not +only objectionable on account of the cost involved, but because it +seriously shortens the life of the book. + +Experience is required to judge what thickness of thread to use for +any given book. If the sections are very thin, a thin thread must be +used, or the "swelling" of the back caused by the additional thickness +of the thread in that part will be excessive, and make the book +unmanageable in "backing." On the other hand, if the sections are +large, and a too thin thread is used, there will not be enough +swelling to make a firm "joint." Broadly speaking, when there are a +great many very thin sections, the thinnest thread may be used; and +coarser thread may be used when the sections are thicker, or fewer in +number. In the case of large manuscripts on vellum it is best to use +very thick silk, or even catgut. Vellum is so tough and durable, that +any binding of a vellum book should be made as if it were expected to +last for hundreds of years. + +In selecting the thickness of cord for a book, some judgment is +required. On an old book the bands are best made rather prominent by +the use of thick cord, but the exact thickness to be used is a matter +for taste and experience to decide. + +A very thick band on a small book is clumsy, while a very thin band on +the back of a heavy book suggests weakness, and is therefore +unsightly. + +In bindings of early printed books and manuscripts an appearance of +great strength is better than extreme neatness. + +When the sewing is completed, the cords are cut off close to the lay +cords, and then the keys will be loose enough to be easily removed. +The knots remaining on the lay bands are removed, and the keys slung +through one of them. + + + + + CHAPTER VIII + + Fraying out Slips--Glueing up--Rounding and Backing + + + FRAYING OUT SLIPS AND GLUEING UP + +After sewing, the book should be looked through to see that all sheets +and plates have been caught by the thread, and special attention +should be given to end papers to see that the sewing lies evenly. + +The ends of the cords should next be cut off to within about two +inches of the book on each side, and the free portions frayed out. If +proper sewing cord is used, this will be found to be very easily done, +if a binder's bodkin is first inserted between the two strands, +separating them, and then again in the centre of each separated strand +to still further straighten the fibres (see fig. 34). + +The fraying out of the thick cord recommended for heavy books is a +more difficult operation, but with a little trouble the fibres of any +good cord can be frayed out. Vellum or tape bands will only require +cutting off, leaving about two inches free on each side. The free +parts of the bands are called slips. + + [Illustration: FIG. 34.] + +The book is now ready for glueing up. A piece of waste mill-board or +an old cloth cover is put on each side over the slips, and the book +knocked up squarely at the back and head. Then it is lowered into the +lying press and screwed up, leaving the back with the protecting +boards projecting about three-quarters of an inch. If the back has too +much swelling in it or is spongy, it is better to leave the slips on +one side free and to pull them as tight as possible while the book is +held in the press, or a knocking-down iron may be placed on one side +of the projecting back and the other side tapped with the backing +hammer to make the sections lie close to one another, and then the +slips pulled straight (fig. 35). The back must now be glued. The glue +for this operation must be hot, and not too thick. It is very +important that it should be worked well between the sections with the +brush, and it is well after it has been applied to rub the back with a +finger or folder to make quite sure that the glue goes between every +section for its entire length. If the book is too tightly screwed up +in the press, the glue is apt to remain too much on the surface; and +if not tightly enough, it may penetrate too deeply between the +sections. If the glue is thick, or stringy, it may be diluted with hot +water and the glue-brush rapidly spun round in the glue-pot to break +it up and to make it work freely. + + [Illustration: FIG. 35.] + +Very great care is needed to see that the head of a previously trimmed +book is knocked up exactly square before the back is glued, for if it +is not, it will be very difficult to get it even afterwards. + + + ROUNDING AND BACKING + +The amount of rounding on the back of a book should be determined by +the necessities of the case; that is to say, a back that has, through +guarding, or excess of sewing, a tendency to be round, is best not +forced to be flat, and a back that would naturally be flat, is best +not forced to be unduly round. A very round back is objectionable +where it can be avoided, because it takes up so much of the back +margins of the sheets, and is apt to make the book stiff in opening. +On the other hand, a back that is quite flat has to be lined up +stiffly, or it may become concave with use. + + [Illustration: FIG. 36.] + +The method of rounding is to place the book with the back projecting a +little over the edge of the press or table, then to draw the back over +towards the workman, and, while in this position, to tap it carefully +with a hammer (see fig. 36). This is repeated on the other side of the +book, and, if properly done, will give the back an even, convex form +that should be in section, a portion of a circle. Rounding and backing +are best done after the glue has ceased to be tacky, but before it has +set hard. + + [Illustration: FIG. 37.] + +Backing is perhaps the most difficult and important operation in +forwarding. The sewing threads in the back cause that part to be +thicker than the rest of the book. Thus in a book with twenty sections +there will be in the back, in addition to the thickness of the paper, +twenty thicknesses of thread. + +If the boards were laced on to the book without rounding or backing, +and the book were pressed, the additional thickness of the back, +having to go somewhere, would cause it to go either convex or concave, +or else perhaps to crease up (see fig. 37). The object of rounding is +to control the distribution of this swelling, and to make the back +take an even and permanently convex form. + + [Illustration: FIG. 38.] + +If the boards were merely laced on after rounding, there would be a +gap between the square ends of the board and the edge of the back (see +fig. 38), though the convexity and even curve of the back would be to +some extent assured. What is done in backing is to make a groove, into +which the edges of the board will fit neatly, and to hammer the backs +of the sections over one another from the centre outwards on both +sides to form the "groove," to ensure that the back shall return to +the same form after the book has been opened. + + [Illustration: FIG. 39.] + +To back the book, backing boards are placed on each side (leaving the +slips outside) a short distance below the edge of the back (fig. 39). +The amount to leave here must be decided by the thickness of the +boards to be used. When the backing boards are in position, the book +and boards must be carefully lowered into the lying press and screwed +up very tight, great care being taken to see that the boards do not +slip, and that the book is put in evenly. Even the most experienced +forwarder will sometimes have to take a book out of the press two or +three times before he gets it in quite evenly and without allowing the +boards to slip. Unless the back has a perfectly even curve when put in +the press for backing, no amount of subsequent hammering will put it +permanently right. + + [Illustration: FIG. 40.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 41.] + +The backs of the sections should be evenly fanned out one over the +other from the centre outwards on both sides. This is done by side +strokes of the hammer, in fact by a sort of "riveting" blow, and not +by a directly crushing blow (see fig. 41, in which the arrows show the +direction of the hammer strokes). If the sections are not evenly +fanned out from the centre, but are either zigzagged by being crushed +by direct blows of the hammer, as shown in fig. 42, A, or are unevenly +fanned over more to one side than the other, as shown in fig. 42, B, +the back, although it may be even enough when first done, will +probably become uneven with use. A book in which the sections have +been crushed down, as at fig. 42, A, will be disfigured inside by +creases in the paper. + + [Illustration: FIG. 42.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 43.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 44.] + +It is a mistake to suppose that a very heavy hammer is necessary for +backing any but the largest books. For flexible books a hammer with a +comparatively small face should be used, as by its use the book can be +backed without flattening the bands. It is well to have a hammer head +of the shape shown in fig. 43. By using the thin end, the force of a +comparatively light blow, because concentrated on a small surface, is +effective. + +At fig. 44 is shown an ordinary backing hammer. + + + + + CHAPTER IX + + Cutting and Attaching Boards--Cleaning off Back--Pressing + + + CUTTING AND ATTACHING BOARDS + +The first quality of the best black board made from old rope is the +best to use for "extra" binding. It will be found to be very hard, and +not easily broken or bent at the corners. In selecting the thickness +suitable for any given book, the size and thickness of the volume +should be taken into account. The tendency of most modern binders is +to use a rather over thick board, perhaps with a view to bulk out the +volume. For manuscripts, or other books on vellum, it is best to use +wooden boards, which should be clasped. From their stability they form +a kind of permanent press, in which the vellum leaves are kept flat. +In a damp climate like that of England, vellum, absorbing moisture +from the atmosphere, soon cockles up unless it is held tightly in some +way; and when it is once cockled, the book cannot be made to shut +properly, except with very special treatment. Then also dust and damp +have ready access to the interstices of the crinkled pages, resulting +in the disfigurement so well known and so deplored by all lovers of +fine books. + +For large books a "made" board, that is, two boards pasted together, +is better than a single board of the same thickness. In making boards +a thin and a thick board should be pasted together, the thin board to +go nearest the book. It will not be necessary to put a double lining +on the inside of such boards, as a thin board will always draw a thick +one. + + [Illustration: FIG. 45.] + +If mill-boards are used they are first cut roughly to size with the +mill-board shears, screwed up in the "lying" press. The straight arm +of the shears is the one to fix in the press, for if the bent arm be +undermost, the knuckles are apt to be severely bruised against the +end. A better way of fixing the shears is shown at fig. 45. Any +blacksmith will bend the arm of the shears and make the necessary +clips. This method saves trouble and considerable wear and tear to +the "lying" press. Where a great many boards are needed, they may be +quickly cut in a board machine, but for "extra" work they should be +further trimmed in the plough, in the same way as those cut by the +shears. After the boards have been roughly cut to size, they should +have one edge cut straight with the plough. To do this one or two +pairs of boards are knocked up to the back and inserted in the cutting +side of the press, with those edges projecting which are to be cut +off, and behind them, as a "cut against," a board protected by a waste +piece of mill-board. + +The plough, held by the screw and handle, and guided by the runners on +the press, is moved backwards and forwards. A slight turn of the screw +at each movement brings the knife forward. In cutting mill-boards +which are very hard, the screw should be turned very little each time. +If press and plough are in proper order, that part of the board which +projects above the cheek of the press should be cut off, leaving the +edges perfectly square and straight. If the edge of the press has been +damaged, or is out of "truth," a cutting board may be used between +the cheek of the press and the board to be cut, making a true edge for +the knife to run on. + + [Illustration: FIG. 46.--Lying or Cutting Press] + +The position of the plough on the press is shown at fig. 46. The side +of the press with runners should be reserved for cutting, the other +side used for all other work. + + [Illustration: FIG. 47.] + +The plough knife for mill-boards should not be ground at too acute an +angle, or the edge will most likely break away at the first cut. The +shape shown at fig. 47 is suitable. The knife should be very +frequently ground, as it soon gets blunt, which adds greatly to the +labour of cutting. + +After an edge has been cut, each side should be well rubbed with a +folder to smooth down any burr left by the plough knife. Then a piece +of common paper with one edge cut straight is pasted on to one side of +the board, with the straight edge exactly up to the cut edge of the +board. Then a piece of paper large enough to cover both sides of the +board is pasted round it, and well rubbed down at the cut edge. After +having been lined, the boards are nipped in the press to ensure that +the lining paper shall stick. They are stood up to dry, with the +doubly lined side outwards. The double paper is intended to warp the +board slightly to that side, to compensate for the pull of the leather +when the book is covered. If the board is a double one, a single +lining paper will be sufficient, the thinner board helping to draw the +thicker. The paste for lining boards must be fairly thin, and very +well beaten up so as to be free from lumps. It is of the utmost +importance that the lining papers should stick properly, for unless +they stick, no subsequent covering of leather or paper can be made to +lie flat. + +When the lined boards are quite dry, they should be paired with the +doubly lined sides together, and the top back corner marked to +correspond with the marks on the top back corners of the book. Then +near the top edge, with the aid of a carpenter's square, two points +are marked in a line at right angles to the cut edge. The pair of +boards is then knocked up to the back and lowered into the press as +before, so that the plough knife will exactly cut through the points. +The same operation is repeated on the two remaining uncut edges. In +marking out those for the fore-edge, the measurement is taken with a +pair of compasses (fig. 48) from the joint of the book to the +fore-edge of the first section. If the book has been trimmed, or is to +remain uncut, a little more must be allowed for the "squares," and if +it is to be cut in the plough, it must be now decided how much is to +be cut off, remembering that it is much better to have the boards a +little too large, and so have to reduce them after the book is cut, +than to have them too small, and either be obliged to get out a new +pair of boards, or unduly cut down the book. + + [Illustration: FIG. 48.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 49.] + +The height of the boards for a book that has been trimmed, or is to +remain uncut, will be the height of the page with a small allowance at +each end for the squares. When a pair of boards has been cut all +round, it can be tested for squareness by reversing one board, when +any inequality that there may be will appear doubled. If the boards +are out of truth they should generally be put on one side, to be used +for a smaller book, and new boards got out. To correct a badly cut +pair of boards, it is necessary to reduce them in size, and the book +consequently suffers in proportion. If the boards have been found to +be truly cut, they are laid on the book, and the position of the slips +marked on them by lines at right angles to the back. A line is then +made parallel to the back, about half an inch in (see fig. 49). At the +points where the lines cross, a series of holes is punched from the +front with a binder's bodkin on a lead plate, then the board is turned +over, and a second series is punched from the back about half an inch +from the first. If the groove of the back is shallower than the +thickness of the board, the top back edge of the board should be +bevelled off with a file. This will not be necessary if the groove is +the exact depth. When the holes have been punched, it is well to cut a +series of V-shaped depressions from the first series of holes to the +back to receive the slips, or they may be too prominent when the book +is bound. It will now be necessary to considerably reduce the slips +that were frayed out after sewing, and to remove all glue or any other +matter attached to them. The extent to which they may be reduced is a +matter of nice judgment. In the desire to ensure absolute neatness in +the covering, modern binders often reduce the slips to almost nothing. +On the other hand, some go to the other extreme, and leave the cord +entire, making great ridges on the sides of the book where it is laced +in. It should be possible with the aid of the depressions, cut as +described, to use slips with sufficient margin of strength, and yet to +have no undue projection on the cover. A slight projection is not +unsightly, as it gives an assurance of sound construction and +strength, and, moreover, makes an excellent starting-point for any +pattern that may be used. When the slips have been scraped and +reduced, the portion left should consist of long straight silky +fibres. These must be well pasted, and the ends very slightly twisted. +The pointed ends are then threaded through the first series of holes +in the front of the board, and back again through the second (fig. +50). In lacing-in the slips must not be pulled so tight as to prevent +the board from shutting freely, nor left so loose as to make a +perceptible interval in the joint of the book. The pasted slips having +been laced in, their ends are cut off with a sharp knife, flush with +the surface of the board. The laced-in slips are then well hammered on +a knocking-down iron (see fig. 51), first from the front and then from +the back, care being taken that the hammer face should fall squarely, +or the slips may be cut. This should rivet them into the board, +leaving little or no projection. If in lacing in the fibres should +get twisted, no amount of hammering will make them flat, so that it is +important in pointing the ends for lacing in, that only the points are +twisted just sufficiently to facilitate the threading through the +holes, and not enough to twist the whole slip. + + [Illustration: FIG. 50.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 51.] + +To lace slips into wooden boards, holes are made with a brace and fine +twist bit, and the ends of the frayed out slips may be secured with a +wooden plug (see fig. 52). + +Old books were sometimes sewn on bands of leather, but as those sewn +on cord seem to have lasted on the whole much better, and as, +moreover, modern cord is a far more trustworthy material than modern +leather, it is better to use cord for any books bound now. + + [Illustration: FIG. 52.] + + + CLEANING OFF THE BACK AND PRESSING + + [Illustration: FIG. 53.] + +When the boards have been laced on and the slips hammered down, the +book should be pressed. Before pressing, a tin is put on each side of +both boards, one being pushed right up into the joint on the inside, +and the other up to the joint, or a little over it, on the outside. +While in the press, the back should be covered with paste and left to +soak for a few minutes. When the glue is soft the surplus on the +surface can be scraped off with a piece of wood shaped as shown in +fig. 53. For important books it is best to do this in the lying press, +but some binders prefer first to build up the books in the standing +press, and then to paste the backs and clean them off there. This has +the advantage of being a quicker method, and will, in many cases, +answer quite well. But for books that require nice adjustment it will +be found better to clean off each volume separately in the lying +press, and afterwards to build up the books and boards in the +standing press, putting the larger books at the bottom. It must be +seen that the entire pile is exactly in the centre under the screw, or +the pressure will be uneven. To ascertain if the books are built up +truly, the pile must be examined from both the front and side of the +press. Each volume must also be looked at carefully to see that it +lies evenly, and that the back is not twisted or out of shape. This is +important, as any form given to the book when it is pressed at this +stage will be permanent. + +Any coloured or newly printed plates will need tissues, as in the +former pressing; and any folded plates or diagrams or inserted letters +will need a thin tin on each side of them to prevent them from marking +the book. + +Again, the pressure on hand-printed books must not be excessive. + +The books should be left in the press at least a night. When taken out +they will be ready for headbanding, unless the edges are to be cut in +boards. + + + + + CHAPTER X + + Cutting in Boards--Gilding and Colouring Edges + + + CUTTING IN BOARDS + +The knife for cutting edges may be ground more acutely than for +cutting boards, and should be very sharp, or the paper may be torn. +The plough knife should never be ground on the under side, as if the +under side is not quite flat, it will tend to run up instead of +cutting straight across. Before beginning to cut edges, the position +of the knife should be tested carefully by screwing the plough up, +with the press a little open, and noting whereabouts on the left-hand +cheek the point of the knife comes. In a press that is true the knife +should just clear the edge of the press. If there is too much packing +the knife will cut below the edge of the press, and if too little, it +will cut above. + +"Packing" is paper inserted between the knife and the metal plate on +the plough, to correct the position of the knife. When by experiment +the exact thickness of paper necessary for any given knife is found, +the packing should be carefully kept when the knife is taken out for +grinding, and put back with it into the plough. + +The first edge to be cut is the top, and the first thing to do is to +place the boards in the position they will hold when the book is +bound. The front board is then dropped the depth of the square +required, care being taken that the back edge of the board remains +evenly in the joint. A piece of cardboard, or two or three thicknesses +of paper, are then slipped in between the end paper and the back board +to prevent the latter from being cut by the knife. The book is then +carefully lowered into the press, with the back towards the workman, +until the top edge of the front board is exactly even with the +right-hand cheek, and the press screwed up evenly. The back board +should show the depth of the square above the left-hand cheek. It is +very important that the edge of the back board should be exactly +parallel with the press, and if at first it is not so, the book must +be twisted until it is right. + +The edges can now be cut with the plough as in cutting mill-boards. +The tail of the book is cut in the same way, still keeping the back +of the book towards the workman, but cutting from the back board. + + [Illustration: FIG. 54.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 55.] + +Cutting the fore-edge is more difficult. The waste sheets at each end +of the book should be cut off flush with the edge of the board, and +marks made on them below the edge showing the amount of the square, +and consequently how much is to be cut off. The curve of the back, and +consequent curve of the fore-edge, must first be got rid of, by +inserting a pair of pieces of flat steel called "trindles" (fig. 54) +across the back, from the inside of the boards. When these are +inserted the back must be knocked quite flat, and, in the case of a +heavy book, a piece of tape may be tied round the leaves (see fig. 55) +to keep them in position. A pair of cutting boards is placed one on +each side of the leaves, the back one exactly up to the point that the +edge of the board came to, and the front one as much below that point +as it is desired the square of the fore-edge should be. The trindles +are removed while the book is held firmly between the cutting boards +by the finger and thumb; book and boards are then lowered very +carefully into the press. The top edge of the front cutting board +should be flush with the right-hand cheek of the press, and that of +the back a square above the left-hand cheek (see fig. 56). A further +test is to look along the surface of the right-hand cheek, when, if +the book has been inserted truly, the amount of the back cutting board +in sight should exactly correspond with the amount of the paper to be +cut showing above the front board. It will also be necessary before +cutting to look at the back, and to see that it has remained flat. If +it has gone back to its old curve, or the book has been put into the +press crookedly, it must be taken right out again and the trindles +inserted afresh, as it is usually a waste of time to try to adjust the +book when it is in the press. The leaves are cut in the same way as +those of the head and tail. + + [Illustration: FIG. 56.] + + + GILDING OR COLOURING THE EDGES OF A CUT BOOK + +Gilding the edges of a book cut in boards is much the same process as +that described for the trimmed book, excepting that when gilt in +boards the edges can be scraped and slightly sand-papered. It is the +custom to admire a perfectly solid gilt edge, looking more like a +solid sheet of metal, than the leaves of a book. As the essential +characteristic of a book is, that it is composed of leaves, this fact +is better accepted and emphasised by leaving the edges a little rough, +so that even when gilt they are evidently the edges of leaves of +paper, and not the sides of a block, or of something solid. + +To gild the edges of a cut book the boards should be turned back, and +cutting boards put on each side of the book flush with the edge to be +gilt. For the fore-edge the book must be thrown up with trindles +first, unless it is desired to gild in the round, a process which +gives the objectionable solid metallic edge. + +After the edges have been gilt they may be decorated by tooling, +called "gauffering." + +This may be done, either by tooling with hot tools directly on the +gold while the leaves are screwed up tightly in the press, or by +laying another coloured gold on the top of the first and tooling over +that, leaving the pattern in the new gold on the original colour. But, +to my mind, edges are best left undecorated, except for plain gold or +colour. + +If the edges are to be coloured, they should be slightly scraped, and +the colour put on with a sponge, commencing with the fore-edge, which +should be slightly fanned out, and held firmly, by placing a +pressing-board above it, and pressing with the hand on this. The +colour must be put on very thinly, commencing from the centre of the +fore-edge and working to either end, and as many coats put on as are +necessary to get the depth of colour required. The head and tail are +treated in the same way, excepting that they cannot be fanned out, and +the colour should be applied from the back to the fore-edge. If in the +fore-edge an attempt is made to colour from one end to the other, and +if in the head or tail from the fore-edge to the back, the result will +almost certainly be that the sponge will leave a thick deposit of +colour round the corner from which it starts. + +For colouring edges almost any stain will answer, or ordinary +water-colours may be used if moistened with size. + +When the colour is dry the edge should be lightly rubbed over with a +little beeswax, and burnished with a tooth burnisher (see fig. 57). + + [Illustration: FIG. 57.] + +In addition to plain colour and gilding, the edges of a book may be +decorated in a variety of ways. The fore-edge may be fanned out and +painted in any device in water-colour and afterwards gilded; the +painting will only show when the book is open. The fore-edge for this +must be cut very solid, and if the paper is at all absorbent, must be +sized with vellum size before being painted. The paints used must be +simple water-colour, and the edge must not be touched with the hand +before gilding, as if there is any grease or finger-mark on it, the +gold will not stick evenly. Painting on the fore-edge should only be +attempted when the paper of the book is thin and of good quality. More +common methods of decorating edges are by marbling and sprinkling, but +they are both inferior to plain colouring. Some pleasant effects are +sometimes obtained by marbling edges and then gilding over the +marbling. + + + + + CHAPTER XI + + Headbanding + + + HEADBANDS + +Modern headbands are small pieces of vellum, gut, or cord sewn on to +the head and tail of a book with silk or thread. They resist the +strain on the book when it is taken from the shelf. The vellum slip or +cord must be of such a depth, that when covered with silk it will be +slightly lower than the square of the boards. The cut edge of the +vellum always slants, and the slip must be placed in position so that +it tilts back rather than forward on the book. + +To start, ease the boards slightly on the slips and pull them down +with the top edges flush with the top edge of the leaves. If this is +not done the silk catches on the projecting edges as the band is +worked. Stand the book in a finishing press, fore-edge to the worker, +and tilted forward so as to give a good view of the headband as it is +worked. The light must come from the left, and well on to the work. A +needle threaded with silk is put in at the head of the book, and +through the centre of the first section after the end papers, and +drawn out at the back below the kettle stitch with about two-thirds of +the silk. The needle is again inserted in the same place, and drawn +through until a loop of silk is left. The vellum slip is placed in the +loop, with the end projecting slightly to the left. It must be held +steady by a needle placed vertically behind it, with its point between +the leaves of the first section. The needle end of silk is then behind +the headband, and the shorter end in front. The needle end is brought +over from the back with the right hand, passed into the left hand, and +held taut. The short end is picked up with the right hand, brought +over the needle end under the vellum, and pulled tight from the back. +This is repeated; the back thread is again drawn up and over the band +to the front, the needle end crosses it, and is drawn behind under the +vellum slip, and so on. The crossing of the threads form a "bead," +which must be watched, and kept as tight as possible, and well down on +the leaves of the book. Whenever the vellum or string begins to shift +in position, it must be tied down. This is done when the needle end of +silk is at the back. A finger of the left hand is placed on the thread +of silk at the back, and holds it firmly just below the slip. The +needle end is then brought up and over the slip, but instead of +crossing it with the front thread, the needle is passed between the +leaves and out at the back of the book, below the kettle stitch, and +the thread gradually drawn tight, and from under the left-hand finger. +The loop so made will hold the band firmly, and the silk can then be +brought up and over the slip and crossed in the usual way. The band +should be worked as far as the end papers, and should be finished with +a double "tie down," after which the front thread is drawn under the +slip to the back. Both the ends of silk are then cut off to about half +an inch, frayed out, and pasted down as flatly as possible on the back +of the book. + +The band should be tied down frequently. It is not too much to tie +down every third time the needle end of the silk comes to the back. +To make good headbands the pull on the silk must be even throughout. + +When the ends of the silk are pasted down, the ends of the vellum slip +are cut off as near the silk as possible. The correct length of the +headband is best judged by pressing the boards together with thumb and +finger at the opposite ends of the band, so as to compress the +sections into their final compass. If the band then buckles in the +least, it is too long and must be shortened. + +The mediæval headbands were sewn with the other bands (see fig. 32), +and were very strong, as they were tied down at every section. Modern +worked headbands, although not so strong, are, if frequently tied +down, strong enough to resist any reasonable strain. There are many +other ways of headbanding, but if the one described is mastered, the +various other patterns will suggest themselves if variety is needed. +For very large books a double headband may be worked on two pieces of +gut or string--a thick piece with a thin piece in front. The string +should first be soaked in thin glue and left to dry. Such a band is +worked with a figure of eight stitch. Headbands may also be worked +with two or three shades of silk. As vellum is apt to get hard and to +break when it is used for headbanding, it is well to paste two pieces +together with linen in between, and to cut into strips as required. + +Machine-made headbands can be bought by the yard. Such bands are +merely glued on, but as they have but little strength, should not be +used. + +Where leather joints are used, the headbands may be worked on pieces +of soft leather sized and screwed up. If the ends are left long and +tied in front while the book is being covered, they may be +conveniently let into grooves in the boards before the leather joint +is pasted down. This method, I think, has little constructive value, +but it certainly avoids the rather unfinished look of the cut-off +headband. + + + + + CHAPTER XII + + Preparing for Covering--Paring Leather--Covering--Mitring + Corners--Filling-in Boards + + + PREPARING FOR COVERING + +After the headband is worked, a piece of brown or other stout paper +should be well glued on at the head and tail, care being taken that it +is firmly attached to the back and the headband. When dry, the part +projecting above the headband is neatly cut off, and the part on the +back well sand-papered, to remove any irregularity caused by the +tie-downs attaching the headband. For most books this will be quite +sufficient lining up, but very heavy books are best further lined up +between the bands with linen, or thin leather. This can be put on by +pasting the linen or leather and giving the back a very thin coat of +glue. + +The only thing now left to do before covering will be to set the +squares and to cut off a small piece of the back corner of each board +at the head and tail, to make it possible for the boards to open and +shut without dragging the head-cap out of place. The form of the +little piece to be cut off varies with each individual binder, but I +have found for an octavo book that a cut slightly sloping from the +inside cutting off the corner about an eighth of an inch each way, +gives the best result (see fig. 58). When the corner has been cut off, +the boards should be thrown back, and the slips between the book and +the board well pasted. When these have soaked a little, the squares of +the boards are set; that is, the boards are fixed so that exactly the +same square shows on each board above head and tail. A little larger +square is sometimes an advantage at the tail to keep the head-cap well +off the shelf, the essential thing being that both head and both tail +squares should be the same. In the case of an old book that has not +been recut, the edges will often be found to be uneven. In such cases +the boards must be made square, and so set that the book stands up +straight. + + [Illustration: FIG. 58.] + +When the slips have been pasted and the squares set, tins can be put +inside and outside the boards, and the book given a slight nip in the +press to flatten the slips. Only a comparatively light pressure should +be given, or the lining up of the headbands or back will become +cockled and detached. + + + PARING LEATHER + +While the slips are being set in the press the cover can be got out. +Judgment is necessary in cutting out covers. One workman will be able, +by careful cutting, to get six covers out of a skin where another will +only get four. The firm part of the skin is the back and sides, and +this only should be used for the best books. The fleshy parts on the +flanks and belly will not wear sufficiently well to be suitable for +good bookbinding. + +The skin should be cut out leaving about an inch all round for turning +in when the book is covered, and when cut out it must be pared. If the +leather is of European manufacture most of the paring will have been +done before it is sold, and the leather manufacturer will have shaved +it to any thickness required. This is a convenience that is partly +responsible for the unduly thin leather that is commonly used. The +better plan is to get the leather rather thick, and for the binder to +pare it down where necessary. For small books it is essential, in +order that the covers may open freely, and the boards not look clumsy, +that the leather should be very thin at the joint and round the edges +of the boards. For such books it is very important that a small, +naturally thin skin should be used that will not have to be unduly +pared down, and that the large and thicker skins should be kept for +large books. + +Binders like using large skins because there is much less waste, but +if these skins are used for small books, so much of the leather +substance has to be pared away, that only the comparatively brittle +grained surface remains. By the modern process of dyeing this surface +is often to some extent injured, and its strength sometimes totally +destroyed. + +When the cover has been cut to size the book is laid on it with the +boards open, and a pencil line drawn round them, a mark being made to +show where the back comes. The skin is then pared, making it thin +where the edge of the boards will come. Great care must be taken that +the thinning does not commence too abruptly, or a ridge will be +apparent when the leather is on the book. + +The paring must be done quite smoothly and evenly. Every unevenness +shows when the cover is polished and pressed. Care is needed in +estimating the amount that will have to be pared off that part of the +leather that covers the back and joints. The object of the binder +should be to leave these portions as thick as he can consistently with +the free opening of the boards. The leather at the head-caps must be +pared quite thin, as the double thickness on the top of the headband +is apt to make this part project above the edges of the board. This is +a great trouble, especially at the tail, where, if the head-cap +projects beyond the boards, the whole weight of the book rests on it, +and it is certain to be rubbed off when the book is put on the shelf. + + [Illustration: FIG. 59.] + +The method of paring with a French knife (fig. 60, A)--the only form +of knife in use by binders that gives sufficient control over the +leather--is shown at fig. 59. To use this knife properly, practice is +required. The main thing to learn is that the knife must be used quite +flat, and made to cut by having a very slight burr on the under +side. This burr is got by rubbing the knife on the lithographic stone +on which the paring is done. The handle of the knife should never be +raised to such a height above the surface of the stone that it is +possible to get the under fingers of the right hand over the edge of +the stone. Another form of knife suitable for paring the edges of +leather is shown at fig. 60, B. + + [Illustration: FIG. 60.] + +To test if the leather has been sufficiently pared, fold it over where +the edge of the board will come, and run the finger along the folded +leather. If the paring has been done properly it will feel quite even +the whole length of the fold; but if there are any irregularities, +they will be very apparent, and the paring must be gone over again +till they have disappeared. When even, the book must be again laid on +the leather with the boards open, and a pencil line drawn round as +before. If there are leather joints they will have been pared before +the book was sewn, and care must be taken in paring the turn-in of the +cover that it is of the same thickness as the leather joint, or it +will be impossible to make a neat mitre at the back corners. + + + COVERING + +Before covering, the book must be looked at to see that the bands are +quite square and at equal distances apart. Any slight errors in this +respect can be corrected by holding the book in the lying press +between backing boards and gently tapping the bands from one side or +the other with a piece of wood struck with a hammer. This is best done +when the back is cleaned off, but by damping the bands slightly it may +be done just before covering. The squares must be looked to, and the +edges of the board well rubbed with a folder, or tapped with a hammer, +to remove any burr that may have been caused by the plough knife, or +any chance blow. The back is then moistened with paste, or, in the +case of a very large book, with thin glue, and left to soak. The cover +can then be well pasted with thickish paste, that has been previously +well beaten up. When the cover is pasted, it can be folded with the +pasted sides together and left to soak for a few minutes while the +back is again looked to, and any roughness smoothed down with the +folder. Before covering, the bands should be nipped up with band +nippers (see fig. 61) to make sure that they are sharp. The coverer +should have ready before covering a clean paring stone, one or two +folders, a pair of nickeled-band nippers, a clean sponge, a little +water in a saucer, a piece of thread, and a strip of smooth wood +(boxwood for preference), called a band stick, used for smoothing the +leather between the bands, a pair of scissors, and a small sharp +knife, a pair of waterproof sheets the size of the book, and, if the +book is a large one, a pair of tying up boards, with tying up string, +and two strips of wood covered in blotting-paper or leather. It is +best to have the band nippers for covering nickeled to prevent the +iron from staining the leather. The waterproof sheets recommended are +thin sheets of celluloid, such as are used by photographers. + + [Illustration: FIG. 61.] + +When these things are ready, the pasted cover should be examined and +repasted if it has dried in any place. The amount of paste to be used +for covering can only be learned by experience. A thick leather will +take more than a thin one, but, provided the cover sticks tight at +every point, the less paste used the better. If there is too much, it +will rub up and make very ugly, uneven places under the leather; and +if there is too little, the cover will not stick. + + [Illustration: FIG. 62.] + +Take the pasted cover and look to see which is the better side of the +leather. Lay the front of the book down on this exactly up to the +marks that show the beginning of the turn-in. Then draw the leather +over the back and on to the other side, pulling it slightly, but not +dragging it. Then stand the book on its fore-edge on a piece of waste +paper, with the leather turned out on either side, as shown at fig. +62, and nip up the bands with nickeled band nippers (see fig. 63). +After this is done there will probably be a good deal of loose leather +on the back. This can be got rid of by dragging the leather on to the +side; but by far the better plan, when the back is large enough to +allow it, is to work up the surplus leather on to the back between the +panels. This requires a good deal of practice, and is very seldom +done; but it can be done with most satisfactory results. The book +should now have the leather on the back stretched lengthways to make +it cover the bands, but not stretched the other way, and the leather +on the boards should lie perfectly flat and not be stretched at all. +The leather on the fore-edge of the board is then rubbed with the hand +on the outside, and then on to the edge, and then on the inside. The +edge and the inside are smoothed down with a folder, and any excessive +paste on the inside squeezed out and removed. When the fore-edge of +both boards has been turned in, the head and tail must also be turned +in. A little paste is put on to that part of the leather that will +turn in below the headband, and this portion is neatly tucked in +between the boards and the back. The turned-in edge must lie quite +evenly, or it will result in a ridge on the back. The leather is +turned in on the two boards in the same way as described for the +fore-edge, and the edge rubbed square with a folder. At fig. 64 is +shown a convenient form of folder for covering. At the corners the +leather must be pulled over as far as possible with two folders +meeting at the extreme point, the object being to avoid a cut in the +leather at the corner of the board. The folds so formed must be cut +off with the scissors (see fig. 65, A), then one edge tucked neatly +under the other, (B). Care must be taken throughout not to soil the +edges of the leaves. + + [Illustration: FIG. 63.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 64.] + +At the headband the fold of leather, pared thin for the purpose, must +be squeezed together with a folder and pulled out a little to leave an +even projection that can be turned over to form a head-cap. When both +ends have been turned in, in this way, the boards must each be opened +and pressed against a straight-edge held in the joint (fig. 66) to +ensure that there is enough leather in the turn-in of the joint to +allow the cover to open freely; and the leather of the turn-in at the +head and tail must be carefully smoothed down with a folder. + + [Illustration: FIG. 65.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 66.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 67.] + +The book may now be shut up if a waterproof sheet is put at each end +to prevent the damp of the cover from cockling the paper. It must then +be stood on its fore-edge and the bands again nipped up with a pair of +nickeled band nippers, and the panels between the bands well pressed +down with the band stick to cause the leather to stick at every point. +A piece of thread is tied round the back from head to tail, squeezing +the leather in the gap caused by the corners of the board having been +cut off. The book is then turned up on end, resting the tail on a +folder or anything that will keep the projecting leather for the +head-cap from being prematurely flattened. The head-caps (fig. 67) +must now be set. To do this the first finger of the left hand is +placed behind it, and a sharp folder is pressed into the corners of +the head-cap between the headband and the thread. The leather is then +tapped over the headband, and the whole turned over on the stone and +rubbed at the back with a folder. This operation requires great +nicety. The shape of head-cap is shown at fig. 67. The nice adjustment +of head-caps and corners, although of no constructional value, are the +points by which the forwarding of a book is generally valued. + + [Illustration: FIG. 68.] + +If the book is a large one, it will be best to tie it up. The method +of tying up is shown in fig. 68. The tying up cords will make marks at +the side of the bands, that are not unpleasant on a large book. If +they are objected to, it is best to tie the book up for about +half-an-hour, and then to untie it, and smooth out the marks with the +band stick. Even with small books, if the leather seems inclined to +give trouble, it is well to tie them up for a short time, then to +untie them, to smooth out any marks or inequalities, and to tie them +up again. + + + MITRING CORNERS AND FILLING IN + +A book that has been covered should be left under a light weight until +the next day, with waterproof sheets between the damp cover and the +end paper to prevent the sheets of the book from cockling through the +damp. When the cover is thoroughly set the boards should be carefully +opened, pressing them slightly to the joint to ensure a square and +even joint. If, as is sometimes the case, the turn-in of the leather +over the joint seems to be inclined to bind, the cover should be +merely opened half-way, and the leather of the turns-in of the joint +damped with a sponge, and left to soak for a short time, and then the +cover can usually be opened without any dragging. A section of a good +joint is shown at fig. 69, A, and a bad one at B. + + [Illustration: FIG. 69.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 70.] + +The next operation will be to fill in the board and mitre the corners. +To fill in the boards, a piece of paper as thick as the turn-in of the +leather (engineer's cartridge paper answers very well) should be cut a +little smaller than the board, with one edge cut straight; then with +the straight edge adjusted to the back of the board, and a weight +placed on the centre, the paper is marked round with dividers set to +the intended width of the turn-in of the leather. Then with a sharp +knife, paper and leather may be cut through together. The paper should +then be marked to show its position on the board, and the ragged edges +of the leather trimmed off. This will leave an even margin of leather +on three sides of the inside of the board, and a piece of paper that +will exactly fit the remaining space. The corners must next be +mitred. To do this, both thicknesses of leather are cut through from +the corner of the board to the corner of the inside margin. The knife +should be held slightly slanting to make a cut, as shown at fig. 70. +The corners should then be thoroughly damped, and the overlapping +leather from both sides removed, leaving what should be a neat and +straight join. If the leather at the extreme corner should prove to +be, as is often the case, too thick to turn in neatly, the corners +should be opened out and the leather pared against the thumb nail, and +then well pasted and turned back again. The extreme corner may be +slightly tapped on the stone with a hammer, and the sides rubbed with +a folder, to ensure squareness and sharpness. When all four corners +have been mitred, the filling in papers can be pasted in. As they will +probably stretch a little with the paste, it will be well to cut off a +slight shaving, and they should then fit exactly. When the boards have +been filled in and well rubbed down, the book should be left for some +hours with the boards standing open to enable the filling-in papers to +draw the boards slightly inwards to overcome the pull of the leather. + +In cases where there are leather joints the operation is as follows: +The waste end paper is removed, and the edge of the board and joint +carefully cleaned from glue and all irregularities, and if, as is most +likely, it is curved from the pull of the leather, the board must be +tapped or ironed down until it is perfectly straight. If there is +difficulty in making the board lie straight along the joint before +pasting down, it will be well first to fill in with a well pasted and +stretched thin paper, which, if the boards are left open, will draw +them inwards. If the leather joint is pasted down while the board is +curved, the result will be a most unsightly projection on the outside. +When the joint has been cleaned out, and the board made to lie flat, +the leather should be pasted down and mitred. The whole depth of the +turn-in of the covering leather in the joint must not be removed, or +it will be unduly weakened. The mitring line should not come from the +extreme corner, but rather farther down, and there it is well to +leave a certain amount of overlap in the joint, for which purpose the +edge of the turn-in leather and the edge of the leather joint should +be pared thin. After pasting down the leather joints the boards should +be left open till they are dry (see fig. 71). The turn-in and leather +joint are then trimmed out, leaving an even margin of leather all +round the inside of the board, and the panel in the centre filled in +with a piece of thick paper. + + [Illustration: FIG. 71.] + +When corners and filling in are dry, the boards may be shut up, and +the book is ready for finishing. + +It is a common practice to wash up the covers of books that have +become stained with a solution of oxalic acid in water. This is a +dangerous thing to do, and is likely to seriously injure the leather. +Leather, when damp, must not be brought in contact with iron or steel +tools, or it may be badly stained. + + + + + CHAPTER XIII + + Library Binding--Binding very Thin Books--Scrap-Books--Binding on + Vellum--Books covered with Embroidery + + + LIBRARY BINDING + + _Specifications III and IV_ + +To produce cheaper bindings, as must be done in the case of large +libraries, some alteration of design is necessary. Appearance must to +some extent be sacrificed to strength and durability, and not, as is +too often the case, strength and durability sacrificed to appearance. +The essentials of any good binding are, that the sections should be +sound in themselves, and that there should be no plates or odd sheets +"pasted on," or anything that would prevent any leaf from opening +right to the back; the sewing must be thoroughly sound; the sewing +materials of good quality; the slips firmly attached to the boards; +and the leather fairly thick and of a durable kind, although for the +sake of cheapness it may be necessary to use skins with flaws on the +surface. Such flawed skins cost half, or less than half, the price of +perfect skins, and surface flaws do not injure the strength of the +leather. By sewing on tape, great flexibility of the back is obtained, +and much time, and consequent expense, in covering is saved. By using +a French joint much thicker leather than usual can be used, with +corresponding gain in strength. + +To bind an octavo or smaller book according to the specification given +(III, page 307); first make all sections sound, and guard all plates +or maps. Make end papers with zigzags. After the sections have been +thoroughly pressed, the book will be ready for marking up and sewing. +In marking up for sewing on tapes, two marks will be necessary for +each tape. When there are several books of the same size to be sewn, +they may be placed one above the other in the sewing press, and sewn +on to the same tapes. It will be found that the volumes when sewn can +easily be slid along the tapes, which must be long enough to provide +sufficient for the slips of each. The split boards may be "made" of a +thin black mill-board with a thicker straw-board. To "make" a pair of +split boards the pieces of straw-and mill-board large enough to make +the two are got out, and the straw-board well glued, except in the +centre, which should previously be covered with a strip of thin +mill-board or tin about four inches wide. The strip is then removed, +and the thin black board laid on the glued straw-board and nipped in +the press. When dry, the made board is cut down the centre, which will +leave two boards glued together all over except for two inches on one +side of each. The boards then are squared to the book in a mill-board +machine. The back of the book is glued up, and in the ordinary way +rounded and backed. The edges may be cut with a guillotine. The ends +of the tapes are glued on the waste end paper, which should be cut off +about an inch and a half from the back. The split boards are then +opened and glued, and the waste end papers with slips attached are +placed in them (see fig. 72), and the book nipped in the press. To +form a "French joint" the boards should be kept about an eighth of an +inch from the back of the book. The book is then ready for covering. +The leather must not be pared too thin, as the French joint will give +plenty of play and allow the use of much thicker leather than usual. +If time and money can be spared, headbands can be worked, but they are +not absolutely necessary, and a piece of string may be inserted into +the turning of the leather at head and tail in the place of them. When +the book is covered, a piece of string should be tied round the +joints, and the whole given a nip in the press. The corners of the +boards should be protected by small tips of vellum or parchment. The +sides may be covered with good paper, which will wear quite as well as +cloth, look better, and cost less. + + [Illustration: FIG. 72.] + +The lettering of library books is very important (see Chapter XV). + + + BINDING VERY THIN BOOKS + +Books consisting of only one section may be bound as follows:--A sheet +of paper to match the book, and two coloured sheets for end papers, +are folded round the section, and a "waste" paper put over all. A +strip of linen is pasted to the back of the waste, and the whole sewn +together by stitching through the fold. The waste may be cut off and +inserted with the linen in a split board, as for library bindings. The +back edges of the board should be filed thin, and should not be placed +quite up to the back, to allow for a little play in the joints. + +The leather is put on in the ordinary way, except that the linen at +the head and tail must be slit a little to allow for the turn in. If +waterproof sheets are first inserted, the ends may be pasted, the +boards shut, and the book nipped in the press. By substituting a piece +of thin leather for the outside coloured paper, a leather joint can be +made. + + + SCRAP-BOOKS + +Scrap-books, into which autograph letters, sketches, or other papers +can be pasted, may be made as follows:--Enough paper of good quality +is folded up to the size desired, and pieces of the same paper, of the +same height, and about two inches wide, are folded down the centre and +inserted between the backs of the larger sheets, as shown at fig. 73. +It is best not to insert these smaller pieces in the centre of the +section, as they would be troublesome in sewing. If, after sewing, the +book is filled up with waste paper laid between the leaves, it will +make it manageable while being forwarded. + +It is best to use a rather darkly-toned or coloured paper, as, if a +quite white paper is used, any letters or papers that have become +soiled, will look unduly dirty. + + [Illustration: FIG. 73.] + +Autograph letters may be mounted in the following ways:--If the letter +is written upon both sides of a single leaf, it may be either +"inlaid," or guarded, as shown at fig. 74, A. A letter on a folded +sheet of notepaper should have the folds strengthened with a guard of +strong thin paper, and be attached by a guard made, as shown at fig. +74, B; or if on very heavy paper, by a double guard, as shown at fig. +74, C. Torn edges of letters may be strengthened with thin Japanese +paper. + + [Illustration: FIG. 74.] + +Thin paper, written or printed only on one side, may be mounted on a +page of the book. It is better to attach these by their extreme edges +only, as if pasted down all over they may cause the leaves to curl up. + +Letters or any writing or drawing in lead pencil should be fixed with +size before being inserted. + +Silver prints of photographs are best mounted with some very +quick-drying paste, such as that sold for the purpose by the +photographic dealers. If the leaf on which they are mounted is +slightly damped before the photograph is pasted down, it will be less +likely to cockle. If this is done, waterproof sheets should be put on +each side of the leaf while it dries. If photographs are attached by +the edges only, they will not be so liable to draw the paper on which +they are mounted; but sometimes they will not lie flat themselves. + +In cases where very thick letters or papers have to be pasted in, a +few more leaves of the book should be cut out, to make a corresponding +thickness at the back. + + + VELLUM BINDINGS + +Vellum covers may be limp without boards, and merely held in place by +the slips being laced through them, or they may be pasted down on +boards in much the same way as leather. + +If the edges of a book for limp vellum binding are to be trimmed or +gilt, that should be done before sewing. For the ends a folded piece +of thin vellum may replace the paste-down paper. The sewing should be +on strips of vellum. The back is left square after glueing, and +headbands are worked as for leather binding, or may be worked on +strips of leather, with ends left long enough to lace into the vellum +(see p. 151). The back and headbands are lined with leather, and the +book is ready for the cover. + +A piece of vellum should be cut out large enough to cover the book, +and to leave a margin of an inch and a half all round. This is marked +with a folder on the under side, as shown at fig. 75, A. Spaces 1 and +2 are the size of the sides of the book with surrounding squares; +space 3 is the width of the back, and space 4 the width for the +overlaps on the fore-edge. The corners are cut, as shown at 5, and the +edges are folded over, as at B. The overlap 4 is then turned over, and +the back folded, as at C. The slips are now laced through slits made +in the vellum. + + [Illustration: FIG. 75.] + +A piece of loose, toned paper may be put inside the cover to prevent +any marks on the book from showing through; and pieces of silk ribbon +of good quality are laced in as shown, going through both cover and +vellum ends, if there are any, and are left with ends long enough to +tie (see fig. 76). + + [Illustration: FIG. 76.] + +If paper ends are used, the silk tape need only be laced through the +cover, and the end paper pasted over it on the inside. + +Another simple way of keeping a vellum book shut is shown at fig. 77. +A bead is attached to a piece of gut laced into the vellum, and a loop +of catgut is laced in the other side, and looped over the bead as +shown. + +If the book is to have stiff boards, and the vellum is to be pasted +to them, it is best to sew the sections on tapes or vellum slips, to +back the book as for leather, and to insert the ends of the slips in a +split board, leaving a French joint, as described for library +bindings. Vellum is very stiff, and, if it is pasted directly to the +back, the book would be hard to open. It is best in this case to use +what is known as a hollow back. + + [Illustration: FIG. 77.] + +To make a hollow back, a piece of stout paper is taken which measures +once the length of the back and three times the width. This is folded +in three. The centre portion is glued to the back and well rubbed +down, and the overlapping edges turned back and glued one to the other +(fig. 78). This will leave a flat, hollow casing, formed by the single +paper glued to the back of the book and the double paper to which the +vellum may be attached. Or it is better to line up the back with +leather, and to place a piece of thick paper the size of the back on +to the pasted vellum where the back will be when the book is covered. + +When the book is ready for covering, the vellum should be cut out and +lined with paper. In lining vellum the paste must be free from lumps, +and great care must be taken not to leave brush marks. To avoid this, +when the lining paper has been pasted it can be laid, paste downwards, +on a piece of waste paper and quickly pulled up again; this should +remove surplus paste and get rid of any marks left by the brush. When +the vellum has been lined with paper, it should be given a light nip +in the press between blotting-paper, and while still damp it is +pasted, the book covered, and the corners mitred. A piece of thin +string is tied round the head-caps and pressed into the French joint. + + [Illustration: FIG. 78.] + +Waterproof sheets are placed inside the covers, and the book then +nipped in the press and left to dry under a light weight. If the +vellum is very stiff and difficult to turn in, it may be moistened +with a little warm water to soften it. + +Books with raised bands have sometimes been covered with vellum, but +the back becomes so stiff and hard, that this method, though it looks +well enough, cannot be recommended. Vellum is a durable material, and +can be had of good quality, but it is so easily influenced by changes +of temperature, that it is rather an unsuitable material for most +bindings. + + + BOOKS COVERED WITH EMBROIDERY AND WOVEN MATERIAL + +To cover a book with embroidered material bind it with split boards, a +French joint, and a hollow back, as described for vellum (see fig. +78). Glue the back of the book with thin glue well worked up, and +turning in the head and tail of the embroidery, put the book down on +it so that the back will come exactly in the right place. Press down +the embroidery with the hand to make sure that it sticks. When it is +firmly attached to the back, first one board and then the other should +be glued, and the embroidery laid down on it. Lastly, the edges are +glued and stuck down on the inside of the board, and the corners +mitred. Velvet or any other thick material can be put down in the same +way. For very thin material that the glue would penetrate and soil, +the cover should be left loose, and only attached where it turns in. A +loose lining of good paper may be put between the book and the cover. + +The inside corners where the cover has been cut should be neatly sewn +up. The edges of the boards and head-caps may be protected all round +with some edging worked in metal thread. It is well in embroidering +book covers to arrange for some portion of the pattern to be of raised +metal stitches, forming bosses that will protect the surface from +wear. + +Should any glue chance to get on the surface, the cover should be held +in the steam of a kettle and the glue wiped off, and the cover again +steamed. + + + + + CHAPTER XIV + + Decoration--Tools--Finishing--Tooling on + Vellum--Inlaying on Leather + + + DECORATION OF BINDING--TOOLS + +The most usual, and perhaps the most characteristic, way of decorating +book covers is by "tooling." Tooling is the impression of heated +(finishing) tools. Finishing tools are stamps of metal that have a +device cut on the face, and are held in wooden handles (fig. 79). + + [Illustration: FIG. 79.] + +Tooling may either be blind tooling, that is, a simple impression of +the hot tools, or gold tooling, in which the impression of the tool is +left in gold on the leather. + +Tools for blind tooling are best "die-sunk," that is, cut like a seal. +The "sunk" part of the face of the tool, which may be more or less +modelled, forms the pattern, and the higher part depresses the +leather to form a ground. In tools for gold tooling, the surface of +the tool gives the pattern. + +Tools may be either complex or simple in design, that is to say, each +tool may form a complete design with enclosing border, as the lower +ones on page 323, or it may be only one element of a design, as at +fig. 100. Lines may be run with a fillet (see fig. 88), or made with +gouges or pallets. + +Gouges are curved line tools. They are made in sets of arcs of +concentric circles (see fig. 80, A). The portion of the curves cut off +by the dotted line C will make a second set with flatter curves. +Gouges are used for tooling curved lines. + + [Illustration: FIG. 80.] + +A "pallet" may be described as a segment of a roll or fillet set in a +handle, and used chiefly for putting lines or other ornaments across +the backs of books (see fig. 81). A set of one-line pallets is shown +at fig. 80, B. + +Fillets are cut with two or more lines on the edge. Although the use +of double-line fillets saves time, I have found that a few single-line +fillets with edges of different gauges are sufficient for running all +straight lines, and that the advantage of being able to alter the +distances between any parallel lines is ample compensation for the +extra trouble involved by their use. In addition to the rigid stamps, +an endless pattern for either blind or gold tooling may be engraved on +the circumference of a roll, and impressed on the leather by wheeling. + + [Illustration: FIG. 81.] + +The use of a roll in finishing dates from the end of the fifteenth +century, and some satisfactory bindings were decorated with its aid. +The ease with which it can be used has led in modern times to its +abuse, and I hardly know of a single instance of a modern binding on +which rolls have been used for the decoration with satisfactory +results. The gain in time and trouble is at the expense of freedom and +life in the design; and for extra binding it is better to build up a +pattern out of small tools of simple design, which can be arranged in +endless variety, than to use rolls. + +Tools for hand-tooling must not be too large, or it will be impossible +to obtain clear impressions. One inch square for blind tools, or +three-quarters of an inch for gold tools, is about the maximum size +for use with any certainty and comfort. Tools much larger than this +have to be worked with the aid of a press, and are called blocks. + + + FINISHING + +The first thing the finisher does to a book is to go over the back +with a polisher and smooth out any irregularities. + +Two forms of polisher are shown at fig. 82. The lower one is suitable +for polishing backs and inside margins, and the upper for sides. +Polishers must be used warm, but not too hot, or the leather may be +scorched, and they must be kept moving on the leather. Before using +they should be rubbed bright on a piece of the finest emery paper, and +polished on a piece of leather. New polishers often have sharp edges +that would mark the leather. These must be rubbed down with files and +emery-paper. + +Leathers with a prominent grained surface, such as morocco, seal or +pig skin, may either have the grain rough or crushed flat. If there is +to be much finishing, the grain had better be crushed, but for large +books that are to have only a small amount of finishing, the grain is +best left unflattened. + + [Illustration: FIG. 82.] + +If the grain of the leather is to be "crushed," it may be done at this +stage. To do this, one board at a time is damped with a sponge and put +in the standing-press, with a pressing plate on the grained side, and +a pad of blotting-paper, or some such yielding substance, on the other +(see fig. 83). The press is then screwed up tight, and the board left +for a short time. For some leathers this operation is best done after +the binding has been finished and varnished, in which case, of course, +the boards cannot be damped before pressing. No flexibly sewn book +should be subject to great pressure after it has been covered, or the +leather on the back may crinkle up and become detached. + +The next thing will be to decide what lettering and what decoration, +if any, is to be put on the volume. The lettering should be made out +first (see page 215). If the book is to be at all elaborately +decorated, paper patterns must be made out, as described in Chapter +XVI. + + [Illustration: FIG. 83.] + +For tooling the back, the book is held in the finishing press between +a pair of backing boards lined with leather (see fig. 84), and the +paper pattern put across the back, with the ends either slightly +pasted to the backing boards, or caught between them and the book. + +For the sides, the pattern is very slightly pasted on to the leather +at the four corners. The book is then put in the finishing press, +with the board to be tooled open and flat on the cheek of the press, +unless the book is a large one, when it is easier to tool the sides +out of the press. + + [Illustration: FIG. 84.] + +The selected tools, which should be ready on the stove (see fig. 85), +are one at a time cooled on a wet pad, and then pressed in their +former impressions upon the paper. The degree of heat required varies +a good deal with the leather used, and will only be learned by +experience. It is better to have the tool too cool than too hot, as it +is easy to deepen impressions after the paper is removed; but if they +are already too deep, or are burnt, it will be impossible to finish +clearly. Generally speaking, tools should hiss very slightly when put +on the cooling pad. In cooling, care must be taken to put the shank +of the tools on to the wet pad, as, if the end only is cooled, the +heat is apt to run down again, and the tool will still be too hot. + + [Illustration: FIG. 85.--Finishing Stove] + +Before removing the paper, one corner at a time should be lifted up, +and the leather examined to see that no part of the pattern has been +missed. + +In some patterns where the design is close, or in which the background +is dotted in, it will not be necessary to blind in every leaf and dot +through the paper. If the lines with perhaps the terminal leaves are +blinded in, the rest can be better worked directly through the gold. +This method implies the "glairing in" of the whole surface. It is not +suitable for open patterns, where the glaire might show on the surface +of the leather. + +If the book is only to have lines, or some simple straight line +pattern, it is often easier to mark it up without the paper, with a +straight-edge and folder. In panelling a back, the side lines of all +the panels should be marked in at the same time with a folder, working +against the straight-edge, held firmly at the side of the back. If the +panels are worked separately, it is difficult to get the side lines +squarely above each other. The lines at the top and bottom of the +panel may be marked in with a folder, guided by a piece of stiff +vellum held squarely across the back. If there are lines to be run +round the board, they can be marked in with a pair of dividers guided +by the edge of the board, except those at the back. These must be +measured from the fore-edge of the board and run in with straight-edge +and folder. + +When straight lines occur in patterns that are blinded through the +paper, it will be enough if the ends only are marked through with a +small piece of straight line, and the lines completed with +straight-edge and folder, after the paper has been removed. + +Unless the finisher has had considerable experience, it is best to +deepen all folder lines by going over them in blind with a fillet or +piece of straight line. + +When the pattern has been worked in blind, either through a paper +pattern or directly on to the leather with the tools, and any inlays +stuck on (see page 213), the cover should be well washed with clean +water. Some finishers prefer to use common vinegar or diluted acetic +acid for washing up books. If vinegar is used it must be of the best +quality, and must not contain any sulphuric acid. Cheap, crude vinegar +is certain to be injurious to the leather. Porous leather, such as +calf or sheep skin, will need to be washed over with paste-water, and +then sized. + +Paste-water is paste and water well beaten up to form a milky liquid, +and is applied to the leather as evenly as possible with a sponge. +When the paste-water is dry, the leather should be washed with size. +Size can be made by boiling down vellum cuttings, or by dissolving +gelatine or isinglass in warm water. + +For the less porous leathers, such as morocco, seal, or pig skin, no +paste-water or size is necessary, unless the skin happens to be a +specially open one, or the cover has been cut from the flank or belly. +Then it is best to put a little paste in the vinegar or water used for +washing up. When the leather is nearly, but not quite, dry the +impressions of the tools must be painted with glaire. Finishers' +glaire may be made from the white of eggs well beaten up, diluted with +about half as much vinegar, and allowed to settle. Some finishers +prefer to use old, evil-smelling glaire, but provided it is a day old, +and has been well beaten up, fresh glaire will work quite well. + +The impressions of any heavy or solid tools should be given a second +coat of glaire when the first has ceased to be "tacky," and if the +leather is at all porous, all impressions had better have a second +coat. + +As glaire is apt to show and disfigure the leather when dry, it is +best to use it as sparingly as possible, and, excepting where the +pattern is very close, to confine it to the impressions of the tools. +It is not at all an uncommon thing to see the effect of an otherwise +admirably tooled binding spoilt by a dark margin round the tools, +caused by the careless use of glaire. Glaire should not be used unless +it is quite liquid and clean. Directly it begins to get thick it +should be strained or thrown away. + +The finisher should not glaire in more than he can tool the same day. +When the glaire has ceased to be "tacky," the gold is laid on. + + [Illustration: FIG. 86.] + +At first it will be found difficult to manage gold leaf. The essential +conditions are, that there should be no draught, and that the cushion +and knife should be quite free from grease. The gold cushion and +knife are shown at fig. 86. A little powdered bath-brick rubbed into +the cushion will make it easier to cut the gold cleanly. The blade of +the gold knife should never be touched with the hand, and before using +it, both sides should be rubbed on the cushion. A book of gold is laid +open on the cushion, and a leaf of gold is lifted up on the gold +knife, which is slipped under it, and turned over on to the cushion. A +light breath exactly in the centre of the sheet should make it lie +flat, when it may be cut into pieces of any size with a slightly +sawing motion of the knife. The book with the pattern ready prepared, +and the glaire sufficiently dry (not sticky), is rubbed lightly with a +small piece of cotton-wool greased with a little cocoanut oil. The +back of the hand is greased in the same way, and a pad of clean +cotton-wool is held in the right hand, and having been made as flat as +possible by being pressed on the table, is drawn over the back of the +hand. This should make it just greasy enough to pick up the gold, but +not too greasy to part with it readily when pressed on the book. As +little grease as possible should be used on the book, as an excess is +apt to stain the leather and to make the gold dull. After experiment +it has been found that cocoanut oil stains the leather less than any +other grease in common use by bookbinders, and is more readily washed +out by benzine. + + [Illustration: FIG. 87.] + +If the gold cracks, or is not solid when pressed on the book, a second +thickness should be used. This will stay down if the under piece is +lightly breathed upon. + +For narrow strips of gold for lines, a little pad covered with soft +leather may be made, as in fig. 87. + +It will be found of advantage to first use the bottom leaf of gold in +the book and then to begin at the top and work through, or else the +bottom leaf will almost certainly be found to be damaged by the time +it is reached. The gold used should be as nearly pure as it can be +got. The gold-beaters say that they are unable to beat pure gold as +thin as is usual for gold leaf; but the quite pure gold is a better +colour than when alloyed, and the additional thickness, although +costly, results in a more solid impression of the tools. + +The cost of a book of twenty-four leaves three and a half inches +square of English gold leaf of good ordinary quality is from 1s. 3d. +to 1s. 6d., whereas the cost of a book of double thick pure gold leaf +is 3s. to 3s. 6d. For tooled work it is worth paying the increased +price for the sake of the advantages in colour and solidity; but for +lines and edges, which use up an immense amount of gold, the thinner +and cheaper gold may quite well be used. + +Besides pure gold leaf, gold alloyed with various metals to change its +colour can be had. None of the alloys keep their colour as well as +pure gold, and some of them, such as those alloyed with copper for red +gold, and with silver for pale gold, tarnish very quickly. These last +are not to be recommended. + +For silver tooling aluminium leaf may be used, as silver leaf +tarnishes very quickly. + +When the gold is pressed into the impressions of the tools with the +pad of cotton-wool, they should be plainly visible through it. + +The pattern must now be worked through the gold with the hot tools. +The tools are taken from the stove, and if too hot cooled on a pad as +for blinding-in. The heat required to leave the gold tooling solid and +bright and the impressions clear will vary for different leathers, and +even for different skins of the same leather. For trial a tool may be +laid on the pad until it ceases to hiss, and one or two impressions +worked with it. If the gold fails to stick, the heat may be slightly +increased. + +If the leather is slightly damp from the preparation the tools will +usually work better, and less heat is required than if it has been +prepared for some time and has got dry. + +Before using, the faces of all tools must be rubbed bright on the +flesh side of a piece of leather. It is impossible to tool brightly +with dirty tools. A tool should be held in the right hand, with the +thumb on the top of the handle, and steadied with the thumb or first +finger of the left hand. The shoulder should be brought well over the +tool, and the upper part of the body used as a press. If the weight of +the body is used in finishing, the tools can be worked with far +greater firmness and certainty, and with less fatigue, than if the +whole work is done with the muscles of the arms. + +Large and solid tools will require all the weight that can be put on +them, and even then the gold will often fail to stick with one +impression. Tools with small surfaces, such as gouges and dots, must +not be worked too heavily, or the surface of the leather may be cut. + +To strike a large or solid tool, it should first be put down flat, and +then slightly rocked from side to side and from top to bottom, but +must not be twisted on the gold. + +A tool may be struck from whichever side the best "sight" can be got, +and press and book turned round to the most convenient position. + +It is difficult to impress some tools, such as circular flower tools, +twice in exactly the same place. Such tools should have a mark on one +side as a guide. This should always be kept in the same position when +blinding-in and tooling, and so make it possible to impress a second +time without "doubling." An impression is said to be "doubled" when +the tool has been twisted in striking, or one impression does not fall +exactly over the other. + +The hot tool should not be held hovering over the impression long, or +the preparation will be dried up before the tool is struck. Tooling +will generally be brighter if the tools are struck fairly sharply, and +at once removed from the leather, than if they are kept down a long +time. + +To "strike" dots, the book should be turned with the head to the +worker, and the tool held with the handle inclining slightly towards +him. This will make them appear bright when the book is held the right +way up. + +Gouges must be "sighted" from the inside of the curve, and struck +evenly, or the points may cut into the leather. Short straight lines +may be put in with pieces of line, and longer ones with a fillet. + +A one line fillet is shown at fig. 88; the space filed out of the +circumference is to enable lines to be joined neatly at the corners. +That the lines may be clearly visible through the gold, the book +should be placed so that the light comes from the left hand of the +worker and across the line. It is well to have a basin of water in +which to cool fillets, as there is so much metal in them, that the +damp sponge or cotton used for cooling tools would very rapidly be +dried up. When the fillet has been cooled, the edge should be rubbed +on the cleaning pad, and the point exactly adjusted to the corner of +the line to be run (see fig. 88). The fillet is then run along the +line with even pressure. + + [Illustration: FIG. 88.] + +For slightly curved lines, a very small fillet may be used. + +When all the prepared part of a pattern has been tooled, it is well +rubbed to remove the loose gold with a slightly greasy rag, or with a +piece of bottle indiarubber which has been softened in paraffin. After +a time the rubber or rag may be sold to the gold-beater, who recovers +the gold. To prepare indiarubber for cleaning off gold, a piece of +bottle rubber is cut into small pieces and soaked in paraffin for some +hours. This should cause the pieces to reunite into a soft lump. This +can be used until it is yellow with gold throughout. + +When all free gold is rubbed off, the finisher can see where the +tooling is imperfect. Impressions which are not "solid" must be +reglaired, have fresh gold laid on, and be retooled. But if, as will +sometimes happen with the best finishers, the gold has failed to stick +properly anywhere, it is best to wash the whole with water or vinegar, +and prepare afresh. + +As an excess of grease is apt to dull the gold and soil the leather, +it is better to use it very sparingly when laying on fresh gold for +mending. For patching, benzine may be used instead of grease. When the +gold is picked up on the cotton-wool pad, rapidly go over the leather +with wool soaked in benzine, and at once lay down the gold. Benzine +will not hold the gold long enough for much tooling, but it will +answer for about half-an-hour, and give plenty of time for patching. + +Imperfect tooling arises from a variety of causes. If an impression is +clear, but the gold not solid, it is probably because the tool was not +hot enough, or was not put down firmly. If only one side of an +impression fails to stick, it is usually because the tool was unevenly +impressed. If an impression is blurred, and the gold has a frosted +look, it is because the leather has been burned, either because the +tool was too hot, or kept down too long, or the preparation was too +fresh. + +To mend double or burnt impressions the leather should be wetted and +left to soak a short time, and the gold can be picked out with a +wooden point. When nearly dry the impressions should be put in again +with a cool tool, reglaired and retooled. + +It is very difficult to mend neatly if the leather is badly burnt. +Sometimes it may be advisable to paste a piece of new leather over a +burnt impression before retooling. + +If a tool is put down in the wrong place by mistake, it is difficult +to get the impression out entirely. The best thing to do is to damp +the leather thoroughly, leave it to soak for a little while, and pick +up the impression with the point of a pin. It is best not to use an +iron point for this, as iron is apt to blacken the leather. + +Leather is difficult to tool if it has not a firm surface, or if it is +too thin to give a little when the tool is struck. + +When the tooling is finished, and the loose gold removed with the +rubber, the leather should be washed with benzine, to remove any +grease and any fragments of gold that may be adhering by the grease +only. + +The inside margins of the boards are next polished and varnished, and +the end papers pasted down. Or if there is a leather joint, the panel +left on the board may be filled in (see Chapter XVII). + +When the end papers are dry, the sides and back may be polished and +varnished. + +It is important that the varnish should be of good quality, and not +too thick, or it will in time turn brown and cause the gold to look +dirty. Some of the light French spirit varnishes prepared for +bookbinders answer well. Varnish must be used sparingly, and is best +applied with a pad of cotton-wool. A little varnish is poured on to +the pad, which is rubbed on a piece of paper until it is seen that the +varnish comes out thinly and evenly. It is then rubbed on the book +with a spiral motion. The quicker the surface is gone over, provided +every part is covered, the better. Varnish will not work well if it is +very cold, and in cold weather both the book and varnish bottle should +be slightly warmed before use. Should an excess of varnish be put on +in error, or should it be necessary to retool part of the book after +it has been varnished, the varnish can be removed with spirits of +wine. Varnish acts as a preservative to the leather, but has the +disadvantage, if used in excess, of making it rather brittle on the +surface. It must, therefore, be used very sparingly at the joints. It +is to be hoped that a perfectly elastic varnish, that will not tarnish +the gold, will soon be discovered. + +As soon as the varnish is dry the boards may be pressed, one at a +time, to give the leather a smooth surface (see fig. 83), leaving each +board in the press for some hours. + + [Illustration: FIG. 89.] + +After each board has been pressed separately the book should be shut, +and pressed again with pressing plates on each side of it, and with +tins covered with paper placed inside each board. Light pressure +should be given to books with tight backs, or the leather may become +detached. + +If, on removing from the press, the boards will not keep shut, the +book should be pressed again with a folded sheet of blotting-paper in +each end. The blotting-paper should have the folded edge turned up, +and be placed so that this turned-up edge will be in the joint behind +the back edge of the board when the book is shut. + +A small nipping-press suitable for giving comparatively light +pressure, is shown at fig. 89. + + + TOOLING ON VELLUM + +Most covering vellum has a sticky surface, that marks if it is +handled. This should be washed off with clean water before tooling. +The pattern is blinded in through the paper as for leather, excepting +that the paper must not be pasted directly to the vellum, but may be +held with a band going right round the board or book. It is best to +glaire twice, and to lay on a small portion of gold at a time with +benzine. As vellum burns very readily, the tools must not be too hot, +and some skill is needed to prevent them from slipping on the hard +surface. + +Vellum must not be polished or varnished. + + + INLAYING ON LEATHER + +Inlaying or onlaying is adding a different leather from that of the +cover, as decoration. Thus on a red book, a panel or a border, or +other portion, may be covered with thin green leather, or only flowers +or leaves may be inlaid, while a jewel-like effect may be obtained by +dots, leaves, and flowers, tooled over inlays of various colours. +Leather for inlaying should be pared very thin. To do this the leather +is cut into strips, wetted, and pared on a stone with a knife shaped +somewhat as at fig. 60, B. When the thin leather is dry the inlays of +the leaves and flowers, &c., may be stamped out with steel punches cut +to the shape of the tools; or if only a few inlays are needed, the +tools may be impressed on the thin leather, and the inlays cut out +with a sharp knife. The edges of the larger inlays should be pared +round carefully. For inlaying a panel or other large surface, the +leather is pared very thin and evenly with a French knife, and a piece +of paper pasted on to the grained side and left to dry. When dry, the +shape of the panel, or other space to be inlaid, is marked on it +through the paper pattern, and leather and paper cut through to the +shape required. The edges must then be carefully pared, and the piece +attached with paste, and nipped in the press to make it stick. When +the paste is dry, the paper may be damped and washed off. The object +of the paper is to prevent the thin leather from stretching when it is +pasted. + +For white inlays it is better to use Japanese paper than leather, as +white leather, when pared very thin, will show the colours of the +under leather through, and look dirty. If paper is used, it should be +sized with vellum size before tooling. + +When many dots or leaves are to be inlaid, the pieces of leather, cut +out with the punch, may be laid face downwards on a paring stone, and +a piece of paper, thickly covered with paste, laid on it. This, on +being taken up, will carry with it the "inlays," and they can be +picked up one at a time on the point of a fine folder, and stuck on +the book. + +"Inlays" of tools are attached after the pattern has been "blinded" +in, and must be again worked over with the tool, in blind, when the +paste is nearly dry. + +On vellum an effect, similar to that of inlays on leather, can be +obtained by the use of stains. + + + + + CHAPTER XV + + Lettering--Blind Tooling--Heraldic Ornament + + + LETTERING ON THE BACK + +Lettering may be done either with separate letters, each on its own +handle, or with type set in a type-holder and worked across the back +as a pallet. Although by the use of type great regularity is ensured, +and some time saved, the use of handle letters gives so much more +freedom of arrangement, that their use is advocated for extra binding. +Where a great many copies of the same work have to be lettered, the +use of type has obvious advantages. + +A great deal depends on the design of the letters used. Nearly all +bookbinders' letters are made too narrow, and with too great +difference between the thick and thin strokes. At fig. 90 is shown an +alphabet, for which I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Emery Walker. +The long tail of the Q is meant to go under the U. It might be well to +have a second R cut, with a shorter tail, to avoid the great space +left when an A happens to follow it. I have found that four sizes of +letters are sufficient for all books. + + [Illustration: FIG. 90.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 91.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 92.] + +To make out a lettering paper for the back of a book, cut a strip of +good thin paper as wide as the height of the panel to be lettered. +Fold it near the centre, and mark the fold with a pencil. This should +give a line exactly at right angles to the top and bottom of the +strip. Then make another fold the distance from the first of the width +of the back; then bring the two folds together, and make a third fold +in the exact centre. The paper should then be as shown at fig. 91. +Supposing the lettering to be THE WORKS OF ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON, +select the size of letter you desire to use, and take an E and mark on +a piece of spare paper a line of E's, and laying your folded paper +against it, see how many letters will go in comfortably. Supposing you +find that four lines of five letters of the selected size can be put +in, you must see if your title can be conveniently cut up into four +lines of five letters, or less. It might be done as shown at fig. 93. +But if you prefer not to split the name STEVENSON, a smaller letter +must be employed, and then the lettering may be as at fig. 94. + +To find out the position of the lines of lettering on a panel, the +letter E is again taken and impressed five times at the side of the +panel, as shown at fig. 92, leaving a little greater distance between +the lowest letter and the bottom of the panel, than between the +letters. The paper is then folded on the centre fold, and, with +dividers set to the average distance between the head of one letter +and the head of the next, five points are made through the folded +paper. The paper is opened, turned over, and the points joined with a +fine folder worked against the straight-edge. It should leave on the +front five raised lines, up to which the head of the letters must be +put. + + [Illustration: FIG. 93.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 94.] + +The letters in the top line are counted, and the centre letter marked. +Spaces between words are counted as a letter; thus in "THE WORKS," "W" +will be the centre letter, and should be put on the paper first, and +the others added on each side of it. Some thought is needed in judging +where to put the centre, as the difference in the width of such +letters as "M" and "W" and "I" and "J" have to be taken into account. + +As a general rule, lettering looks best if it comfortably fills the +panel, but of course it cannot always be made to do this. The greatest +difficulty will be found in making titles of books that consist of a +single word, look well. Thus if you have "CORIOLANUS" to place on a +back which is not more than 5/8-inch wide, if it is put across as one +word, as at fig. 95 (1), it will be illegible from the smallness of +the type, and will tell merely as a gold line at a little distance. If +a reasonably large type is used, the word must be broken up somewhat, +as at (2), which is perhaps better, but still not at all satisfactory. +The word may be put straight along the back, as at fig. (3), but this +hardly looks well on a book with raised bands, and should be avoided +unless necessary. + + [Illustration: FIG. 95.] + +The use of type of different sizes in lettering a book should be +avoided when possible, and on no account whatever should letters of +different design be introduced. Occasionally, when the reason for it +is obvious, it may be allowable to make a word shorter by putting in a +small letter, supposing that only thus could reasonably large type be +used. It is especially allowable in cases where, in a set of volumes, +there is one much thinner than the others. It is generally better to +make some compromise with the lettering of the thin volume, than to +spoil the lettering of the whole set by using too small a letter +throughout (see fig. 115). + +On very thin books it is sometimes hardly possible to get any +lettering at all on the back. In such cases the lettering is best put +on the side. + +In the case of some special books that are to have elaborately +decorated bindings, and are on that account sufficiently distinct from +their neighbours, a certain amount of freedom is permissible with the +lettering, and a little mystery is not perhaps out of place. But in +most cases books have to be recognised by their titles, and it is of +the utmost importance that the lettering should be as clear as +possible, and should fully identify the volume. + +For lettering half-bindings and other books on which much time cannot +be spared, it would take too long to make out a paper, as described +for extra bindings, nor is there on such work much occasion for it. +For such books the lettering should be written out carefully, the +whole panel prepared and glaired in, and the gold laid on. Then with a +piece of fine silk or thread lines may be marked across the gold as a +guide to the finisher, and the letters worked from the centre +outward, as described for making out the paper pattern. Of course this +method does not allow of such nice calculation and adjustment as when +a paper pattern is made out; but if a general principle of clear +lettering is recognised and accepted, very good results may be +obtained. + + + BLIND TOOLING + + [Illustration: FIG. 96.] + +At the end of the book characteristic examples of blind-tooled books +are given (pages 321-25). It will be seen that most of the tools form +complete designs in themselves. Although the use of detached die-sunk +tools was general, there were also simple tools used, which, when +combined, made up more or less organic designs, and allowed more +freedom to the finisher (see figs. 96 and 97). + + [Illustration: FIG. 97.] + +Some use may also be made of interlaced strap-work designs, either +worked with gouges, or a small fillet. A book bound in oaken boards, +with a leather back with knotted decoration, is shown at page 330. I +have found that such binding and decoration is more satisfactory in +scheme for old books, than most forms of modern binding. + +If a design is simple, the cover is marked up with dividers, and the +tools impressed direct upon the leather; or, if it is elaborate, a +paper pattern is made out, and the tools blinded through the paper, as +described for gold tooling. The leather is then damped with water, and +the impressions retooled. + + [Illustration: FIG. 98.] + +The panel lines on most of the bindings before 1500 show evidence of +having been put in with a tool which has been pushed along the +leather, and not with a wheel. I have found that a tool guided by a +straight-edge, and "jiggered" backwards and forwards, makes by far the +best lines for blind-tool work. It should be borne in mind that the +line is formed by the raised portion of leather, and so the tool +should be cut somewhat as at fig. 98. This should leave three ridges +on the leather. Blind tooling may be gone over and over until it is +deep enough, and may be combined with various other methods of +working. For instance, in tooling such a spray as is shown at fig. 99, +the leaf would be formed by five impressions of the second tool, shown +at A, the extremity of the impressions could be joined with gouges, +the stalk and veining could either be run in with a fillet or worked +with gouges. The grapes would best be worked with a tool cut for the +purpose. One edge of all gouge or fillet impressions can be smoothed +down with some such tool as shown in section at B. This has to be +worked round the gouge lines with a steady hand, and may be fairly hot +if it is kept moving. At C is shown a section of a gouge impression +before and after the use of this tool. The ground can be dotted in, or +otherwise gone over with some small tool to throw up the pattern. + +Blind tooling can sometimes be used in combination with gold tooling. + + [Illustration: FIG. 99.] + +In the fifteenth century the Venetian binders used little roundels of +some gesso-like substance, that were brightly coloured or gilt, in +combination with blind tooling (see p. 325). This is a method that +might be revived. + +What is known as "leather work" is a further development of blind +tooling. This method of decoration has been revived lately, but not +generally with success. "Leather work" may be divided into two +branches; in one the surface of the leather is cut to outline the +pattern, and in the other the leather is embossed from the back, while +wet, and the pattern outlined by an indented line. Sometimes the two +methods are combined. As embossing from the back necessitates the work +being done before the leather is on the book, it is not very suitable +for decorating books. Leather first decorated and then stuck on the +book, never looks as if it was an integral part of the binding. The +cut leather work, which may be done after the book is bound, and +leaves the surface comparatively flat, is a better method to employ +for books, provided the cuts are not too deep, and are restricted to +the boards, so as not to weaken the leather at the back and joints. +Much of the leather used for "leather work" is of very poor quality, +and will not last; for modelling it must be thick on the side of the +book, and for the book to open it must be pared thin at the joint, +thus making it necessary to use a thick skin very much pared down, and +consequently weakened (see p. 155). Another very common fault in +modelled "leather work" is, that the two sides and the back are often +worked separately and stuck together on the book, necessitating a +join, and consequently a weak place in the hinge, where strength is +most wanted. Again, in most modern "leather work," those who do the +decoration do not, as a rule, do the binding, and often do not +understand enough of the craft to do suitable work. + +All those engaged in leather work are advised to learn to bind their +own books, and to only use such methods of decoration, as can be +carried out on the bound book. + + + HERALDRY ON BOOK COVERS + +It is an old and good custom to put the arms of the owner of a library +on the covers of the books he has bound. The traditional, and +certainly one of the best ways to do this, is to have an arms block +designed and cut. To design an arms block, knowledge of heraldry is +needed, and also some clear idea of the effect to be aimed at. A very +common mistake in designing blocks is to try and get the effect of +hand tooling. Blocks should be and look something entirely different. +In hand tooling much of the effect is got from the impressions of +small tools reflecting the light at slightly different angles, giving +the work life and interest. Blocked gold being all in one plane, has +no such lights in it, and depends entirely on its design for its +effect. + +Provided the heraldry identifies the owner, it should be as simply +drawn as it can be; the custom of indicating the tinctures by lines +and dots on the charges, generally makes a design confused, obscuring +the coat it is intended to make clear. In designing heraldic blocks it +is well to get a good deal of solid flat surface of gold to make the +blocked design stand out from any gold-tooled work on the cover. + +Another way of putting armorial bearings on covers, is to paint them +in oil paint. In the early sixteenth century the Venetians copied the +Eastern custom of sinking panels in their book covers, and painted +coats of arms on these sunk portions very successfully. The groundwork +of the shield itself was usually raised a little, either by something +under the leather, or by some gesso-like substance on its surface. + +Arms blocks should be placed a little above the centre of the cover. +Generally, if the centre of the block is in a line with the centre +band of a book with five bands, it will look right. + +Blocks are struck with the aid of an arming or blocking press. The +block is attached to the movable plate of the press called the +"platen." To do this some stout brown paper is first glued to the +platen, and the block glued to this, and the platen fixed in its place +at the bottom of the heating-box. In blocking arms on a number of +books of different sizes, some nice adjustment of the movable bed is +needed to get the blocks to fall in exactly the right place. + +For blocking, one coat of glaire will be enough for most leathers. The +gold is laid on as for hand tooling. The block should be brought down +and up again fairly sharply. The heat needed is about the same as for +hand tooling. + + + + + CHAPTER XVI + + Designing for Gold-Tooled Decoration + + + DESIGNING TOOLS + +For gold tooling, such tools as gouges, dots, pieces of straight line, +and fillets are to be had ready-made at most dealers. Other tools are +best designed and cut to order. At first only a few simple forms will +be needed, such as one or two flowers of different sizes, and one or +two sets of leaves (see fig. 100). + + [Illustration: FIG. 100 (reduced)] + +In designing tools, it must be borne in mind that they may appear on +the book many times repeated, and so must be simple in outline and +much conventionalised. A more or less naturalistic drawing of a +flower, showing the natural irregularities, may look charming, but if +a tool is cut from it, any marked irregularity becomes extremely +annoying when repeated several times on a cover. So with leaves, +unless they are perfectly symmetrical, there should be three of each +shape cut, two curving in different directions, and the third quite +straight (see fig. 101). To have only one leaf, and to have that +curved, produces very restless patterns. The essence of gold-tool +design, is that patterns are made up of repeats of impressions of +tools, and that being so, the tools must be so designed that they will +repeat pleasantly, and in practice it will be found that any but +simple forms will become aggressive in repetition. + + [Illustration: FIG. 101.] + +Designs for tools should be made out with Indian ink on white paper, +and they may be larger than the size of the required tool. The +tool-cutter will reduce any drawing to any desired size, and will, +from one drawing, cut any number of tools of different sizes. Thus, if +a set of five leaves of the same shape is wanted, it will only be +necessary to draw one, and to indicate the sizes the others are to be +in some such way as shown at fig. 102. + +It is not suggested that special tools should be cut for each pattern, +but the need of new tools will naturally arise from time to time, and +so the stock be gradually increased. It is better to begin with a very +few, and add a tool or two as occasion arises, than to try to design a +complete set when starting. + + [Illustration: FIG. 102.] + +Tools may be solid or in outline. If in outline they may be used as +"inlay" tools, and in ordering them the tool-cutter should be asked to +provide steel punches for cutting the inlays. + + + COMBINING TOOLS TO FORM PATTERNS + +It is well for the student to begin with patterns arranged on some +very simple plan, making slight changes in each succeeding pattern. +In this way an individual style may be established. The usual plan of +studying the perfected styles of the old binders, and trying to begin +where they left off, in practice only leads to the production of exact +imitations, or poor lifeless parodies, of the old designs. Whereas a +pattern developed by the student by slow degrees, through a series of +designs, each slightly different from the one before it, will, if +eccentricities are avoided, probably have life and individual +interest. + +Perhaps the easiest way to decorate a binding is to cover it with some +small repeating pattern. A simple form of diaper as a beginning is +shown at fig. 104. To make such a pattern cut a piece of good, thin +paper to the size of the board of a book, and with a pencil rule a +line about an eighth of an inch inside the margin all round. Then with +the point of a fine folder that will indent, but not cut the paper, +mark up as shown in fig. 103. The position of the lines A A and B B +are found by simply folding the paper, first side to side, and then +head to tail. The other lines can be put in without any measurement +by simply joining all points where lines cross. By continual +re-crossing, the spaces into which the paper is divided can be reduced +to any desired size. If the construction lines are accurately put in, +the spaces will all be of the same size and shape. It is then evident +that a repeating design to fill any one of the spaces can be made to +cover the whole surface. + + [Illustration: FIG. 103.] + +In fig. 104, it is the diagonal lines only that are utilised for the +pattern. To avoid confusion, the cross lines that helped to determine +the position of the diagonals are not shown. + + [Illustration: FIG. 104 (reduced)] + +The advantage of using the point of a folder to mark up the +constructional lines of a pattern instead of a pencil, is that the +lines so made are much finer, do not rub out, and do not cause +confusion by interfering with the pattern. Any lines that will appear +on the book, such as the marginal lines, may be put in with a pencil +to distinguish them. + +Having marked up the paper, select a flower tool and impress it at the +points where the diagonal lines cross, holding it in the smoke of a +candle between every two or three impressions. When the flower has +been impressed all over, select a small piece of straight line, and +put a stalk in below each flower; then a leaf put in on each side of +the straight line will complete the pattern. + + [Illustration: FIG. 105 (reduced)] + +A development of the same principle is shown at fig. 105, in which +some gouges are introduced. Any number of other combinations will +occur to any one using the tools. Frequently questions will arise as +to whether a tool is to be put this way or that way, and whether a +line is to curve up or down. Whenever there is such an alternative +open, there is the germ of another pattern. All-over diaper patterns +may be varied in any number of ways. One way is to vary the design in +alternate spaces. If this is done one of the designs should be such +that it will divide down the centre both ways and so finish off the +pattern comfortably at the edges. The pattern may be based on the +upright and the cross-lines of the marking up, or the marking up may +be on a different principle altogether. The designer, after a little +practice, will be bewildered by the infinite number of combinations +that occur to him. + + [Illustration: FIG. 106 (reduced)] + +The diaper is selected for a beginning, because it is the easiest form +of pattern to make, as there is no question of getting round corners, +and very little of studying proportion. It is selected also because it +teaches the student the decorative value of simple forms repeated on +some orderly system. When he has grasped this, he has grasped the +underlying principle of nearly all successful tooled ornament. Diapers +are good practice, because in a close, all-over pattern the tools must +be put down in definite places, or an appalling muddle will result. In +tooling; a repeat of the same few tools, is the best possible +practice, giving as it does the same work over and over again under +precisely the same conditions, and concentrating, on one book cover, +the practice that might be spread over several backs and sides more +sparingly decorated, when variety of conditions would confuse the +student. + + [Illustration: FIG. 107.] + +When the principles of the diaper have been mastered, and the student +has become familiar with the limitations of his tools, other schemes +of decoration may be attempted, such as borders, centres, or panels. + +A form of border connected with cross-lines is shown at fig. 106. This +is made up of a repeat of the spray built up of three tools and four +gouges shown at fig. 107, with slight modification at the corners. +Other schemes for borders are those in which flowers grow inwards from +the edge of the boards, or outwards from a panel at the centre, or on +both sides of a line about half an inch from the edge. A pattern may +also be made to grow all round the centre panel. Borders will be found +more difficult to manage than simple diapers, and at first, are best +built up on the same principle--the repeat of some simple element. + + [Illustration: FIG. 108 (reduced)] + +The decoration may be concentrated on parts of the cover, such as the +centre or corners. A design for a centre is shown at fig. 108, and +below is shown the way to construct it. A piece of paper is folded, as +shown by the dotted lines, and an eighth of the pattern drawn with a +soft pencil and folded over on the line A, and transferred by being +rubbed at the back with a folder. This is lined in with a pencil, and +folded over on the line B and rubbed off. This is lined in and folded +over on A and C, rubbed off as before, and the whole lined in. The +overs and unders of the lines are then marked, and gouges selected to +fit. Of course it will take several trials before the lines will +interlace pleasantly, and the tools fit in. Another centre, in which a +spray is repeated three times, is shown at fig. 109, and any number of +others will occur to the student after a little practice. A change of +tools, or the slight alteration of a line, will give an entirely new +aspect to a pattern. At page 334 is shown an all-over pattern growing +from the bottom centre of the board. In this design the leather was +dark green, with a lighter green panel in the centre. The berries were +inlaid in bright red. Although at first glance it seems an intricate +design, it is made up like the others of repetitions of simple forms. + + [Illustration: FIG. 109 (reduced)] + +When the student has become proficient in the arrangement of tools in +combination with lines, a design consisting entirely, or almost +entirely, of lines may be tried. This is more difficult, because the +limitations are not so obvious; but here again the principle of +repetition, and even distribution, should be followed. At fig. 110 is +shown a design almost entirely composed of lines, built up on the same +principle as the centre at fig. 108. + + [Illustration: FIG. 110 (reduced)] + +The ends of the bands form a very pleasant starting-place for +patterns. At pp. 330, 332-6 are shown ways of utilising this method. +To look right, a pattern must be consistent throughout. The tools and +their arrangement must have about the same amount of convention. Gold +tooling, dealing, as it does, with flat forms in silhouette only, +necessitates very considerable formality in the design of the tools +and of their arrangement on the cover. Modern finishers have become so +skilful, that they are able to produce in gold tooling almost any +design that can be drawn in lines with a pencil, and some truly +marvellous results are obtained by the use of inlays, and specially +cut gouges. As a rule, such patterns simply serve to show the skill of +the finisher, and to make one wonder who could have been foolish +enough to select so limited and laborious a method as gold tooling for +carrying them out. + +Generally speaking, successful gold-tooled patterns show evidence of +having been designed with the tools; of being, in fact, mere +arrangements of the tools, and not of having been first designed with +a pencil, and then worked with tools cut to fit the drawing. This does +not of course apply to patterns composed entirely of lines, or to +patterns composed of lines of dots. + +If artists wish to design for gold tooling without first mastering the +details, probably the safest way will be for them to design in lines +of gold dots. Some successful patterns carried out in this way were +shown at the Arts and Crafts Exhibition some years ago. + +Designs for gold-tooled binding should always be constructed on some +geometrical plan, and whatever pattern there is, symmetrically +distributed over the cover. + +If lettering can be introduced, it will be found to be most useful +when arranging a pattern. It gives dignity and purpose to a design, +and is also highly decorative. Lettering may be arranged in panels, as +at page 332, or in a border round the edge of the board, and in many +other ways. It may either consist of the title of the book, or some +line or verse from it or connected with it, or may refer to its +history, or to the owner. Anything that gives a personal interest to a +book, such as the arms of the owner, the initials or name of the giver +or receiver of a present, with perhaps the date of the gift, is of +value. + +The use of the small fillet makes it possible to employ long, +slightly-curved lines. Gold-tooled lines have in themselves such +great beauty, that designers are often tempted to make them meander +about the cover in a weak and aimless way. As the limitations enforced +by the use of gouges tend to keep the curves strong and small, and as +the use of the small fillet tends to the production of long, weak +curves, students are advised at first to restrict the curved lines in +their patterns to such as can be readily worked with gouges. + + [Illustration: FIG. 111.] + +It must be remembered that a gouge or fillet line is very thin, and +will look weak if it goes far without support. For this reason +interlaced lines are advocated. + +Gouge lines are easier to work, and look better, if a small space is +left where the gouges end. This is especially the case where lines +bearing leaves or flowers branch from the main stem (see fig. 111). + +Gouges and fillets need not always be of the same thickness of line, +and two or three sets of different gauges may be kept. A finisher can +always alter the thickness of a gouge with emery paper. + +One method of arranging gold-tooled lines is to treat them in design +as if they were wires in tension, and knot and twist them together. +Provided the idea is consistently adhered to throughout, such a +pattern is often very successful. + + [Illustration: FIG. 112.] + +A simple arrangement of straight lines will be sufficient +ornamentation for most books. Three schemes for such ornamentation are +shown. In fig. 112 the "tie-downs" may be in "blind" and the lines in +gold. The arrangement shown at fig. 113 leaves a panel at the top +which may be utilised for lettering. + + [Illustration: FIG. 113.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 114.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 115.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 115.] + + + DESIGNING FOR BACKS + +The decoration of the back of a book is difficult owing to the very +small space usually available in the panels. The first consideration +must be the lettering, and when that has been arranged, as described +in Chapter XV, a second paper is got out for the pattern. The back +panel should generally be treated in the same style and, if possible, +with the same tools as the sides, if they are decorated. It will often +be found far easier to design a full-gilt side than a satisfactory +back. + +A design may be made to fit one panel of the book and repeated on all +those not required for lettering (see pages 332-34), or it may be made +to grow up from panel to panel (see fig. 115). In the case of sets of +books in which the volumes vary very much in thickness, some pattern +must be made that can be contracted and expanded without altering the +general look of the back (see fig. 115). + + + DESIGNING FOR INSIDE OF BOARDS + +The inside margins of the board permit of a little delicate +decoration. At fig. 116 are shown two ways of treating this part of +the binding. The inside of the board is sometimes covered all over +with leather, and tooled as elaborately, or more elaborately, than the +outside. If there are vellum ends, they may be enriched with a little +tooling. + + [Illustration: FIG. 116.] + +The edges of the boards may have a gold line run on them, and the +head-cap may be decorated with a few dots. + + + + + CHAPTER XVII + + Pasting down End Papers--Opening Books + + + PASTING DOWN END PAPERS + +When the finishing is done, the end papers should be pasted down on to +the board; or if there is a leather joint, the panel left should be +filled in to match the end paper. + +To paste down end papers, the book is placed on the block with the +board open (see fig. 117, A), the waste sheets are torn off, the +joints cleared of any glue or paste, and the boards flattened, as +described at page 171 for pasting down leather joints. One of the +paste-down papers is then stretched over the board and rubbed down in +the joint, and the amount to be cut off to make it fit into the space +left by the turn-in of the leather is marked on it with dividers, +measuring from the edge of the board. A cutting tin is then placed on +the book, the paste-down paper turned over it, and the edges trimmed +off to the divider points with a knife and straight-edge, leaving +small pieces to cover the ends of the joint (fig. 117, A, c). + +The cutting and pasting down of these small pieces in the joint are +rather difficult; they should come exactly to the edges of the board. + + [Illustration: FIG. 117.] + +When both paste-down papers are trimmed to size, one of them is well +pasted with thin paste in which there are no lumps, with a piece of +waste paper under it to protect the book. The joints should also be +pasted, and the paste rubbed in with the finger and any surplus +removed. + +The pasted paper is then brought over on to the board, the edges +adjusted exactly to their places, and rubbed down. The joint must next +be rubbed down through paper. It is difficult to get the paper to +stick evenly in the joint, and great nicety is needed here. All +rubbing down must be done through paper, or the "paste-down" will be +soiled or made shiny. + +Some papers stretch very much when pasted, and will need to be cut a +little smaller than needed, and put down promptly after pasting. Thin +vellum may be put down with paste in which there is a very little +glue, but thicker vellum is better put down with thin glue. In pasting +vellum, very great care is needed to prevent the brush-marks from +showing through. If the vellum is thin, the board must be lined with +white or toned paper with a smooth surface. This paper must be quite +clean, as any marks will show through the vellum, and make it look +dirty. + +When one side is pasted down the book can be turned over without +shutting the board, and the other board opened and pasted down in the +same way (see fig. 117, B). In turning over a book, a piece of white +paper should be put under the newly-pasted side, as, being damp, it +will soil very readily. When both ends have been pasted down the +joints should be examined and rubbed down again, and the book stood up +on end with the boards open until the end papers are dry. The boards +may be held open with a piece of cardboard cut as shown at fig. 71. + +If there are cloth joints they are put down with glue, and the board +paper is placed nearly to the edge of the joint, leaving very little +cloth visible. + +In the process of finishing, the boards of a book will nearly always +be warped a little outward, but the pasted end papers should draw the +boards a little as they dry, causing them to curve slightly towards +the book. With vellum ends there is a danger that the boards will be +warped too much. + + + OPENING NEWLY BOUND BOOKS + +Before sending out a newly bound book the binder should go through it, +opening it here and there to ease the back. The volume is laid on a +table, and the leaves opened a short distance from the front, and then +at an equal distance from the back, and then in one or two places +nearer the centre of the book, the leaves being pressed down with the +hand at each opening. If the book is a valuable one, every leaf should +then be turned over separately and each opening pressed down, +beginning from the centre and working first one way and then the +other. In this way the back will be bent evenly at all points. When a +book has been opened, it should be lightly pressed for a short time +without anything in the joints. + +If a book is sent out unopened, the first person into whose hand it +falls will probably open it somewhere in the centre, bending the +covers back and "breaking" the back; and if any leaves chance to have +been stuck together in edge-gilding, they are likely to be torn if +carelessly opened. A book with a "broken" back will always have a +tendency to open in the same place, and will not keep its shape. It +would be worth while for librarians to have newly bound books +carefully opened. An assistant could "open" a large number of books +in a day, and the benefit to the bindings would amply compensate for +the small trouble and cost involved. + + + + + CHAPTER XVIII + + Clasps and Ties--Metal on Bindings + + + CLASPS AND TIES + +Some books need to be clasped to keep the leaves flat. All books +written or printed on vellum should have clasps. Vellum unless kept +flat is apt to cockle, and this in a book will force the leaves apart +and admit dust. If a book is tightly wedged in a shelf the leaves will +be kept flat, but as the chance removal of any other book from the row +will remove the pressure, it is much better to provide clasps for +vellum books. + +Very thick books, and those with a great many folded plates, are +better for having clasps to prevent the leaves from sagging. As nearly +all books are now kept in bookshelves, and as any projection on the +side of a book is likely to injure the neighbouring volume, a form of +clasp should be used that has no raised parts on the boards. + + [Illustration: FIG. 118.] + +At fig. 118 is shown a simple clasp suitable for small books with +mill-board sides, with details of the metal parts, made of thick +silver wire below. Double boards must be "made," and the flattened +ends of the silver catch inserted between the two thicknesses, and +glued in place. About one-eighth of an inch of the end should project. +In covering, the leather must be pierced and carefully worked round +the catch. To make the plait, three strips of thin leather are slipped +through the ring, and the ends of each strip pasted together. The +three doubled strips are then plaited and the end of the plait put +through a hole in the lower board of the book about half an inch from +the edge, and glued down inside. A groove may be cut in the mill-board +from the hole to the edge before covering, to make a depression in +which the plait will lie, and a depression may be scooped out of the +inner surface of the board to receive the ends. + +At fig. 119 is a somewhat similar clasp with three plaits suitable for +large books. The metal end and the method of inserting it into wooden +boards are shown below. The turned-down end should go right through +the board, and be riveted on the inside. When the three plaits are +worked, a little band of silver may be riveted on just below the ring. + + [Illustration: FIG. 119.] + +A very simple fastening that is sometimes useful is shown at fig. 77. +A very small bead is threaded on to a piece of catgut, and the two +ends of the gut brought together and put through a larger bead. The +ends of the gut with the beads on them are laced into the top board +of the book, with the bead projecting over the edge, and a loop of gut +is laced into the bottom board. If the loop can be made exactly the +right length, this is a serviceable method. + +Silk or leather ties may be used to keep books shut, but they are apt +to be in the way when the book is read, and as hardly anybody troubles +to tie them, they are generally of very little use. + + + METAL ON BINDINGS + +Metal corners and bosses are a great protection to bindings, but if +the books are to go into shelves, the metal must be quite smooth and +flat. A metal shoe on the lower edge of the boards is an excellent +thing for preserving the binding of heavy books. + +Bosses and other raised metal work should be restricted to books that +will be used on lecterns or reading desks. The frontispiece is from a +drawing of an early sixteenth-century book, bound in white pigskin, +and ornamented with brass corners, centres, and clasps; and at page +323 is shown a fifteenth-century binding with plain protecting bosses. +On this book there were originally five bosses on each board, but the +centre ones have been lost. + +Bindings may be entirely covered with metal, but the connection +between the binding and the book is in that case seldom quite +satisfactory. The most satisfactory metal-covered bindings that I have +seen are those in which the metal is restricted to the boards. The +book is bound in wooden boards, with thick leather at the back, and +plaques of metal nailed to the wood. The metal may be set with jewels +or decorated with enamel, and embossed or chased in various ways. + +Jewels are sometimes set in invisible settings below the leather of +bindings, giving them the appearance of being set in the leather. This +gives them an insecure look, and it is better to frankly show the +metal settings and make a decorative feature of them. + + + + + CHAPTER XIX + + Leather + + + LEATHER + +Of all the materials used by the bookbinders, leather is the most +important and the most difficult to select wisely. It is extremely +difficult to judge a leather by its appearance. + +"We find now, that instead of leather made from sheep, calf, goat, and +pigskins, each having, when finished, its own characteristic surface, +that sheepskins are got up to look like calf, morocco, or pigskin; +that calf is grained to resemble morocco, or so polished and flattened +as to have but little character left; while goatskins are grained in +any number of ways, and pigskin is often grained like levant morocco. +So clever are some of these imitations, that it takes a skilled expert +to identify a leather when it is on a book." + +There have been complaints for a long time of the want of durability +of modern bookbinding leather, but there has not been until lately any +systematic investigation into the causes of its premature decay. + +By permission, I shall quote largely from the report of the committee +appointed by the Society of Arts to inquire into the subject. There +are on this special committee leather manufacturers, bookbinders, +librarians, and owners of libraries. The report issued is the result +of an immense amount of work done. Many libraries were visited, and +hundreds of experiments and tests were carried out by the +sub-committees. There is much useful information in the report that +all bookbinders and librarians should read. The work of the committee +is not yet finished, but its findings may be accepted as conclusive as +far as they go. + +The committee first set themselves to ascertain if the complaints of +the premature decay of modern bookbinding leather are justified by +facts, and on this point report that:-- + +"As regards the common belief that modern binding leather does decay +prematurely, the sub-committee satisfied themselves that books bound +during the last eighty or hundred years showed far greater evidence of +deterioration than those of an earlier date. Many recent bindings +showed evidence of decay after so short a period as ten, or even five +years. The sub-committee came to the conclusion that there is ample +justification for the general complaint that modern leather is not so +durable as that formerly used. To fix the date of the commencement of +this deterioration was a difficult matter; but they came to the +conclusion that while leather of all periods showed some signs of +decay, the deterioration becomes more general on books bound after +1830, while some leathers seem to be generally good until about 1860, +after which date nearly all leathers seem to get worse. The +deterioration of calf bindings at the latter end of the 19th century +may be attributed as much to the excessive thinness as to the poor +quality of the material." + +The committee endeavoured to ascertain the relative durability of the +leathers used for bookbinding, and after visiting many libraries, and +comparing bindings, they report as follows:-- + +"As to the suitability of various leathers, the sub-committee came to +the conclusion that of the old leathers (15th and 16th century), white +pigskin, probably alum 'tanned,' is the most durable, but its +excessive hardness and want of flexibility renders this leather +unsuitable for most modern work. Old brown calf has lasted fairly +well, but loses its flexibility, and becomes stiff and brittle when +exposed to light and air. Some of the white tawed skins of the 15th +and 16th century, other than white pigskin, and probably deerskin, +have lasted very well. Some 15th and 16th century sheepskin bindings +have remained soft and flexible, but the surface is soft, and usually +much damaged by friction. Vellum seems to have lasted fairly well, but +is easily influenced by atmospheric changes, and is much affected by +light. Early specimens of red morocco from the 16th to the end of the +18th century were found in good condition, and of all the leathers +noticed, this seems to be the least affected by the various conditions +to which it had been subjected. In the opinion of the committee, most +of this leather has been tanned with sumach or some closely allied +tanning material. Morocco bindings earlier than 1860 were generally +found to be in fairly good condition, but morocco after that date +seems to be much less reliable, and in many cases has become utterly +rotten. During the latter part of the 18th century it became customary +to pare down calf until it was as thin as paper. Since about 1830 +hardly any really sound calf seems to have been used, as, whether +thick or thin, it appears generally to have perished. Sheepskin +bindings of the early part of the century are many of them still in +good condition. Since about 1860 sheepskin as sheepskin is hardly to +be found. Sheepskins are grained in imitation of other leathers, and +these imitation-grained leathers are generally found to be in a worse +condition than any of the other bindings, except, perhaps, some of the +very thin calfskin. Undyed modern pigskin seems to last well, but some +coloured pigskin bindings had entirely perished. Modern leathers dyed +with the aid of sulphuric acid are all to be condemned. In nearly +every case Russia leather was found to have become rotten, at least in +bindings of the last fifty years." + +On the question of the causes of the decay noticed and the best +methods of preparing leather in the future, I may quote the +following:-- + +"The work of a sub-committee, which was composed of chemists specially +conversant with the treatment of leather, was directed specially to +the elucidation of the following points: an investigation of the +nature of the decay of leather used for bookbinding; an examination of +the causes which produced this decay; a research into the best +methods of preparing leather for bookbinding; and a consideration of +the points required to be dealt with in the preservation of books. + +"Taking these points in order, the first one dealt with is the +question of the nature of the decay of leather. To arrive at their +conclusions on this subject, the sub-committee made a number of tests +and analyses of samples of decayed leather bookbindings, as well as of +leathers used for binding. The committee found that the most prevalent +decay was what they term a red decay, and this they think may be +differentiated into old and new, the old red decay being noticeable up +to about 1830, and the new decay since that date. In the old decay, +the leather becomes hard and brittle, the surface not being easily +abraded by friction. The older form is specially noticeable in +calf-bound books, tanned presumably with oak bark. The new form +affects nearly all leathers, and in extreme cases seems absolutely to +destroy the fibres. Another form of deterioration, more noticeable in +the newer books, renders the grain of the leather liable to peel off +when exposed to the slightest friction. This is the most common form +of decay noted in the more recent leathers. In nearly all samples of +Russia leather a very violent form of red decay was noticed. In many +cases the leather was found to be absolutely rotten in all parts +exposed to light and air, so that on the very slightest rubbing with a +blunt instrument the leather fell into fine dust.... + +"The second point is the cause of the decay. An extensive series of +experiments was carried out with a view of determining the causes of +the decay of bindings. The sub-committee find that this is caused by +both mechanical and by chemical influences. Of the latter, some are +due to mistakes of the leather manufacturer and the bookbinder, others +to the want of ventilation, and to improper heating and lighting of +libraries. In some cases inferior leathers are finished (by methods in +themselves injurious) so as to imitate the better class leathers, and +of course where these are used durability cannot be expected. But in +the main the injury for which the manufacturer and bookbinder are +responsible must be attributed rather to ignorance of the effect of +the means employed to give the leather the outward qualities required +for binding, than to the intentional production of an inferior +article.... Leathers produced by different tanning materials, although +they may be equally sound and durable mechanically, vary very much in +their resistance to other influences, such as light, heat, and gas +fumes. + +"For bookbinding purposes, the sub-committee generally condemn the use +of tanning materials belonging to the catechol group, although the +leathers produced by the use of these materials are for many purposes +excellent, and indeed superior. The class of tanning materials which +produce the most suitable leather for this particular purpose belong +to the pyrogallol group, of which a well known and important example +is sumach. East Indian or 'Persian' tanned sheep and goat skins, which +are suitable for many purposes, and are now used largely for cheap +bookbinding purposes, are considered extremely bad. Books bound in +these materials have been found to show signs of decay in less than +twelve months, and the sub-committee are inclined to believe that no +book bound in these leathers, exposed on a shelf to sunlight or gas +fumes, can ever be expected to last more than five or six years. +Embossing leather under heavy pressure to imitate a grain has a very +injurious effect, while the shaving of thick skins greatly reduces the +strength of the leather by cutting away the tough fibres of the inner +part of the skin. The use of mineral acids in brightening the colour +of leather, and in the process of dyeing, has a serious effect in +lessening its resistance to decay. A good deal yet remains to be +learned about the relative permanency of the different dyes." + +On analysis free sulphuric acid was found to be present in nearly all +bookbinding leather, and it is the opinion of the committee that even +a small quantity of this acid materially lessens the durability of the +leather. + +"It has been shown by careful experiment, that even a minute quantity +of sulphuric acid used in the dye bath to liberate the colour is at +once absorbed by the leather, and that no amount of subsequent washing +will remove it. In a very large proportion of cases the decay of +modern sumach-tanned leather has been due to the sulphuric acid used +in the dye bath, and retained in the skin. We have examined very many +samples of leather manufactured and sold specially for bookbinding +purposes, from different factories, bought from different dealers, or +kindly supplied by bookbinders and by librarians, and have found them +to contain, in a large number of cases, free sulphuric acid, from 0.5 +up to 1.6 per cent." + +The publication of the report should tend to fix a standard for +bookbinding leather. Hitherto there has been no recognised standard. +Bookbinders have selected leather almost entirely by its appearance. +It has now been shown that appearance is no test of durability, and +the mechanical test of tearing the leather is insufficient. Sound +leather should tear with difficulty, and the torn edges should be +fringed with long, silky fibres, and any leather which tears very +easily, and shows short, curled-up fibres at the torn edges, should be +discarded. But though good bookbinding leather will tear with +difficulty, and show long fibres where torn, that is in itself not a +sufficient test; because it has been shown that the leather that is +mechanically the strongest, is not necessarily the most durable and +the best able to resist the adverse influences to which books are +subject in libraries. + +The report shows that bookbinders and librarians are not, as a general +rule, qualified to select leather for bookbinding. In the old days, +when the manufacture of leather was comparatively simple, a bookbinder +might reasonably be expected to know enough of the processes employed +to be able to select his leather. But now so complicated is the +manufacture, and so many are the factors to be considered, that an +expert should be employed. + +"The committee have satisfied themselves that it is possible to test +any leather in such a way as to guarantee its suitability for +bookbinding. They have not come to any decision as to the desirability +of establishing any formal or official standard, though they consider +that this is a point which well deserves future consideration." + +It is to be hoped that some system of examining and hall-marking +leather by some recognised body, may be instituted. If librarians will +specify that the leather to be employed must be certified to be +manufactured according to the recommendations of the Society of Arts +Committee, there is no reason why leathers should not be obtained as +durable as any ever produced. This would necessitate the examining and +testing of batches of leather by experts. At present this can be done +more or less privately at various places, such as the Yorkshire +College, Leeds, or the Herolds' Institute, Bermondsey. In the near +future it is to be hoped that some recognised public body, such as one +of the great City Companies interested in leather, may be induced to +establish a standard, and to test such leathers as are submitted to +them, hall-marking those that come up to the standard. This would +enable bookbinders and librarians, in ordering leather, to be sure +that it had not been injured in its manufacture. The testing, if done +by batches, should not add greatly to the cost of the leather. + +On the question of the qualities of an ideal bookbinding leather the +committee report:-- + +"It is the opinion of the committee, that the ideal bookbinding +leather must have, and retain, great flexibility.... (It) must have a +firm grain surface, not easily damaged by friction, and should not be +artificially grained.... The committee is of opinion that a pure +sumach tannage will answer all these conditions, and that leather can, +and will, be now produced that will prove to be as durable as any made +in the past." + +The committee has so far only dealt with vegetable-tanned leather. I +have used, with some success, chrome-tanned calfskin. Chrome leather +is difficult to pare, and to work, as it does not become soft when +wet, like vegetable-tanned leather. It will stand any reasonable +degree of heat, and so might perhaps be useful for top-shelf bindings +and for shelf edging. It is extremely strong mechanically, but without +further tests I cannot positively recommend it except for trial. + +While the strength and probable durability of leather can only be +judged by a trained leather chemist, there remains for the binders +selection, the kind of leather to use, and its colour. + +Most of the leather prepared for bookbinding is too highly finished. +The finishing processes add a good deal to the cost of the leather, +and are apt to be injurious to it, and as much of the high finish is +lost in covering, it would be better for the bookbinder to get rougher +leather and finish it himself when it is on the book. + +The leathers in common use for bookbinding are:-- + + Goatskin, known as morocco. + Calf, known as calf and russia. + Sheepskin, known as roan, basil, skiver, &c. + Pigskin, known as pigskin. + Sealskin, known as seal. + +_Morocco_ is probably the best leather for extra binding if properly +prepared, but experiment has shown that the expensive Levant moroccos +are nearly always ruined in their manufacture. A great many samples of +the most expensive Levant morocco were tested, with the result that +they were all found to contain free sulphuric acid. + +_Calf._--Modern vegetable-tanned calf has become a highly +unsatisfactory material, and until some radical changes are made in +the methods of manufacturing it, it should not be used for +bookbinding. + +_Sheepskin._--A properly tanned sheepskin makes a very durable, though +rather soft and woolly, leather. Much of the bookbinding leather now +made from sheepskin is quite worthless. Bookbinders should refuse to +have anything to do with any leather that has been artificially +grained, as the process is apt to be highly injurious to the skin. + +_Pigskin._--Pigskin is a thoroughly good leather naturally, and very +strong, especially the alumed skins; but many of the dyed pigskins are +found to be improperly tanned and dyed, and worthless for bookbinding. + +_Sealskin_ is highly recommended by one eminent librarian, but I have +not yet had any experience of its use for bookbinding. + +The leather that I have found most useful is the Niger goatskin, +brought from Africa by the Royal Niger Company; it is a very beautiful +colour and texture, and has stood all the tests tried, without serious +deterioration. The difficulty with this leather is that, being a +native production, it is somewhat carelessly prepared, and is much +spoiled by flaws and stains on the surface, and many skins are quite +worthless. It is to be hoped that before long some of the +manufacturers interested will produce skins as good in quality and +colour as the best Niger morocco, and with fewer flaws. + +Much leather is ruined in order to obtain an absolutely even colour. A +slight unevenness of colours is very pleasing, and should rather be +encouraged than objected to. That the want of interest in absolutely +flat colours has been felt, is shown by the frequency with which the +binders get rid of flat, even colours by sprinkling and marbling. + +On this point I may quote from the committee: "The sprinkling of +leather, either for the production of 'sprinkled' calf or 'tree' calf, +with ferrous sulphate (green vitriol) must be most strongly condemned, +as the iron combines with and destroys the tan in the leather, and +free sulphuric acid is liberated, which is still more destructive. +Iron acetate or lactate is somewhat less objectionable, but probably +the same effects may be obtained with aniline colours without risk to +the leather." + + + + + CHAPTER XX + + Paper--Pastes--Glue + + + PAPER + +Paper may be made by hand or machinery, and either "laid" or "wove." +"Laid" papers are distinguished by wire marks, which are absent in +"wove" paper. + +A sheet of hand-made paper has all round it a rough uneven edge called +the "deckle," that is a necessary result of its method of manufacture. +The early printers looked upon this ragged edge as a defect, and +almost invariably trimmed most of it off before putting books into +permanent bindings. Book-lovers quite rightly like to find traces of +the "deckle" edge, as evidence that a volume has not been unduly +reduced by the binder. But it has now become the fashion to admire the +"deckle" for its own sake, and to leave books on hand-made paper +absolutely untrimmed, with ragged edges that collect the dirt, are +unsightly, and troublesome to turn over. So far has this craze gone, +that machine-made paper is often put through an extra process to give +it a sham deckle edge. + +Roughly speaking, paper varies in quality according to the proportion +of fibrous material, such as rag, used in the manufacture. To make +paper satisfactorily by hand, a large proportion of such fibrous +material is necessary, so that the fact that the paper is hand-made is +to some extent a guarantee of its quality. There are various qualities +of hand-made paper, made from different materials, chiefly linen and +cotton rags. The best paper is made from pure linen rag, and poorer +hand-made paper from cotton rag, while other qualities contain a +mixture of the two or other substances. + +It is possible to make a thoroughly good paper by machinery if good +materials are used. Some excellent papers are made by machinery; but +the enormous demand for paper, together with the fact that now almost +any fibrous material can be made into paper, has resulted in the +production, in recent years, of, perhaps, the worst papers that have +ever been seen. + +This would not matter if the use of the poor papers were restricted to +newspapers and other ephemeral literature, but when, as is often the +case, paper of very poor quality is used for books of permanent +literary interest, the matter is serious enough. + +Among the worst papers made are the heavily loaded "Art" papers that +are prepared for the printing of half-toned process blocks. It is to +be hoped that before long the paper makers will produce a paper that, +while suitable for printing half-toned blocks, will be more +serviceable, and will have a less unpleasant surface. + +Several makers produce coloured handmade papers suitable for end +papers. Machine-made papers can be had in endless variety from any +number of makers. + +The paper known as "Japanese Vellum" is a very tough material, and +will be found useful for repairing vellum books; the thinnest variety +of it is very suitable for mending the backs of broken sections, or +for strengthening weak places in paper. + +The following delightful account of paper making by hand is quoted +from "Evelyn's Diary, 1641-1706." + +"I went to see my Lord of St. Alban's house at Byflete, an old large +building. Thence to the paper mills, where I found them making a +coarse white paper. They cull the raggs, which are linnen, for white +paper, woollen for brown, then they stamp them in troughs to a papp +with pestles or hammers like the powder-mills, then put it into a +vessell of water, in which they dip a frame closely wyred with a wyre +as small as a haire, and as close as a weaver's reede; on this they +take up the papp, the superfluous water draining thro' the wyre; this +they dextrously turning, shake out like a pancake on a smooth board +between two pieces of flannell, then press it between a greate presse, +the flannell sucking out the moisture; then taking it out they ply and +dry it on strings, as they dry linnen in the laundry; then dip it in +alum-water, lastly polish and make it up in quires. They put some gum +in the water in which they macerate the raggs. The mark we find on the +sheets is formed in the wyre." + +The following are the more usual sizes of printing papers-- + + Inches. + + Foolscap 17 × 13½ + Crown 20 × 15 + Post 19¼ × 15½ + Demy 22½ × 17½ + Medium 24 × 19 + Royal 25 × 20 + Double Pott 25 × 15 + " Foolscap 27 × 17 + Super Royal 27 × 21 + Double Crown 30 × 20 + Imperial 30 × 22 + Double Post 31½ × 19½ + +The corresponding sizes of hand-made papers may differ slightly from +the above. + +Although the above are the principal sizes named, almost any size can +be made to order. + +The following is an extract from the report of the Committee of the +Society of Arts on the deterioration of paper, published in 1898: "The +committee find that the paper-making fibres may be ranged into four +classes:-- + + A. Cotton, flax, and hemp. + B. Wood, celluloses (_a_) sulphite process, + and (_b_) soda and sulphate process. + C. Esparto and straw celluloses. + D. Mechanical wood pulp. + +In regard, therefore, to papers for books and documents of permanent +value, the selection must be taken in this order, and always with due +regard to the fulfilment of the conditions of normal treatment above +dealt with as common to all papers." + +"The committee have been desirous of bringing their investigations to +a practical conclusion in specific terms, viz. by the suggestion of +standards of quality. It is evident that in the majority of cases, +there is little fault to find with the practical adjustments which +rule the trade. They are, therefore, satisfied to limit their specific +findings to the following, viz., _Normal standard of quality for book +papers required for publications of permanent value._ For such papers +they would specify as follows:-- + +"_Fibres._ Not less than 70 per cent. of fibres of Class A. + +"_Sizing._ Not more than 2 per cent. rosin, and finished with the +normal acidity of pure alum. + +"_Loading._ Not more than 10 per cent. total mineral matter (ash). + +"With regard to written documents, it must be evident that the proper +materials are those of Class A, and that the paper should be pure, +and sized with gelatine, and not with rosin. All imitations of +high-class writing papers, which are, in fact, merely disguised +printing papers, should be carefully avoided." + + + PASTES + +To make paste for covering books, &c., take 2 oz. of flour, and ¼ +oz. of powdered alum, and well mix with enough water to form a thin +paste, taking care to break up any lumps. Add a pint of cold water, +and heat gently in an enamelled saucepan. As it becomes warm, it +should be stirred from time to time, and when it begins to boil it +should be continually stirred for about five minutes. It should then +form a thick paste that can be thinned with warm water. Of course any +quantity can be made if the proportions are the same. + +Paste for use is best kept in a wooden trough, called a "paste tub." +The paste tub will need to be cleaned out from time to time, and all +fragments of dry paste removed. This can easily be done if it is left, +overnight, filled with water. Before using, the paste should be well +beaten up with a flat stick. + +For pasting paper, it should have about the consistency and smoothness +of cream; for leather, it can be thicker. For very thick leather a +little thin glue may be added. Paste made with alum will keep about a +fortnight, but can be kept longer by the addition of corrosive +sublimate in the proportion of one part of corrosive sublimate to a +thousand parts of paste. Corrosive sublimate, being a deadly poison, +will prevent the attack of bookworms or other insects, but for the +same reason must only be used by responsible people, and paste in +which it is used must be kept out of the way of domestic animals. + +Several makes of excellent prepared paste can be bought in London. +These pastes are as cheap as can be made, and keep good a long time. + +Paste that has become sour should never be used, as there is danger +that the products of its acid fermentation may injure the leather. + +Paste tubs as sold often have an iron bar across them to wipe the +brush on. This should be removed, and replaced by a piece of twisted +cord. Paste brushes should be bound with string or zinc; copper or +iron will stain the paste. + + + WHITE PASTE FOR MENDING + +A good paste for mending is made from a teaspoonful of ordinary flour, +two teaspoonsful of cornflour, half a teaspoonful of alum, and three +ounces of water. These should be carefully mixed, breaking up all +lumps, and then should be heated in a clean saucepan, and stirred all +the time with a wooden or bone spoon. The paste should boil for about +five minutes, but not too fast, or it will burn and turn brown. +Rice-flour or starch may be substituted for cornflour, and for very +white paper the wheaten flour may be omitted. Ordinary paste is not +nearly white enough for mending, and is apt to leave unsightly stains. + +Cornflour paste may be used directly after it is made, and will keep +good under ordinary circumstances for about a week. Directly it gets +hard or goes watery, a new batch must be made. + + + GLUE + +It is important for bookbinders that the glue used should be of good +quality, and the best hide glue will be found to answer well. To +prepare it for use, the glue should be broken up into small pieces and +left to soak overnight in water. In the morning it should be soft and +greatly swollen, but not melted, and can then be put in the glue-pot +and gently simmered until it is fluid. It is then ready for use. Glue +loses in quality by being frequently heated, so that it is well not to +make a great quantity at a time. The glue-pot should be thoroughly +cleaned out before new glue is put into it, and the old glue sticking +round the sides taken out. + +Glue should be used hot and not too thick. If it is stringy and +difficult to work, it can be broken up by rapidly twisting the brush +in the glue-pot. For paper the glue should be very thin and well +worked up with the brush before using. + +The following is quoted from "Chambers' Encyclopædia" article on +Glue:-- + +"While England does not excel in the manufacture, it is a recognised +fact that Scottish glue ... ranks in the front of the glues of all +countries. A light-coloured glue is not necessarily good, nor a +dark-coloured glue necessarily bad. A bright, clear, claret colour is +the natural colour of hide glue, which is the best and most +economical. + +"Light-coloured glues (as distinguished from gelatine) are made either +from bones or sheepskins. The glue yielded by these materials cannot +compare with the strength of that yielded by hides. + +"A great quantity is now made in France and Germany from bones. It is +got as a by-product in the manufacture of animal charcoal. Although +beautiful to look at, it is found when used to be far inferior to +Scottish hide glue." + + + + + PART II + + CARE OF BOOKS WHEN BOUND + + + + + CHAPTER XXI + + Injurious Influences to which Books are Subjected + + +_Gas Fumes._--The investigation of the Society of Arts Committee shows +that-- + +"Of all the influences to which books are exposed in libraries, gas +fumes--no doubt because of the sulphuric and sulphurous acid which +they contain--are shown to be the most injurious." + +The injurious effects of gas fumes on leather have been recognised for +a long time, and gas is being, very generally, given up in libraries +in consequence. If books must be kept where gas is used, they should +not be put high up in the room, and great attention should be paid to +ventilation. It is far better, where possible, to avoid the use of gas +at all in libraries. + +_Light._--The committee also report that "light, and especially direct +sunlight and hot air, are shown to possess deleterious influences +which had scarcely been suspected previously, and the importance of +moderate temperature and thorough ventilation of libraries cannot be +too much insisted on." + +The action of light on leather has a disintegrating effect, very +plainly seen when books have stood for long periods on shelves placed +at right angles to windows. At Oxford and Cambridge and at the British +Museum Library the same thing was noticed. The leather on that side, +of the backs of books, next to the light, was absolutely rotten, +crumbling to dust at the slightest friction, while at the side away +from the light it was comparatively sound. Vellum bindings were even +more affected than those of leather. + +The committee advise that library windows exposed to the direct +sunlight should be glazed with tinted glass. + +"Some attempts have been made to determine the effect of light +transmitted through glasses of different colours, and they point to +the fact that blue and violet glass pass light of nearly as +deleterious quality as white glass; while leathers under red, green, +and yellow glasses were almost completely protected. There can be no +doubt that the use of pale yellow or olive-green glass in library +windows exposed to direct sunlight is desirable. A large number of +experiments have been made on the tinted 'cathedral' glasses of +Messrs. Pilkington Bros., Limited, with the result that Nos. 812 and +712 afforded almost complete protection during two months' exposure to +sunlight, while Nos. 704 and 804 may be recommended where only very +pale shades are permissible. The glasses employed were subjected to +careful spectroscopic examination, and to colour-measurement by the +tintometer, but neither were found to give precise indications as to +the protective power of the glasses, which is no doubt due to the +absorption of the violet, and especially of the invisible ultra-violet +rays. An easy method of comparing glasses is to expose under them to +sunlight the ordinary sensitised albumenised photographic paper. +Those glasses under which this is least darkened are also most +protective to leather." + +_Tobacco._--Smoking was found to be injurious, and it is certainly a +mistake to allow it in libraries. + +"The effect of ammonia vapour, and tobacco fumes, of which ammonia is +one of the active ingredients, was also examined. The effect of +ammonia fumes was very marked, darkening every description of leather, +and it is known that in extreme cases it causes a rapid form of decay. +Tobacco smoke had a very similar darkening and deleterious effect +(least marked in the case of sumach tanned leathers), and there can be +no doubt that the deterioration of bindings in a library where smoking +was permitted and the rooms much used, must have been partly due to +this cause." + +_Damp._--Books kept in damp places will develop mildew, and both +leather and paper will be ruined. + +Where possible, naturally dry rooms should be used for libraries, and +if not naturally dry, every means possible should be taken to render +them so. It will sometimes be found that the only way to keep the +walls of an old house dry is to put in a proper dampcourse. There are +various other methods employed, such as lining the walls with thin +lead, or painting them inside and out with some waterproofing +preparation: but as long as a wall remains in itself damp, it is +doubtful if any of these things will permanently keep the damp from +penetrating. + +Bookshelves should never be put against the wall, nor the books on the +floor. There should always be space for air to circulate on all sides +of the bookshelves. Damp is specially injurious if books are kept +behind closely-fitting doors. The doors of bookcases should be left +open from time to time on warm days. + +Should mildew make its appearance, the books should be taken out, +dried and aired, and the bookshelves thoroughly cleaned. The cause of +the damp should be sought for, and measures taken to remedy it. +Library windows should not be left open at night, nor during damp +weather, but in warm fine weather the more ventilation there is, the +better. + +_Heat._--While damp is very injurious to books on account of the +development of mildew, unduly hot dry air is almost as bad, causing +leather to dry up and lose its flexibility. On this point the Chairman +of the Society of Arts Committee says:-- + +"Rooms in which books are kept should not be subject to extremes, +whether of heat or cold, of moisture or dryness. It may be said that +the better adapted a room is for human occupation, the better for the +books it contains. Damp is, of course, most mischievous, but +over-dryness induced by heated air, especially when the pipes are in +close proximity to the bookcases, is also very injurious." + +_Dust._--Books should be taken from the shelves at least once a year, +dusted and aired, and the bindings rubbed with a preservative. + +To dust a book, it should be removed from the shelf, and without being +opened, turned upside down and flicked with a feather duster. If a +book with the dust on the top is held loosely in the hand, and dusted +right way up, dust may fall between the leaves. Dusting should be done +in warm, dry weather; and afterwards, the books may be stood on the +table slightly open, to air, with their leaves loose. Before being +returned to the shelves, the bindings should be lightly rubbed with +some preservative preparation (see chap. XXII). Any bindings that are +broken, or any leaves that are loose should be noted, and the books +put on one side to be sent to the binder. It would be best when the +library is large enough to warrant it, to employ a working bookbinder +to do this work; such a man would be useful in many ways. He could +stick on labels, repair bindings, and do many other odd jobs to keep +the books in good repair. + +A bookbinder could be kept fully employed, binding and repairing the +books of a comparatively small library under the direction of the +librarian. + + + BOOKWORMS + +The insects known as bookworms are the larvæ of several sorts of +beetles, most commonly perhaps of _Antobium domesticum_ and _Niptus +hololencus_. They are not in any way peculiar to books and will infest +the wood of bookshelves, walls, or floors. A good deal can be done to +keep "worms" away by using such substances as camphor or naphthaline +in the bookcase. Bookworms do not attack modern books very much; +probably they dislike the alum put in the paste and the mill-boards +made of old tarred rope. + +In old books, especially such as come from Italy, it is often found +that the ravages of the bookworms are almost entirely confined to the +glue on the backs of the books, and it generally seems that the glue +and paste attract them. Probably if corrosive sublimate were put in +the glue and paste used it would stop their attacks. Alum is said to +be a preventive, but I have known bookworms to eat their way through +leather pasted on with paste containing alum, when, in recovering, the +old wooden boards containing bookworms have been utilised in error. + +When on shaking the boards of an old book dust flies out, or when +little heaps of dust are found on the shelf on which an old book has +been standing, it may be considered likely that there are bookworms +present. It is easy to kill any that may be hatched, by putting the +book in an air-tight box surrounded with cotton wool soaked in ether; +but that will not kill the eggs, and the treatment must be repeated +from time to time at intervals of a few weeks. + +Any book that is found to contain bookworms should be isolated and at +once treated. Tins may be put inside the boards to prevent the "worms" +eating into the leaves. + +Speaking of bookworms, Jules Cousin says:-- + +"One of the simplest means to be employed (to get rid of bookworms) is +to place behind the books, especially in the place where the insects +show their presence most, pieces of linen soaked with essence of +turpentine, camphor, or an infusion of tobacco, and to renew them when +the smell goes off. A little fine pepper might also be scattered on +the shelf, the penetrating smell of which would produce the same +effect." + +Possibly Keating's Insect Powder would answer as well or better than +pepper. + + + RATS AND MICE + +Rats and mice will gnaw the backs of books to get at the glue, so, +means should be taken to get rid of these vermin if they should +appear. Mice especially will nibble vellum binding or the edges of +vellum books that have become greasy with much handling. + + + COCKROACHES + +Cockroaches are very troublesome in libraries, eating the bindings. +Keating's Insect Powder will keep them away from books, but only so +long as it is renewed at short intervals. + + + PLACING THE BOOKS IN THE SHELVES + +The Chairman of the Society of Arts Special Committee says on this +point:-- + +"It is important that a just medium should be observed between the +close and loose disposition of books in the shelves. Tight packing +causes the pulling off of the tops of book-backs, injurious friction +between their sides, and undue pressure, which tends to force off +their backs. But books should not stand loosely on the shelves. They +require support and moderate lateral pressure, otherwise the leaves +are apt to open and admit dust, damp, and mildew. The weight of the +leaves also in good-sized volumes loosely placed will often be found +to be resting on the shelf, making the backs concave, and spoiling the +shape and cohesion of the books. + +"In libraries where classification is attempted there must be a +certain number of partially filled shelves. The books in these should +be kept in place by some such device as that in use in the British +Museum, namely, a simple flat angle piece of galvanised iron, on the +lower flange of which the end books rest, keeping it down, the upright +flange keeping the books close and preventing them from spreading." + +He also speaks of the danger to bindings of rough or badly-painted +bookshelves:-- + +"Great care should be exercised when bookcases are painted or +varnished that the surface should be left hard, smooth, and dry. +Bindings, especially those of delicate texture, may be irreparably +rubbed if brought in contact with rough or coarsely-painted surfaces, +while the paint itself, years after its original application, is +liable to come off upon the books, leaving indelible marks. In such +cases pasteboard guards against the ends of the shelves are the only +remedy." + + + + + CHAPTER XXII + + To Preserve Old Bindings--Re-backing + + + TO PRESERVE OLD BINDINGS + +It is a well-known fact that the leather of bindings that are much +handled lasts very much better than that on books which remain +untouched on the shelves. There is little doubt that the reason for +this is that the slight amount of grease the leather receives from the +hands nourishes it and keeps it flexible. A coating of glair or +varnish is found to some extent to protect leather from adverse +outside influences, but, unfortunately, both glair and varnish tend +rather to harden leather than to keep it flexible, and they fail just +where failure is most serious, that is at the joints. In opening and +shutting, any coat of glair or varnish that has become hard will +crack, and expose the leather of the joint and back. Flexibility is an +essential quality in bookbinding leather, for as soon as the leather +at the joint of a binding becomes stiff it breaks away when the boards +are opened. + +It would add immensely to the life of old leather bindings if +librarians would have them treated, say once a year, with some +preservative. The consequent expense would be saved many times over by +the reduction of the cost of rebinding. Such a preservative must not +stain, must not evaporate, must not become hard, and must not be +sticky. Vaseline has been recommended, and answers fairly well, but +will evaporate, although slowly. I have found that a solution of +paraffin wax in castor oil answers well. It is cheap and very simple +to prepare. To prepare it, some castor oil is put into an earthenware +jar, and about half its weight of paraffin wax shredded into it. On +warming, the wax will melt, and the preparation is ready for use. + +A little of the preparation is well worked into a piece of flannel, +and the books rubbed with it, special attention being paid to the back +and joints. They may be further rubbed with the hand, and finally gone +over with a clean, soft cloth. Very little of the preparation need be +used on each book. + +If bindings have projecting metal corners or clasps that are likely to +scratch the neighbouring books, pieces of mill-board, which may be +lined with leather or good paper, should be placed next them, or they +may have a cover made of a piece of mill-board bent round as shown at +fig. 120, and strengthened at the folds with linen. This may be +slipped into the shelf with the book with the open end outwards, and +will then hardly be seen. + + [Illustration: FIG. 120.] + +Bindings which have previously had metal clasps, &c., often have +projecting fragments of the old nails. These should be sought for and +carefully removed or driven in, as they may seriously damage any +bindings with which they come in contact. + +To protect valuable old bindings, cases may be made and lettered on +the back with the title of the book. + +Loose covers that necessitate the bending back of the boards for their +removal are not recommended. + + + RE-BACKING + +Bindings that have broken joints may be re-backed. Any of the leather +of the back that remains should be carefully removed and preserved. It +is impossible to get some leathers off tight backs without destroying +them, but with care and by the use of a thin folder, many backs can be +saved. The leather on the boards is cut a little back from the joint +with a slanting cut, that will leave a thin edge, and is then lifted +up with a folder. New leather, of the same colour is pasted on the +back, and tucked in under the old leather on the board. The leather +from the old back should have its edges pared and any lumps of glue or +paper removed and be pasted on to the new leather and bound tightly +with tape to make sure that it sticks. + +When the leather at the corners of the board needs repairing, the +corner is glued and tapped with a hammer to make it hard and square, +and when it is dry a little piece of new leather is slipped under the +old and the corner covered. + +When the sewing cords or thread of a book have perished it should be +rebound, but if there are any remains of the original binding they +should be preserved and utilised. If the old boards have quite +perished, new boards of the same nature and thickness should be got +out and the old cover pasted over them. Such places as the old leather +will not cover, must first be covered with new of the same colour. +Generally speaking, it is desirable that the characteristics of an old +book should be preserved, and that the new work should be as little in +evidence as possible. It is far more pleasant to see an old book in a +patched contemporary binding, than smug and tidy in the most +immaculate modern cover. + +Part of the interest of any old book is its individual history, which +can be gathered from the binding, book-plates, marginal notes, names +of former owners, &c., and anything that tends to obliterate these +signs is to be deplored. + + + + + SPECIFICATIONS + + + SPECIFICATIONS FOR BOOKBINDING + +These specifications will require modification in special cases, and +are only intended to be a general guide. + +------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- + | SHEETS. | END PAPERS. | PRESSING.| EDGES. | SEWING. | BACK. +------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- + |To be |To be sewn |Books on |To be |To be with|To be + I. |carefully|on. To be of |handmade |trimmed |ligature |kept +For Extra |folded, |good paper |paper not |and gilt|silk, |as +Binding |or, if |made with |to be |before |flexible, |flat +suitable |an old |zigzag, with |pressed |sewing. |round five|as it +for Valuable|book, all|board papers |unduly. |To be |bands of |can be +Books. Whole|damaged |of self- | |uncut. |best |without +Leather. |leaves to|coloured | | |sewing |forcing + |be |paper of good| | |cord. |it and + |carefully|quality, or | | | |without + |mended, |vellum. Or to| | | |danger + |the backs|be made with | | | |of its + |where |leather | | | |becom- + |damaged |joint. | | | |ing + |to be | | | | |concave + |made | | | | |in use. + |sound. | | | | | + |Single | | | | | + |leaves | | | | | + |to be | | | | | + |guarded | | | | | + |round | | | | | + |the | | | | | + |sections | | | | | + |next | | | | | + |them. All| | | | | + |plates to| | | | | + |be | | | | | + |guarded. | | | | | + |Guards to| | | | | + |be sewn | | | | | + |through. | | | | | + |No past- | | | | | + |ing on | | | | | + |or over- | | | | | + |casting | | | | | + |to be | | | | | + |allowed. | | | | | +------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- + |As No. |To be of good|Same as |To be |To be with|Same as + II. |I., |paper made |No. I. |cut and |unbleached|for No. +For Good |excepting|with zigzag, | |gilt in |thread, |I. +Binding for |that any |with board | |boards |flexible, | +Books of |mending |papers of | |or |round five| +Reference, |may be |self-coloured| |coloured|bands of | +Catalogues, |done |paper of good| |or to be|best | +&c., and |rather |quality. | |uncut. |sewing | +other heavy |with a |Large or | | |cord. | +Books that |view to |heavy books | | | | +may have a |strength |to have a | | | | +great deal |than |cloth joint. | | | | +of use. |extreme |To be sewn | | | | +Whole or |neatness.|on. | | | | +Half | | | | | | +Leather. | | | | | | +------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- + |Same as |To be of good|Same as |To be |To be with|Same as + III. |No. II. |paper, sewn |No. I. |uncut, |unbleached|for +For Binding | |on, made with| |or to be|thread |Nos. I. +for | |zigzag. | |cut in |across not|and II. +Libraries, | | | |guillo- |less than | +IV. for | | | |tine and|four | +Books in | | | |gilt or |unbleached| +current | | | |coloured|linen | +use. Half | | | |or to |tapes. | +Leather. | | | |have top| | + | | | |edge | | + | | | |only | | + | | | |gilt. | | +------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- + |Any |Same as No. | |May be |With |Back to + IV. |leaves |III. | |cut |unbleached|be left +For Library |damaged | | |smooth |thread |square +Bindings of |at the | | |in |over three|after +Books of |back or | | |guillo- |unbleached|glueing +little |plates | | |tine. |linen |up. +Interest or |to be | | | |tapes. | +Value, |overcast | | | | | +Cloth or |into | | | | | +Half Linen. |sections.| | | | | +------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- + + + SPECIFICATIONS FOR BOOKBINDING--(_continued_). + +------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- + |BOARDS. |HEADBANDS.| COVERS. |LETTERING.|DECORATION.| +------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- + |To be of|To be |Goatskin |To be |To be as |All work + I. |the best|worked |(morocco),|legible |much or as |to be +For Extra |black |with silk |pigskin |and to |little as |done in +Binding |mill- |on strips |or seal- |identify |the nature |the best +suitable |board. |of vellum |skin manu-|the |of the book|manner. +for Valuable|Two |or catgut |factured |volume. |warrants. | +Books. Whole|boards |or cord, |according | | | +Leather. |to be |with |to the | | | + |made |frequent |recommend-| | | + |together|tie-downs.|ations of | | | + |for |The head- |the | | | + |large |bands to |Society | | | + |books, |be "set" |of Arts' | | | + |and all |by pieces |Committee | | | + |five |of good |on Leather| | | + |bands |paper or |for | | | + |laced in|leather |Book- | | | + |through |glued at |binding. | | | + |two |head and |Whole | | | + |holes. |tail. The |binding; | | | + | |back to be|leather | | | + | |lined up |to be | | | + | |with |attached | | | + | |leather |directly | | | + | |all over |to the | | | + | |if the |back. | | | + | |book is | | | | + | |large. | | | | +------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- + |Same as |Same as |Same as |Same as |To be |Work may + II. |No. I., |No. I. |No. I., |No. I. |omitted, or|be a +For Good |or may | |excepting | |only to |little +Binding for |be of | |that | |consist of |rougher, +Books of |good | |properly | |a few lines|but not +Reference, |grey | |prepared | |or dots or |careless +Catalogues, |board. | |sheepskin | |other |or +&c., and | | |may be | |quite |dirty. +other heavy | | |added. | |simple | +Books that | | |Half- | |ornament. | +may have | | |binding, | | | +a great deal| | |leather | | | +of use. | | |only at | | | +Whole or | | |back. | | | +Half | | |Corners | | | +Leather. | | |to be | | | + | | |strength- | | | + | | |ened with | | | + | | |tips of | | | + | | |vellum. | | | + | | |Sides | | | + | | |covered | | | + | | |with good | | | + | | |paper | | | + | | |or linen. | | | +------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- + |To be |To be |Same as |Same as |To be |Same as + III. |split |worked |Nos. I. |Nos. I. |omitted. |No. II. +For Binding |grey |with |and II., |and II. | | +for |boards, |thread |but skins | | | +Libraries, |or |or vellum |may be | | | +for Books |straw- |or cord, |used where| | | +in current |board |or to be |there are | | | +use. Half |with |omitted |surface | | | +Leather. |black |and a |flaws that| | | + |board |piece of |do not | | | + |liner, |cord |affect the| | | + |with |inserted |strength. | | | + |ends |into the |Leather to| | | + |of tapes|turn in |be used | | | + |attached|of the |thicker | | | + |to |leather at|than is | | | + |portion |head and |usual, | | | + |of waste|tail in |there | | | + |sheet, |their |being | | | + |inserted|place. |French | | | + |between | |joints. | | | + |them. | |Leather at| | | + |Boards | |back only;| | | + |to be | |paper | | | + |left a | |sides; | | | + |short | |vellum | | | + |distance| |tips. | | | + |from the| | | | | + |joint | | | | | + |to form | | | | | + |a French| | | | | + |joint. | | | | | +------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- + |To be |No |Whole |Same as |To be |Same as + IV. |split |headbands.|buckram |Nos. I. |omitted. |No. II. +For Library |boards, | |or half |II. and | | +Bindings of |two | |linen and |III. | | +Books of |straw- | |paper | | | +little |boards | |sides. | | | +Interest or |made | | | | | +Value, Cloth|together| | | | | +or Half |and ends| | | | | +Linen. |of slips| | | | | + |insert- | | | | | + |ed. | | | | | + |French | | | | | + |joint to| | | | | + |be left.| | | | | +------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- + + + + + GLOSSARY + + +_Arming press_, a small blocking press used for striking arms-blocks +on the sides of books. + +_Backing boards_, wedge-shaped bevelled boards used in backing (see +Fig. 40). + +_Backing machine_, used for backing cheap work in large quantities; it +often crushes and damages the backs of the sections. + +_Bands_, (1) the cords on which a book is sewn. (2) The ridges on the +back caused by the bands showing through the leather. + +_Band nippers_, pincers with flat jaws, used for straightening the +bands (see Fig. 61). For nipping up the leather after covering, they +should be nickelled to prevent the iron staining the leather. + +_Beating stone_, the "stone" on which books were formerly beaten; now +generally superseded by the rolling machine and standing press. + +_Blind tooling_, the impression of finishing tools without gold. + +_Blocking press_, a press used for impressing blocks such as those +used in decorating cloth cases. + +_Board papers_, the part of the end papers pasted on to the boards. + +_Bodkin_, an awl used for making the holes in the boards for the +slips. + +_Bolt_, folded edge of the sheets in an unopened book. + +_Cancels_, leaves containing errors, which have to be discarded and +replaced by corrected sheets. Such leaves are marked by the printer +with a star. + +_Catch-word_, a word printed at the foot of one page indicating the +first word of the page following, as a guide in collating. + +_Cutting boards_, wedge-shaped boards somewhat like backing boards, +but with the top edge square; used in cutting the edge of a book and +in edge-gilding. + +_Cutting in boards_, cutting the edges of a book after the boards are +laced on. + +_Cutting press_, when the lying press is turned, so that the side with +the runners is uppermost, it is called a cutting press (see Fig. 46). + +_Diaper_, a term applied to a small repeating all-over pattern. From +woven material decorated in this way. + +_Doublure_, the inside face of the boards, especially applied to them +when lined with leather and decorated. + +_End papers_, papers added at the beginning and end of a book by the +binder. + +_Extra binding_, a trade term for the best work. + +_Finishing_, comprises lettering, tooling, and polishing, &c. + +_Finishing press_, a small press used for holding books when they are +being tooled (see Fig. 84). + +_Finishing stove_, used for heating finishing tools. + +_Folder_, a flat piece of ivory or bone, like a paper knife, used in +folding sheets and in various other operations. + +_Foredge_ (fore edge), the front edge of the leaves. Pronounced +"forrege." + +_Forwarding_, comprises all the operations between sewing and +finishing, excepting headbanding. + +_Gathering_, collecting one sheet from each pile in a printer's +warehouse to make up a volume. + +_Glaire_, white of eggs beaten up, and used in finishing and edge +gilding. + +_Half binding_, when the leather covers the back and only part of the +sides, a book is said to be half bound. + +_Head band_, a fillet of silk or thread, worked at the head and tail +of the back. + +_Head cap_, the fold of leather over the head band (see Fig. 67). + +_Head and tail_, the top and bottom of a book. + +_Imperfections_, sheets rejected by the binder and returned to the +printer to be replaced. + +_India proofs_, strictly first proofs only of an illustration pulled +on "India paper," but used indiscriminately for all illustrations +printed on India paper. + +_Inset_, the portion of a sheet cut off and inserted in folding +certain sizes, such as duodecimo, &c. (see Fig. 4). + +_Inside margins_, the border made by the turn in of the leather on the +inside face of the boards (see Fig. 116). + +_Joints_, (1) the groove formed in backing to receive the ends of the +mill-boards. (2) The part of the binding that bends when the boards +are opened. (3) Strips of leather or cloth used to strengthen the end +papers. + +"_Kettle stitch_," catch stitch formed in sewing at the head and tail. + +_Lacing in_, lacing the slips through holes in the boards to attach +them. + +_Lying press_, the term applied to the under side of the cutting press +used for backing, usually ungrammatically called "laying press." + +_Marbling_, colouring the edges and end papers in various patterns, +obtained by floating colours on a gum solution. + +_Millboard machine_, machine used for squaring boards; should only be +used for cheap work, as an edge cut by it will not be as square as if +cut by the plough. + +_Mitring_, (1) lines meeting at a right angle without overrunning are +said to be mitred. (2) A join at 45° as in the leather on the inside +of the boards. + +_Overcasting_, over-sewing the back edges of single leaves or weak +sections. + +_Peel_, a thin board on a handle used for hanging up sheets for +drying. + +_Plate_, an illustration printed from a plate. Term often incorrectly +applied to illustrations printed from woodcuts. Any full-page +illustration printed on different paper to the book is usually called +a "plate." + +_Pressing plates_, plates of metal japanned or nickelled, used for +giving finish to the leather on a book. + +_Press pin_, an iron bar used for turning the screws of presses. + +_Proof_, edges left uncut as "proof" that the book has not been unduly +cut down. + +_Register_, (i.) when the print on one side of a leaf falls exactly +over that on the other it is said to register. (ii.) Ribbon placed in +a book as a marker. + +_Rolling machine_, a machine in which the sheets of a book are subject +to heavy pressure by being passed between rollers. + +_Sawing in_, when grooves are made in the back with a saw to receive +the bands. + +_Section_, the folded sheet. + +_Semée_ or _Semis_, an heraldic term signifying sprinkled. + +_Set off_, print is said to "set off" when part of the ink from a page +comes off on an opposite page. This will happen if a book is pressed +too soon after printing. + +_Sheet_, the full size of the paper as printed, forming a section when +folded. + +_Signature_, the letter or figure placed on the first page of each +sheet. + +_Slips_, the ends of the sewing cord or tape that are attached to the +boards. + +_Squares_, the portion of the boards projecting beyond the edges of +the book. + +_Start_, when, after cutting, one or more sections of the book come +forward, making the fore edge irregular, they are said to have +started. + +_Straight edge_, a flat ruler. + +_Tacky_, sticky. + +_T. E. G._, top-edge gilt. + +_Trimmed._ The edges of a book are said to be trimmed when the edges +of the larger (or projecting) leaves only have been cut. + +_Tub_, the stand which supports the lying press. Originally an actual +tub to catch the shavings. + +_Uncut_, a book is said to be uncut when the edges of the paper have +not been cut with the plough or guillotine. + +_Unopened_, the book is said to be unopened if the bolts of the sheets +have not been cut. + +_Waterproof sheets_, sheets of celluloid, such as are used by +photographers. + +_Whole binding_, when the leather covers the back and sides of a +volume. + +_Wire staples_ are used by certain machines in the place of thread for +securing the sections. + +_Groove_, that part of the sections which is turned over in backing to +receive the board. + + + + + REPRODUCTIONS OF BINDINGS + + I., II., AND III. + + FIFTEENTH CENTURY BLIND-TOOLED BINDINGS + + IV. + + SIXTEENTH CENTURY BINDING WITH SIMPLE GOLD-TOOLING + + V., VI., VII., AND VIII. + + MODERN BINDINGS DESIGNED BY THE AUTHOR + + [Illustration: I.--German Fifteenth Century. Pigskin. Actual + size, 8¾" × 6¼".] + + [Illustration: II.--German Fifteenth Century. Calf. Actual + size 12½" × 8½".] + + [Illustration: III.--Italian Fifteenth Century. Sheepskin, + with coloured roundels. Actual size, 11½" × 8¼".] + + [Illustration: IV.--Italian Sixteenth Century. Actual size, + 12½" × 8½". Goatskin.] + + [Illustration: V.--Half Niger morocco, with sides of English + oak. Actual size, 17" × 11½".] + + [Illustration: VI.--Niger morocco, inlaid green leaves. + Actual size, 8¼" × 5½".] + + [Illustration: VII.--Green levant, inlaid with lighter green + panel and red dots. Actual size, 6¾" × 4½".] + + [Illustration: VIII.--Niger morocco, executed by a student of + the Central School of Arts and Crafts. Actual size, 11¾" × 9¼".] + + + + + INDEX + + +ARMING PRESS, 229, 313 + +Arms blocks, 228 + +Art paper, 48, 282 + +Autograph letters, 179 + + +BACKING, 117 + +Backing hammer, 123 + +Back, lining up, 152 + +Band nippers, 160, 163 + +Bands, 313 + +Bandstick, 160 + +Beating, 90 + +Beating stone, 90, 313 + +Benzine, 207, 209 + +Binding, decoration of, 21, 30, 188, 233 + +Binding, collotype reproductions of, 321-336 + +Binding, embroidered, 186 + +Binding early printed books, 31, 46, 113 + +Binding, extra, 308 + +Binding, jewelled, 263 + +Binding, library, 27, 173, 308 + +Binding, manuscripts, 31, 108, 113, 125, 135, 223 + +Binding, metal-covered, 263 + +Binding, vellum, 180 + +Binding very thin books, 177 + +Blind tooling, 188, 222 + +Blocking press, 229, 313 + +Blocks, striking, 229 + +Boards, 124 + +Boards, attaching, 132 + +Boards, cutting, 125 + +Boards, filling in, 170 + +Boards, lining, 129 + +Boards, pressing, 193, 210 + +Boards, split, 28, 175, 311 + +Bodkin, 114 + +Bookbinding as a profession, 32 + +Books in sheets, 34 + +Bookworms, 297 + +Borders, designing, 240 + +Borders, inside, 253 + + +CALF, 27, 277 + +Cancelled sheets, 43 + +Cased books, 19, 49 + +Castor oil, 303 + +Catch stitch, 99 + +Catch words, 314 + +Celluloid, sheets of, 161 + +Centres, designing, 241 + +Chrome leather, 276 + +Clasps and ties, 183, 259 + +Cleaning off back, 137 + +Cloth casing, 19, 49 + +Cloth joints, 86, 257 + +Cobden-Sanderson, T. J., xii., 22 + +Cockroaches, 300 + +Cocoanut oil, 200 + +Collating, 43 + +Colouring edges, 144 + +Combining tools to form patterns, 232 + +Compasses, 131 + +Cord sewing, 111 + +Corners, mitring, 165, 168 + +Cousin, Jules, 74, 299 + +Covering, 23, 159, 176, 310 + +Crushing the grain of leather, 192 + +Cutting in boards, 139 + +Cutting mill-boards, 124 + +Cutting press, 128 + + +DAMP, effect of, on bindings, 294 + +Decoration of bindings, 21, 30, 188, 233 + +Designing tools, 230 + +Diaper patterns, 236 + +Dividers, 51 + +Dots, striking, 205 + +Doubluves, 253, 314 + +Dressing for old bindings, 302 + +Dust and dusting, 296 + + +EARLY printed books, binding, 31, 46, 113 + +Edge colouring, 144 + +Edge gauffering, 144 + +Edge gilding, 95, 144 + +Edge sizing, 95, 146 + +Edges, painted, 146 + +Embroidered bindings, 186 + +End papers, 80, 254 + +End, painted, 83 + +End, vellum, 84 + +Ends, silk, 84 + +Entering, 33 + +Evelyn's Diary (quotation), 282 + +"Extra" binding, 308, 314 + + +FALSE bands, 26 + +Fillet, 190, 206 + +Fillet, small, 206, 246 + +Filling in boards, 170 + +Finishing, 191 + +Finishing press, 194 + +Finishing tools, 188 + +Finishing stove, 195 + +Flattening vellum, 65 + +Folder, 164 + +Folding, 36 + +Fraying out slips, 114 + +French joint, 176 + +French paring knife, 156 + +French standing press, 91 + + +GAS fumes, effect of, 291 + +Gathering, 35 + +Gauffering edges, 144 + +Gelatine, 70 + +Gilding edges, 95, 144 + +Gilt top, 92 + +Glaire, 97, 198 + +Glass, tinted, for libraries, 292 + +Glossary, 313 + +Glue, 289 + +Glueing up, 115 + +Goatskin, 277 + +Gold cushion, 200 + +Gold leaf, 199 + +Gold knife, 200 + +Gold, net for, 96 + +Gold, pad for, 201 + +Gold tooling, 188, 191 + +Gouges, 189, 205, 247 + +Groove (_see_ Joint) + +Guarding, 42, 53 + +Guarding plates, 50, 56, 316 + + +HAMMER, backing, 123 + +Hand-made paper, 280 + +Headbanding, 108, 147, 176 + +Headcaps, 156, 166 + +Heat, effect of, on bindings, 295 + +Heraldry on bindings, 227 + +Hinging plates, 57 + +Hollow backs, 25, 185 + + +IMPERFECTIONS, 35 + +India proofs, soaking off, 62 + +India proofs, mounting, 63 + +Indiarubber for gold, 207 + +Inlaying leather, 213, 232, 243 + +Inlaying leaves or plates, 64 + +Inset, 40, 315 + +Inside margins, 253 + + +JACONET, 60, 64 + +Japanese paper, 282 + +Japanese vellum, 282 + +Jewelled bindings, 263 + +Joint, 165, 169 + +Joint, cloth, 86, 257 + +Joint, French, 176 + +Joint, knocking out, 53 + +Joint, leather, 86, 171 + + +KETTLE stitch, 49, 99, 105 + +Keys, sewing, 101 + +Knife, mountcutters', 54 + +Knife, French paring, 156 + +Knife, gold, 200 + +Knife, plough, 129, 139 + +Knocking down iron, 53, 134 + +Knocking out joints, 53 + +Knot, 100, 106 + + +LACING in slips, 132 + +Lay cords, 100 + +Laying press (_see_ Lying press) + +Leather, 27, 263 + +Leather, chrome, 276 + +Leather, crushing grain of, 192 + +Leather, inlaying, 213, 232, 243 + +Leather joints, 86, 171 + +Leather, paring, 154 + +Leather, polishing, 191 + +Leather, sprinkling and marbling, 27, 279 + +Leather, stretching, 23, 161 + +Leather, testing, 274 + +Leather work, 226 + +Leaves, inlaying, 64 + +Lettering, 28, 215, 246 + +Letters, autograph, 179 + +Library binding, 27, 173, 308 + +Light, effect of, on leather, 292 + +Lining up back, 152 + +Lithographic stone, 157, 160 + +Loose covers, 304 + +Lying press, 128 + + +MANUSCRIPTS, binding of, 31, 108, 113, 125, 135, 223 + +Manuscripts, collating, 46 + +Maps, throwing out, 60 + +Marbled paper, 83 + +Margins, inside, 253 + +Marking up, 98 + +Materials for sewing, 111 + +Mending, 76 + +Mending tooling, 208 + +Mending vellum, 79 + +Metal on bindings, 262 + +Millboards, 124 + +Millboard machine, 127, 315 + +Millboard shears, 126 + +Mitring corners, 165, 168 + +Morocco, 277 + +Morocco, "Persian," 271 + +Mount-cutters' knife, 54 + +Mounting India-proofs, 63 + +Mounting very thin paper, 63 + + +NET for gilding edges, 96 + +Niger morocco, 278 + +Nipping press, 211 + +Nippers, band, 160, 163 + + +OIL, cocoanut, 200 + +Opening newly-bound books, 257 + +Overcasting, 51 + +"Overs," 35 + +Oxalic acid, use of, 173 + + +PAD for gold, 201 + +Paging, 44 + +Painted edges, 146 + +Painted end papers, 83 + +Pallets, 189 + +Paper, 280 + +Paper, art, 48, 283 + +Paper, hand-made, 280 + +Paper, Japanese, 282 + +Paper, marbled, 83 + +Paper, sizes of, 36, 283 + +Paper, sizing, 67 + +Paper, splitting, 63 + +Paper, washing, 71 + +Paraffin wax, 303 + +Paring leather, 154 + +Paring paper, 61 + +Paring stone, 157, 160 + +Pastes, 286 + +Paste water, 198 + +Pasting down end papers, 254 + +Patterns, 232 + +"Peel," 316 + +Permanent binding, 19 + +"Persian" morocco, 271 + +Pigskin, 278 + +Plates, detaching, 48 + +Plates, guarding, 56 + +Plates, hinging, 57 + +Plates, inlaying, 64 + +Plates, trimming, 40 + +Plough, 128 + +Plough knife, 129, 139 + +Polishing, 191 + +Preserving old bindings, 302 + +Press, arming, 229, 313 + +Press, blocking, 229, 313 + +Press, cutting, 128 + +Press, finishing, 194 + +Press, lying, 128 + +Press, nipping, 211 + +Press pin, 316 + +Press, sewing (_see_ Sewing frame) + +Press, standing, 88 + +Pressing boards, 193, 210 + +Pressing in boards, 138 + +Pressing plates, 192, 316 + +Pressing sections, 87 + +"Proof," 316 + +Publishers' binding, 20 + +Pulling to pieces, 46 + + +QUARTER sections, 42 + +Quires, books in, 34 + + +RATS and mice, 299 + +Re-backing, 305 + +Re-binding, 18, 306 + +Refolding, 51 + +Register of printing, 52, 316 + +Representations of bindings, 321-336 + +Roll, 190 + +Rounding, 117 + + +SAWING in, 20, 25, 100, 108 + +Scrap books, 178 + +Sealskin, 278 + +Sections, pressing, 87 + +Sewing, 100 + +Sewing cord, 111 + +Sewing frame, 100 + +Sewing keys, 101 + +Sewing on tapes, 26, 111, 174 + +Sewing on vellum slips, 111, 181 + +Sewing silk, 112 + +Sewing, tape for, 112 + +Sewing thread, 112 + +Sheepskin, 277-308 + +Sheets, books in, 34 + +Sheets, waterproof, 161 + +Signatures, 34, 43 + +Silk ends, 84 + +Silk sewing, 112 + +Sizes of paper, 36, 283 + +Sizing, 67 + +Sizing edges, 95-146 + +Sizing leather, 198 + +Sizing paper, 67 + +Slips, 317 + +Slips, fraying out, 114 + +Slips, lacing in, 132 + +Soaking off India proofs, 62 + +Society of Arts, Report of Committee on Leather for Bookbinding, 22, 264 + +Society of Arts, Report of Committee on Paper, 284 + +Specifications, 308 + +Split boards, 28, 175, 311 + +Splitting paper, 63 + +Sprinkling leather, 27, 279 + +Squares, 131, 153, 317 + +Standing press, 88 + +Standing press, French, 89, 91 + +Staples, wire, 49 + +"Starred" sheets, 43 + +Stove, finishing, 195 + +Stone, lithographic, 157, 160 + +Striking dots, 205 + +Striking tools, 204 + + +TAPE, sewing on, 26, 112, 174 + +Temporary binding, 20 + +Testing leather, 274 + +Thin books, binding, 177 + +Thin paper, mounting, 63 + +Thread, sewing, 112 + +Throwing out maps, 60 + +Ties and clasps, 183, 259 + +Tobacco smoke, effect of, on binding, 294 + +Tooling, blind, 188, 222 + +Tooling, gold, 24, 188, 191 + +Tooling on vellum, 212 + +Tools, designing, 188, 230 + +Tools, finishing, 188, 230 + +Training for bookbinding, 32 + +Trimming before sewing, 93 + +Trimming machine, 94 + +Trimming plates, 40 + +Tub, 317 + +Tying up, 167 + + +VARNISH, 209 + +Vellum binders, 26 + +Vellum bindings, 180 + +Vellum ends, 84 + +Vellum, flattening, 65 + +Vellum, Japanese, 282 + +Vellum, mending, 79 + +Vellum slips, sewing on, 111, 183 + +Vellum tooling on, 212 + + +WALKER, Emery, 216 + +Washing, 71 + +Waterproof sheets, 161 + +Weaver's knot, 106 + +Wooden boards, 32, 135, 223, 330 + +Worm holes, 78, 297 + + + + + THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF + TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS. + + Edited by W. R. LETHABY. + + +The series will appeal to handicraftsmen in the industrial and +mechanic arts. It consists of authoritative statements by experts in +every field for the exercise of ingenuity, taste, imagination--the +whole sphere of the so-called "dependent arts." + + BOOKBINDING AND THE CARE OF BOOKS. A Handbook for Amateurs, + Bookbinders, and Librarians. By DOUGLAS COCKERELL. With 120 + Illustrations and Diagrams by Noel Rooke, and 8 collotype + reproductions of binding. 12mo. $1.25 net. + + SILVERWORK AND JEWELRY. A Text-Book for Students and Workers + in Metal. By H. WILSON. With 160 Diagrams and 16 full-page + Illustrations, 12mo. $1.40 net. + + WOOD CARVING: DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP. By GEORGE JACK. With + Drawings by the Author and other Illustrations. $1.40 net. + + STAINED-GLASS WORK. A Text-Book for Students and Workers in + Glass. By C. W. WHALL. With Diagrams by two of his + Apprentices, and other Illustrations. $1.50 net; postage, 14 + cents additional. + + D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. + + + + + TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES + +Obvious typographic errors have been corrected. For the detailed list +see below. The tables have been slightly modified to optimize +presentation. + +page 014--typo fixed: changed 'Making' to 'Marking' +page 138--spelling normalized: changed 'head-banding' to 'headbanding' +page 159--typo fixed: changed 'wook' to 'wood' +page 173--typo fixed: changed 'CHAPTER VIII' to 'CHAPTER XIII' +page 198--typo fixed: changed 'isinglas' to 'isinglass' +page 249--spelling normalized: changed 'tie downs' to 'tie-downs' +page 253--spelling normalized: changed 'headcap' to 'head-cap' +page 298--spelling normalized: changed 'millboard' to 'mill-board' +page 303--spelling normalized: changed 're-binding' to 'rebinding' +page 304--spelling normalized: changed 'millboard' to 'mill-board' +page 310--spelling normalized: changed 'Goat-skin' to 'Goatskin' +page 314--spelling normalized: changed 'head-banding' to 'headbanding' +page 315--spelling normalized: changed 'millboards' to 'mill-boards' +page 339--spelling normalized: changed 'millboards' to 'mill-boards' +page 341--spelling normalized: changed 'Re-folding' to 'Refolding' + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Bookbinding, and the Care of Books, by +Douglas Cockerell + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOOKBINDING, AND THE CARE OF BOOKS *** + +***** This file should be named 26672-8.txt or 26672-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/6/7/26672/ + +Produced by Suzanne Shell, Irma Spehar and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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