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diff --git a/26745.txt b/26745.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2f030e5 --- /dev/null +++ b/26745.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13675 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Travels in Peru, on the Coast, in the +Sierra, Across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the Primeval Forests, by J. J. von Tschudi + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Travels in Peru, on the Coast, in the Sierra, Across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the Primeval Forests + +Author: J. J. von Tschudi + +Translator: Thomasina Ross + +Release Date: October 3, 2008 [EBook #26745] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRAVELS IN PERU *** + + + + +Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + +[Illustration: NATIVES OF VALPARAISO.] + +[Illustration: CHILIAN HORSEMANSHIP.] + + + + + TRAVELS + + IN PERU, + + ON THE COAST, IN THE SIERRA, ACROSS THE CORDILLERAS + AND THE ANDES, INTO THE PRIMEVAL FORESTS. + + + BY DR. J. J. VON TSCHUDI. + + + TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN + + BY THOMASINA ROSS. + + + NEW EDITION, COMPLETE IN ONE VOLUME. + + + NEW YORK: + A. S. BARNES & CO., 51 JOHN-STREET. + CINCINNATI: H. W. DERBY. + 1854. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The Work from which the present Volume is translated consists of +extracts from the Author's Journal, accompanied by his recollections +and observations. The absence of chronological arrangement will be +sufficiently accounted for, when it is explained that the zoological +investigations for which the journey was undertaken frequently +required the Author to make repeated visits to one particular place or +district, or to remain for a considerable time within the narrow +circuit of a few miles; and sometimes to travel rapidly over vast +tracts of country. Disclaiming any intention of making one of those +travelling romances, with which the tourist literature of the day is +overstocked, the Author has confined himself to a plain description of +facts and things as they came within the sphere of his own observation. +But though Dr. Tschudi lays claim to no merit beyond the truthfulness +of his narrative, yet the reader will no doubt readily concede to him +the merit of extensive information, and happy descriptive talent. His +pictures of Nature, especially those relating to the animal world, are +frequently imbued with much of the charm of thought and style which +characterizes the writings of Buffon. + +Lima, the oldest and most interesting of the cities founded by the +Spaniards on the western coast of South America, has been frequently +described; but no previous writer has painted so animated a picture of +the city and its inhabitants, as that contained in the following volume. +After quitting the capital of Peru, Dr. Tschudi went over ground +previously untrodden by any European traveller. He visited the Western +Sierra, the mighty chain of the Cordilleras, the boundless level +heights, the deep mountain valleys on the eastern declivity of the +Andes, and the vast primeval forests. Whilst recounting his wanderings +in these distant regions, he describes not only the country and the +people, but every object of novelty and interest in the animal, +vegetable, and mineral creations. + +Those lovers of Natural History who are familiar with the German +language, and who may wish to make themselves extensively acquainted +with the animal world, in those parts of Peru visited by Dr. Tschudi, +will find abundant information on the subject in his work, with plates, +entitled "Untersuchungen ueber die Fauna Peruana." The present +Publication, though containing a vast deal to interest the naturalist, +is addressed to the general reader, and will, it is presumed, gratify +curiosity respecting the highly interesting and little known regions to +which it relates. It may fairly be said that no previous writer has +given so comprehensive a picture of Peru; combining, with animated +sketches of life and manners, a fund of valuable information on Natural +History and Commerce. + + T. R. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +CHAPTER I. + PAGE + +Embarkation at Havre--The Voyage--Arrival at the Island of +Chiloe--Landing--The Gyr-Falcon--Punta Arena--The Island of +Chiloe described--Climate and Cultivation--Cattle--The Bay--San +Carlos--The Governor's House--Poverty and Wretchedness of the +Inhabitants of the Town--Strange method of Ploughing--Coasting +Vessels--Smuggling--Zoology--Departure from Chiloe 1 + + +CHAPTER II. + +Valparaiso and the adjacent country--The Bay--Aspect of the +Town--Lighthouses--Forts--Custom House--Exchange--Hotels and +Taverns--War with the Peru-Bolivian Confederation--First +Expedition--Preparations for the Second Expedition--Embarkation +of the Troops--Close of the Port--July Festival in honor of +the French Revolution--The _Muele_, or Mole--Police--_Serenos_, +or Watchmen--Movable Prisons--Clubs--Trade of +Valparaiso--Santiago--Zoology 15 + + +CHAPTER III. + +Juan Fernandez--Robinson Crusoe--Passage to Callao--San +Lorenzo--Rise and fall of the coast--Mr. Darwin's opinions +on this subject--Callao--The Fortress--Siege by the +Spaniards--General Rodil--Siege by the Chilians--The +Colocolo--Pirates--Zoology--Road to Lima 26 + + +CHAPTER IV. + +Lima--Situation and extent of the City--Streets, +Houses, Churches and Convents--San Pedro--The +Jesuits--Nunneries--Beatarios--Hospitals--San Andres--The +Foundling House--The Pantheon--The Palace--The Plaza +Mayor--Pizarro--The Cabildo--Fountains--Palace of the +Inquisition--The University--National Library--Museum of +Natural History and Antiquities--Academy of Design--The +Mint--The Theatre--Circus for Cock-fighting--The Bridge--The +City Wall--Santa Catalina--Barracks 42 + + +CHAPTER V. + +Population of Lima--Its diminution--Different races of the +Inhabitants--Their characteristics--Amusements--Education--The Women +of Lima--Their Costume--the _Saya y Manto_--Female domestic +life--Love of dress--Beatas--Indians--Slaves--Bosales--Free +Creoles--Negroes--Negresses--Black Creoles--Their +varieties--Mestizos--Mulattoes--Pelanganas--Zambos--Chinos--Foreigners +in Lima--Corruption of the Spanish language 63 + + +CHAPTER VI. + +Primary Schools--Colleges--The University--Monks--Saints--Santo +Toribio and Santa Rosa--Religious Processions--Raising the Host--The +Noche Buena--The Carnival--Paseos, or Public Promenades--Ice--Riding +and Driving--Horses--Their Equipments and Training--Mules--Lottery +in Lima--Cookery--Breakfasts, Dinners, &c.--Coffee-houses and +Restaurants--Markets--The _Plazo Firme del Acho_--Bull Fights 89 + + +CHAPTER VII. + +Geographical Situation of Lima--Height above Sea +level--Temperature--Diseases--Statistical Tables of Births and +Deaths--Earthquakes--The Valley of Lima--The River Rimac--Aqueducts, +Trenches, &c.--Irrigation--Plantations--Cotton--Sugar--Various +kinds of Grain--Maize--Potatoes, and other tuberous +roots--Pulse--Cabbage--Plants used for Seasoning--Clover--The Olive +and other Oil Trees--Fruits--Figs and Grapes--The Chirimoya--The +Palta--The Banana and other Fruits 111 + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +Robbers on the coast of Peru--The Bandit Leaders Leon and Rayo--The +Corps of Montoneros--Watering Places near Lima--Surco, Atte and +Lurin--Pacchacamac--Ruins of the Temple of the Sun--Difficulties of +Travelling on the Coast of Peru--Sea Passage to Huacho--Indian +Canoes--Ichthyological Collections--An old Spaniard's recollections +of Alexander Von Humboldt--The Padre Requena--Huacho--Plundering of +Burial Places--Huaura--Malaria--The Sugar Plantation at +Luhmayo--Quipico--Ancient Peruvian Ruins--The Salinas, or Salt +Pits--Gritalobos--Chancay--The Piques--Mode of extracting +them--Valley of the Pasamayo--Extraordinary Atmospheric +Mirrors--Piedras Gordas--Palo Seco 137 + + +CHAPTER IX. + +The Coast southward of Lima--Chilca--Curious Cigar cases made +there--Yauyos--Pisco--Journey to Yea--A night on the Sand +Plains--Fatal Catastrophe in the year 1823--Vine Plantations at +Yea--Brandy and Wine--Don Domingo Elias--Vessels for transporting +Brandy (Botijas and Odres)--Cruel mode of skinning Goats--Negro +Carnival--Peculiar species of Guinea Pig--The Salamanqueja--Cotton +Plantations--Quebrada of Huaitara--Sangallan--Guano--Retrospect of +the Peruvian Coast--Rivers--Medanos--Winds--Change of Seasons--The +Garuas--The Lomas--Mammalia--Birds--Amphibia 160 + + +CHAPTER X. + +Roads leading to the Sierra--Chaclacayo and Santa Ines--Barometrical +observations--San Pedro Mama--The Rio Seco--Extraordinary Geological +Phenomenon--Similar one described by Mr. Darwin--Surco--Diseases +peculiar to the Villages of Peru--The Verugas--Indian mode of +treating the disorder--The Bird-catching Spider--Horse-Shoeing--Indian +Tambos--San Juan de Matucanas--The Thorn-apple and the Tonga--The +Tambo de Viso--Bridges--San Mateo--Passports--Acchahuari--Malady +called the Veta--Its effects on horses--Singular tact and caution +of Mules--Antarangra and Mountain Passes--Curious partition of +Water--Piedra Parada--Yauli--Indian Smelting Furnaces--Mineral +Springs--Portuguese Mine owners--Saco--Oroya--Hanging +Bridges--Huaros--Roads leading from Oroya 179 + + +CHAPTER XI. + +The Cordillera and the Andes--Signification of the terms--Altitude +of the Mountains and Passes--Lakes--Metals--Aspect of the +Cordillera--Shattered Rocks--Maladies caused by the diminished +Atmospheric Pressure--The Veta and the Surumpe--Mountain Storms--The +Condor--Its habits--Indian mode of Catching the Bird--The Puna or +Despoblado--Climate--Currents of Warm Air--Vegetation--Tuberous +Plant called the Maca--Animals of the Puna--The Llama, the Alpaco, +the Huanacu and the Vicuna--The Chacu and the Bolas--Household +Utensils of the Ancient Peruvians--The Viscacha and the +Chinchilla--Puna Birds and Amphibia--Cattle and Pasture--Indian +Farms--Shepherds' Huts--Ancient Peruvian Roads and +Buildings--Treasure concealed by the Indians in the Puna 203 + + +CHAPTER XII. + +Cerro de Pasco--First discovery of the Mines--Careless mode of +working them--Mine Owners and Mine Laborers--Amalgamating and +Refining--Produce of the Mines--Life in Cerro de Pasco--Different +Classes of the Population--Gaming and Drunkenness--Extravagance +and Improvidence of the Indian Mine Laborers--The Cerro de San +Fernando--Other Important Mining Districts in Peru--The Salcedo Mine +Castrovireyna--Vast Productiveness of the Silver Mines of Peru--Rich +Mines secretly known to the Indians--Roads leading from Cerro de +Pasco--The Laguna of Chinchaycocha--Battle of Junin--Indian +Robbers--A Day and a Night in the Puna Wilds 229 + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +The Sierra--Its Climate and Productions--Inhabitants--Trade--Eggs +circulated as money--Mestizos in the Sierra--Their Idleness +and Love of Gaming and Betting--Agriculture--The Quinua Plant, +a substitute for Potatoes--Growth of Vegetables and Fruits +in the Sierra--Rural Festivals at the Seasons of Sowing and +Reaping--Skill of the Indians in various Handicrafts--Excess of +Brandy-Drinking--Chicha--Disgusting mode of making it--Festivals of +Saints--Dances and Bull-Fights--Celebration of Christmas-Day, +New-Year's Day, Palm Sunday, and Good Friday--Contributions levied +on the Indians--Tardy and Irregular Transmission of Letters--Trade +in Mules--General Style of Building in the Towns and Villages of +the Sierra--Ceja de la Montana 253 + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +Road to the Primeval Forests--Barbacoas, or Indian Suspension +Bridges--Vegetation--Hollow Passes--Zoology--the Montana +Plantations--Inhabitants--Trade in Peruvian Bark--Wandering +Indians--Wild Indians or Indios Braves--Languages, +Manners, and Customs of the Indios Bravos--Dress--Warlike +Weapons and Hunting Arms--Dwellings--Religion--Physical +formation of the Wild Indian Tribes--Animals of the Aboriginal +Forests--Mammalia--Hunting the Ounce--Birds--Amphibia--Poisonous +Serpents--Huaco--Insects--Plants 271 + + +CHAPTER XV + +Montana of San Carlos de Vitoc--Villages--Hacienda of +Maraynioc--the Coca Plant--Mode of Cultivating and Gathering +it--Mastication of Coca--Evil Consequences of its excessive +Use--Its Nutritious Qualities--Indian Superstitions connected +with the Coca Plant--Suggestions for its Introduction in +the European Navies--Fabulous animal called the Carbunculo--The +Chunchos--Missions to Cerro de la Sal--Juan Santos Atahuallpa--The +Franciscan Monks--Depopulation of Vitoc 309 + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +Oppressions exercised by the Spaniards upon the Peruvian Indians--The +Repartimiento and the Mita--Indian Insurrections--Tupac Amaru--His +Capture and Execution--War of Independence--Character of the Peruvian +Indians--Music--Dress--Superstitions--Longevity--Diminished Population +of Peru--Languages spoken by the Aboriginal Inhabitants--Specimen of +Quichua Poetry--The Yaravies--The Quipu--Water Conduits--Ancient +Buildings--Fortresses--Idols--Domestic Utensils--Ancient Peruvian +Graves--Mode of Burying the Dead--Mummies 329 + + + + +TRAVELS IN PERU. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +Embarkation at Havre--The Voyage--Arrival at the Island of +Chiloe--Landing--The Gyr-Falcon--Punta Arena--The Island of +Chiloe described--Climate and Cultivation--Cattle--The Bay--San +Carlos--The Governor's House--Poverty and Wretchedness of the +Inhabitants of the Town--Strange method of Ploughing--Coasting +Vessels--Smuggling--Zoology--Departure from Chiloe. + + +On the 27th of February, 1838, I sailed from Havre-de-Grace on board the +"Edmond." This vessel, though a French merchantman, was freighted with a +cargo of Swiss manufactured goods, suited to any commercial transactions +which might be entered into in the course of a circumnavigatory voyage. +It was a boisterous morning. A fall of snow and heavy clouds soon +intercepted our view of the coast of France, and not one cheering +sunbeam shone out to betoken for us a favorable voyage. We passed down +the British Channel, where the multitude of vessels, and the flags of +all nations, presented an enlivening picture, and we finally cleared it +on the 5th of March. Favored by a brisk north wind, we soon reached +Madeira and came in sight of Teneriffe, the peak being just perceptible +on the skirt of the horizon. Easterly breezes soon brought us to the +island of Fogo, which, having passed on the 35th day of our voyage, we +received the usual marine baptism, and participated in all the +ceremonies observed on crossing the equator. We soon reached the tropic +of Capricorn, and endeavored to gain the channel between the Falkland +Islands and Patagonia; but unfavorable winds obliged us to direct our +course eastwards, from the Island of Soledad to the Staten Islands. On +the 3d of March we made the longitude of Cape Horn, but were not able to +double it until we got into the 60th degree of south latitude. In those +dangerous waters, where it is admitted by the boldest English sailors +that the waves rage more furiously than in any other part of the world, +we encountered great risk and difficulty. For twenty-two days we were +driven about on the fearfully agitated sea, southward of Tierra del +Fuego, and were only saved from being buried in the deep, by the +excellent build and soundness of our ship. + +We suffered much, and were long delayed by this storm; but when it +subsided, a smart breeze sprang up from the southward, and we held our +course along the Pacific to the coast of Chile. After a voyage of 99 +days we cast anchor on Sunday the 5th of June, in the Bay of San Carlos. +Like the day of our departure from Europe, that of our arrival off +Chiloe was gloomy and overcast. Heavy clouds obscured the +long-looked-for island, and its picturesque shore could only be seen, +when, at intervals, the wind dispersed the dark atmospheric veil. We had +no sooner cast anchor than several boats came alongside rowed by +Indians, who offered us potatoes, cabbage, fish, and water, in exchange +for tobacco. Only those who have been long at sea can form an idea of +the gratification which fresh provisions, especially vegetables, afford +to the weary voyager. In a couple of hours, the harbor-master came on +board to examine the ship, the cargo, &c., and to give us permission to +go ashore. The long-boat being got out, and well manned, we stepped into +it, and were conveyed to the harbor. The Bay of San Carlos being +shallow, large ships, or vessels, heavily laden, are obliged to go three +English miles or more from the landing-place before they can anchor. Our +boat was gaily decorated and newly painted; but this was mere outside +show, for it was in a very unsound condition. During our passage through +the tropics, the sun had melted the pitch between the planks of the +boat, which lay on the deck keel uppermost. In this crazy boat, we had +scarcely got a quarter of a league from the ship, when the water rushed +in so forcibly through all the cracks and fissures, that it was soon +more than ankle deep. Unluckily the sailors had forgotten to put on +board a bucket or anything for baling out the water, so that we were +obliged to use our hats and boots for that purpose. Fourteen persons +were crowded together in this leaky boat, and the water continued +rising, until at length we began to be seriously apprehensive for our +safety, when, fortunately, our situation was observed by the people on +shore. They promptly prepared to send out a boat to our assistance, but +just as it was got afloat, we succeeded in reaching the pier, happy once +more to set our feet on _terra firma_. + +Our first business was to seek shelter and refreshment. There is no +tavern in San Carlos, but there is a sort of substitute for one, kept +by an old Corsican, named Filippi, where captains of ships usually +take up their quarters. Filippi, who recognized an old acquaintance in +one of our party, received us very kindly, and showed us to apartments +which certainly had no claim to the merits of either cleanliness or +convenience. They were long, dark, quadrangular rooms, without +windows, and were destitute of any article of furniture, except a bed +in a kind of recess. + +As soon as I got on shore, I saw a multitude of small birds of prey. +They keep in flocks, like our sparrows, hopping about everywhere, and +perching on the hedges and house-tops. I anxiously wished for an +opportunity to make myself better acquainted with one of them. +Presuming that shooting in the town might be displeasing to the +inhabitants, who would naturally claim to themselves a sort of +exclusive sporting right, I took my gun down to the sea-shore, and +there shot one of the birds. It belonged to the Gyr-Falcon family +(_Polyboriniae_), and was one of the species peculiar to South America +(_Polyborus chimango_, Vieil). The whole of the upper part of the body +is brown, but single feathers here and there have a whitish-brown +edge. On the tail are several indistinct oblique stripes. The +under-part of the body is whitish-brown, and is also marked with +transverse stripes feebly defined. The bird I shot measured from the +point of the beak to the end of the tail 1 foot 6-1/2 inches. Though +these Gyr-Falcons live socially together, yet they are very greedy and +contentious about their prey. They snap up, as food, all the offal +thrown out of doors; and thus they render themselves serviceable to +the inhabitants, who consequently do not destroy them. In some of the +valleys of Peru, I met with these birds again, but very rarely and +always single and solitary. I continued my excursions on the +sea-shore, but with little satisfaction, for the pouring rain had +driven animals of every kind to their lurking-holes. After a few days, +I went on board the "Edmond," for the purpose of visiting PUNTA ARENA, +a town on the side of the bay, whither our boat used to be sent for +fresh water. The ground surrounding the spring whence the ships obtain +supplies of water, is sandy, and it becomes exceedingly marshy further +inland. After wandering about for a few hours, I found myself quite +lost in a morass, out of which I had to work my way with no little +difficulty. The whole produce of my hard day's sport consisted of an +awlbeak, a small dark-brown bird (_Opethiorhyncus patagonicus_), and +some land-snails. On our return, as we were nearing the ship, we +killed a seal (_Otaria chilensis_, Muell.), which was rising after a +dive, close to the boat. + +On the 22d of June, all our ship's company were on board by order of +the captain. We weighed anchor, and cruized about for some time. At +length, about five in the afternoon, we returned, and the ship was +anchored again precisely on the spot she had left a few hours before. +It was set down in the log-book that the wind was not sufficiently +favorable to allow the ship to pass out safely through the narrow +entrance to the bay. But all on board were well aware that this was +merely a pretence on the part of the captain, who, for some reason or +other, wished to stop longer at San Carlos. + +I was very much pleased at this opportunity of prolonging my stay at the +Island of Chiloe, hoping that better weather would enable me to make an +excursion into the interior. But the sky still continued overcast, and +the rain poured incessantly. One day, however, I undertook a journey to +Castro, in company with the French Charge d'Affaires to Peru, one of my +fellow passengers on the voyage. A merchant accommodated us with two +horses, saddled in the Chilian manner; but he warned us to be on our +guard, as horses were often restive when just returned from their summer +pasturage. We set off very promisingly. The commencement of our ride was +pleasant enough, though the road was steep and very difficult. It +sometimes lay over smooth slippery stones, then through deep marshes, or +over scattered logs of wood, which bore evidence of attempts to render +the ground passable, by this rude kind of paving. After we had ridden +for several hours in the forest, the rain checked our further progress, +and we turned, to retrace our way back. Our horses seemed well pleased +with the project of returning home. For a time they proceeded with +wonderful steadiness; but on coming to a part of the road where the +ground was comparatively level and firm, they quickened their pace, and +at length dashed forward through the wood, uncontrolled by the bridle. +The long narrow saddle, with its woollen covering, the crescent-shaped +wooden stirrups, and the heavy spurs, with their clumsy rowels, baffled +all our skill in horsemanship, and it was with no little difficulty we +kept our seats. We thought it best to give the animals the rein, and +they galloped through the umbrageous thickets, until at last, panting +and breathless, they stuck in a morass. Here we recovered our control +over them, and pursued the remainder of our journey without further +accident, though we were drenched to the skin on our return to the town. + +On subsequent days, I took my rambles on foot, and found myself richly +rewarded thereby. The long evenings we spent in the company of our host +and the harbor-master, from both of whom I obtained some useful +information respecting the island. + +Chiloe is one of the largest islands of the Archipelago which extends +along the west coast of South America, from 42 deg. south lat. to the +Straits of Magellan. It is about 23 German miles long, and 10 broad. A +magnificent, but almost inaccessible forest covers the unbroken line of +hills stretching along Chiloe, and gives to the island a charming aspect +of undulating luxuriance. Seldom, however, can the eye command a +distinct view of those verdant hills; for overhanging clouds surcharged +with rain, almost constantly veil the spreading tops of the trees. At +most parts of the shore the declivity is rapid. There are many inlets, +which, though small, afford secure anchorage; but there are no harbors +of any magnitude. While Castro was the capital of the island, Chacao was +the principal port; but San Carlos having become the residence of the +governor, this latter place is considered the chief harbor; and with +reason, for its secure, tranquil bay unites all the advantages the +navigator can desire on the stormy coast of South Chile. At Chacao, on +the contrary, reefs and strong currents render the entrance dangerous +and the anchorage insecure. + +Chiloe is but little cultivated, and scantily populated. If the +statement of my informant, the harbor-master, be correct, Chiloe and the +adjacent small islands contain only from 48,000 to 50,000 inhabitants, +part of whom live in _ranchos_ (huts), and part in a few villages. Next +to San Carlos, and the half-deserted Castro, to which the title of +"City" is given, the chief places are Chacao, Vilipilli, Cucao, Velinoe. +It is only in the neighborhood of these towns or villages that the +forest trees have been felled, and their removal has uncovered a fertile +soil, which would reward by a hundred-fold the labor of the husbandman. + +The climate of the island is moist and cool, and upon the whole very +unpleasant. During the winter months, the sun is seldom seen; and it is +a proverbial saying in Chiloe, that it rains six days of the week, and +is cloudy on the seventh. In summer there are occasionally fine days, +though seldom two in succession. The thick forests are therefore never +dry, and beneath the trees, the vegetation of the marshy soil is +peculiarly luxuriant. The constant moisture is one of the greatest +obstacles to agriculture. To clear the ground for cultivation, it would +be necessary to burn the forests, and as the trees are always damp, that +could not be done without great difficulty. To some kinds of culture the +soil is not favorable. The cereals, for example, seldom thrive in +Chiloe; the seed rots after the ear is formed. Maize grows best; though +it shoots too much into leaf, and bears only small grain. The damp soil, +on the other hand, is favorable to potatoes, of which vast quantities +are planted. There is a degenerate kind of potato, very abundant in +Chiloe. On bisection it exhibits a greater or lesser number of +concentric rings, alternately white and violet; sometimes all of the +latter color. It is well known that southern Chile is the native land of +the potato. In Chiloe and also in the neighboring islands, potatoes grow +wild; but, both in size and flavor, they are far inferior to the +cultivated kind. Like the maize, they shoot up in large leaves and +stalks. The climate is also very favorable to the different kinds of the +cabbage plant; but peas and beans do not thrive there. + +In the forests there are often clear spots on which the grass grows to a +great height, and supplies excellent pasturage for numerous herds of +cattle. The inhabitants of Chiloe breed for their own use, horses, oxen, +sheep, and swine. The horses are small, and not handsomely formed, but +very spirited and strong. Some are scarcely twelve hands high. The cows +are small and lank, and the same may be said of the swine and sheep. It +is remarkable that all the rams have more than two horns; the greater +number have three, and many are furnished with four or five. I +afterwards observed the same in Peru. The domestic animals on this +island, notwithstanding the abundance of food, are small, and +sickly-looking. I believe the cause to be want of care, for they remain +all the year round exposed to every sort of weather and discomfort. + +The population of Chiloe consists of Whites, Indians, and people of +mixed blood. The Indians are now few in number, and those few are +chiefly in the southern part of the island, and the adjacent islets. +They are of the Araucana race, and appear to be a sept between that +race and the people of Tierra del Fuego, on the one side, and the +Pampas Indians on the other. People of mixed races form by far the +greater portion of the population. They are met with in every variety +of amalgamation. Taken in general, they are the reverse of handsome. +They are short and thick-set, and have long, straight coarse hair. +Their faces are round and full, their eyes small, and the expression +of their countenances is unintelligent. The whites are either +Chilenos or Spaniards: the latter are almost the only Europeans +who have become settlers here. + +The principal town, San Carlos, called by the natives "Ancud," lies on +the northern coast of a very fine bay. Without a good chart, the +entrance to this bay is difficult. Numerous small islands form a +labyrinth, out of which vessels, if not commanded by very experienced +pilots, cannot easily be extricated. Besides, near the land, the sky is +usually obscured by clouds which prevent any observation for the +latitude, as the sun's altitude cannot be taken even at noon; and when +the sun gets lower, the hills, which would serve as guiding points, +cease to be distinctly seen. + +Several whalers, which for some days vainly endeavored to work through +this passage, were afterwards obliged to direct their course northward, +and to cast anchor in Valivia. One of the largest islands at the +entrance of the bay is San Sebastian, where there are numerous herds of +cattle. Cochino is a small island, distant only a few miles from San +Carlos. It is hilly, and thickly crowned with brush-wood. It has only +one landing-place, and that is rather insecure for boats. The water of +the bay is remarkably clear and good; only round the little island of +Cochino, and along the harbor, it is covered with an immense quantity of +sea-moss, which often renders the landing difficult. It frequently +happens that commanders of ships, wishing to go on board to make sail +during the night, get out of the right course, and instead of going to +the ship, steer to Cochino and get into the moss, where their boats +stick fast, till returning daylight enables them to work their way out. + +The poor inhabitants boil this sea-moss and eat it. It is very salt +and slimy, and is difficult of digestion. Among the people of Chiloe, +this sea-moss occupies an important place in surgery. When a leg or an +arm is broken, after bringing the bone into its proper position, a +broad layer of the moss is bound round the fractured limb. In drying, +the slime causes it to adhere to the skin, and thus it forms a fast +bandage, which cannot be ruffled or shifted. After the lapse of a few +weeks, when the bones have become firmly united, the bandage is +loosened by being bathed with tepid water, and it is then easily +removed. The Indians of Chiloe were acquainted, long before the French +surgeons, with the use of the paste bandage. + +The town of San Carlos is dirty; the streets unpaved, narrow, and +crooked. The houses, with few exceptions, are wretched wooden huts, for +the most part without windows; but there is a board divided in the +middle horizontally, the upper part of which being open, it serves for a +window, and when both parts are open, it forms a door. The flooring +usually consists merely of hard-trodden clay, covered with straw +matting. The furniture, like the apartments, is rude and inconvenient. +These remarks of course apply to the habitations of the very poor class +of people. The richer families live in more comfortable style. Of the +public buildings, the custom-house and the governor's residence are the +most considerable, but both make a very indifferent appearance. In front +of the governor's house, which occupies a tolerably large space of +ground, in the upper part of the town, a sentinel is constantly +stationed. This sentinel parades to and fro, without shoes or stockings, +and not unfrequently without a coat, his arms being covered only by his +shirt sleeves. As to a cap, that seems to be considered as unnecessary a +part of a well-conditioned uniform, as shoes and stockings. After sunset +every person who passes the governor's house is challenged. "Who goes +there?" is the first question; the second is _Que gente?_ (what +country?) The sailors amuse themselves by returning jocular answers to +these challenges; and the sentinel, irritated by their jeers, sometimes +runs after them through part of the town, and when weary of the chace +returns to his post. + +Poverty and uncleanliness vie with each other in San Carlos. The lower +class of the inhabitants are exceedingly filthy, particularly the women, +whose usual dress is a dirty woollen gown, and a greasy looking +mantilla. In their damp gloomy habitations, they squat down on the +floor, close to the _brasero_ (chafing pan), which also serves them as a +stove for cooking. They bruise maize between two stones, and make it +into a thick kind of soup or porridge. When employed in paring potatoes +or apples, or in cutting cabbages, they throw the skins and waste leaves +on the ground, so that they are frequently surrounded by a mass of +half-decayed vegetable matter. Their favorite beverage is _mate_ (the +Paraguay tea), of which they partake at all hours of the day. The mode +of preparing and drinking the _mate_ is as follows: a portion of the +herb is put into a sort of cup made from a gourd, and boiling water is +poured over it. The mistress of the house then takes a reed or pipe, to +one end of which a strainer is affixed,[1] and putting it into the +decoction, she sucks up a mouthful of the liquid. She then hands the +apparatus to the person next to her, who partakes of it in the same +manner, and so it goes round. The mistress of the house and all her +guests suck the aromatic fluid through the same pipe or _bombilla_. + +The poverty of the people is extreme. Specie is seldom current, and is +exclusively in the hands of a few traders, who supply the Indians with +European articles, in payment of their labor, or in exchange for the +produce of the island, which is sent to Chile and Peru. With much +surprise I learned that there is no saw-mill in Chiloe, where the vast +abundance of trees would furnish a supply of excellent deals, for which +ready and good payment would be obtained in Peru. + +The inhabitants direct their industry chiefly to agriculture and +navigation. But rude and imperfect are their implements for field labor, +as well as their nautical vessels. To a stranger nothing can appear more +extraordinary than their mode of ploughing. As to a regular plough, I do +not believe such a thing is known in Chiloe. If a field is to be tilled, +it is done by two Indians, who are furnished with long poles, pointed at +one end. The one thrusts his pole, pretty deeply, and in an oblique +direction, into the earth, so that it forms an angle with the surface of +the ground. The other Indian sticks his pole in at a little distance, +and also obliquely, and he forces it beneath that of his fellow-laborer, +so that the first pole lies as it were above the second. The first +Indian then presses on his pole, and makes it work on the other, as a +lever on its fulcrum, and the earth is thrown up by the point of the +pole. Thus they gradually advance, until the whole field is furrowed by +this laborious process. + +The Chiloe boats are merely hulks. They obey the helm reluctantly, but +they bear away before the wind. Several individuals usually join +together, and convey in these boats, the produce of their respective +localities, in the southern villages, to San Carlos. Women as well as +men take their turn at rowing the boats, and after being out all day, +they run into some creek, where they pass the night. When a favorable +breeze springs up, they hoist a sail, made of _ponchos_. The poncho is +an important article of male clothing in this country. It consists of a +piece of woollen cloth, measuring from 5 to 7 feet long, and from 3 to 4 +feet broad. In the middle there is a slit from 12 to 14 inches long; +through this slit the wearer passes his head. The poncho thus rests on +the shoulders, and hangs down in front and behind as low as the knees. +At the sides, it reaches to the elbow, or middle of the forearm, and +thus covers the whole of the body. The carters and wagoners in Swabia +wear, in rainy weather, a covering somewhat resembling the poncho, which +they make out of their woollen horse-coverings. When a Chiloe boat is on +its passage on the coast, and a sail happens to be wanted, the men give +up their ponchos and the women their mantillas. The slits in the ponchos +are stitched up, and both ponchos and mantillas being sewn together are +fixed to a pole or bar of wood, which is hoisted to a proper position on +the mast. This patchwork sail can only be serviceable when the wind is +fresh. At nightfall, when the boat runs into one of the creeks for +shelter, the sail is lowered, and the sewing being unpicked, the ponchos +and mantillas are returned to their respective owners, who wrap +themselves in them, and go to sleep. + +There is but little trade in San Carlos, for Chile itself possesses in +superfluity all the productions of Chiloe, and the inhabitants of the +island are so poor, and their wants so limited, that they require but +few foreign articles. The port is therefore seldom visited by any +trading vessel from Europe. Some of the Chiloe boats keep up a regular +traffic along the coast. They carry wood, brooms, hams, and potatoes, to +Valparaiso, Arica, Callao, &c., and they bring back in return, linen, +woollen and cotton cloths, ironware, tobacco, and spirits. + +North American and French whalers have for several years past been +frequent visitors to San Carlos, as they can there provide themselves, +at a cheap rate, with provisions for the long fishing season. All the +captains bring goods, which they smuggle on shore, where they sell or +exchange them at a high profit. A custom-house officer is, indeed, sent +on board every vessel to examine what is to be unshipped; but a few +dollars will silence him, and make him favor the contraband operations, +which are carried on without much reserve. A French captain brought to +Chiloe a quantity of water-proof cloaks and hats, made of a sort of +black waxed cloth, and sold them to a dealer in San Carlos. To evade the +duty, he sent his men on shore each wearing one of these hats and +cloaks, which they deposited in the dealer's store, and then returned on +board the ship, dressed in their sailors' garb. This was repeated so +often, that at length it was intimated to the captain that, if his men +had a fancy to come on shore with such hats and cloaks they would be +permitted to do so, but it must be on condition of their returning on +board dressed in the same costume. + +The people of Ancud (San Carlos), formerly so simple and artless, have +gradually become corrupt and degenerate, since their frequent +intercourse with the whale-fishers. Among the female portion of the +population, depravity of morals and unbecoming boldness of manners have +in a great degree superseded the natural simplicity which formerly +prevailed. All the vices of the lowest class of sailors, of which the +crews of the South Sea Whalers are composed, have quickly taken root in +San Carlos, and the inseparable consequences of those vices will soon be +fatal to the moral and physical welfare of the inhabitants. + +In the interior of the island of Chiloe there are few quadrupeds. The +largest, the domestic animals excepted, is a fox (_Canis fulvipes_, +Wat.), which was first discovered by the naturalists who accompanied +Capt. King's expedition. This is the only beast of prey. The coast +abounds in seals of the sea-dog species (_Otaria chilensis_, Muell., +_Otaria Ursina_, Per., _Otaria jubata_, Desm.)--in sea-otters (_Otaria +chilensis_, Ben.)--and in the water mouse (_Myopotamus Coypus_, J. +Geoff). Among the birds, there are some very fine species of ducks, well +worthy of notice, which are also found on the continent of South +America. There is the little Cheucau (_Pteroptochus rubecula_, Kettl.), +to which the Chilotes attach various superstitious ideas, and pretend to +foretell good or ill luck from its song. The modulations which this bird +is capable of uttering are numerous, and the natives assign a particular +meaning to each. One day, when I wished to have some shooting, I took +an Indian lad with me. Having levelled my gun at one of these birds, +which was sitting in a low bush, and uttering its shrill _huit-huit_, my +young companion firmly grasped my arm, earnestly entreating me not to +shoot the bird, as it had sung its unlucky note. But my desire to +possess a specimen was too great to be thus baffled, so I fired my gun +and brought it down. I was engaged in examining the elegant little bird, +when a mule, probably alarmed by the shot, came running at full speed +towards the spot where we were, and we deemed it prudent to get behind a +hedge as speedily as possible. The infuriated mule made an attack on my +gun, which was resting against the hedge. It was thrown down, bitten, +and trampled on by the mule. The Indian boy turned to me, with a serious +countenance, and said:--"It is well if we escape further danger! I told +you the bird had piped bad luck!" + +The day fixed for our departure from Chiloe now approached. The wind, +which had heretofore been unfavorable for leaving the port, promised to +change, and we began to ship provisions. Whilst I was waiting for the +boat which was to take me on board, I had an opportunity of observing +the dexterity with which the Indians slaughter their cattle. This +business is performed on the Mole, where, in the space of a quarter of +an hour, and by two men only, an ox is killed, and the carcase cut up +into the proper pieces. When it is necessary to ship live oxen, the +animals are brought to the shore, where their feet are bound together, +and then they are rolled over planks into the _lancha_ (boat). On +nearing the ship, the Indians tie a rope round the animal's horns, and +then the sailors hoist him up with a strong tackle. It is a curious +sight to behold a strongly-bound struggling ox, hanging by the tackle, +and swinging between wind and water. My little Chilotean pony, which I +intended to take to Peru, was dealt with more gently: he was got on +board with a girth, purposely made for hoisting horses on board ship. + +At length we sailed out of the bay with a fresh easterly wind. Three +coasting boats, one of which was heavily laden with brooms, left the +roads at the same time, and their crews said they hoped to reach +Valparaiso before us. But they had too great confidence in their +round-bottomed keels, for they did not anchor in their place of +destination till five or six days after our arrival. The wind soon got +up, blowing W.N.W., but rather flat. In the course of the night, during +the second watch, we were roused from our sleep by a heavy shock, +followed by a peculiarly tremulous motion of the whole ship. We +concluded we had struck in passing over some hidden rock. The lead was +thrown, but no ground was found; the pumps were set a-going, but we were +free of water. The captain attributed the shock to an earthquake, and on +our arrival at Chile, his conjecture was confirmed. In Valdivia, in the +latitude of which place we were at the time, a severe shock of an +earthquake had been experienced. + +After a pretty favorable passage of seven days, we anchored on the 30th +of June in the harbor of Valparaiso. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 1: _Bombilla_ is the name given to this pipe, and the cup or +gourd in which the decoction of the _mate_ is prepared, is called the +_macerina_.] + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +Valparaiso and the adjacent country--The Bay--Aspect of the +Town--Lighthouses--Forts--Custom House--Exchange--Hotels and +Taverns--War with the Peru-Bolivian Confederation--First +Expedition--Preparations for the Second Expedition--Embarkation +of the Troops--Close of the Port--July Festival in honor of the +French Revolution--The _Muele_, or Mole--Police--_Serenos_, +or Watchmen--Moveable Prisons--Clubs--Trade of +Valparaiso--Santiago--Zoology. + + +The impression produced by the approach to Valparaiso on persons who see +land for the first time after a sea voyage of several months' duration, +must be very different from that felt by those who anchor in the port +after a passage of a few days from the luxuriantly verdant shores of the +islands lying to the south. Certainly, none of our ship's company would +have been disposed to give the name of "Vale of Paradise" to the +sterile, monotonous coast which lay outstretched before us; and yet, to +the early navigators, its first aspect, after a long and dreary voyage, +over the desert ocean, might naturally enough have suggested the idea of +an earthly paradise. + +Along the sea coast there extends a range of round-topped hills, 15 or +16 hundred feet high, covered with a grey-brownish coating, relieved +only here and there by patches of dead green, and furrowed by clefts, +within which the bright red of tile-roofed houses is discernible. +Half-withered cactus trees, the only plants which take root in the +ungenial soil, impart no life to the dreary landscape. The hills +continue rising in undulating outlines, and extend into the interior of +the country, where they unite with the great chain of the Andes. + +The bay of Valparaiso is open on the north and west; on the south it is +protected by a little promontory called the Punta de Coromilla. In this +direction the shore is steep and rocky, and the waves break against it +with great fury. From the Punta de Coromilla the bay extends from east +to north-west in the form of a gently curved crescent, having a sloping, +sandy beach, which rises very gradually towards the hills. On the north +side of the bay there are several small inlets, almost inaccessible and +edged with steep rocks. The bay is sometimes unsafe, for it is +completely unsheltered on the north, and the heavy gales which blow from +that point frequently end in storms. At those times the bay is furiously +agitated, the waves sometimes rising as high as in the open sea, and the +ships are obliged to cast their sheet-anchors. Many vessels have at +various times been driven from their anchorage, cast ashore, and dashed +to pieces on a rock called Little Cape Horn; for, when a violent gale +blows from the north, it is impossible to get out to sea. Sailors are +accustomed to say that in a violent storm they would rather be tossed +about on the wide ocean than be at anchor in the bay of Valparaiso. But +against the south wind, though sometimes no less boisterous than the +northern gales, the harbor affords secure refuge, being perfectly +sheltered by the Punta de Coromilla. + +The town of Valparaiso looks as if built on terraces at the foot of the +range of hills above mentioned. Northward it stretches out on the level +sea shore, in a long double row of houses called the Almendral: towards +the south it rises in the direction of the hills. Two clefts or chasms +(quebradas) divide this part of the town into three separate parts +consisting of low, shabby houses. These three districts have been named +by the sailors after the English sea terms Fore-top, Main-top, and +Mizen-top. The numerous quebradas, which all intersect the ground in a +parallel direction, are surrounded by poor-looking houses. The wretched, +narrow streets running along these quebradas are, in winter, and +especially at night, exceedingly dangerous, Valparaiso being very badly +lighted. It sometimes happens that people fall over the edges of the +chasms and are killed, accidents which not unfrequently occur to the +drunken sailors who infest these quarters of the town. + +Viewed from the sea, Valparaiso has rather a pleasing aspect, and some +neat detached houses built on little levels, artificially made on the +declivities of the hills, have a very picturesque appearance. The +scenery in the immediate background is gloomy; but, in the distance, the +summit of the volcano Aconcagua, which is 23,000 feet above the level of +the sea, and which, on fine evenings, is gilded by the rays of the +setting sun, imparts a peculiar charm to the landscape. + +The bay is protected by three small forts. The southernmost, situated +between the lighthouse and the town, has five guns. The second, which is +somewhat larger, called el Castillo de San Antonio, is in the southern +inlet of the bay. Though the most strongly fortified of the three, it is +in reality a mere plaything. In the northern part of the town, on a +little hillock, stands the third fort, called el Castillo del Rosario, +which is furnished with six pieces of cannon. The churches of Valparaiso +are exceedingly plain and simple, undistinguished either for +architecture or internal decoration. + +The custom-house is especially worthy of mention. It is a beautiful and +spacious building, and from its situation on the Muele (Mole) is an +object which attracts the attention of all who arrive at Valparaiso. In +the neighborhood of the custom-house is the exchange. It is a plain +building, and contains a large and elegant reading-room, in which may +always be found the principal European newspapers. In this reading-room +there is also an excellent telescope by Dollond, which is a source of +amusement, by affording a view of the comical scenes sometimes enacted +on board the ships in the port. + +The taverns and hotels are very indifferent. The best are kept by +Frenchmen, though even those are incommodious and expensive. The +apartments, which scarcely contain necessary articles of furniture, are +dirty, and often infested with rats. In these houses, however, the table +is tolerably well provided; for there is no want of good meat and +vegetables in the market. The second-rate taverns are far beneath the +very worst in the towns of Europe. + +On our arrival in Valparaiso, a vast deal of activity and bustle +prevailed in the harbor. Chile had declared war against the +Peru-Bolivian confederation, and was fitting out a new expedition for +the invasion of Peru. At its head were the banished Peruvian president +Don Augustin Gamarra, and the Chilian general Bulnes. The growing power +of Santa Cruz, who set himself up as protector of a confederation +between Bolivia and Peru, had given alarm to the Chilian government. It +was apprehended, and not without reason, that the independence of Chile +might be threatened by so dangerous a neighbor. Santa Cruz had given +umbrage to Chile by several decrees, especially one, by which merchant +vessels coming direct from Europe into a Bolivian or Peruvian port, and +there disposing of their cargoes, were subject to very low duties, +whilst heavy imposts were levied on ships landing any part of their +cargoes in a Chilian port. This law greatly increased the trade of Peru; +but it was prejudicial to Chile. This and other grounds of offence, +joined to the representations of the fugitive Ex-president Gamarra and +his adherents, determined the Chilian government to declare war. An +expedition under the command of General Blanco was sent to Peru; but +Santa Cruz was prepared to receive the invaders, and in the valley of +Arequipa he surrounded the Chilian forces so completely that they were +obliged to surrender without striking a blow. Santa Cruz magnanimously +allowed General Blanco to make a very favorable capitulation. The +soldiers were sent home to their country; but the horses were detained +and sold by the conquerors to the conquered. + +The generosity of Don Andres Santa Cruz did not meet its due return on +the part of the Chilian government. The treaty of peace concluded by +Blanco was not ratified in Santiago, the minister declaring that the +general was not authorized to negotiate it. Hostilities were kept up +between the two states, and at length a second and more important +expedition was fitted out. It sailed whilst we were lying in the harbor. + +No sooner had we cast anchor than several officers of the Chilian army +came on board to inquire whether we had any swords to dispose of, +assuring us that they, together with the majority of their comrades, +were yet unprovided with arms, and knew not where to procure them. The +captain informed them that there were no swords in our cargo; but that +he had a few sabres, &c., which he was very willing to sell. They were +immediately produced, and some were purchased; among the number was a +heavy broad-sword, about five feet in length, which had once belonged +to a cuirassier in Napoleon's guard. The Chilian officer who bargained +for it was a delicate-looking stripling, who, with both hands, could +scarcely raise the heavy weapon. He, nevertheless, flattered himself +that it would enable him to achieve great deeds in battle and deal death +among the Peruvians. Ten months afterwards I met this hero on a march +among the mountains of Peru. He had, girded on, a light little sword, +like a tooth pick or a bodkin compared with the formidable weapon he had +discarded, and which a sturdy negro was carrying behind him. I could not +refrain from asking the officer whether the trusty broad-sword had not +done good service in the battle of Yungay; but he candidly acknowledged +that he had not attempted to use it, as he found it much too unwieldy. + +The Chilian squadron sent to Peru consisted of twenty-seven transport +ships, and eight ships of war. Almost all were in a wretched condition, +having but few guns, and manned by very insufficient crews. The largest +vessels were the three corvettes, Confederacion, Santa Cruz, and +Valparaiso. Only one ship, the schooner brig Colocolo, was distinguished +for solidity and swift sailing. The fleet was commanded by an admiral of +little judgment and experience. + +Among the crew there were but few Chilenos: most of the men were +Chilotes and French, English and American deserters. The officers +commanding the ships were almost all Englishmen. The transport ships +were heavily laden, some carrying troops, and others provisions. These +provisions consisted of sesino (dried beef), chalonas (whole sheep +dried), maize, potatoes, dried fruits and barley, together with hay for +the horses. The embarkation of the horses was most clumsily managed: +many were strangled in being hoisted up the ships' sides, others slipped +through their girths and were severely hurt by falling, and a +considerable number of the poor animals died before the ships left the +port. Every morning we saw dozens of dead horses thrown over board. The +continued lurching of the vessels in which the cavalry was embarked, +bore evidence of the inconvenient situation of the horses between decks. + +At the beginning of July the whole squadron sailed for the harbor of +Coquimbo, where the troops were decimated by the small-pox. + +There prevailed in Chile a feeling very adverse to this campaign; so +much so that most of the troops were embarked by force. I was standing +on the _muele_ when the Santiago battalion was shipped. The soldiers, +who were in wretched uniforms, most of them wearing ponchos, and +unarmed, were bound together two-and-two by ropes, and absolutely driven +into the boats. + +This war proved most unfortunate to Peru, a result which, however, +cannot certainly be ascribed either to the courage of the enemy's troops +or the judgment of their commanders. We shall presently see the +circumstances which combined to secure triumph to the Chilenos. + +I and my fellow-voyagers were also sufferers by the war, our captain +having imprudently announced his intention of selling the Edmond to the +protector Santa Cruz, as she might easily have been transformed into an +excellent corvette. She was a quick sailer, tight-built, carrying ten +guns of moderate calibre, and she might easily have mounted ten more. + +The captain's intention having reached the knowledge of the Chilian +government, the natural consequence was, that the port was closed, a +measure deemed the more necessary inasmuch as an American captain was +suspected of entertaining the design of selling his ship to the +Peruvians. It was not until the fleet had had time to reach Peru, and +the first blow was supposed to be struck, that the embargo was raised, +and we obtained leave to depart. We lay in the port of Valparaiso +five-and-forty days. To me the most annoying circumstance attending this +delay was, that I could not absent myself from the port longer than +twenty-four hours at a time, as the ship was constantly in readiness to +get under weigh, as soon as we should receive permission to sail, which +was hourly expected. My excursions were, therefore, confined to the +immediate neighborhood of the town; and even there my walks and rides +were much impeded by constant stormy and rainy weather. + +On the 29th of July, preparations were made on board our ship for +celebrating the Paris revolution of 1830. At eight o'clock in the +morning we fired three guns, and the Edmond was soon decorated from her +deck to her mast-heads with flags and streamers. At the fore-mast gaily +floated the Swiss flag, probably the first time it had ever been seen in +the Pacific. When the guns on board the French ship-of-war had ceased +firing, we began our salute; but, as we had only ten guns, it was +necessary to load a second time. Our seamen, being unused to this kind +of duty, did not observe due precaution, and the consequence was that +one of them had his hand so dreadfully shattered that immediate +amputation was indispensable. The day's rejoicing was thus suddenly +brought to a melancholy close. + +The mole in front of the custom-house is exceedingly dangerous; so much +so, that, during the prevalence of stormy north winds, it is impossible +to pass along it. From the shore a sort of wooden jetty stretches into +the sea, at the distance of about sixty paces. This jetty has been +sometimes partially, and at other times completely, destroyed by the +waves. The harbor-master's boats, and those belonging to the +ships-of-war, land on the right side; the left side is allotted to the +boats of the merchant ships. On the shore there are always a number of +boats ready to convey persons who wish to go on board the different +ships. Each boat is generally rowed by two Indians. Whenever any person +approaches the shore he is beset by the boatmen, who throng round him, +and alternately, in English and Spanish, importune him with the +questions,--"Want a boat?" "Vamos a bordo?" + +Day and night, parties of custom-house officers go round the port for +the purpose of preventing smuggling. In this, however, they only +partially succeed; for they detect only petty smugglers, whilst those +who carry on contraband trade on a large scale elude their vigilance. +The captains of French vessels are notorious for this kind of traffic, +and they frequently succeed in landing vast quantities of goods +surreptitiously. + +The police of Valparaiso is probably as good as it is in any part of +South America. _Serenos_ (watchmen) perambulate the streets on foot and +on horseback, and continually give signals one to another by blowing +small whistles. For personal safety there is little risk, probably not +more than in the most populous cities of Europe. It is true that +nocturnal murders sometimes take place; but the police speedily succeed +in capturing the criminals, who, after a summary trial, are shot. + +In Valparaiso, as in most of the towns on the western coast of South +America, the _serenos_ go about all night, calling the hours and +announcing the state of the weather. At ten o'clock they commence with +their--"_Viva Chile!_"--"_Ave Maria purissima!_"--"_Las diez han dado y +sereno!_" (past ten o'clock and a fine night!) or _nublado_ +(cloudy),--or _lloviendo_ (raining). Thus, they continue calling every +half-hour till four o'clock in the morning. Should an earthquake take +place it is announced by the _sereno_ when he goes his round in the +following half hour. However, the phenomenon usually announces itself in +so positive a way, that the inhabitants may easily dispense with the +information of the _serenos_. + +Among the most remarkable objects in Valparaiso may be numbered the +moveable prison. It consists of a number of large covered wagons, not +unlike those used for the conveyance of wild beasts. In the inside of +each wagon, planks are fixed up like the board bedsteads in a +guard-house, affording resting-places for eight or ten prisoners. A +guard is stationed at the door, which is at the back of the wagon; and +in the front a sort of kitchen is constructed. These wagons are drawn by +the prisoners themselves, who are for the most part destined to work in +the streets and roads, and, accordingly, they take their prison with +them when they are ordered to any considerable distance from the town. +To a country in which there may be said to be no winter, this sort of +nomad prison is exceedingly well-suited, and the prisoners may be +conveyed from place to place at very little expense. + +I went into some of these moveable prisons, and I must confess that I +never beheld such an assemblage of ill-looking faces as were collected +within them. In the countenances of some of the prisoners unbridled +passion and degrading sensuality were so plainly and so odiously +portrayed, that one shuddered to reflect that such features could be +an index of the human mind. Most of them were Creole Indians; but +there were a few Europeans among them. To me it was melancholy to +behold the European, who might be supposed to possess some little +share of education, mounting the prison steps chained to his +fellow-criminal, the uncivilized Chileno. + +In Valparaiso, as in all seaports, there is a heterogeneous mixture of +different countries, nations, languages, and manners, amidst which the +national character of the country is entirely lost. The trade in +European goods is very extensive, but almost exclusively in the hands +of a few great North American and English houses, who supply the whole +country with the articles they import. At times, such is the overstock +of importations, that goods are sold at lower prices in Valparaiso +than in Europe. The warehouses are so filled with some sorts of +merchandise, that without any fresh supplies there would be sufficient +for some years to come. + +Among the clerks in the mercantile houses I met with a great number of +Germans, who all maintain an intimate association with each other. They +have formed themselves into a union, and they have a very commodious +place in which they hold their meetings. Following their example, the +English have united together and established several clubs. The French +have not gained any considerable footing in this part of South America, +in which there are scarcely two French mercantile houses of any +consequence. On the other hand, there is abundance of French +hairdressers, tailors, shoemakers, jewellers, confectioners, and +_Chevaliers d'industrie_. Neither is there any want of _Modistes +Parisiennes et Bordelaises_. + +Valparaiso is yearly increasing in extent and in the numbers of its +inhabitants; but the town makes little improvement in beauty. That +quarter which is built along the Quebradas is certainly susceptible of +no improvement, owing to the unfavorable locality, and it is only the +newly-built houses on the heights that impart to the town anything like +a pleasing aspect. In laying out buildings in a place like Valparaiso, +the aid of art should make amends for the defects of nature. My visits +to Valparaiso did not produce a very favorable impression on me. The +exclusively mercantile occupations of the inhabitants, together with the +poverty of the adjacent country, leave little to interest the attention +of a mere transient visitor. The case may be different with persons +who, having longer time than I had to stay in the town, may enjoy +opportunities of entering into society, and occasionally visiting the +pleasant valley of Quillota and the interesting capital Santiago. + +The latter is thirty leagues distant from the port; but a very active +communication is kept up between the two places, and better roads would, +no doubt, increase the intercourse. A few years ago the roads were very +unsafe; but now the journey may be performed without danger if the +_Birlocheros_ (coach-drivers) are in the least degree careful. + +The zoology of the neighborhood of Valparaiso is not very interesting, +though more so along the sea-shore than in parts further inland. Among +the Mammalia are sometimes seen the fox (_Canis Azarae_, Wild.), and +the pole-cat. In the immediate vicinity of the town a very large mouse +is seen in the burrows of the ground; it is of the eight-toothed +species (_Octodon Cummingii_, Benn.), and has a brush-formed tail. As +the fields round Valparaiso are not cultivated these animals do no +harm, otherwise they would be the plague of agriculture, and probably +are so in the interior parts of the country. Now and then a sea-dog +may be observed in the bay; but the whale is seldom seen, and whenever +one appears he is immediately killed, as there is always a whaler at +anchor and not far off. + +In the market, live condors are frequently sold. These birds are caught +in traps. A very fine one may be purchased for a dollar and a half. I +saw eight of these gigantic birds secured in a yard in a very singular +manner. A long narrow strap of leather was passed through the nostrils +of the bird and firmly knotted at one end, whilst the other end was +fastened to a wooden or iron peg fixed in the ground. By this means the +motion of the bird was not impeded: it could walk within the range of a +tolerably wide circle; but on attempting to fly it fell to the ground +head foremost. It is no trifling matter to provide food for eight +condors; for they are among the most ravenous of birds of prey. The +owner of those I saw assured me that, by way of experiment, he had +given a condor, in the course of one day, eighteen pounds of meat +(consisting of the entrails of oxen); that the bird devoured the +whole, and ate his allowance on the following day with as good an +appetite as usual. I measured a very large male condor, and the width +from the tip of one wing to the tip of the other was fourteen English +feet and two inches--an enormous expanse of wing, not equalled by any +other bird except the white albatross. (_Diomedea exulans_, Linn.). +The snipes (_Scolopax frenata_, Ill.) found on the little plain +between the bay and the light-house are in color precisely like those +of Europe, from which, however, they differ in having two more +feathers in their tails. Small green parrots, little bigger than +finches, are tamed and brought to Valparaiso from the interior of the +country. These parrots are very docile, and are easily taught to +speak; but they cannot endure cold, and require to be tended with very +great care. In the bay itself there are numerous cormorants, and +occasionally penguins and large flights of the cut-water or shear-bill +(_Rhynchops nigra_, Linn.). The latter is distinguished by a +sharp-pointed bill closing laterally, the under mandible being about +double the length of the upper one. But the most beautiful bird in the +bay of Valparaiso is the majestic swan (_Cygnus nigricollis_, Mol.), +whose body is of dazzling white, whilst the head and neck are black. + +On the 13th of August we at length obtained leave to sail. Early on +the morning of the 14th we weighed anchor; and, as we sailed out of +the Bay of Valparaiso, the summit of Aconcagua soon disappeared in +the blue horizon. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +Juan Fernandez--Robinson Crusoe--Passage to Callao--San +Lorenzo--Rise and fall of the coast--Mr. Darwin's opinions +on this subject--Callao--The Fortress--Siege by the +Spaniards--General Rodil--Siege by the Chilians--The +Colocolo--Pirates--Zoology--Road to Lima. + + +With a favorable east wind we reached, in thirty-six hours, the island +of Juan Fernandez, which lies in the latitude of Valparaiso. Ships from +Europe, bound to Peru, which do not go into Chile, usually touch at Juan +Fernandez to test their chronometers. It consists in fact of three +islands, forming a small compact group. Two of them, in accordance with +the Spanish names, may be called the Inward Island and the Outward +Island, for the most easterly is called _Mas a Tierra_ (more to the main +land), that to the west is called _Mas a Fuera_ (more towards the +offing). That to the south, which is almost a naked rock, is the _Isla +de Lobos_, which we may call Sea-dog Island. The two first are covered +with grass and trees. _Mas a Tierra_ is much longer, and better suited +for cultivation than _Mas a Fuera_. In form the two islands have a +striking resemblance to Flores and Cordua, islands of the group of the +Azores. Until within these twenty years, _Mas a Tierra_ was the place of +exportation for convicts from Chile; but as it was found that the +facility of escape is great, none are now sent there. In 1812 a number +of prisoners of war were confined there, but the rats, which had +increased in an extraordinary degree, consumed all the provisions sent +from Chile. Several fruitless attempts have been made to populate the +island, but that object is now given up, and it is only occasionally +visited by sea-dog hunters. Ulloa speaks of the great number of +sea-calves or dogs with which the island was frequented, and +distinguishes kinds which belong to the short-eared species. Their skins +are excellent, and they sell at a good price in England. Wild goats are +numerous, and their propagation would be excessive were it not for the +multitude of dogs, also wild, by which they are destroyed. + +There is yet another kind of interest attached to Juan Fernandez. It was +on Mas a Tierra that, in 1704, the celebrated English navigator, +Dampier, landed his coxswain, Alexander Selkirk, with whom he had +quarrelled, and left him there with a small quantity of provisions, and +a few tools. Selkirk had lived four years and four months on this +uninhabited island, when he was found there by the bucaneers Woods and +Rogers, and brought back to Europe. From the notes which he made during +his solitary residence, the celebrated Daniel Defoe composed his +incomparable work, ROBINSON CRUSOE. + +The weather continued favorable, and in about a week we doubled the west +point of San Lorenzo Island, where some Chilian cruizers were watching +the coast. We soon entered the fine bay of Callao, and cast anchor in +the harbor of the _Ciudad de los Reyes_. While rounding the island, an +American corvette spoke us. She had left Valparaiso on the same day with +us, and sailed also through the strait between San Lorenzo and the main +land; yet, during the whole passage, we never saw each other. + +No signals were exchanged between us and the shore, and no port-captain +came on board. We were exceedingly anxious to know the issue of the +Chilian expedition. Hostile ships of war lay off the port, but the +Peruvian flag waved on the fort. At last a French naval cadet came on +board, and informed us that the Chilians had landed successfully, and +had taken Lima by storm two days previously. They were, at that moment, +besieging the fortress. We immediately went on shore. + +The town presented a melancholy aspect. The houses and streets were +deserted. In all Callao we scarcely met a dozen persons, and the most +of those we saw were negroes. Some of the inhabitants came gradually +back, but in the course of a month scarcely a hundred had returned, +and for safety they slept during the night on board merchant ships in +the bay. At the village of Bella Vista, a quarter of a mile from +Callao, the Chilians had erected their batteries for bombarding the +fortress. As it was difficult to obtain provisions, the commanders of +the foreign ships of war sent every morning a small detachment of +sailors with a steward to Bella Vista, to purchase meat and +vegetables. The merchant-ships joined in the practice, so that early +every morning a long procession of boats with flags flying proceeded +to the Chilian camp. But a stop was soon put to this, as an English +butcher in Callao found means to go with the boats for the purpose of +purchasing large quantities of meat, which he afterwards sold at an +immense profit, to the fortress. Though the besieged did not suffer +from want, they were far from having superfluity. + +Having sufficient time to make myself acquainted with the country in the +immediate vicinity of Callao, I took advantage of every opportunity for +excursions; going from place to place by water, which was more safe than +journeying by land. + +The bay of Callao is one of the largest and calmest on the west coast of +South America. On the south-west, it is bounded by the sterile island of +San Lorenzo; on the north it flows into the creeks, which are terminated +by the Punta Gorda, the Punta Pernal, the Punta de dos Playas, and the +Punta de Dona Pancha. The beach is flat, for the most part shingly, and +about the mouth of the Rimac, somewhat marshy. Between the mouth of the +Rimac and that of the Rio de Chillon, which is a little southward of the +Punta Gorda, there is a tract of rich marshy soil. A small boot-shaped +tongue of land stretches from the fortress westward to San Lorenzo. On +this spot are the ruins of old Callao. + +San Lorenzo is a small, long-shaped island, about 15 English miles in +circumference. It is intersected throughout its whole length by a ridge +of sharp crested hills, of which the highest point is about 1387 feet +above the level of the sea. On the north-eastern side, the declivity is +less steep than on the south-west, where it descends almost +perpendicularly into the sea. Seals and sea-otters inhabit the steep +rocks of the southern declivity, and swarms of sea-birds nestle on the +desolate shore. San Lorenzo is separated on the southern side by a +narrow strait, from a small rocky island called El Fronton, which is +also the abode of numerous seals. + +The coasts of Callao and San Lorenzo have undergone very remarkable +changes within a few centuries. Mr. Darwin, the English geologist, is +of opinion that this part of Peru has risen eighty-five feet since it +has had human inhabitants. On the north-eastern declivity of San +Lorenzo, which is divided into three indistinctly marked terraces, there +are numbers of shells of those same species of conchyliae which are at +the present time found living on the coast. On an accurate examination +of these shells, Mr. Darwin found many of them deeply corroded. "They +have," he says, "a much older and more decayed appearance than those at +the height of 500 or 600 feet on the coast of Chile. These shells are +associated with much common salt, a little sulphate of lime (both +probably left by the evaporation of the spray, as the land slowly rose), +together with sulphate of soda, and muriate of lime. The rest are +fragments of the underlying sand-stone, and are covered by a few inches +thick of detritus. The shells higher up on this terrace could be traced +scaling off in flakes, and falling into an impalpable powder; and on an +upper terrace, at the height of 170 feet, and likewise at some +considerably higher points, I found a layer of saline powder, of exactly +similar appearance, and lying in the same relative position. I have no +doubt that the upper layer originally existed on a bed of shells, like +that on the eighty-five feet ledge, but it does not now contain even a +trace of organic structure."[2] Mr. Darwin adds, that on the terrace, +which is eighty-five feet above the sea, he found embedded amidst the +shells and much sea-drifted rubbish, some bits of cotton thread, plaited +rush, and the head of a stalk of Indian corn. + +San Lorenzo does not appear to have been inhabited in very early ages. +The fragments of human industry which have been found mixed in the +shells have probably been brought thither by fishermen who visit the +island, and often pass the night on it. + +Darwin further remarks:--"It has been stated that the land subsided +during this memorable shock (in 1746): I could not discover any proof +of this; yet it seems far from improbable, for the form of the coast +must certainly have undergone some change since the foundation of the +old town," &c.--"On the island of San Lorenzo there are very +satisfactory proofs of elevation within a recent period; this, of +course, is not opposed to the belief of a small sinking of the ground +having subsequently taken place." + +But satisfactory evidence of the sinking of the coast is not to be +obtained in a visit of a few weeks' duration; nor must that evidence +rest solely on geological facts, though doubtless they furnish much +important data. History must aid the inquiry. Tradition and the +recollections of old persons must be attended to. According to these +authorities, a change more or less considerable has taken place in the +level of the coast, after every great earthquake. If we refer to the +account given by Ulloa, and compare the plan of the harbor of Callao, +drawn by him in 1742, with the most correct modern charts, we do not +find much difference in the representations of the distance between +the main-land and San Lorenzo. Four years afterwards the great +earthquake occurred, which destroyed the city of Callao, and plunged +it into the sea. Subsequently there was a rising of the coast, which +could not be inconsiderable, for according to the statements of old +inhabitants of Callao, the distance from the coast to San Lorenzo was +so inconsiderable that boys used to throw stones over to the island. +At present the distance is nearly two English miles. I have no doubt +of the general correctness of those statements, for a careful +investigation of facts leads to the same conclusion; so that within +the last sixty or seventy years the sinking must have been +considerable. It must be observed, however, that the ruins on the +small tongue of land are not, as Darwin supposes, the remains of the +city of Callao, swallowed up by the sea in 1746, but of the Callao +which was destroyed by the great earthquake of 1630. + +Another proof of the sinking exists in the extensive shallow between +the coast of the main-land and San Lorenzo, called the Camotal. In +early times this shallow was dry land, producing vegetables, in +particular _Camotes_ (sweet potatoes), whence the name of this portion +of the strait is derived. The inundation took place in the time of the +Spaniards, but before 1746, either in the great earthquake of 1687, or +in that of 1630. + +Northward of the Bay of Callao, near the plantation of Boca Negra, there +is a shallow, where, according to records, there existed a sugar +plantation about fifty years ago. Turning to the south of Callao, in the +direction of Lurin, we find, at the distance of about two English miles +from the coast, two islands or rocks, of which one is called Pachacamac, +and the other Santa Domingo. At the time of the Spanish invasion these +rocks were connected with the main-land, and formed a promontory. On one +of them stood a temple or castle. At what period they were detached from +the coast I have not been able to ascertain authentically; but there +appears reason to suppose that the separation took place during the +violent earthquake of 1586. Attentive investigations to the north of +Callao--at Chancay, Huacho, Baranca, &c., would probably bring to light +further evidence on this subject. + +Between the facts stated by Mr. Darwin and those here adduced, there +is considerable discrepancy. On the one hand they denote a rising, and +on the other a sinking. But it may be asked, might not both these +phenomena have occurred at different times?[3] Mr. Darwin's opinion +respecting the still-continued rising of the coast does not appear to +me to rest on satisfactory evidence. The relics of human industry +which he found embedded among shells, at the height of eighty-five +feet above the sea, only prove that the elevation has taken place +after the land was inhabited by the human race, but do not mark the +period at which that elevation occurred. Pieces of cotton thread and +plaited rush are no proofs of a very refined degree of civilisation, +such as the Spaniards brought with them to Peru, and cannot therefore +be taken as evidence that the elevation took place at any period +subsequent to the conquest. Garcilaso de la Vega traces the dynasty of +the Incas down to the year 1021, a period when the inhabitants of the +coast of Peru were tolerably well advanced in civilisation. Fernando +Montesinos furnishes facts connected with the history of Peru, of +several thousand years' earlier date; and, judging from the number of +dynasties, the nature of the laws, &c., it may be inferred that +civilisation existed at a period of even more remote antiquity. It +cannot therefore be determined with any accuracy at what time the +deposit at San Lorenzo, now eighty-five feet high, was level with the +sea, or whether the rise suddenly followed one of those frightful +catastrophes which have so often visited the western coast of South +America. Then, again, the different degrees of decay presented by the +beds of shells seem to indicate that the rising has been gradual; and +it may have been going on for thousands of years. Had the coast risen +eighty-five feet since the Spanish conquest--that is to say, within +the space of three hundred and sixty-two years--the Camotal would long +since have again risen above the surface of the sea; for it is very +improbable that it sank to a depth exceeding ninety or ninety-five +feet. It is evident that risings and sinkings have occurred at various +times, and that causes contingent on earthquakes have produced the +variations in the rising and falling of the coast. + +It is probable that the accurate sounding of the depth of water in the +Camotal, at stated intervals, would furnish the best means of +ascertaining the rising and sinking of the coast. A variety of +circumstances combine to favor the practicability of calculation by this +method. For example, no river flows into that part of the bay in which +the Camotal is situated. The Rimac, whose mouth lies further to the +north, is not sufficiently large to carry any considerable deposit into +the bed of the bay: moreover, there is but little tide, and the bay is +always calm, being sheltered on the south by the island of San Lorenzo, +and north breezes are rare and never violent. + +I may here mention a singular phenomenon which has in latter times often +occurred at Callao, and which, in 1841, I had myself the opportunity of +observing. About two in the morning the sea flowed from the shore with +greater force than in the strongest ebb; the ships farthest out were +left dry, which is never the case in an ebb tide. The alarm of the +inhabitants was great when the sea rushed instantly back with increased +force. Nothing could withstand its fury. Meanwhile there was no +commotion of the earth, nor any marked change of temperature. + +In the earthquake of 1746 Callao was completely overwhelmed by the +sea. Several travellers have related that on calm days with a clear +sky the old town may be seen beneath the waves. I have also heard the +same story from inhabitants of Callao. It is doubtless a mere fable. +Under the most favorable circumstances I have often examined the +spot--the Mar brava, as it is called--without being able to discover a +trace of the ruins of old Callao. + +The existing town of Callao is small, and by no means pleasant. In +winter it is damp and dirty, and in summer so dusty that in passing +through the streets one is almost choked. Most of the houses are very +slightly built, and they are usually only one story high. The walls are +constructed of reeds, plastered over with loam or red clay. All the +roofs are flat, being made of straw mats laid on a frame-work of reeds, +which is also plastered with loam on the under side. The windows are in +the roof, and consist of wooden trap-doors, which look very much like +bird-cages. They have no glass panes, but gratings made of wooden spars. +On the inside there is a window-shutter, and a string hangs down into +the apartment, by means of which the shutter can be opened or closed. + +The most interesting object seen in Callao is the splendid fortress. +Though built on a flat surface close to the sea, it has a magnificent +appearance. It consists of two castles, the largest of which the +Spaniards named Real Filippe, but since the Revolution it is called +Castillo de la Independencia. It has two round towers, wide, but not +very high. The court-yards are spacious. The walls are thick, rather +low, and surrounded by a ditch, which can be filled with water from the +sea. To the south of this castle there is a smaller one, called El +Castillo del Sol. Before the War of Independence they mounted both +together four hundred pieces of cannon, many of which were of very large +calibre. At present they have only sixty pieces of cannon and +seventy-one carronades. + +On the fortress of Callao the Spanish flag waved long after independence +was declared in all the countries of Spanish South America. The Spanish +general, Rodil, threw himself into the castle, and with wonderful +resolution held out against a siege of a year and a half. During the +last three months the Spaniards suffered all the privations and +miseries which a besieged army must endure within the tropics. + +Lord Cochrane blockaded the fortress by sea, and General Bartolome Salom +drew up his army on the land side. More than 4,000 Spaniards fled to the +castle with all their valuable property, and took refuge under Rodil's +protection. The greater part of the fugitives belonged to the principal +families of the country. When provisions began to fail, the commandant +found it necessary to expel 400 women, and one morning they issued forth +in a long line of procession. The besiegers supposed that the enemy was +making a sortie, and directed the fire of their artillery against the +helpless beings, who, uttering loud shrieks, attempted to save +themselves by flight. As soon as the mistake was discovered the firing +stopped, and the women were conveyed to Lima. Insurrections were several +times attempted by the garrison of Callao; but the presence of mind and +cool resolution of Rodil in every instance enabled him to suppress these +mutinies. The guilty were punished with so much severity that the +soldiers soon gave up all further attempts. Horses, asses, dogs and +cats, became at length the food of the besieged. Rodil at this time +carried on a traffic which does no honor to his character. He had a +quantity of provisions stored, which he now sold at immense prices. For +a fowl he got from three to four gold ounces. He demanded proportional +prices for bread, &c. A contagious fever broke out, and, of more than +4000 persons who had taken refuge in the fortress, only about 200 +survived the siege. Hunger and disease at last obliged Rodil to yield. +On the 19th of February, 1826, he obtained an honorable capitulation, +and embarked with his acquired wealth for Spain, where he was invested +with the rank of commander-in-chief of the infantry guards. + +Since the independence of Peru this fortress has often been the seat of +partial revolutions. Its death-doom has been pronounced by different +governments, and it will be a fortunate event for the country when it +ceases to exist as a place of warlike defence. It has lately been found +useful for other purposes, and a great portion of its vast space has +been converted into custom-house warehouses. + +The siege of Callao by the Chilians, of which we were eye-witnesses, was +by no means such a serious affair as that undertaken by the patriots. +The squadron was weak, and the land army inconsiderable. Callao was only +cannonaded during the night by some Chilian gun-boats commanded by +Englishmen. The artillery of the castle was inefficient, but the Chilian +bombs did considerable damage. One Sunday afternoon the little Chilian +brig, "Colocolo," sailed in close under the walls of the fortress, and +threw in some shot. The fire was immediately returned by all the guns +that could be directed to the sea-side; but in vain did the Peruvians +expend their shot. Every ball went over the "Colocolo," and fell among +the neutral ships. The commander of the French squadron then sent a boat +to the fortress, with a declaration that he would attack it in good +earnest if the fire was not discontinued. The message had due effect. + +A few days after the affair with the "Colocolo," the Peruvians had an +opportunity of avenging the provocations they had received. The Chilian +admiral sent an officer, with seven sailors, to our ship to purchase +shoes. The garrison having observed the Chilian boat, sent out a shallop +with twenty-five men, which came close alongside of us. In spite of our +opposition the Chilian officer leaped into his boat and stood off. He +was, however, too late; for, just as he was leaving the ship's side, the +hostile shallop passed under our bowsprit, and fired a volley into the +Chilian boat. Five sailors fell into the sea, either killed or wounded. +Of three men picked up, one was the officer, who had received two wounds +from musket balls. We saved one of the wounded sailors by throwing him a +rope, by which we pulled him up, covering him with the French flag. + +The Peruvians had no longer a fleet strong enough to keep at sea; but +soon after their government purchased the "Edmond," and some other +merchantmen, and fitted them up as privateers. The command was given to +M. Blanchet, who had been first pilot of the "Edmond" during our voyage +from Europe. After he had taken the "Arequipena," an old Chilian ship of +war, and burnt several transports, he attacked three Chilian corvettes +in the harbor of Casma. They had already struck their flags, when +Blanchet was shot while boarding one of them. His loss damped the +courage of the Corsairs, and the contest was soon given up. The shock of +Blanchet's death had such an effect on the crew of the "Edmond," that +they all went down between decks in great grief, except the cook, who +fired a gun he had charged to the brim, and killed some men who were on +a bowsprit of one of the hostile vessels. He then sprang to the helm, +and steered the ship safely into one of the inlets of the bay. + +The lover of natural history finds in the bay of Callao numerous +opportunities for gratifying his curiosity. The mammalia are not very +numerous. Sea otters and sea dogs are found there, as on all parts of +the South American coast. Two species (the _Otaria aurita_, Humb., and +the _O. Ulloae_, Tsch.) inhabit the southern declivity of the Fronton. +I went to hunt seals on the rock with the officers of a French ship of +war. When we landed, which was difficult on account of the breakers, +we fired at the animals and killed a number of them. A sailor waded +through the breakers and bound the dead seals with a rope, by which he +drew them on board. As we shot a great number of birds, the Chilian +admiral, on hearing the firing, thought that one of his ships must be +engaged with the Peruvian Corsairs; and, therefore, sent out the "San +Lorenzo" brig of war to see what was going on. + +The bay abounds in fine water-fowl. Amongst the most remarkable is +Humboldt's penguin (_Spheniscus Humboldti_, Mey.). A few are smaller +than the common grey penguin, and one is somewhat different in color on +the back and breast. The Peruvians call it _Paxaro nino_ (the child +bird). It is easily tamed, becomes very social, and follows its master +like a dog. It is amusing to see it waddling along with its plump body +and short legs, and keeping itself in equilibrium by moving its floating +wings. I had one completely tame, which I bought from an Indian. It was +named _Pepe_, and it answered readily to the name. When I was at my +meals he regularly placed himself beside my chair, and at night he slept +under my bed. When he wished to bathe he went into the kitchen and beat +with his bill on an earthen pan until somebody threw water over him, or +brought him a vessel full of water for a bath. + +I brought away a few of the marine birds which appeared the most +remarkable. Among them was the banded cormorant (_Carbo Gaimardi_, +Less.). On the back it is grey, marbled by white spots; the belly is +fine ash-grey, and on each side of the throat there runs a broad white +stripe or band. The bill is yellow and the feet are red. The iris is +peculiar; I never saw its like in any other bird. It changes throughout +the whole circle in regular square spots, white and sea-green. Thousands +of the spotted gannet (_Sula variegata_, Tsch.) inhabit the rocks of the +island of San Lorenzo. This bird is the greatest producer of guano. The +inca tern (_Sterna luca_, Less.) is without doubt the finest of the +whole tern family. The color of the head is brown-grey; getting darker +towards the tail, and brighter on the lower body. From the root of the +bill on either side there shoot out some white feathers slightly +curving, so that they give the appearance of white moustachios. Among +the land birds are some very fine colibri (_Trochilus Amazilia_, and +_Tr. Cora_, Less.). The horse-protector (_Crotophaga sulcata_, Swains.) +is a singular animal. It is about the size of a starling, with a short, +compressed and curved bill, having several deep furrows along its sides. +The tail is long and fan-shaped. The whole body is of a deep blue color, +with a slight metallic brightness. The bird is very social with cattle +of all kinds, and more particularly with horses. It is fond of perching +on the back of a horse or an ass, and searching for insects which it +finds there in abundance. These animals are very sensible of the service +thus rendered to them, and by the manner in which they move about when +the bird is perched on their heads or necks, show how much they are +gratified by its presence. + +Foreigners, when they visit the coast of Peru for the first time, are +much surprised at the immense number of birds of the vulture species +which they meet with about the roads and on the roofs of the houses. In +Callao and in all other ports the Turkey vulture (_Cathartes aura_, +Illig.) is frequently seen. It is called by the Spaniards _Gallinazo a +cabeza colorada_ (red-headed vulture). Further in the interior of the +country it is frequently seen, though there it is less common than the +black gallinazo (_Cathartes foetens_, Illig.). The color of the former +is dark brownish-black; the unplumed head and throat are red; the +throat is full of wrinkles and warts. The latter is very like it in size +and color, only the head and neck are greyish black. These birds are the +size of a turkey-cock; but they are lanker and more angular in form. The +black-headed gallinazo is inactive, heavy, and seldom flies far. When +seeking food he hops about on the ground in short, regular springs. When +he wishes to move faster forwards he helps himself with his wings, but +without flying. Its cry is seldom heard and never long continued. At +noon, sometimes from sixty to eighty of these birds perch themselves on +the tops of the houses or on the adjoining walls, and with the heads +under the wing they all go to roost. They are extremely voracious, and +devour every sort of animal substance they can find, however filthy it +may be. They are not in the least degree shy, for they hop about among +men and cattle in the most populous places. The Turkey vulture is far +more lively, and its movements are more light. It flies faster, and +continues longer on the wing than the black-headed gallinazo. It is, +however, more timid. It nestles in sandy rocks and uninhabited islands. +The female lays three or four whitish eggs, which are hatched in +February and March. The common gallinazo usually builds its nest on the +tops of houses, churches, ruins, and high walls. The female lays three +or four eggs, which are whitish brown and speckled, and are hatched in +the same months as the eggs of the Turkey vulture. + +Among the amphibia in Callao, the iguana and land agama are numerous. +Snakes abound in the low bushes at the mouth of the Rimac, and some +kinds, which are venomous, live on the arid sand-banks. All the sea +tortoises have been driven out of the bay, and now inhabit the detached +creeks of the uninhabited parts of the coast. + +The kinds of fish are numerous.--Sharks, rays, ballancers, corvinas, +bonitos, &c., are caught in abundance. Most of the corvinas and bonitos +are carried to market. The flesh of the latter is firm, dry, and less +savory than the corvina. The _Pexe-rey_ (king-fish) is superior in +flavor to the _Pexe-sapo_ (toad-fish), which is a little larger, and has +a thick, fleshy head. These fish are taken on rocks and under water, +where they are struck by a kind of harpoon hooks and drawn out. + +When, on board the "Edmond," I first saw the towers of Lima gilded by +the beams of the setting sun, and the chains of hills behind, rising by +gradations, until in the farthest background they blended with the +cloud-capped Cordilleras, I felt an inexpressible desire to advance +towards those regions, that I might breathe the air of the Andes, and +there behold nature under her wildest aspect. But these wishes were +vain, and I was compelled to turn again to the desolate ocean; for it +was understood that our further voyage must be towards the north, and +from there that we should proceed to the coast of Asia. I did not then +foresee that my longing might be fulfilled, and that so much of +enjoyment, together with so much toil and danger, awaited me in the +mountainous regions of Peru. + +Notwithstanding the insecurity of the road to Lima I resolved to proceed +thither. Carriages and horses were not to be procured in Callao, for the +latter were all either seized for the service of the government or +concealed. I could therefore travel only on foot. Don Manuel de la +Guarda, the commander of the fortress, observed, whilst giving me a +passport, that he would advise me to use speed, and to get as soon as +possible out of the range of the guns, for he expected every moment to +be obliged to order the firing to commence. I did not neglect to follow +his advice. However I had not got more than a hundred paces from the +castle when the artillery began to play, and balls fell around on every +side. I quickened my pace, and soon got near some fences, where men were +firing with muskets. There I was seized by some Chilian cuirassiers, who +sent me forward from post to post, until at last in one of the posts I +met with an officer with whom I had been acquainted in Chile. When I was +dining one day on board the corvette Confederacion in the bay of +Valparaiso, the young officer whom I have just alluded to sat next me. +The conversation happening to turn on phrenology, he insisted on my +examining his head, and pronouncing a phrenological diagnosis on it. +Though I assured him that I attached no value on this alleged science, +he continued to urge me to make the examination. After feeling his head +I observed to him, with great gravity: "Here is the organ of +mathematics pretty well developed, and it is probable that you may +distinguish yourself in that branch of knowledge." The fact was, I had +observed from his uniform that he belonged to the artillery, and since I +was obliged to say something, I thought it would be best to make my +remarks refer to his profession. Don Antonio had not forgotten it, for +as soon as he saw me at the outpost, he ran up to me quite overjoyed, +and told me that I had judged rightly of his talent, for the guns which +he commanded always sent their balls direct into the fortress, and did +more execution than any other. By following my advice and cultivating +his mathematical organ, he assured me, he was enabled to direct a gun +better than any other officer, and his aim could always be relied on. He +immediately procured me a pass, by which I was conducted all the +remainder of my journey. + +The distance from Callao to Lima is two Spanish leagues. The road is +covered with deep sand, and on either side are uncultivated fields and +low brushwood. After leaving Callao I came to Bella Vista, then to the +ruins of an old Indian village, and farther on inland reached some +plantations. Halfway between Callao and Lima is the convent of _la +Virgen del Carmen_, and also a chapel. The convent is now abandoned, +but in front of the chapel there constantly stands a monk, who begs +for alms. Close to the convent there is a Tambo,[4] in which brandy, +lemonade, and bananas are sold. This place, which is called La Legna, +is a Spanish league from both towns. The hired horses are so used +to put up at this place, that it is only with great trouble they +can be got to pass it. + +Though much wearied by my journey on foot, I tried in vain to obtain +some refreshment here. Unluckily the Tambero, a Zambo, had decamped, +as his house had often been plundered. + +In the most oppressive heat I wandered over the shadeless plain, and +at last reached the fine road called the _Alameda del Callao_, which +extends from the Callao Gate of Lima to nearly half a league beyond +the city. Don Ambrosio O'Higgins, an Irishman by birth, first a small +shopkeeper in Lima, then a soldier in Chile, and finally viceroy of +Peru, with the title of _Marques de Osorno_, built the fine Callao +Gate and laid out the Alameda. On the 6th of January, 1800, it was +solemnly opened. The whole undertaking cost 340,964 dollars. +Resting-places are made in the Alameda at regular distances; and there +are on each side charming gardens, with luxuriant fruit-trees. Happy +in having reached the end of my wearisome journey, I quickly passed +through the Callao Gate, and entered the City of the Kings. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 2: Natural History and Geology of the countries visited by the +Beagle.] + +[Footnote 3: Mr. Darwin, in the work just quoted, says in reference to +this subject, "Since our voyage, Dr. Tschudi has come to the conclusion, +by the comparison of old and modern maps, that the earth both north and +south of Lima has certainly subsided."--T.] + +[Footnote 4: _Tambo_ is an Indian word, signifying an _Inn_. _Tambero_ +means _Inn-keeper_.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +Lima--Situation and extent of the City--Streets, Houses, Churches and +Convents--San Pedro--The Jesuits--Nunneries--Beatarios--Hospitals--San +Andres--The Foundling House--The Pantheon--The Palace--The Plaza +Mayor--Pizarro--The Cabildo--Fountains--Palace of the Inquisition--The +University--National Library--Museum of Natural History and +Antiquities--Academy of Design--The Mint--The Theatre--Circus for +Cock-fighting--The Bridge--The City Wall--Santa Catalina--Barracks. + + +Lima is built on both banks of the river Rimac, which divides the town +into two unequal parts.[5] The larger part (the town, properly so +called) is situated on the southern bank of the river; the smaller part, +consisting of the suburb San Lazaro, or the fifth section, is on the +northern bank. The greatest extent of Lima is from east to west; from +the Gate of Maravillas to the Monserrate. Between those two points the +distance is 4471 varas,[6] or two-thirds of a Legua, or Spanish league; +and the greatest breadth of the city, that is to say, from the Bridge +(the suburb of San Lazaro not included) to the Gate of Guadalupe, is +2515 varas, or two-fifths of a Legua. The utmost circumference of Lima +is about ten English miles. The plain on which the city is built, takes +rather a decided slope from east to west. + +The streets of Lima intersect each other in right lines, and +consequently groups of houses form quadrangles: these are called +_manzanas_. Each side of one of these manzanas measures on the average +from 140 to 145 varas; and it may therefore be computed that, +collectively, they occupy a superficies of from 148,000 to 160,000. +There are in all 211 manzanas, of which those situated on the Periphery +are the smallest and most irregularly constructed. Lima is divided into +five sections, which are again subdivided into ten districts and +forty-six _Barrios_. It contains about 3380 houses, 56 churches and +convents (the latter occupying at least one-fourth of the superficies of +the city), 34 squares or open areas in front of the churches, and 419 +streets. On the average the streets are about 34 feet wide and 386 feet +long. Most of them are very badly paved, but they have lateral +footpaths. According to the original plan for building Lima, it was +intended that all the streets should run in one direction, viz., from +southeast to northwest, so that the walls of the houses might afford +shade both morning and afternoon. Between the Plaza Mayor and Santa +Clara this plan has been pretty uniformly carried out; but in other +parts it has been less rigidly observed. At noon there can be no shade, +as the city is situated in 12 deg. of south latitude. + +The impression produced at first sight of Lima is by no means favorable, +for the Periphery, the quarter which a stranger first enters, contains +none but old, dilapidated, and dirty houses; but on approaching the +vicinity of the principal square, the place improves so greatly that the +miserable appearance it presents at first sight is easily forgotten. + +Most of the houses in Lima are only one story high, and some have only +the ground-floor. The larger class of houses correspond one with another +in the style of building. In front they have two doors: one is called +the _Azaguan_, and is the principal entrance to the house; and next to +it is the door of the _Cochera_ (coach-house). Either above the cochera +door, or on one side of the house door, there is frequently a little +chamber, having a window closed by a wooden railing. At this little +railed window the ladies are accustomed to sit and watch the +passers-by--nor are they very much displeased when some of the latter +occasionally make free to _reguardar la reja_ (to look at the railing). +The azaguan opens into a spacious court-yard called the _Patio_, on +either side of which there are little rooms. Directly facing the +azaguan, is the dwelling-house, round which there usually runs a +balcony. Two large folding-doors lead into the Hall (_Sala_), in which +the furniture consists of a sofa, a hammock, and a row of chairs: the +floor is covered with straw matting. From the sala a glazed door opens +into a smaller apartment, called the _Cuadro_, which is elegantly, often +splendidly furnished, and the floor is carpeted. This is the room into +which visitors are shown. Adjoining the cuadro are the sleeping-rooms, +the dining-room, the nursery, &c. These apartments communicate with a +second court-yard, called the _Traspatio_, the walls of which are often +adorned with fresco paintings. This _Traspatio_, a portion of which is +usually laid out as a little garden, communicates with the kitchen and +the stable (_corral_). A small avenue, called the _callejon_, forms a +communication from the first to the second Patio, and is used as a +passage for the horses. When there is no _callejon_, as is often the +case in the poorer class of houses, the horses are led through the sala +and the cuadro. In the upper story the arrangement of the rooms differs +from that of the ground-floor. Above the azaguan is the cuadro, opening +into a balcony, which is attached to most of the houses in Lima. The +sala in the upper story forms an ante-room to the cuadro; and the rest +of the apartments are built above the ranges of ground-floor rooms on +either side of the patio. Above the sala and cuadro of the ground-floor, +there are no upper rooms. The roofs of those two apartments form a kind +of large terrace called the _Azotea_, which is paved with freestone, and +surrounded by a railing. This _azotea_ serves as a play-ground for the +children of the family; it is ornamented with flower-pots, and covered +with an awning to shade it from the sun. The upper story has a flat +roof, composed of bamboos and mats, overspread with mortar or light +tiles. In the houses of Lima, as in those of Callao, the windows of some +of the rooms are made in the roofs. The other windows, of which there +are but few, are on each side of the house door; they are tastefully +ornamented, and often have richly gilt lattices. + +The style of house-building here described must of course be taken +merely as a general example; that there are numerous deviations from it +may naturally be supposed. In the large houses the walls are of brick, +faced with ornamental tiles (_adobes_). In the smaller houses, the walls +consist of double rows of bamboos, covered with plaster, and afterwards +painted white or yellow. The fronts of the houses are usually quite +plain, but here and there may be seen a house with a finely ornamented +facade. The house of Torre Tagle, near San Pedro, and some others, are +remarkable for the beauty of their ornaments, which attract the notice +of all strangers visiting Lima. + +Owing to the heat of the climate, the doors and windows are almost +always kept open, so that the houses have not the privacy and comfort +of European dwellings. + +Of the numerous churches and convents in Lima, some are deserving of +particular mention. The cathedral occupies the whole eastern side of +the Plaza Mayor. The foundation stone of this edifice was laid on the +18th of January, 1534, by Don Francisco Pizarro, who named it the +Church of _Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion_. Ninety years elapsed +before the building was completed, and on the 19th of October, 1625, +it was consecrated by the Archbishop, Don Gonzalo de Ocampo. Such was +the pomp observed at this ceremony, that, though mass commenced at +six in the morning, it was five o'clock in the afternoon before the +host was raised. + +The interior of the cathedral is exceedingly beautiful. The grand altar +is ornamented with seven Ionic columns of silver, twelve feet high, and +one and a half thick, and is surmounted by a massive silver gilt crown. +The tabernacle is seven feet and a half high, and composed of +exquisitely wrought gold, set with a profusion of diamonds and emeralds. +On each side of the altar there are massive silver candelabra, each +weighing four and a half arobas (712-1/2 pounds). On high festival days, +the gorgeous splendor of the cathedral of Lima probably exceeds that of +the principal churches in Rome. The robes and ornaments worn by the +priests correspond with the magnificence of the altar; they are +embroidered in gold, and set with precious stones. The cathedral service +is performed by the canons (Canonigos). + +Among the Churches of Lima, San Lazaro is distinguished for its tasteful +exterior, and the chaste simplicity of its internal decoration. The +bodies of persons unknown, found dead in the streets, are conveyed to +the door of the church of San Lazaro, and there exposed for the space of +twenty-four hours. + +The convent of San Francisco, the largest of the monastic +establishments in Lima, is an immense building, situated in the +vicinity of the Plaza Mayor. In this convent mass is read daily every +half-hour, from five in the morning till noon. A small chapel within +the convent is called the _Capilla de los Milagros_, and a +superstitious tradition records that during the great earthquake of +1630, the image of the Madonna, which surmounts the chapel door, +turned towards the grand altar, and with folded hands invoked the +divine grace in favor of the city. By this intercession it is +believed that Lima was saved from total destruction. The monk who +conducted me over the convent, and who related to me this miracle, +observed with much simplicity that it was singular that the Madonna +did not repeat her gracious intercession in the year 1746. + +The carved work which adorns the ceilings in the corridors is admirably +executed, though not very beautiful in design. The cells of the monks +are very simple, but perfectly comfortable for habitation. The spacious +and well-arranged gardens within the area of the convent form a pleasing +contrast to the gloomy appearance of the external walls. + +To the Franciscan monks also belongs the convent of _Los Descalzos_, +situated in the suburb of San Lazaro. A broad avenue planted with six +rows of trees leads to Los Descalzos. It is a neat but not large +edifice, and stands at the foot of a sterile hill. The extensive +garden which surrounds it, and which is in a very neglected +condition, contains three palm-trees, the only ones to be seen in the +near vicinity of Lima. The situation of the convent is not healthy, +and in consequence the monks frequently suffer from intermittent +fever. These monks go barefooted, and live entirely on alms. Every +morning two lay brethren ride on asses to the city, where they visit +the market-place, and obtain from the different saleswomen charitable +donations of fish, vegetables, or meat. + +Another convent is the _Recoleta de San Diego_. During Lent, and +especially in Passion Week, many men retire to this place to prepare +themselves by mortification and prayer for confession and +participation in the Holy Sacrament. + +The convent of Santo Domingo is very rich. It enjoys a yearly revenue of +from seventy to seventy-five thousand dollars, for the most part +accruing from the ground-rents of houses in the city. The steeple of +Santo Domingo is the loftiest in all Lima. It is 188 feet high, and is +visible at the distance of three leagues. It is built of wood, and +inclines so considerably in its upper part, that there is little +probability of its surviving another earthquake like that of 1746. The +interior of the church is splendid. The grand altar almost vies with +that of the cathedral. + +San Pedro must, doubtless, at a former period, have been the principal +convent in Lima. It belonged to the Jesuits, and was their _Colegio +maximo_. This establishment possessed enormous revenues, for all the +finest plantations and best houses in Lima were the property of the +order. In 1773, the king of Spain, instigated by the celebrated Bull of +the 21st of June of that year (Dominus ac redemptor noster), dispatched +an order to the viceroys of the provinces of South America, directing +them to arrest the Jesuits all in one night, to ship them off to Spain, +and to confiscate their wealth. Of course the utmost secresy was +observed, and it is a well-authenticated fact, that in Peru, with the +exception of the viceroy, and those of his agents whose assistance was +indispensable, no one knew anything of the affair. But the same ship +which conveyed the king's commands to the viceroy, had on board the +necessary instructions to the vicar-general in Lima, from the superior +of the Jesuits in Madrid, who was fully acquainted with the king's +design. The preparatory arrangements were made under the seal of perfect +secresy, and at ten o'clock at night the viceroy assembled his council, +and communicated to them the royal commands. It was determined that no +one should be permitted to leave the council-chamber until the blow was +struck. At midnight some confidential officers, with the requisite +assistance, were despatched to arrest the Jesuits, an accurate list of +whose names lay on the table before the viceroy. The patrols knocked at +the gate of San Pedro, which was immediately opened. The commanding +officer desired to see the vicar-general, and the porter ushered him +into the great hall of the convent, where all the members of the order +were assembled, evidently expecting his visit. The holy brethren were +prepared for immediate departure, each being provided with a bag or +trunk containing such articles as were requisite on a sea voyage. +Similar preparations had been made in all the other convents belonging +to the Jesuits. The surprise and disappointment of the viceroy on +receiving this information may be easier conceived than described. +Without delay he ordered the whole brotherhood to be conducted under a +strong escort to Callao, where they embarked. In the course of a few +days inventories were made of the effects in the convents. At San Pedro +it was expected that vast treasures in specie would be found; but how +great was the dismay, when, instead of the millions which it was well +known the order possessed, only a few thousand dollars could be +collected. All the keys, even that of the treasury, were politely laid +out in the chamber of the superior. This was a cruel mockery! The +Jesuits could not have taken a more ample revenge on the treachery that +had been practised on them. + +It was suspected that the treasures were concealed partly in the convent +of San Pedro, and partly in the plantations. According to the evidence +of an old negro, at that time in the service of the convent, he, +together with some of his comrades, was employed during several nights +in carrying heavy bags of money into the vaults of the convent. Their +eyes were bandaged, and they were conducted by two of the brethren, who +helped them to raise and set down the bags. The negro, moreover, +declared his conviction that there was a subterraneous spring near the +spot where the treasure was deposited. The searches hitherto made have +been very superficial, and it seems not impossible that by dint of more +active exertions this concealed wealth may yet be brought to light. + +At present San Pedro is occupied by about a dozen lay priests. They +perform the spiritual service of the _Oratorio de San Felipe Neri_. They +live on the revenues derived from the rents of the few plantations which +have not been confiscated or sold. The chapel is prettily fitted up in +the interior, and the midnight mass at Christmas is performed there with +great solemnity. The external walls of both the chapel and the convent +are painted a reddish-brown color, which has a very sombre and ugly +effect. + +The convents of _Nuestra Senora de la Marced_ and _San Agustin_ are +situated at the back of San Pedro. The former is spacious, but not +largely endowed; the latter is a poor-looking edifice, but it possesses +rich revenues. To San Agustin is attached the once eminent but now very +inferior college of San Ildefonso. + +Besides the monastic establishments above named, Lima contains +several smaller convents for friars, and sixteen nunneries. Of the +latter the largest is the Monasterio de la Concepcion. It is very +rich, and has an annual revenue of upwards of 100,000 dollars; in +other respects it is remarkable for nothing except the not very pious +habits of its inmates. _Santa Clara_ and the _Encarnacion_ are also +large establishments, and well endowed. The nuns who observe the most +rigorous conventual rules are the _Capuchinas de Jesus Maria_, the +_Nazarenas_ and the _Trinitarias descalzas_. For extremely pious +women, who wish to lead a cloistered life without taking the veil, +there are three establishments called _Beaterios_, which may be +entered and quitted at pleasure:[7] these are the _Beaterio de +Patrocinio_, the _Beaterio de Santa Rosa de Viterbo_, and the +_Beaterio de Copacabana_. This last was originally established +exclusively for Indian females. The _Refugio de San Jose_ is a place +for the reception of married women who wish to withdraw from the ill +treatment of bad husbands. On the other hand husbands who are of +opinion that their wives may be improved by a little temporary +seclusion and quiet meditation, can, with the permission of the +archbishop, send them for a while to the _Refugio_. The _Recojidas_ +is another institution of the same kind, but destined for females of +the poorer class. + +Lima possesses a great many hospitals, but all are lamentably +defective in internal arrangement, and above all in judicious medical +attendance. The largest of the hospitals, San Andres, was founded in +the year 1552 by the Licentiate Francisco de Molina. Three years +afterwards, the Viceroy Don Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, first Marquis +de Canete, placed it under the direction of the Government. Down to +the year 1826 this hospital was exclusively destined for the +reception of sick Spaniards. San Andres contains five large and four +smaller wards, with 387 beds. One part of the establishment is set +apart for incurable patients. The annual outlay of the hospital +amounts to between 45,000 and 50,000 dollars. In the hospital of San +Andres insane patients are received, and their number is always +considerable. On the 30th of November (St. Andrew's Day) this +hospital is opened for the admittance of the public, and one of the +favorite amusements of the inhabitants of Lima is to go to San Andres +to see the lunatics. It is melancholy to observe these unfortunate +beings, thus made the objects of public exhibition, and irritated by +the idle throng who go to stare at them. The collection of alms from +the numerous visitors is, doubtless, the motive for keeping up this +custom, which, nevertheless, is exceedingly reprehensible. + +The hospital _Santa Ana_ was founded in the year 1549, by Don Fray +Geronimo de Loyza, first Archbishop of Lima, and was destined for +Indians of both sexes. The benevolent founder, with the most earnest +self-devotion, attended the patients, and with true Christian charity +performed the humblest duties of a sick-nurse. He died in 1575 in the +hospital, to which he bequeathed a yearly revenue of 16,000 dollars. +The building contains five large wards, and 336 beds. Since the +declaration of independence no Indian has been received into it. This +hospital, alternately with those of San Andres and San Bartolome, was +used as a military lazaretto; but since 1841 it has been allotted +exclusively to female patients of all classes; for it was found +necessary to abandon the former female hospital of _La Caridad_, on +account of its damp situation. + +_San Bartolome_ was an hospital founded in the year 1661, for negro +patients; but it has lately been closed. It contains eleven wards +and 217 beds. + +Under the name of Santo Toribio an hospital for incurable patients was +established in the year 1669, by Don Domingo Cueto. + +In 1702 it was consigned to the superintendence of an order of monks, +called the padres Belemitas, and in 1822 it was incorporated with the +hospital of San Lazaro. The latter establishment was founded by Anton +Sanchez, in the year 1563, and was exclusively destined for leprous +patients. Persons afflicted with cutaneous diseases, and especially +maladies of a contagious nature, are sent thither. + +In the convent of San Pedro there is a small hospital for poor priests. +Attached to it is a dispensary, from whence the poor were supplied +gratuitously with medicines, at the time when the convent was in the +possession of the Jesuits. + +Lima also possesses a Foundling Hospital. Luis Ojeda, who humbly took to +himself the title of _Luis el Pecador_ (Luis the Sinner), bequeathed all +his fortune to the foundation of this establishment, which received the +name of "Collegio de Santa Cruz de los ninos expositos."[8] + +The refuge for female penitents was founded in the year 1670 by the +viceroy, Count de Lemos. The funds were derived from a legacy +bequeathed for that object by Don Francisco Arcain in 1572. The +establishment has but few inmates. + +In former times it was the custom in Lima to bury the dead in graves +dug within the churches; but the heat of the climate, and the +difficulty of making the graves sufficiently deep, rendering this +practice exceedingly objectionable, the viceroy, Don Jose Fernando +Abascal, determined on making a burial place beyond the boundaries of +the city. A piece of ground was allotted for the purpose, and it was +consecrated on the 1st of January, 1808. It is called the _Cementerio +general_ or _Panteon_, and is situated eastward of the city on the +high road leading to the Sierra de Tarma. It consists of two gardens, +very prettily planted, and inclosed by high walls. Along the walls, +on the inner side, there are niches, about a thousand in number, +ranged in sixteen different classes, and they may be purchased by +those who wish to possess them. Many of them belong to families and +convents. The graves are watched and kept in order by criminals who +are condemned to this duty as a punishment. It is calculated that it +will be five years before this cemetery is filled. When room is +wanting, the niches which have been first occupied will be cleared, +and the bones deposited in a bone-house, of simple but appropriate +construction. At the entrance of the Panteon there is a neat little +chapel, where the funeral obsequies are performed. Burials are +permitted to take place only in the morning; and when a funeral +retinue arrives too late, the body remains uninterred until the +following morning. The rich are buried in coffins, the poor merely in +winding sheets, which are made after the pattern of the habits worn +by the barefooted friars of the order of San Francisco. + +The grand square of Lima, the _Plaza Mayor_, though not in the centre +of the city, is nevertheless the central point of its life and +business. It is 426 feet distant from the Rimac, and presents a +regular quadrangle, each side of which is 510 feet long. From each of +the four corners two handsome straight streets run at right angles. +There is no pavement, but the ground is covered with fine sand. The +cathedral and the archbishop's palace occupy the eastern side of the +square. The latter adjoins the sanctuary, and has rather a fine +facade. The windows of the principal apartments open into a balcony, +commanding a view of the Plaza. + +On the north side of the square stands the government palace, +formerly the residence of the all-powerful viceroys. Its exterior +aspect is mean. It is a square building, and the front next the Plaza +is disfigured by a long range of shabby little shops (called _La +rivera_), in which drugs are sold.[9] These shops are surmounted by a +balcony. A large double door opens from the Plaza into the great +court-yard of the palace. Along the western side of the building there +are also a number of little shops occupied by saddlers and dealers in +old iron. The street, running in this direction, is called the Old +Iron Street (Calle del Fierro Viego). The principal entrance to the +palace is on this side. On the south the building has no entrance, and +it presents the gloomy aspect of a jail. On the east a door opens into +a small yard or court, within which are the office and prison of the +police. A few long flag-staffs, fixed on the roof of the palace, do +not add to the beauty of the edifice. The interior of the building +corresponds with its outward appearance, being at once tasteless and +mean. The largest apartment formerly bore the name of the _Sala de los +Vireyes_. It is now used as a ball room when entertainments are given +by the government. Under the Spanish domination this room was hung +round with portraits of the viceroys, the size of life.[10] The series +of vice-regal portraits from Pizarro to Pezuela, forty-four in number, +completely filled the apartment at the time when the patriot army in +Lima revolted, and consequently the last viceroy, Don Jose de la +Serna, who owed his elevation to the military revolution, could not +have a place assigned for his portrait among those of his +predecessors.[11] The other apartments of the palace are small and +inelegant. Some of the rooms are used as government offices. + +The present palace was, as far as I have been able to ascertain, built +about the beginning of the seventeenth century. In the great +earthquake of 1687 it was almost totally destroyed, but it was +subsequently restored. The palace which Don Francisco Pizarro built +for his own residence, stood, not on the site of the existing edifice, +but on the southern side of the Plaza, on the spot where now a narrow +dirty alley, called the _Callejon de petateros_, forms a communication +between the Plaza and the Silversmith's street (_Calle de Plateros_). +It was in that old palace that Juan de Herada, the friend and partisan +of Don Diego de Almagra, carried into effect his plot against +Pizarro. On the 26th of June, 1546, the viceroy was seated at table +with a party of his friends, when the insurgents surrounded the +palace, shouting "Death to the tyrants!" Pizarro, though warned of his +danger, had scarcely time to seize his sword. One of his principal +officers, Don Francisco de Chavez, was killed at the door of the +apartment, and several of the viceroy's friends and servants escaped +by the windows. Among others who attempted to save themselves in this +way was Pizarro's counsellor, Juan de Velasquez. Only on the previous +evening this man had been heard to declare that no one would be found +bold enough to join in an insurrection as long as he held in his hand +his staff of authority. This declaration was in a certain measure +verified, for Velasquez, whilst descending from the window, held his +staff between his teeth, that he might be the better able to support +himself with his hands. Martin Pizarro, together with two noblemen and +two pages, were the only persons who remained faithful to the viceroy. +The latter, with the bravery of a lion, made a long stand against his +assailants. "Courage, brother! Down with the traitors!" exclaimed +Martin Pizarro, who, the next moment, lay dead at the viceroy's feet. +At length Pizarro, exhausted by his efforts to defend himself, could +no longer wield his hitherto victorious sword: he was overpowered, and +one of his assailants having stabbed him in the throat, he fell, +mortally wounded. With his last faltering accents he implored the aid +of a confessor; and after losing the power of utterance he traced with +his finger, on the ground, the sign of the cross, kissed it +repeatedly, and breathed his last. Such was the sad end of one of the +greatest heroes of his age;[12] a man guilty of many crimes, but also +unjustly accused of many of which he was innocent. His acts were +consistent with the spirit of his age, and were influenced by the +frightful circumstances in which he was placed. In short, there can be +little doubt that Pizarro was "better than his fame." + +The west side of the Plaza Mayor is occupied by the _Cabildo_, or +senate-house (formerly called the _Casa Consistorial_), together with +the city jail, and a row of houses of no very handsome appearance. +The south side is filled by a range of private dwelling-houses, with +balconies looking to the Plaza. The houses, both on the west and +south sides of the square, are built above a colonnade, in which +there are numerous shops. + +In the middle of the Plaza is a magnificent bronze fountain with three +basins. From the middle basin rises a pillar, surmounted by a figure +of Fame spouting the water from her trumpet. In the other two basins +the water is ejected from the mouths of four lions. The pillar and +figures for this triple fountain were cast in the year 1650, by the +able artist Antonio Rivas, by order of the then reigning viceroy, +Count de Salvatierra. Besides this principal fountain, there are +several smaller ones, from which the public are permitted to supply +themselves with water. + +The second large public square in Lima is the _Plaza de la +Inquisicion_, which, since the war of independence, has received the +name of the Square of Independence (_Plazuela de la Independencia_). +It is of trapezi-form, widening in the eastern part, and is certainly +no ornament to the town, for it is always in a very dirty condition. +Being the public market-place, it presents a very busy aspect during +the fore part of the day. Two buildings on this Plazuela attract +attention, viz.--the Palace of the Inquisition and the University. +There are now but few remaining traces of the internal arrangements of +the fearful tribunal; for, on the suppression of the Inquisition by +the Cortes, the enraged populace forced their way into the building, +where they gutted the rooms, and destroyed the furniture. Lima was the +seat of spiritual jurisdiction for the whole western coast of South +America; and the rigor of its despotism was not far short of that of +the Inquisition of Madrid. Every year vast numbers of persons +convicted or suspected of crimes were brought from all the intervening +points between Chiloe and Columbia to the Tribunal of the Inquisition, +and most of them were doomed to the most dreadful punishments. _Autos +da fe_ were frequently held in Lima, and cases of other kinds of +martyrdom were exceedingly numerous. The lists, which have been only +partially preserved, present melancholy results. One part of the +Palace of the Inquisition is now converted into a store-house for +provisions, and the other part is used as a prison. + +The University of Lima was once the most important seat of education +in South America. It owes its origin to a decree of the emperor +Charles V., issued at the solicitation of the dominican monk Maestro +Fray Tomas de San Martin. The decree was dated the 12th of May, 1551, +but it did not reach Lima until two years after that time. A papal +bull of Pius V. confirmed the imperial decree, and conferred on the +institution the same privileges as those enjoyed by the Spanish +university of Salamanca. The Lima university was originally +established in the convent of Santo Domingo, but after the lapse of +three years it was removed to the building now occupied by San Marcel, +and in 1576 it was installed in the site it now occupies. It received +the name of _Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Marcos_. In the year +1572 the first lay rector was elected in the person of Gaspar +Menendez, a doctor of medicine. + +The building is situated on the east side of the _Plaza de la +Independencia_, next to the hospital of _la Caridad_. The facade is not +handsome, but is remarkable for a style not belonging to the age in +which it was erected. The building is entered by a lofty door, opening +into a spacious quadrangular court, along the four sides of which there +are pillared corridors. On the walls of these corridors the different +branches of science are allegorically represented in fresco paintings, +and beneath these paintings are inscribed quotations from ancient +classic authors. The lecture rooms open into the corridors which run +round the court. Facing the entrance door, in the left angle of the +court, are great double doors opening into the Aula, which is spacious, +and has rather an imposing aspect. In the middle of the wall, on the +right-hand side, stands the rector's chair in a sort of niche, +surmounted by a canopy. On either side of this chair are ranged the +seats of the professors, and the members of faculties. Opposite to the +rector's seat, on the left-hand side of the Aula, is an elevated chair +occupied by the president, when academic prizes are distributed. Below +it is an arm-chair for the candidate. On each side of the president's +seat are several rows of benches, for the members of the university and +visitors. Over the entrance door there is a gallery to which the public +are admitted, and which, on the occasions when prizes are distributed, +is usually occupied by ladies. On the walls of the Aula are hung +portraits of celebrated learned men. + +The National Library, situated near the convent of San Pedro, was +founded by a decree, dated the 28th of August, 1821. The books belonging +to the university of San Marcos formed the nucleus of the National +Library. To them were added the libraries of several of the monasteries, +some sequestrated works, and the collections of a few private +individuals. Of these latter, the most considerable was the collection +of General San Martin, and a library of 7772 volumes bequeathed, +together with a legacy of a thousand dollars, by Don Miguel de la Fuente +y Pacheco. In November, 1841, the National Library of Peru contained +26,344 printed volumes, 432 manuscripts, and a small collection of maps +and copperplate engravings. It is particularly rich in old works on +religious and historical subjects. The books relating to the Conquest, +and to the early period of the Spanish dominion, form in themselves a +complete historical series. Of modern works there are but few. The +pecuniary support of the establishment is very inconsiderable. The +government exacts from it the import duty, three per cent., on European +books, making an average annual sum of 400 dollars. In addition to this +the salaries of the librarians amount annually to 2794 dollars. The +library is open to the public every day (Friday and Sunday excepted) +from eight in the morning till one in the afternoon, and from four in +the afternoon till six in the evening. + +In the left wing of the same building is the museum, containing a +collection of objects of natural history, antiquities, and other +curiosities. This collection was first formed in the year 1826, in some +of the spare rooms of the palace of the Inquisition, and was afterwards +removed from one place to another, until at length the government +allotted to the purpose the two fine apartments in the building above +mentioned. As yet the establishment is quite in its infancy. It contains +nothing of scientific value, and but for the series of historical +portraits already described, it would differ but little from the +collections of curiosities frequently formed by amateurs, in which all +sorts of heterogeneous objects are jumbled together. The museum of Lima +bids fair to remain for some time to come on the footing on which it was +when I saw it, for the establishment has no funds, save a monthly +allowance of thirty-two dollars, and out of that scanty pittance the +expense of fitting up the rooms, the glass cases, &c., has yet to be +defrayed. The museum is open to the public four days in the week. + +Two other apartments in the same building are set aside for the Academy +of Design (_Academia de Debujo_). On three evenings every week pupils +are admitted to this academy to receive gratuitous instruction in +drawing. The number of the pupils amounts to between 80 and 100; but +there is convenient room for 200. The collection of models and drawing +copies for the use of the students is but indifferent. + +The mint is situated in the vicinity of the Plazuela de la +Independencia. It was founded in Lima in the year 1565; in 1572 +transferred to Potosi, and in 1683 removed back to Lima. For the space +of seventy years this establishment was in the hands of private +individuals; but in the year 1753 the Spanish government took the +management of it, and erected the building in which it is still +located. It is a large and handsome structure, but very defective in +its internal arrangement. Until the year 1817 the machinery for +casting was worked by mules, ninety-two of those animals being +employed daily. Subsequently, under the direction of an Englishman, +water-power was introduced, by which expense was diminished and time +saved. A few years ago a French merchant made an arrangement with the +government for the use of a complex machine, which he proposed to +bring from Europe. The machine arrived, but by an unlucky fatality it +proved perfectly useless. For the space of four years repeated +attempts were made to work it, but in vain; it fulfilled none of the +required conditions. Its faults are manifold, and it reflects but +little credit on the person by whom it was contrived. It has cost no +less than 250,000 dollars, and has never been of the least use. + +In the mint of Lima there are annually cast from two to two and a half +millions of dollars, which yield a profit of from 140,000 to 180,000 +dollars, out of which are paid the salaries of the persons employed. +Under the Spanish government these salaries amounted annually to +48,906 dollars; now they make, together with other customary outlays, +the sum of 85,105 dollars. + +The value of a mark of silver in the mint is 8 dollars 4 reales; that of +a mark of gold is 144 dollars 4 reales. The standard worth of the gold +is 21 carats; that of the silver 20 grains. + +Next to the arena for bull-fights, situated in the Plaza firme del Acho, +the theatre is the principal place of public amusement in Lima. The +first theatre, erected in the year 1602, was situated near the convent +of San Augustin, in the street which still bears the name of "Comedia +vieja." It was destroyed in the earthquake of 1630, and rebuilt on the +same site. In 1662 it was pulled down to make room for a new street, and +afterwards the present building was erected. Its external appearance is +very ugly and the interior is not much better. Before the orchestra +there are some commodious inclosed seats or stalls. The boxes, which are +completely separated one from another by partitions, are narrow but +deep: the smaller ones are capable of containing eight persons, and the +larger ones twelve. In the centre of the first tier of boxes, and +fronting the stage, is the government box, which occupies the space of +two of the others. It contains seats for the prefect, the sub-prefect, +and the members of the Cabildo. The president's box is likewise on the +first tier, and on the left of the stage. Adjoining it there is a small +cabinet, closed on the side next the pit by a wooden railing. Into this +cabinet the president retires between the acts of the performance. The +stage is small, and the scenery very indifferent. + +The performances are for the most part wretched, both as regards the +merit of the pieces and the talent of the actors. Nothing can be in +worse taste than the little farces called saynetes, which, according to +Spanish custom, always close the performances, whether the principal +piece be a tragedy or a comedy. Common-place intrigues form the subjects +of these _saynetes_, and their dialogue consists of vulgar jokes. They +are altogether calculated to banish any gratifying impression which +might by possibility be produced by the principal piece. + +For some years past a company of Italians, settled in Lima, have given +operatic performances on a small scale. One of them, Signora +Pantanelli, is an excellent singer, and would be heard with pleasure +even in Europe. Some other members of the company have middling talents, +but the rest are decidedly bad. The operas performed are Giulietta y +Romeo, Parisina, Lucia di Lammermuir, Marino Faliero, La Sonnambula, and +Il Barbiere di Seviglia: these, together with a mutilated Norma, and a +much curtailed Semiramide, form almost the whole repertory. Want of +stage room is an obstacle to the representation of operas demanding +grand scenery and machinery. The costumes are for the most part +exceedingly elegant, though seldom historically correct. The orchestra +is defective, and ought to be much improved, to give satisfaction to a +public passionately fond of music. + +But if the inhabitants of Lima are great lovers of music, dancing has no +less powerful attractions for them. Though the time is gone, when the +dress of any opera-dancer may be expected to reach below the knee, yet +the drapery of a Limanese Terpsichore appears to have attained even an +ultra degree of curtailment. The representation of ballets, properly so +called, is not attempted; but the Bolero, the Fandango, the Cachucha, +and Don Mateo, are favorite and often repeated performances. + +During the long intervals between the acts, smoking is permitted in the +pit and in the outer court of the theatre. There is also a plentiful +supply of very bad and very dear refreshments. + +An intolerable annoyance experienced in visiting the theatre at Lima is +caused by the swarms of fleas which infest every part of the house, but +most especially the boxes. Unfortunately, this nuisance is irremediable, +and the visitor must be blessed with a large amount of endurance who can +patiently sit out a whole evening's entertainments. + +Not far from the theatre is situated the circus for cock-fighting +(_Coliseo de gallos_), where fights (_peleas_) take place daily. The +Coliseo is a large amphitheatre, with an arena in the middle. The +game-cocks trained for this sport have the spur removed from the right +foot and in its stead is substituted a small sharp steel blade, curved +and shaped like a scythe. One or other of the animals is frequently +killed at the first spring; and when that is not the case they continue +fighting until they die of wounds and exhaustion. It is a cruel sport, +and a worthy pendant to bull-fighting. The first Coliseo was erected in +1762, by Don Juan Garrial. The present building, in the Plazuela de +Santa Catalina, is a very handsome structure, and Lima may fairly boast +of possessing the finest circus for cock-fighting in all the world. + +In the same square with the _Coliseo de gallos_ is the tennis-court, +a spacious area, surrounded by high walls. It is not now so much +resorted to as formerly, for the Creoles are not so fond of tennis +as the Spaniards. + +A beautiful stone bridge unites the town with the suburb of San +Lazaro. This bridge was built in the years 1638-1640, when the Marquis +de Montes Claros was viceroy of Peru. The plan was designed by Fray +Geronimo Villegas, an Augustine monk. It is 530 feet long, and has six +arches rising thirty-seven feet above the surface of the water. The +foundation of the piers is composed of square blocks of stone, the +piers themselves are of brick, and the parapet of cemented stone work. +The erection of this bridge cost 400,000 dollars. A sufficient proof +of its strength and solidity is the fact that it survived the +earthquakes of 1687 and 1746, which shattered all other parts of Lima. +In the earthquake of 1746 the first arch, on which stood an equestrian +statue of Philip V., was destroyed, but it is now restored. It has on +one side two towers, with a dial in the middle. + +The city of Lima, with the exception of a portion of the north side, +and the suburb of San Lazaro, is surrounded by a wall built of brick. +This wall was constructed in the year 1585, when the Duque de la Plata +was viceroy. It is the work of a Fleming, named Pedro Ramon. This wall +is between eighteen and twenty feet high. Its breadth at the base is +from ten to twelve feet, and at the top nine feet. It does not +therefore afford sufficient space for mounting large guns. Along the +whole extent of the wall there are thirty-four bastions. In the year +1807, this wall, which had fallen into a very ruinous condition, was +repaired by order of the viceroy Abascal, and put into a condition to +be mounted with artillery. On each side commodious pathways were made, +and along the inner side powder magazines were constructed. At present +these fortifications are in a state of complete dilapidation. The +paths, which are obstructed by rubbish, are almost impassable, and +the powder magazines are destroyed. The city wall of Lima has nine +gates (_Portadas_). Of these, six only are now open, viz., the +Portadas of Maravillas, Barbones, Cocharcas, Guadelupe, Juan Simon, +and Callao; the three others, the Portadas of Martinete, Monserrat, +and Santa Catalina, are walled up. At every one of the open gates +there are stationed custom-house guards, whose chief duty consists in +preventing the smuggled introduction of unstamped silver (_plata de +pina_). In the direction of the suburb of San Lazaro, the city cannot +be closed, as the wall does not extend to that part. Between San +Lazaro, and the high road to Cero de Pasco, is the _Portada de Guias_; +this, however, is not properly a gate, but a small custom-house. In +this direction it is easy to gain entrance to the city from the river, +and consequently it is here that most of the contraband silver, +brought from the mountains, is smuggled. + +Among the fortifications of Lima may be included the pretty little +castle of Santa Catalina, situated at the eastern end of the city, +between the Portada de Cocharcas and the Portada de Guadelupe, at the +distance of about two hundred yards from the city wall. It is +surrounded by rather high walls, and is flanked by two bastions. The +interior of this citadel is very well arranged, and is kept much +cleaner than such places usually are in Peru. It contains stores of +arms and barracks for the artillery. The largest barracks in Lima are +those of the infantry, _Quartel de Infanteria_, in the Colegio. They +are remarkable for want of cleanliness, and like most of the public +buildings in this interesting city, going fast to decay. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 5: The city of Lima was founded by Don Francisco Pizarro on +the 6th of January, 1534. As it was the day of the Epiphany, Lima +received the title of _Ciudad de los Reyes_ (City of the Kings). +Historical records vary respecting the day and the year of the +foundation of Lima; but I have reason to believe that the date I have +mentioned above is perfectly correct.] + +[Footnote 6: The _Vara Castellana_ is equal to 33 inches English +measure.] + +[Footnote 7: The females who retire to these establishments are called +_Beatas_ (Bigots). The term _Beaterio_ signifies a house for +Bigots.--T.] + +[Footnote 8: According to some accounts this establishment was +instituted in 1654, by Mateo Pastor de Velasco, a native of +Portollano in Spain.] + +[Footnote 9: In these shops any one may purchase for a trifle one of +the most deadly poisons (Strichnos Ignatia, L.). It is made up into +what are called _Pepitas de Cabalonga_. It is used in Lima for +poisoning dogs.] + +[Footnote 10: This highly valuable and interesting collection of +portraits is now removed from the palace to the museum. It is curious +to mark the progressive changes of costume, and to observe the various +physiognomies, especially if we reflect on the history of the men whose +traits denote such striking differences of character. Almost all these +portraits are distinguished by an air of tranquil gravity which in some +is combined with true kingly dignity, and in others with an expression +of fierceness. The handsomest head of the whole series is decidedly +that of Francisco Pizarro. His features bear the stamp of manly energy, +and his whole countenance is characterized by courage and candor. The +nose has the prominent Arabic form, and the forehead is high and +expanded. The thick beard, covering the mouth and chin, gives a gloomy +and resolute character to the face. In this series of portraits there +is one representing a priest with the vice-regal insignia.] + +[Footnote 11: By a singular coincidence, the title of Conde de los Andes +(Count of the Andes) was conferred on La Serna by King Ferdinand at +Madrid on the 9th of December, 1824, being the very day on which he +gained the battle of Ayacucho, the results of which gave the Spanish +dominion in South America its death-blow.] + +[Footnote 12: The above particulars are collected from the _Historia +del descubrimiento y conquista de la Provincia del Peru_, by Augustin +de Zarate.] + +[Illustration: CHILIAN INDIAN MOTHER.] + +[Illustration: LADY OF LIMA.] + +[Illustration: PERUVIAN MONK.] + +[Illustration: PERUVIAN FARMER.] + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +Population of Lima--Its diminution--Different races of the +Inhabitants--Their characteristics--Amusements--Education--The +women of Lima--Their Costume--The _Saya y Manto_--Female domestic +life--Love of dress--Beatas--Indians--Slaves--Bosales--Free +Creoles--Negroes--Negresses--Black Creoles--Their +varieties--Mestizos--Mulattoes--Palanganas--Zambos--Chinos--Foreigners +in Lima--Corruption of the Spanish language. + + +Proceeding from the shell to the kernel, we will now take a glance at +the inhabitants of the capital of Peru: first, surveying the native in +his fatherland, and next, the foreign settler in his adopted country. + +The population of Lima has at various periods undergone remarkable +fluctuations. In the year 1764 the number of the inhabitants was stated +to be 54,000; in 1810, 87,000; in 1826, 70,000; in 1836, 54,600; and in +1842, 53,000. Of most of these estimates I entertain some degree of +distrust, as they are merely founded on general calculations, and are +not the results of careful numbering. Certain it is, however, that the +population of Lima has very considerably decreased since the declaration +of independence. This is sufficiently proved by the fact that several +parts of the city are now totally uninhabited: the houses falling to +decay, and the gardens lying waste. + +The cause of this diminished population is easily explained by the +physical and political condition of the country. Earthquakes have, at +various times, buried thousands of people beneath the ruins of their own +dwellings; the war of independence was attended by vast sacrifices of +life; banishment and voluntary emigration have removed from Lima the +families of some of the principal citizens; and epidemic disease, the +natural consequence of defective police regulations, has swept away +countless multitudes of the inhabitants. The number of new settlers is +very inconsiderable; and for several past years the number of deaths +has nearly doubled that of the births. There appears no reason to doubt +that this decrease of population will continue; because, as will +presently be seen, the causes to which it is assignable cannot be +checked, inasmuch as they are intimately blended with the character of +the nation. Most of these causes operate not only in the capital, but +over the whole country; indeed, in the latter their influence is in some +instances much greater; for example, in the interior of Peru the loss of +life attendant on the war was relatively much greater than in Lima. This +favored country, which extends from the 3d to the 22d degree of south +latitude, and which contained at the time of its conquest by the +Spaniards an immense population, though its amount is not known with +numerical exactitude, now counts only 1,400,000 inhabitants. + +In the tax registers, drawn up during the protectorate of Santa Cruz, +in 1836, the number of the inhabitants of Lima is represented as +follows:-- + + + Male. Female. Total. + + 1. White Creoles (being the + descendants of foreigners, + but chiefly of Spaniards) 9,423 10,170 19,593 + + 2. Indians 2,561 2,731 5,292 + + 3. People of Color (mixed races) 11,771 12,355 24,126 + + 4. Slaves 2,186 3,606 4,792 + + 5. Ecclesiastics (Lay and Monastic) 475 350 825 + ------ ------ ------ + In all 26,416 29,212 54,628 + + +From the above it appears that in every class (No. 5 excepted) there is +a preponderance of females; and that on the whole population of 54,628 +individuals there is a surplus of 2796 women. About one in every +sixty-six individuals belongs to the priesthood. + +Possibly in no other place in the world is there so much variety of +complexion and physiognomy as in Lima. From the delicately fair creole +daughter of European parents, to the jet black Congo negro, people of +every gradation of color are seen living in intimate relation one with +another. The two extreme classes--the whites and blacks--are as +distinct in character as in color, and of either of those it is no +difficult task to give an accurate portraiture. But it is different +with the mixed races. To define their characteristics correctly would +be impossible, for their minds partake of the mixture of their blood. +As a general rule, it may fairly be said that they unite in themselves +all the faults, without any of the virtues, of their progenitors. As +men they are greatly inferior to the pure races, and as members of +society they are the worst class of citizens. Here, as well as in the +following delineations of the different races, I wish my observations +to be understood only in a general sense. I have met with some +honorable exceptions; though, unfortunately, they were mere solitary +luminaries, whose transient light has been speedily obscured by +the surrounding darkness. + +The white Creoles, who, with very few exceptions, are the descendants of +Spaniards, constitute somewhat less than a third part of the population +of Lima. They are slender in figure and of middling height. Their +features are strongly marked, their complexions fair and pale, and their +hair is of the darkest black. The men are feeble and look prematurely +old. Their countenances, though not devoid of dignity, have a sort of +sensual expression. They are effeminate, and disinclined to any kind of +active exertion. If they ride the distance of ten miles, they think they +have performed a feat of heroism worthy to be recorded in the state +archives. If the white Creoles are inferior to the Spaniards in physical +organization, they are no less beneath them in qualities of mind. They +shrink from anything that demands intellectual exertion. In short, they +are sworn enemies to business of every kind, and those who are obliged +to work for their own support, make choice of some occupation which, +like that of a shopman, affords them ample time to smoke cigars and to +gossip with their neighbors. The richer classes give themselves up +wholly to idleness. They walk about and visit their acquaintances, or +they lounge in shops or at the corners of streets, and in that manner +they often amuse themselves for half a day. Those who are owners of +plantations occasionally ride through them to receive reports from their +mayordomos. Their afternoons are usually spent in the _Coliseo de +gallos_, in the coffee-houses, or at the gaming-table. The white Creoles +are as passionately fond of gaming as the Spaniards, and sums equal to +those staked at the gaming-tables of Mexico and the Havannah are daily +lost and won in Lima. Though games of hazard are prohibited, yet they +are very publicly played, and it is only now and then that the police +enforce the regulations of the law by the seizure of a bank. + +Gaming in Lima is carried on very quietly, and the most determined +gamblers do not show themselves very much excited either by losses or +winnings. The discovery of false dice, however, creates bitter feelings +of animosity, which not unfrequently lead to assassination. Of this I +knew several instances when I was in the interior of the country. + +The intellectual culture of the white Creole of Lima is exceedingly +defective. He is not wanting in talent; but an imperfect system of +education affords him no opportunity for the development of his +faculties, and innate indolence is a bar to his self-improvement by +study. He seldom rises above the level of every-day life, and is +ignorant of everything beyond the boundary of the city, or, at all +events, of the province in which he was born. I have often been amazed +at the monstrous ignorance of so-called educated Peruvians, respecting +the situation, the extent, the physical formation, and the productions +of their native country. + +On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that Lima has been the +birthplace of several white Creoles, whose talents and learning have +honorably distinguished them from the rest of their countrymen. For +example, Don Tomas de Salazar, author of the "Interpretaciones de los +Leyes de Indias."[13] Don Miguel Nunez de Rojas, the learned Judge of +Confiscations in the Spanish war of succession, and Don Alonzo Conde de +San Donas, who in the reign of Philip IV. was Spanish Ambassador at the +Court of France. Among those eminent in literature may be named Don +Pedro de la Reyna Maldonado, and the poet Don Diego Martinez de Rivera, +of whom Cervantes in his "Galatea" says-- + + Su divina ingenio ha producido + En Arequipa eterna Primavera.[14] + +Several monks distinguished for learning have been white Creoles, +and an eminent individual of that race was Don Hipolito Unanue, the +author of the "Guide to Peru," and "Observations on the Climate of +Lima, and its Influence on organized Beings, especially Man;"[15] a +Treatise on the Cocoa-tree, &c. In more recent times, Don Mariano +Eduardo de Rivero has zealously devoted himself to the study of +natural history and antiquities. + +But in spite of his faults, the Lima Creole has his good qualities. +He is an enemy to strong drinks. When he takes wine it is usually of +some sweet kind, and of that he partakes very sparingly. A white +Creole in a state of intoxication would, indeed, be a rare sight. Not +so in the interior of the country, where the whites are remarkable +for intemperate drinking. + +Far superior to the men, both physically and intellectually, are the +women of Lima. Nature has lavishly endowed them with many of her +choicest gifts. In figure they are usually slender and rather tall, and +they are especially remarkable for small, elegantly formed feet. Their +fair faces, from which the glowing breath of the tropics banishes every +trace of bloom, are animated by large, bright, dark eyes. Their features +are pleasing--the nose being well formed, though in general not +small--the mouth invariably adorned with two rows of brilliant white +teeth,[16] and their long black hair, arranged in plaits, falls +gracefully over the bosom and shoulders. Add to all this a captivating +grace of manner and deportment, joined to an exceeding degree of +gentleness and amiability, and it will be readily admitted that the +Limena is a noble specimen of female loveliness. + +At home, especially in the summer season, the ladies of Lima dress +lightly and even negligently. For visiting, or going to the theatres, +they adopt the French fashion. When walking in the streets, attending +church, joining religious processions, &c., they appear in a very +singular costume, peculiar to Lima, and consisting of two garments +called the _Saya_ and the _Manto_. Of the saya there are two kinds. +The one called the _Saya ajustada_, was formerly in general use, but +is now seldom seen. It consists of a petticoat, or skirt of thick +stiff silk, plaited at top and bottom, in small fluted folds, drawn +very close together at the waist and widening towards the ankles, +beneath which the saya does not descend. It is tight to the form, the +outline of which it perfectly displays, and its closeness to the +limbs naturally impedes rapid movement. When wearing the _Saya +ajustada_, the ladies find it no very easy task to kneel down at +church, and at the termination of every genuflexion, they are obliged +to twist and twirl about for a considerable time before they can +again stand on their feet.[17] + +The other description of saya is called the Saya _culeca_, or the +_Saya desplegada_. It is plaited close at the waist, and from thence +downwards it stands out like a hooped petticoat. This sort of saya is +made by first being plaited both at top and bottom like the _Saya +ajustada_; but, afterwards, the lower plaits are undone to form the +_Saya desplegada_. The saya is always made of some dark-colored silk, +black, green, blue, or cinnamon color. + +The _Manto_ is a veil of thick black silk fastened by a band at the back +of the waist, where it joins the _saya_. From thence it is brought over +the shoulders and head, and drawn over the face so closely that only a +small triangular space, sufficient for one eye to peep through, is left +uncovered. A rich shawl thrown over the shoulders conceals the whole of +the under garment, except the sleeves. One of the small, neatly-gloved +hands, confines the folds of the _manto_, whilst the other holds a +richly embroidered pocket-handkerchief. + +At first sight this costume has a very singular effect, and it is +long before the eye of a foreigner becomes reconciled to it. The +narrow saya is by no means graceful; the wide saya, on the other hand, +is very becoming, and sets off to great advantage a good figure and +elegant deportment. When I first arrived in Lima and saw the ladies +closely muffled up in their _mantos_, and carrying embroidered cambric +handkerchiefs and nosegays in their hands, it struck me that the nuns +enjoyed greater freedom in that country than in any other part of the +world. After vespers, that is to say half-past seven in the evening, +the police regulations prohibit any woman from appearing in the +streets dressed in the saya. + +As this garment may be worn over a dress of the ordinary kind, it is +found to be very convenient, inasmuch as it saves the trouble of a +careful toilette. During short visits the ladies do not take off the +saya; but when making long visits they usually lay it aside. + +The Saya y Manto are found to be very useful auxiliaries in the numerous +intrigues in which the Limenas frequently engage. + +A _Tapada_[18] indulges in a vast deal of freedom when in the streets, +and scruples not to make satirical observations on anybody or anything +that strikes her as strange or ludicrous. The veil, or manto, is sacred, +and should a man attempt to remove it by force, he would run the risk of +being severely handled by the populace. + +In intrigues of gallantry the Saya y Manto play a conspicuous part. A +lady has been known to arrange an assignation with a gentleman in the +street, whilst her husband, standing at the distance of a few yards +and conversing with a friend on some matter of business, has little +suspected that the _Tapada_ whose graceful figure he admired, was his +own faithful better-half. It frequently happens that Dona Mariquita +obliges Dona Merceditas, or Dona Panchita, with the loan of her saya, +for the purpose of hood-winking the Argus-eyes of a jealous +husband;--the lady being well convinced that her kind friends will +render her the like service in similar circumstances. Sometimes a +lady may be seen in an old tattered saya, such as scarcely the poorest +female might be expected to wear; but the costly shawl, the worked +pocket-handkerchief, the silk stockings, and satin shoes, betray the +rank of the _Tapada_, and plainly denote that she has sallied forth on +an adventure. It is difficult, nay almost impossible, to recognize a +lady thus muffled up. The one eye alone visible, is, as may be +supposed, a very uncertain token of identity, and the figure and walk +may be easily disguised. + +It will readily be supposed that these concealments sometimes occasion +mortifying mistakes. On beholding a tall slender figure whose +symmetrical contour is discernible even through the unwieldy saya, and a +bright dark eye beaming beneath the folds of the manto, one may be +induced to imagine that the charms of a Hebe are concealed beneath the +disfiguring garb. But how great is the disappointment when an accidental +movement of the manto discloses the wide mouth of an ugly mulatta +grinning from ear to ear. + +Most foreigners who marry Limenas stipulate that from the time of +betrothal, their wives shall no longer wear the saya y manto. The +condition is agreed to; but how far it is faithfully observed the +husbands best know. Many, no doubt, lull themselves in the confidence +of their wishes being implicitly obeyed; but female ingenuity readily +devises opportunities for deception. The women of Lima never willingly +renounce the saya y manto, for it is inseparably associated with +customs to which they are, heart and soul, devoted. + +If we follow the Limena (the white Creole, be it understood) into the +retirement of domestic life, we find that she is an affectionate mother, +but not a very clever housekeeper. Every lady has at her command a great +many more domestics than are necessary: some are servants, but most of +them slaves. The establishment usually consists of a cook, a nurse-maid, +one or two house-maids, a needle-woman, several men-servants, and a +little negro or Indian, whose chief business is to carry a carpet behind +his mistress when she goes to church. These servants all do as they +please, and the lady of the house concerns herself very little about the +indolence which her want of vigilance encourages. She rises at a late +hour, and having dressed herself and decorated her hair with sprigs of +jasmine and orange blossom, she takes her breakfast. That meal being +ended, she goes out to make visits. During the sultry hours of mid-day +she reposes, either by swinging in a hammock or reclining on a sofa, and +meanwhile smokes a cigar. After dinner she again makes visits, and the +evening is spent in the theatre, on the plaza, or on the bridge. Some +few ladies employ themselves in needle-work, in which they are often +most accomplished adepts; they especially excel in embroidery and fancy +work; but they never pursue these employments before company. + +The ladies of Lima are passionately fond of music. Most of them play the +piano-forte or the guitar, and also sing; but for want of good +instruction neither their playing nor their singing is above mediocrity. +Smoking is pretty general among females, at least those of mature age; +but they indulge in this practice only in their own apartments. Of late +years the custom of smoking has been on the decline in Lima, in +proportion as it has been increased on the continent of the old world. +Though snuff-taking is prohibited in the convents, yet the nuns practise +it to a great extent. They use an exceedingly fine kind of red snuff, +which has the effect of closing the breathing passage through the +nostrils, and of producing a peculiar nasal tone of voice. + +With the ladies of Lima, vanity and the love of dress appear to have +reached their climax. To this passion for personal adornment they +sacrifice everything. Formerly, when none but _real_ pearls and diamonds +were worn, many a lady was known to have ruined her husband by the +purchase of those costly articles; now, however, thanks to French mock +jewelry, they are enabled to bedeck themselves in glittering ornaments +at trivial expense. Another of their passions is a fondness for +perfumes. They are continually besprinkling themselves with _eau de +Cologne_, _esprit de Lavande_, _agua rica_, or _mistura_. The latter is +a fragrant yellow-colored water, prepared from gillyflower, jasmine, and +flor de mistela (_Talinum umbellatum_). They perfume their apartments +daily with _Sahumerios_ (pastiles). When the lady of the house wishes to +show particular attention to her visitors, she offers them perfumed +water, dropping it into the bosoms of the ladies, and on the +pocket-handkerchiefs of the gentlemen. Considering their free use of +perfumes, it is not surprising that the fair Limenas should be +constantly complaining of headache, vertigo, and other nervous ailments, +or, to use their own phrase (_los nervios_). + +Above all things the Limenas pride themselves in the excessive smallness +of their feet. Whether walking, standing, sitting, swinging in the +hammock, or reclining on the sofa, the grand object invariably is to +display to advantage the tiny foot. To praise her virtue, her +intelligence, her wit, or even her beauty, would be less complimentary +to a Limena than to admire the elegance of her feet. All possible care +is taken to preserve the small form of the foot, and the Lima ladies +avoid everything that may tend to spread or enlarge it. Their shoes are +usually made of embroidered velvet or satin, or of very fine kid, and +are so exceedingly small, that they cannot be drawn on and off without +difficulty. It is usual to have two new pairs every week, and the +expense of a lady's shoes not unfrequently amounts to two hundred +dollars per annum. A large foot is a thing held in horror by the +Limenas: they call it _una pataza inglesa_ (an English paw). I once +heard some Lima ladies extolling in high terms the beauty of a fair +European; but all their praises ended with the words:--"Pero que pie, +valgame Dios! parece una lancha." (But what a foot, good Heaven! It is +like a great boat.) Yet the feet of the lady alluded to would not, in +Europe, have been thought by any means large. + +_Gourmanderie_ is one of the evil habits of the female inhabitants of +Lima. Between meals they are continually eating sweetmeats and a variety +of things. At one moment they order _tamal_,[19] next _omitas_,[20] then +_pan de chancay_ (a sweet sort of bread), and biscuits, then _masamorita +morada_,[21] or _frijoles coladas_,[22] &c.; and yet dinner is partaken +with as hearty an appetite as though none of these interludes had been +introduced. Can it be matter of surprise that the good ladies are +constantly complaining of indigestion and _mal de estomago_? + +In the interior of the houses cleanliness does not extend beyond those +apartments which are open to visitors, namely, the _sala_ and the +_cuadro_. The other rooms of the house frequently bear more +resemblance to a stable than a human habitation, and their condition +reflects little credit on the domestic habits of the female inmates. +But even this is typical of the national character,--a great outward +show and little inward worth. + +At first a stranger is struck with the singularity of the names of many +of the women of Lima. A child receives the name of the saint or of the +festival whose celebration falls on the day of its birth. Those who +happen to come into the world on the days on which the Romish Church +celebrates the several manifestations of the Virgin receive the most +extraordinary names. For example, a child born on the anniversary day of +the manifestation to St. Francis on the Snow Mountain, is named _Nieves_ +(snow). _Pilar_ (fountain-basin) is another strange name, conferred in +honor of the manifestation of the Virgin at the Fountains in Saragossa. +Then there are _Conceptions_, _Natividads_, and _Asuncions_, without +number. A girl born on Candlemas-day is named _Candelaria_, and one born +on the first day of the year receives the name of Jesus. The singular +effect of these names is heightened by the Spanish custom of using +diminutives, formed by adding to the name the particle _ito_ or _ita_, +the former being the masculine, the latter the feminine. It may be +readily imagined that a foreigner is not a little startled on hearing a +young lady called Dona Jesusita. In some names the diminutive takes a +form totally different from the full name; as, for example, Panchita for +Francisca, Pepita for Josefa, Conchita for Concepcion. A married woman +does not take the family name of her husband, but retains her own, +adding to it her husband's name preceded by the particle _de_, as, for +example, Dona Maria Juana Rodriguez de Salazar. + +On attaining a certain age, the Limenas totally alter their habits of +life. When their beauty fades, and they cease to be the objects of +compliment and flattery; or when weary of an idle, luxurious, and, in +too many instances, a no very virtuous life, they betake themselves to +piety, and become _Beatas_.[23] The Limena who thus renounces the +vanities of the world attends church two or three times every day, +confesses at least once every week, retires during Lent to a house of +penitence; fasts, prays, and receives the visits of her confessor, to +whom she sends presents of sweetmeats;--and should the holy man, as is +usually the case, prefer riding to walking, she shows her piety by +giving him the use of her _Calesa_ to convey him from place to place. + +The women of Lima are gifted by nature with extraordinary natural +talent, though unfortunately it is rarely cultivated. They possess +shrewd and penetrating intelligence, clear judgment, and in general +very just views on the ordinary affairs of life. Like the women of the +southern provinces of Spain, they are remarkable for quickness and +smartness of repartee, and in a wordy contest a Limena is sure to come +off triumphant. They have a great deal of decision of character, and a +degree of courage which does not usually fall to the lot of the female +sex. In these respects they are infinitely superior to the timid, +spiritless men. In the various political revolutions of the country, +the women have often taken an active, and, in some instances, a more +decided part than the men. + +The Indians in Lima form but a small portion of the population, being +about 5000 in number. Among them are as many emigrants as natives. Most +of the former are from the mountainous districts, and but few are from +places on the coast. Their character is, of course, much modified by +continual intercourse with the whites; but I will endeavor to describe +them as they show themselves in their original purity, marking the +distinctions observable between the _Indio Costeno_ (the Coast +Indian), and the _Indio Serrano_ (the mountain Indian). The Indians in +Lima are active and industrious. Many of them are shopkeepers, and by +the integrity of their dealings they stand on a footing of good credit +with the great commercial houses. Those who are employed as servants +are less remarkable for industry and honesty. They are reserved and +suspicious; qualities especially observable when they have but +recently emigrated into Lima. They combine personal vanity with an +inconceivable degree of dirtiness. Their intellectual faculties are +far beneath those of the white Creoles, of whom they stand in a +degree of fear, which is not easily eradicated. + +At a former period there existed in Lima a college exclusively for +noble-born Indians; and the eldest sons of the families descended +from the Incas, when they wished to study, were received at the +expense of the State into the College of San Carlos; but since the +declaration of independence, all the privileges enjoyed by the +Indians have been annulled. + +The negroes in Lima form one-fifth part of the population. Their +number amounts to upwards of 10,000, of which 4800 are slaves. Though +an article in the Charter of Independence declares that "in Peru no +person is born a slave," yet the National Congress has on various +occasions thought fit to deviate from this principle. In Huaura it was +decreed that children born in slavery shall be free on attaining the +age of twenty-five, and the Congress of Huancayo prolonged the period +to fifty years. There are no new importations of negroes from Africa, +for an article in the Charter just mentioned sets forth that "every +person who may be brought, as a slave, from another country to Peru, +is free from the moment when he sets foot on the soil of that +republic." Accordingly, if a Peruvian take his slave with him on a +journey to Chile, and brings him back again, the slave may, on his +return, claim his freedom. The only exception to this rule refers to +runaway negroes, who, even after years of absence, may be reclaimed on +their return. The value of slaves is not so high in Peru as in the +southern states of North America. In Lima, the average price of a +young, strong, and healthy negro is 400 dollars; the price of a +negress, especially a _Negra de Chavra_ (capable of field work), is +100 dollars higher. The value of those destined for domestic service +depends on character and qualifications. A negress who is a good cook +or needlewoman, is of course worth more than a negro who is to be +employed as a water-carrier or a footman. In the plantations their +value depends wholly on health and strength. + +The treatment of slaves in Lima, especially by the Creoles, is +exceedingly mild, and generally much on the same footing as the +treatment of servants in Europe. It is seldom that a master inflicts +severe corporal chastisement on a slave. If the latter requires +punishment, he is sent into the _Panaderia_ (the bakehouse) to knead the +dough and bake the bread, which work they perform under the supervision +of a Mayordomo, who is usually a hard task-master. Owing to the heat of +the climate, working in the _Panaderia_ is more feared by the slaves +than any other kind of punishment. + +In Lima the special laws for the protection of slaves are more +favorable to them than the similar laws of any other slave country. +The slaves bring their complaints before a particular judge, whose +business it is to protect them against ill-treatment. A slave is free +whenever he can pay the sum which his master demands for him,--which +sum, in disputed cases, is fixed by legal decision. The slave also +possesses the right of selling himself to another master, and the +latter may pay the purchase-money to the former owner, who, however +unwillingly, is obliged to conclude the bargain. The negroes have +ample opportunities for saving money. They are permitted, during five +or six hours of the day, to work for themselves; so that in the course +of a few years they may with ease save the sum requisite for +purchasing their independence. But in general they spend their +earnings in mere idle enjoyments, and care but little about obtaining +their freedom. As slaves they are provided with lodging, food, and +clothing, and they are nursed in sickness; but as soon as they become +free, they must supply all these wants for themselves; an undertaking +which their natural indolence renders them little inclined to. On the +whole, domestic negroes may be said to be willing slaves; it is +possibly different with those employed in the plantations, who are +liable to harder work and harsher treatment. I knew an old negro, who +had hoarded up 6000 dollars, and yet did not purchase his own +freedom, though he had paid for the liberation of his children and +his two sisters. He often observed to me, that he should not be half +so well off if he were free. + +The negroes brought from Africa, who are called _Bosales_, are far +better than the Creole negroes. In physical strength they are inferior +to the latter, and are less lively; yet they are patient, and much more +faithful and attached to their masters than the Creole negroes born in +Peru. The Bosales all have a certain degree of pride, but especially +those who are of princely blood. A gentleman of old Spain bought a +young negro princess, who not without the greatest difficulty could be +brought to perform the duties of servitude. When she was directed to go +to market, she set her basket down on the ground, and signified that she +had been accustomed to be served, and not to serve. Some chastisement +was resorted to, with the view of compelling her to do the duty allotted +to her; but in vain. Her pride and obstinacy remained unconquerable. +Sometimes she would sit for hours gloomily, with her eyes fixed on the +ground, and muttering between her teeth, in her broken Spanish, the +words, "_Yo clavita! yo clavita!_"[24] Then suddenly springing up, she +would strike her head against the wall until she became almost +senseless. As she showed a fondness for the children of the family, she +was relieved from household work, and became the nursery-maid. In that +way she discharged the duties which devolved on her with the most +touching affection and fidelity; but she never would do anything, +however trivial, which she considered to be menial service, and her +master and mistress were reasonable enough not to require it. + +When the number of the African negroes in Lima was more considerable +than it now is, the various races kept together, and formed +themselves into unions, called _Cofradias_. They used to meet +together at regular periods. At these meetings the negroes of +princely descent were treated with marks of respect which they could +scarcely have received in their native home. Speeches were delivered, +and religious ceremonies performed; whilst music, singing, and +dancing, revived recollections of past happiness, and of the +far-distant native land. These Cofradias were also conducive to +philanthropic ends; for when a slave had a hard master, the sum +requisite for purchasing his freedom was raised by a general +subscription in the union to which he belonged. Since the +independence of Peru, and the consequent prohibition of the +importation of negroes, the Cofradias have declined, and have lost +much of their original character. Creoles and free negroes have now +become members of them. The places in which these meetings are held +are situated in the suburb of San Lazaro. The walls of the rooms +are painted with grotesque figures of negro kings, elephants, +camels, palm trees, &c. + +In Lima, and indeed throughout the whole of Peru, the free negroes are a +plague to society. Too indolent to support themselves by laborious +industry, they readily fall into any dishonest means of getting money. +Almost all the robbers who infest the roads on the coast of Peru are +free negroes. Dishonesty seems to be a part of their very nature; and +moreover, all their tastes and inclinations are coarse and sensual. Many +warm defenders of the negroes excuse these qualities by ascribing them +to the want of education, the recollection of slavery, the spirit of +revenge, &c. But I here speak of free-born negroes, who are admitted +into the houses of wealthy families, who from their early childhood have +received as good an education as falls to the share of many of the white +Creoles--who are treated with kindness and liberally remunerated, and +yet they do not differ from their half-savage brethren who are shut out +from these advantages. If the negro has learned to read and write, and +thereby made some little advance in education, he is transformed into a +conceited coxcomb, who, instead of plundering travellers on the highway, +finds in city life a sphere for the indulgence of his evil propensities. +What is the cause of this incorrigible turpitude of the negroes? To +answer this important question is not easy, if we admit the principle +that the negro is as capable of cultivation as the Caucasian; and in +support of it the names of some highly-educated Ethiopians may be cited. +Those who are disposed to maintain this principle, and who are at the +same time intimately acquainted with the social relations of the +countries in which free negroes are numerous, may solve the problem. My +opinion is, that the negroes, in respect to capability for mental +improvement, are far behind the Europeans, and that, considered in the +aggregate, they will not, even with the advantages of careful education, +attain a very high degree of cultivation; because the structure of the +negro skull, on which depends the development of the brain, approximates +closely to the animal form. The imitative faculty of the monkey is +highly developed in the negro, who readily seizes anything merely +mechanical, whilst things demanding intelligence are beyond his reach. +Sensuality is the impulse which controls the thoughts, the acts, the +whole existence of the negroes. To them freedom can be only nominal; for +if they conduct themselves well it is because they are compelled, not +because they are inclined to do so. Herein lie at once the cause of, and +the apology for, their bad character. + +The negro women differ but little from the men, in their general +characteristics. They are, however, more active and industrious, and +better tempered. As domestic servants they are superior to the mixed +races. They are much employed as nurses, and in those situations they +discharge their duties well. Their personal vanity is boundless, and +every real they can save is spent in dress and ornaments. It is amusing +to see them, on festival days, parading about the streets, dressed in +white muslin gowns trimmed with lace, and short sleeves displaying their +black arms. Very short petticoats, seldom extending below the ankle, +serve to exhibit the tawdry finery of red silk stockings and light blue +satin shoes. From their ears are suspended long gold drops, and their +uncovered necks are not unfrequently adorned with costly necklaces. A +negress, who was a slave belonging to a family of my acquaintance, +possessed a necklace composed of fine Panama pearls, worth several +thousand dollars. The pure white of the pearls was wonderfully +heightened by the contrast of the jet-black skin of the wearer; and for +this reason they were more ornamental to the negress than they would +have been to the fairest lady in Europe. + +Having noticed the principal races, we will now consider the variegated +mass of people of mixed blood, who in Lima form a considerable portion +of the population. Stevenson[25] gives a long list of these mixed races, +and specifies the proportionate degree, that is to say, how many eighths +or sixteenths of black, brown, or white color belong to each. But these +data respecting tint are fallacious, for, being founded solely on +external appearance, they are liable to endless modifications. Stevenson +falls into the mistake of giving to the children of a negro father and +a white mother, the name of Zambos; whilst to the offspring of a white +father and a black mother, he gives the name of Mulattos. By a similar +error, he terms the children of a white man and a Cuarterona, Quinteros; +and to those of a Cuarteron and a white woman, he gives the designation +Cuarterones. It is, however, an established rule, that the children bear +the designation, denoting the same degree of mixed blood, whatever may +respectively be the colors of the parents. Accordingly, the child of a +negro and a white woman is, properly speaking, a Mulatto; just the same +as though the relations of race on the part of the parents were +transposed. When a man of mixed blood marries a woman darker than +himself, and his children thereby become further removed from the white +tint, it is said to be _un paso atras_ (a step backwards). + +In Europe it is very common to attach to the term _Creole_, the idea of +a particular complexion. This is a mistake. The designation Creole +properly belongs to all the natives of America born of parents who have +emigrated from the Old World, be those parents Europeans or Africans. +There are, therefore, white as well as black Creoles.[26] + +The subjoined list shows the parentage of the different varieties of +half-casts, and also the proper designations of the latter:-- + + + PARENTS. CHILDREN. + + White Father and Negro Mother Mulatto. + White Father and Indian Mother Mestizo. + Indian Father and Negro Mother Chino. + White Father and Mulatta Mother Cuarteron. + White Father and Mestiza Mother Creole (only distinguished from + the White, by a pale-brownish + complexion). + White Father and China Mother Chino-Blanco. + White Father and Cuarterona Mother Quintero. + White Father and Quintera Mother White. + Negro Father and Mulatta Mother Zambo-Negro. + Negro Father and Mestiza Mother Mulatto-Oscuro. + Negro Father and China Mother Zambo-Chino. + Negro Father and Zamba Mother Zambo-Negro (perfectly bl'k). + Negro Father and Cuarterona or + Quintera Mother Mulatto (rather dark). + Indian Father and Mulatta Mother Chino-Oscuro. + Indian Father and Mestiza Mother Mestizo-Claro (frequently very + beautiful). + Indian Father and China Mother Chino-Cholo. + Indian Father and Zamba Mother Zambo-Claro. + Indian Father and China-Chola + Mother Indian (with rather short + frizzy hair). + Indian Father and Cuarterona or + Quintera Mother Mestizo (rather brown). + Mulatto Father and Zamba Mother Zambo (a miserable race). + Mulatto Father and Mestiza Mother Chino (of rather clear + complexion). + Mulatto Father and China Mother Chino (rather dark). + + +Besides the half-casts here enumerated, there are many others, not +distinguished by particular names, as they do not in color materially +differ from those above specified. The best criterion for determining +the varieties is the hair of the women: this is far less deceiving +than the complexion, for the color of the skin is sometimes +decidedly at variance with that characteristic of the race. Some of +the Mulatta females have complexions brilliantly fair, and features +which, for regularity, may vie with those of the most beautiful +women of Europe; but they bear the unmistakeable stamp of descent in +the short woolly hair. + +The white Creole women of Lima have a peculiar quickness in detecting +a person of half-cast at the very first glance; and to the less +practised observer they communicate their discoveries in this way, +with an air of triumph; for they have the very pardonable weakness of +priding themselves in the purity of their European descent. Despite the +republican constitution, there prevails throughout Peru a strong pride +of cast, which shows itself at every opportunity. In quarrels, for +example, the fairer antagonist always taunts the darker one about his +descent. By all the varieties, the white skin is envied, and no one +thinks of disputing its superiority of rank. The Indian looks with +abhorrence on the Negro; the latter with scorn on the Indio. The +Mulatto fancies himself next to the European, and thinks that the +little tinge of black in his skin does not justify his being ranked +lower than the Mestizo, who after all is only an _Indio bruto_.[27] +The Zambo laughs at them all, and says "if he himself is not worth +much, yet he is better than his parents." In short, each race finds a +reason for thinking itself better than another. + +In the commencement of the present chapter I made the observation that +the people of mixed blood unite in themselves all the faults without +any of the virtues of their progenitors. To this general remark, +however, the Mestizos form an honorable exception. They inherit many +of the good qualities both of the Whites and the Indians. They are +mild and affectionate. Their feelings are very excitable, and they +readily perform an act of kindness or generosity on the impulse of +the moment--but they are irresolute and timid. They attach themselves +affectionately to the Whites; but they are not partial to the +Indians, whom they regard with some degree of contempt. In Lima their +number is less considerable than in the interior of the country, +where whole villages are inhabited solely by Mestizos. In those +places they style themselves Whites, and hold themselves very much +aloof from the Indians. One cannot pay them a better compliment than +to inquire whether they are Spaniards, a question which they always +answer in the affirmative, though their features are plainly +impressed with the Indian stamp. The complexion of the Mestizos is +usually a clear brown; but in some individuals it has a very dark +tinge. Their hair is sleek, long, and very strong. The women +frequently wear their hair in two long plaits descending nearly to +the knees. The men are strongly made, have marked features and but +very little beard. In Lima they are chiefly handicraftsmen and +traders. Most of the hawkers (Mercachifles) in Lima are Mestizos. + +The Mulattos differ very widely from the Mestizos. In person they are +less strongly made; but in intellect they are superior to any of the +half-casts. They possess a very great aptitude for mechanical +employments, great dexterity and a remarkable degree of imitative +talent, which, if well directed, might be brilliantly developed. They +are exceedingly impressionable, and all their feelings are readily +exalted into passions. Indifferent to all out sensual enjoyments, they +indulge in the fleeting pleasure of the present moment, and are +regardless of the future. There is a certain class of Mulattos, who, +in a psychological point of view, are very remarkable. They are +distinguished by the nick-name of _Palanganas_.[28] They are gifted +with wonderful memory, and after the lapse of years they will repeat, +word for word, speeches or sermons which they have heard only once. +With this extraordinary power of memory, they combine a fertile fancy, +and a boundless share of self-confidence. Wherever there is anything +to be seen or heard, the Palanganas never fail to attend, and they +repeat with the most ludicrous attitudes and gestures all that they +hear, be it a sermon in church, a speech in Congress, or an address +delivered at any public solemnity. + +The Mulattos now study theology; for, since the establishment of +independence, the Indian law, which prohibited any person of mixed +blood from entering the ecclesiastical state, is no longer observed. +Many have devoted themselves to medicine; and most of the physicians +in Lima are Mulattos; but they are remarkable only for their +ignorance, as they receive neither theoretical nor clinical +instruction. Nevertheless, they enjoy the full confidence of the +public, who rank the ignorant native far above the educated foreigner. +The business of a barber is one that is much followed by the Mulattos +of Lima. In that occupation they are quite in their element, for they +possess all the qualifications for which the members of that +fraternity are distinguished in all parts of the world. + +Among the Mulatto females many are remarkably beautiful--though they +are always wanting in that oval form of the face which is the first +condition of classic beauty. Their countenances are generally round +and broad, their features strongly marked, and their expression +impassioned. Their beauty soon fades; and as they advance in life the +negro character of their features becomes distinctly defined. Their +hair, which does not grow beyond a finger's length, is jet black and +frizzy. They plait it very ingeniously in small tresses, frequently +making more than a hundred. Their complexions vary from white to +dark-brown; but most of them are dark brunettes, with large black +eyes and pearl-white teeth. + +Their vanity is quite equal to that of the Negresses, but it is +combined with a certain degree of taste, in which the latter are +wanting. The Mulatto women are passionately fond of music, singing +and dancing. They play the guitar and have pleasing voices, but +their singing is quite uninstructed. + +The Zambos are the most miserable class of half-casts. With them +every vice seems to have attained its utmost degree of development; +and it may confidently be said that not one in a thousand is a useful +member of society, or a good subject of the state. Four-fifths of the +criminals in the city jail of Lima are Zambos. They commit the most +hideous crimes with the utmost indifference, and their lawless +propensities are continually bringing them into collision with the +constituted authorities. In moral nature they are below the Negroes; +for they are totally wanting in any good qualities possessed by the +latter. Their figures are athletic, and their color black, sometimes +slightly tinged with olive-brown. Their noses are much less flat +than those of the Negroes, but their lips are quite as prominent. +Their eyes are sunk and penetrating, and their hair very little +longer than that of the Negroes, but curling in larger locks. The +men have very little beard. + +The Chinos are but little superior to the Zambos. Indeed, in physical +formation they are inferior to them, for they are small and +attenuated. Their countenances are hideously ugly. They have the Negro +nose and mouth, and the Indian forehead, cheeks and eyes. Their hair +is black, rough, but less frizzy than that of the Mulattos. They are +deceitful, ill-tempered, and cruel. They never forget an offence, but +brood over it till an opportunity, however distant, presents itself +for wreaking their vengeance. They are very dangerous enemies. + +Respecting the half-casts of fairer complexion, especially the +Cuarterones and the Quinteros, there is but little to be said. Both +physically and morally they approximate closely to the whites, among +whom they almost rank themselves. + +The majority of the foreigners in Lima, and indeed throughout the whole +of Peru, are the families of the Spaniards from Europe, who emigrated to +South America before the war of independence. Since the close of that +struggle there has been but little emigration, as the circumstances of +the country are not now very favorable to new settlers. The old Spanish +families are for the most part landed proprietors or merchants. They are +people of very temperate habits, but they are passionately fond of +gaming, and in this respect they have bequeathed a dangerous inheritance +to the Creoles. The pride and mercenary spirit which distinguished the +Spaniards before the independence are now broken, if not entirely +subdued. The intercourse between them and the natives, though still +somewhat constrained, is every year becoming more and more friendly, as +the privileges enjoyed by the Spaniards, which were a continued cause of +hostile feeling, are now removed. + +Next to the Spaniards, the most numerous class of foreigners are the +Italians. These are chiefly Genoese, and the majority are run-away +sailors and adventurers. They usually begin by setting up a Pulperia (a +brandy shop), or a spice shop, and gradually extend their traffic until, +in the course of a few years, they amass money enough to return to their +native country. Some of them make good fortunes and possess extensive +warehouses. + +The French in Lima occupy the same positions as their countrymen in +Valparaiso, viz., they are tailors and hair-dressers, dealers in +jewellery and millinery. + +The English and North Americans, who are much better liked by the +natives than the French, are chiefly merchants. They are the heads of +the principal commercial houses, as Gibbs, Grawley & Co., Alsop & Co., +Templeman and Bergmann, Huth, Cruening & Co., &c. The enterprising +spirit of the English and North Americans has led many of them into +extensive mining speculations, which in some instances have proved +very unfortunate. + +The Germans in Lima are proportionally few. They are distinguished by +their aptitude for business, and many of them fill high stations in the +great English commercial houses. They are held in high esteem by the +natives. The general gravity of their manners has given rise, among the +Limenos, to the saying, "_Serio como un Aleman_"--Serious as a German. + +Settlers from the other American republics have of late years +considerably increased in Lima. After the Chilian expedition, many +Chilenos established themselves in Peru, and numbers of Argentinos, +escaping from the terrorism of Rosas in Buenos Ayres, have taken refuge +in Lima. + +Foreigners being in general more industrious and more steady than the +Creoles, the Limenos readily form connexions with them. The ladies +generally prefer marrying a _Gringo_[29] to a _Paisanito_.[30] + +I may close this chapter on the inhabitants of Lima, with some remarks +on the Spanish language as spoken in the capital of Peru. The old +Spaniards, who brought their various dialects into the New World, retain +them there unchanged. The Galician transposes the letters _g_ and _j_; +the Catalonian adds an _s_ to the final syllables of words, and gives a +peculiarly harsh sound to the letter _j_; the Andalusian rolls the _r_ +over his tongue, and imparts a melodious expression even to +harsh-sounding words; the Biscayan mingles a variety of provincialisms +with his own peculiar dialect. The Madrileno (native of Madrid) prides +himself here, as well as in Europe, in being far superior to the rest of +his countrymen in elegance of pronunciation. The Creoles, however, have +gradually dropped the characteristic dialects of their progenitors, and +have adopted new ones, varying one from another in the different South +American provinces. The Spanish language, as spoken by the natives of +Peru, differs widely from the correct and pure model of pronunciation. +The inhabitants of the coast have too soft an accent, and they +frequently confound, one with another, letters which have a mutual +resemblance in sound. On the other hand, the people who dwell in the +mountainous districts speak with a harsh accent, and very +ungrammatically. As the Swiss force out their guttural tones from the +lowest depth of their throats, and with the strongest possible +aspiration, so do the Peruvians of the Cordillera. The inhabitants of +the sand flats of North Germany, on the contrary, impart a ludicrously +soft sound to the harsher consonants; and the same peculiarity is +observable in the people who inhabit the coast of Peru. + +Of all the inhabitants of Lima, the white Creoles speak the best +Spanish; but still their language is far from pure. The ladies in +particular have the habit of substituting one letter for another in +certain words; for example, instead of _pulso_ (pulse) they say +_purso_, and instead of _salsa_ (sauce) they say _sarsa_. In other +words they substitute _d_ for _r_, saying _amod_ for _amor_, +_cavalledo_ for _cavallero_. The _ll_ is frequently sounded by the +Peruvians like _y_, a blunder which foreigners are also very apt to +commit; for example, in the word _pollo_ (chicken), which they +pronounce as if it were spelled _poyo_, and _gallina_ (hen) they +pronounce as if spelled _gayina_. Not only do they confound single +letters, but they frequently change whole syllables; as for instance, +in the word _pared_ (wall), which they transform into _pader_. The +name of the well-known ex-President Orbegoso was, by two-thirds of the +natives of Lima, pronounced as if written _Obregoso_. There is no word +in the Spanish language beginning with an _s_ followed by a consonant, +and the Limenos, when they attempt to pronounce foreign words or +proper names commencing in the manner just described, never fail to +prefix to them the letter _e_. I know not whether in the schools and +colleges of old Spain this method of prefixing the letter _e_ is +adopted in teaching Latin; but the practice is universal among the +students of all the colleges in Lima. For studium they say _estudium_; +for spurius, _espurius_; for sceleratus, _esceleratus_, &c. + +To the Limenos the correct pronunciation of these words is extremely +difficult, and many have assured me that they find it impossible to +omit the _e_ before the _s_. Still more arbitrary is their conversion +of _h_ into _k_ in the words mihi, nihil, &c., which they pronounce +_miki_, _nikil_. + +The colored Creoles, who are generally uneducated, speak the Spanish +language much more corruptly than the whites. The Negroes have a very +bad accent. Their tongues seem quite unfitted for the pronunciation of +the Spanish language, which many of them render unintelligible by +transposing letters and lopping off syllables. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 13: Interpretations of the Indian Laws.] + +[Footnote 14: His divine genius has produced eternal spring in +Arequipa.] + +[Footnote 15: "Guia del Peru." "Observaciones sobre el clima de Lima y +sus influencias en los seres organizados en especial el hombre."] + +[Footnote 16: The women of Lima clean their teeth several times a day +with the root called _Raiz de dientes_ (literally _root for the teeth_), +of which they keep a piece constantly in their pocket.] + +[Footnote 17: It is related that, during the war of independence, when +Lima was alternately in possession of the Patriots and the Spaniards, a +party of the latter, in order to ascertain the spirit of the Limenos, +disguised themselves as Patriots and marched to the vicinity of the +town. On their approach becoming known, a great number of persons +proceeded from Callao to the Alameda to meet them. Among those who went +forth to welcome the supposed patriots were a number of women dressed in +the narrow _sayas_ above described. When the disguised Spaniards had +advanced within a little distance of the deceived multitude they began +to attack them. The men saved themselves by flight; but the women, whose +sayas impeded their motion, were unable to escape, and were almost all +killed.] + +[Footnote 18: A _Tapada_ is a lady closely concealed beneath the folds of +her veil or manto. The term is derived from the verb _tapar_, to cover +or conceal. _Taparse a media ojo_, is said of a lady when she draws her +manto over her face so as to leave only one eye or rather the half of an +eye uncovered.--T.] + +[Footnote 19: A preparation of finely-bruised maize mixed with morsels of +pork. It is rolled in maize leaves, and in that manner served up.] + +[Footnote 20: Sweet cakes made of maize and raisins.] + +[Footnote 21: A syrup made from the pulp of fruit.] + +[Footnote 22: Preserved peas with syrup.] + +[Footnote 23: Literally Bigots.] + +[Footnote 24: Meaning _Yo esclavita!_ (I, a slave!) _Esclavita_ being the +diminutive of _Esclava_.] + +[Footnote 25: Narrative of twenty years' residence in South America, by +W. B. Stevenson.] + +[Footnote 26: The term Creole is a corruption of the Spanish word +_criollo_, which is derived from _criar_ to create or to foster. The +Spaniards apply the term _criollo_ not merely to the human race, but +also to animals propagated in the colonies, but of pure European blood: +thus they have _creole_ horses, bullocks, poultry, &c.] + +[Footnote 27: A brutish Indian; a favorite expression of the Limenos when +speaking of the Indians, who certainly do not merit the compliment.] + +[Footnote 28: The word _Palangana_ signifies a wash-hand-basin; but more +especially the kind of basin used by barbers. Figuratively the term is +used to designate an empty babbler.] + +[Footnote 29: _Gringo_ is a nickname applied to Europeans. It is probably +derived from _Griego_ (Greek). The Germans say of anything +incomprehensible, "That sounds like Spanish,"--and in like manner the +Spaniards say of anything they do not understand, "That is Greek."] + +[Footnote 30: _Paisanito_ is the diminutive of _Paisano_ +(Compatriot.)] + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +Primary Schools--Colleges--The University--Monks--Saints--Santo +Toribio and Santa Rosa--Religious Processions--Raising the +Host--The Noche Buena--The Carnival--Paseos, or Public +Promenades--Ice--Riding and Driving--Horses--Their Equipments and +Training--Mules--Lottery in Lima--Cookery--Breakfasts, Dinners, +&c.--Coffee-houses and Restaurants--Markets--The _Plazo Firme del +Acho_--Bull Fights. + + +Schools for primary instruction are numerous in Lima, and upon the +whole they are tolerably well conducted. There are thirty-six of these +primary schools, public and private; twenty for boys, and sixteen for +girls; and altogether about 2000 pupils[31] receive in these +establishments the first elements of juvenile instruction. The +principal public institutions of this class are the Normal School of +Santo Tomas (in which the Lancasterian system is adopted), and the +Central School of San Lazaro. Each contains from 320 to 350 pupils. Of +the private schools, some are very well conducted by Europeans. The +College of Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe was founded a few years ago by +two Spanish merchants. In this establishment the sons of the wealthier +class of people may receive a better education than they can obtain in +the public schools. There are three Latin schools, and the number of +pupils attending them amounts to about two hundred. + +The College of Santo Toribio is exclusively appropriated to students of +theology, who are likewise received into the College of San Carlos, +though the latter is chiefly destined for the study of jurisprudence. +San Carlos was founded in the year 1770 by the Viceroy Amat, who +incorporated with it the previously existing Colleges of San Martin and +San Felipe. In the year 1822 the Colegio de Esquilache was likewise +united to San Carlos, which now contains about a hundred students. The +building is large and commodious, containing spacious halls, a fine +refectory, and a well-stored library. There are five professors of law +and two of theology. French, English, geography, natural philosophy, +mathematics, drawing, and music are likewise taught in this college. The +annual revenue of the establishment, exclusively of the fees paid by the +students, amounts to 19,000 dollars. During the war of emancipation, +this establishment for a time bore the name of Colegio de San Martin, in +honor of General San Martin, the liberator of Chile; but its original +title was soon restored. + +The Colegio de San Fernando was founded in 1810 by the Marques de la +Concordia, for students of medicine. In the year 1826 this Institution +received the name of _Colegio de la Medecina de la Independencia_, a +title which it justly merits, for certainly medicine is taught there +with a singular independence of all rules and systems. The Professors, +who themselves have never received any regular instruction, communicate +their scanty share of knowledge in a very imperfect manner to the +students. The number of the students is between twelve and fifteen, and +there are two Professors. The clinical lectures are delivered in the +Hospital of San Andres, to which an anatomical amphitheatre was +attached in 1792. The heat of the climate renders it necessary that +burials should take place within twenty-four hours after death, a +circumstance which naturally operates as an impediment to the +fundamental study of anatomy. It cannot therefore be matter of surprise +that the native surgeons should have but a superficial knowledge of +that important branch of science. + +In the University of San Marcos no lectures are delivered, and the +twenty-five Professors' chairs are merely nominal. Honors and degrees +are however conferred in San Marcos, and the same rules and ceremonies +are observed as in the Spanish Universities. In the departments of +medicine and jurisprudence there are three degrees; those of Bachelor, +Licentiate, and Doctor. In former times the dignity of Doctor was +conferred with great pomp and solemnity, and the public were admitted in +large numbers to witness the ceremony. The acquisition of the degree of +Doctor was then attended by an expense of about two thousand dollars, +chiefly expended in presents. The new Doctor was required to send to +every member of the University, from the Bachelors to the Rector, a new +dollar, a goblet full of ice, and a dish of pastry. + +Lima is overrun with monks, lay and conventual. The monastic regulations +are not very strict, for the monks are permitted to leave the convents +at all hours, according to their own pleasure. They avail themselves of +this liberty to the utmost extent. Friars of various orders are seen in +the streets in numbers. Most of them are fat Dominicans, who sit in the +Portales playing at draughts, or lounge in shops staring at the +_Tapadas_ as they pass by. Many of these ecclesiastics are remarkable +for their disregard of personal cleanliness; indeed it would be +difficult to meet with a more slovenly, ignorant, and common-place class +of men. They frequent all places of public entertainment, the +coffee-houses, the chichereas, the bull-fights, and the theatres: these +two last-mentioned places of amusement they visit in disguise. The +Franciscans and the Mercenarias are little better than the Dominicans; +but the Descalzados (barefooted friars) lead a somewhat more strict and +regular life. To the monks of the _Buena Muerte_ belongs the duty of +administering the last consolation to the dying. Whenever they hear of +any person who is dangerously ill, they hasten to the house without +waiting till they are sent for, and they never leave the invalid until +he either recovers or dies. Day and night they sit by the sick-bed, and +scarcely allow themselves time for necessary rest and refreshment. I +have known many of these monks who, from long experience and +observation, but without any medical knowledge, had acquired wonderful +shrewdness in determining the degree of danger in cases of illness, and +who could foretel with almost unfailing certainty the moment of +dissolution. As soon as the patient has breathed his last, the monk +utters a short prayer, then giving the corpse a knock on the nose, he +silently takes his departure. I have frequently witnessed this singular +custom, but I never could discover its origin or motive. The habit worn +by the monks of _Buena Muerte_ is black, with a large red cross on the +breast, and hats with high conical crowns. + +Many pious natives, or inhabitants of Lima, have been admitted among the +number of the saints. Of these the most distinguished was the Spaniard +Toribio, who, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, filled the +archiepiscopal chair in Lima. His kindness and charity have become +proverbial, and his many acts of benevolence are still alive in the +recollection of the people. Of many anecdotes that are related of him, I +may here quote one. Late one night, the patrol who was on duty in the +vicinity of the archbishop's palace, met a man in the street carrying a +heavy load on his back. The challenge, "Who goes there?" was answered by +the name "Toribio." The watch, uttering an oath, impatiently called out +"Que Toribio?" (What Toribio?) "El de la esquina!" (He who dwells at the +corner!) was the simple reply. The soldier angrily stepped up to his +interlocutor, and, to his astonishment, recognized the archbishop, who +was carrying a sick person to the hospital. + +The saint to whom the Limenos render the highest honor, is Santa Rosa, +the saint of the city. She was a native of Lima, and is the only +Peruvian female who has attained the honor of being ranked among the +saints. On the 30th of August, the festival of Santa Rosa is +celebrated with great pomp in the cathedral, and her image, richly +bedecked with gold and jewels, is carried in solemn procession from +Santo Domingo to the Sagrario. + +Religious processions are among the most favorite amusements of the +inhabitants of Lima. They are always very numerously attended; and it +may fairly be said that no merry-making would afford the Limenos so much +diversion as they derive from these pious solemnities. Vast numbers of +ladies join the processions as Tapadas, indulging in all sorts of +coquettish airs, and with thoughts evidently bent on any subject but +religion. The gentlemen station themselves in groups at the corners of +the streets, to admire the graceful figures of the Tapadas, whose faces +are concealed; and when the procession has passed one corner they rush +to another, to see it defile a second time; and in this manner continue +moving from place to place, as if they could never see enough of the +interesting spectacle. The most brilliant processions are those which +take place on the festivals of Corpus Christi, San Francisco, and Santo +Domingo. A very solemn procession takes place on the 28th of October, +the anniversary of the great earthquake of 1746. + +Every morning, at a quarter to nine, the great bell of the cathedral +announces the raising of the host, during the performance of high mass. +Immediately every sound is hushed in the streets and squares. Coachmen +stop the carriages, riders check their horses, and foot-passengers stand +motionless. Every one suspends his occupation or his conversation, and +kneeling down, with head uncovered, mutters a prayer. But scarcely has +the third solemn stroke of the bell ceased to vibrate, when the noise +and movement are resumed; the brief but solemn stillness of the few +preceding moments being thus rendered the more impressive by contrast. +The same incident is renewed in the evening, between six and seven +o'clock, when the bell sounds for the Angelus (Oraciones). The cathedral +bell gives the signal, by three slow, measured sounds, which are +immediately repeated from the belfries of all the churches in Lima. Life +and action are then, as if by an invisible hand, suddenly suspended; +nothing moves but the lips of the pious, whispering their prayers. The +_Oracion_ being ended, every one makes the sign of the cross, and says +to the person nearest him, _Buenas noches_ (Good night). It is regarded +as an act of courtesy to allow another to take precedence in saying +"Good night," and if several persons are together, it is expected that +the eldest or the most distinguished of the group should be the first to +utter the greeting. It is considered polite to request the person next +one to say _Buenas noches_; he with equal civility declines; and the +alternate repetition of "_diga Vm._" (you say it), "_No, Senor, diga +Vm._" (No, Sir, you say it), threatens sometimes to be endless. + +The effect produced by the three strokes of the cathedral bell is truly +astonishing. The half-uttered oath dies on the lips of the uncouth +negro; the arm of the cruel Zambo, unmercifully beating his ass, drops +as if paralyzed; the chattering mulatto seems as if suddenly struck +dumb; the smart repartee of the lively Tapada is cut short in its +delivery; the shopkeeper lays down his measure; the artizan drops his +tool; and the monk suspends his move on the draught-board: all, with one +accord, join in the inaudible prayer. Here and there the sight of a +foreigner walking along indifferently, and without raising his hat, +makes a painful impression on the minds of the people. + +Christmas-night (_Noche buena_) is a great festival in Lima. The streets +and squares, especially the _Plaza Mayor_, are crowded with people, +amusing themselves in all sorts of ways. Hundreds of persons take their +seats on the benches of the Plaza; there they regale themselves with +sherbet, ices, and pastry, and look at the dancing of the negroes, &c. +On this occasion the midnight mass is performed with extraordinary +solemnity. On Christmas-day some of the families of Lima get up what are +called _Nacimientos_, consisting of symbolical representations of the +birth of the Saviour. On some of these shows considerable expense and +ingenuity are bestowed. + +In Carnival time Lima is so unpleasant a place of residence that many +families retire to the country during that season of misrule. One of the +favorite sports consists in sprinkling people with water; and from all +the balconies various kinds of liquids are thrown on the passers-by. +Groups of Negroes post themselves at the corners of the streets, where +they seize people, and detain them prisoners, until they ransom +themselves by the payment of a certain sum of money. Those who do not +pay the money are rolled in the street gutters, and treated in the most +merciless way; whilst those who purchase grace escape with having a few +handfulls of dirty water thrown in their faces. Even in private houses, +relations and intimate acquaintances are guilty of the most +unwarrantable annoyances. Parties of young men enter the houses of +families with whom they are acquainted, and begin sprinkling the ladies +with scented water. That being exhausted, spring water, or even dirty +water, is resorted to, so that what began in sport ends in reckless +rudeness. The ladies, with their clothes dripping wet, are chased from +room to room, and thereby become heated. The consequence is, in many +instances, severe and dangerous illness. Inflammation of the lungs, +ague, rheumatism, &c., are the usual results of these carnival sports, +to which many fall victims. A year never passes in which several murders +are not committed, in revenge for offences perpetrated during the +saturnalia of the carnival. + +A very favorite trick adopted in carnival time, for frightening people +as they pass along the streets, is the following:--a sack, filled with +fragments of broken glass and porcelain, is fastened to the balcony by a +strong rope, of such a length that, when suspended from the window, the +sack is about seven feet above the street. The apparatus being all +ready, a mischievous negress and her _amita_ (young mistress) watch the +passers-by until they select one for their victim. The sack is then +thrown over the front of the balcony, and a deafening crash ensues, +though the rope prevents its contents from hurting any one. It is well +known that in almost every street in Lima there is at least one balcony +ready prepared for the performance of this trick; yet the suddenness of +the crash always proves a shock, even to the strongest nerves. People +start and run to one side of the street, and are sometimes so terrified +that they drop down; then loud laughter and jeering remarks are heard in +the balcony. Every year this trick is prohibited by the police, but the +prohibition is treated with contempt. + +One of the most popular recreations of the Limenos, especially of the +people of color, is the _Paseo de Amancaes_, which takes place on St. +John's Day. The Amancaes is a gently sloping plain, about half a mile +north-west of Lima, and it is bounded by a semicircular range of hills, +which rise from twelve to fifteen thousand feet above the level of the +sea. During the hot months of the year this plain is a parched and +barren waste; but when the misty and rainy season sets in, the Amancaes +is covered with numerous flowers, among which a beautiful yellow lily is +conspicuous. About the end of June this lily is in full bloom. On St. +John's Day booths and stalls are fitted up for the sale of various kinds +of refreshments, and throngs of people of all classes and colors are +seen riding or walking in the direction of the Amancaes. There they +amuse themselves with dancing, playing, eating, drinking, and gathering +flowers; and in the evening they return to Lima. It is amusing to see +the Mulattas and Zambas with bouquets of yellow lilies stuck in their +heads and bosoms. These women crowd into heavily-laden vehicles, beside +which their black cavaliers ride on horseback--all laughing, jesting, +and giving vent to unrestrained mirth. From the 24th of June to the end +of October, pleasure parties repair on Sundays and festival days, either +to the Amancaes or to the Lomas. The latter is a range of hills a little +further from Lima. + +There is no want of promenades in the vicinity of the city. Leading from +the Callao gate is the fine long avenue of trees I have already +mentioned. In the suburb of San Lazaro there is a fine broad promenade +planted with trees, called the _alameda vieja_, at the end of which is +situated the Convent of the Descalzos. Along the bank of the Rimac there +is a new promenade planted with four rows of trees, called the _alameda +nueva_. Behind it the _Paseo militar_, with two rows of trees, extending +as far as _Piedra lisa_, on the road to the pleasant village of +Lurigancho. On the right of these promenades is the river, on the left +the pyramidal hill, of the Cerro de San Cristoval. At the extremity of +the Alameda nueva are the Puquio.[32] These baths are within a long +low-roofed building, covered on the top with straw mats. + +On summer evenings the bridge and the Plaza Mayor are visited by +throngs of promenaders who there enjoy the refreshing breeze, which, +after sunset, is wafted from the Cordilleras, along the surface of the +Rimac. After the hour of the _Oraciones_ (evening prayers), the bridge +is crowded with gentlemen, who walk up and down whilst the ladies sit +in the rotundas built above each of the piers. Long rows of +promenaders are seen moving to and fro, either going to the Alamedas, +or returning from thence to the Plaza, to obtain refreshments. Before +the Portal de los Escribanos, on the Plaza Mayor, tables are laid out +with lemonade, almond milk and ices. The promenaders sit down on +benches, which are placed round these tables, and partake of +refreshments, none of which, however, are so delicious as the cool +breeze after the sultry heat of the day. + +To the inhabitants of Lima, ice is one of the necessaries of life: it is +considered so indispensable, that a scarcity of it, during several days, +would be sufficient to excite popular ferment. In all revolutions, +therefore, the leaders carefully avoid calling into requisition the +service of the mules employed in the transport of ice. It is obtained in +the Cordilleras, at the distance of about twenty-eight leagues from +Lima. The Indians who ascend the glaciers break the ice into blocks of +about six arobas in weight, which are lowered by ropes down the +declivity of the mountain. The women and children then cover the blocks +of ice with Ichu grass (_Joara ichu_, R. P.), after which they are drawn +by another party of Indians to a depot, about two leagues distant, where +they are packed on the backs of mules. Each mule carries two blocks. +Thirty mules form what is called a _Recua_, which daily proceeds from +the ice depot to Lima. At intervals of two or three miles there are +stations where relays of mules are in readiness. The operations of +unloading and reloading are performed with the utmost possible speed, +and the mules are driven at a brisk trot, wherever the roads will admit +of it. In the space of eighteen or twenty hours, the ice reaches Lima, +and as may be expected, considerably reduced in weight by melting. The +average loss on two blocks of ice is about one hundred pounds.[33] The +daily consumption of ice in Lima is between fifty and fifty-five cwt. +About two-thirds of that quantity is used for preparing ices, most of +which are made of milk or pine-apple juice. Ice is hawked about the +streets of Lima for sale, and all day long Indians, carrying pails on +their heads, perambulate the streets, crying _helado_. + +The ladies of Lima, when they make visits, seldom go on foot. They +generally ride in the _caleza_, a very ugly kind of vehicle, being +nothing more than a square box raised on two high wheels, and drawn +by a mule, on whose back a negro in livery is mounted. Many of the +older calezas, instead of being painted on the outside, are covered +with variegated paper. The calezin is a prettier kind of carriage, +and is drawn by two horses or mules. Taste in the article of carriages +is, however, improving in Lima, and several very elegant ones have +been recently introduced. + +Within the last few years a regular line of omnibuses has been +established between Callao and Lima. From each of those cities an +omnibus starts daily, at eight in the morning and at four in the +afternoon, and the journey occupies an hour and a half. To Miraflores, +Chorillos, Lurin, and other places on the coast, the conveyance is by +a _balanzin_, a sort of caleza, drawn by three horses harnessed +abreast. This balanzin is one of the most awkward vehicles ever +invented, and the slightest shock it sustains is felt with double +force by the persons riding in it. At greater distances from the +capital, the want of proper roads renders the employment of vehicles a +matter of difficulty. Even along the coast to the south of Lima, a +journey of about forty leagues cannot be accomplished without vast +difficulty and expense. On such a journey it is usual for a train of +sixty or eighty horses to accompany the carriage; and it is found +necessary to change the horses every half-hour, owing to the +difficulty of drawing the carriage through the fine quicksand, which +is often more than a foot deep. A Peruvian planter, who was accustomed +to take his wife every year on a visit to his plantation, situated +about thirty-two leagues from Lima, assured me that the journey to and +fro always cost him 1400 dollars. + +During the brilliant period of the Spanish domination, incredible sums +were frequently expended on carriages and mules. Not unfrequently the +tires of the caleza wheels and the shoes of the mules were of silver +instead of iron. + +In Peru, riding is a universal custom, and almost every person keeps +one or more horses. The ladies of Lima are distinguished as graceful +horsewomen. Their equestrian costume consists of a white riding-habit, +trowsers richly trimmed with lace, a fine white poncho, and a +broad-brimmed straw hat. Some of the females of the colored races make +use of men's saddles, and display great skill in the management of the +most unruly horses. + +The horse-trappings used in Peru are often very costly. On the coast and +in the interior, I have sometimes seen head-gear, bridle, and crupper, +composed of finely-wrought silver rings, linked one into another. The +saddle is frequently ornamented with rich gold embroidery, and the +holster inlaid with gold. The stirrups are usually the richest portion +of the trappings. They are made of carved wood, and are of pyramidal +shape; about a foot high and a foot broad at the base. In front and at +the sides they are close, and are open only at the back in the part +where the foot rests. The edges are rimmed with silver, and the top of +the stirrup is surmounted by a bell of the same metal, with a ring +through which the straps are passed. A priest with whom I was acquainted +in the Sierra, got a saddle and a pair of stirrups made for me. The +silver ornaments on the stirrups alone weighed forty pounds. The +decorations of the saddle were of corresponding richness. The value of +the silver on both saddle and stirrups was about 1500 dollars. The spurs +used in Peru are of colossal magnitude. Old custom ordains that they +must contain three marks (a pound and a half) of silver. The stirrup-bow +is broad and richly wrought; the ornaments being either of the pattern +called _hueso de tollo_,[34] or of that styled _hoja de laurel con +semilla_.[35] The rowel is one and a half or two inches in diameter, and +the points are about twenty-five or thirty inches long. + +In the bridle, the bit and the snaffle are in one piece, and the reins +are brought together by being passed through a ring, to which the long +riding-whip is also fastened. The head-band and reins are commonly +composed of narrow slips of untanned calf or sheep-skin, plaited +together, and ornamented with silver buckles. The saddle is short and +narrow, and exceedingly awkward to riders unaccustomed to it. The front +bolster is four or five inches high, and inclines backward; the hind one +is lower, and is curved forward in the form of a half-moon; the +intervening space just affording sufficient room for the thighs of the +rider, who, in a saddle of this construction, is so firmly fixed that he +cannot possibly fall. These saddles have, however, one great +disadvantage, viz., that if the horse starts off at a gallop, and the +rider has not time to throw himself back in his seat, he is forced +against the front saddle-bolster with such violence that some fatal +injury is usually the consequence. Under the saddle is laid a +horse-cloth, called the _pellon_, about a yard long, and a yard and a +half wide. The common sort of pellones are composed of two rough +sheep-skins, sewed together. In the finer kind, the raw wool is combed +out, and divided into numberless little twists, of about the length of +one's finger; so that the pellon resembles the skin of some +long-haired animal. The finest Peruvian pellones are made of a mixture +of sheep's wool and goat's hair. Between the saddle and the pellon are +fastened the saddle-bags (_alforjas_), which, on long journeys, are +filled with provisions and other necessaries. These bags are made +either of leather or strong woollen cloth; finally, the trappings of a +Peruvian horse are not complete without the halter (_haquima_), which +is ornamented in the same manner as the bridle. The halter-strap +(_cabresto_) is wound round the front bolster of the saddle, and by it +the horse may be fastened whenever the rider alights, without the use +of the reins for that purpose. At first a foreigner is apt to regard +the equipments of a Peruvian horse as superfluous and burthensome; but +he is soon convinced of their utility, and, when the eye becomes +familiar to them, they have a pleasing effect. + +The pure-bred Peruvian horse is more elegantly formed than his +Andalusian progenitor. He is of middling size, seldom exceeding +fourteen hands high. He has a strong expanded chest, slender legs, +thin pasterns, a short muscular neck, a rather large head, small +pointed ears, and a fiery eye. He is spirited, docile, and enduring. +It is only in a few plantations that the purity of the race is +preserved, and the animals fostered with due care. The common horse is +higher, leaner, less broad on the chest, and with the crupper thinner +and more depressed. He is, however, not less fiery and capable of +endurance than the horse of pure breed. The most inferior horses are +ill-looking, small, and rough-skinned. + +On the coast of Peru the horses are for the most part natural amblers, +and, if they do not amble naturally, they are taught to do so. There are +several varieties of amble peculiar to the Peruvian horse; the most +approved is that called the _paso llano_. It is very rapid, but not +attended by any jolting motion to the rider. A well-trained horse may +safely be ridden by a young child at the _paso llano_; the motion being +so gentle and regular, that the rider may carry a cup of water in his +hand without spilling a drop, at the same time going at the rate of two +leagues an hour. Another variety of ambling is called the _paso +portante_. It consists in the fore and hind foot of one side being +raised simultaneously, and thrust forward. In this movement, the greater +or less speed depends on the degree in which the hind foot is advanced +in comparison with the fore one. It is a rapid, rocking sort of motion, +and for long continuance is much more wearying to the rider than the +common trot, as the body cannot be held upright, but must be kept in a +constant stooping position. The speed of a good ambler in the _paso +portante_ is so great, that he will outstrip another horse at full +gallop. The giraffe, as well as the Peruvian horse, has this peculiar +movement naturally. The _paso companero_ is merely a nominal +modification of the _paso portante_. Many horses have no _paso llano_, +but in its stead a short trot. These have naturally the _paso portante_, +but they are little esteemed for travelling, though they are good +working animals. They are called _cavallos aguelillos_. Trotting horses +cannot be taught the _paso llano_, though they easily acquire the _paso +portante_. These are called _cavallos trabados_. + +In Peru a horse is valued less for beauty of form than for the +perfection of his amble. The finest trotters are sold at very low +prices, and are used exclusively as carriage horses. If a horse when +spurred has the habit of flapping his tail, it is considered a serious +fault, and greatly depreciates the value of the animal. This vice is +called _mosquear_ (literally brushing off the mosquitoes), and the +Peruvians cure it by an incision in the muscle of the tail, by which +means the horse is disabled from making the movement. + +The Peruvians take very little care of their horses. The remark, that +the more the horse is tended, the worse he is, would seem to be a +generally admitted truth in Peru. The stable (_coral_) is either totally +roofless, or very indifferently sheltered. In the mountainous parts of +the country, and during the rainy season, horses are frequently, for the +space of six months, up to their knees in mud, and yet they never seem +to be the worse for it. The fodder consists of lucern (_alfalfa_), or +maisillo, which is usually thrown down on the ground, though sometimes +placed in a stone trough, and the drink of the animals consists of +impure water collected from the ditches at the road sides. Occasionally +the horses are fed with maize, which they are very fond of. As no oats +are grown in Peru, barley is given together with maize, especially in +the interior of the country. Mares and geldings have sometimes the hair +between the ears cut off quite closely, and the mane arranged in short +curls, which gives them a resemblance to the horses in ancient +sculpture. Mares are but little valued, so little indeed, that no +respectable person will ride one. + +The horse-breakers (_chalanes_) are generally free men of color. They +possess great bodily vigor, and understand their business thoroughly; +but they use the horses very cruelly, and thereby render them shy. For +the first three years foals are suffered to roam about with perfect +freedom; after that time they are saddled, an operation not performed +without great difficulty, and sometimes found to be impracticable, +until the animal is thrown on the ground and his limbs tied. The young +horse under the management of the _chalan_ is trained in all sorts of +equestrian feats, especially the art of pirouetting (_voltear_). This +consists in turning either wholly or half round on the hind legs with +great rapidity and when at full gallop. Another important object of +the _chalan_ is to teach the horse to stop short suddenly, and to +stand perfectly motionless (_sentarse_) at the signal of his rider; +and to go backward (_cejar_) for a considerable space in a straight +line. When all this is accomplished, the horse is regarded as +completely broken (_quebrantado_). + +As an instance of the certainty with which a Peruvian horse will make a +pirouette (_voltata_) at the signal of his rider, I may mention the +following fact, which occurred under my own observation. A friend of +mine, in Lima, rode at full gallop up to the city wall (which is +scarcely nine feet broad), leaped upon it, and then made his horse +perform a complete _voltata_, so that the fore-feet of the animal +described the segment of a circle beyond the edge of the wall. The feat +he performed several times in succession, and he assured me he could do +the same with all his horses. + +Peruvian taste requires that the neck of the horse should present a +finely-curved outline, and that the mouth should be drawn inward, so as +to approach the breast. The horses called _Cavallos_ de Brazo are much +esteemed. At every step they describe a large circle with their +fore-feet, in such a manner that the horse-shoe strikes the lower part +of the stirrup. This motion is exceedingly beautiful when combined with +what is termed the "Spanish pace," in which the noble form of the animal +and his proud bearing are advantageously displayed. + +The mule is a very important animal in Peru. The badness of the roads +would render commercial communication impracticable, were it not for +mules. The Peruvian mules are fine, strong animals. The best are reared +in Piura, and sent to Lima for sale. The amblers are selected for the +saddle, the trotters for harness, and the rest are used as beasts of +burthen. The price of a mule of middling quality is one hundred dollars; +a better one double or treble that price; and the very best may even +cost ten times as much. The endurance of these animals under fatigue and +indifferent nurture is extraordinary, and without them the vast sand +plains of Peru would present insuperable obstacles to intercourse +between one place and another. In the power of continuous ambling they +exceed the horses, and are often equal to them in speed. + +In Lima there is a public lottery, which the Government farms to a +private individual, for a considerable sum. The tickets are drawn +weekly. The price of a ticket is one real. The largest prize is 1000 +dollars; the smaller prizes 500, 250, or 100 dollars. A lottery on a +larger scale is drawn every three months. The highest prize in this +lottery is 4000 dollars, and the price of the ticket is four reals. To +every ticket is affixed a motto, usually consisting of an invocation to +a saint, and a prayer for good luck, and at the drawing of the lottery +this motto is read aloud when the number of the ticket is announced. Few +of the inhabitants of Lima fail to buy at least one ticket in the weekly +lottery. The negroes are particularly fond of trying their luck in this +way, and in many instances fortune has been singularly kind to them. + +"Eating and drinking keep soul and body together." So says the German +proverb; and it may not be uninteresting to take a glance at the Limenos +during their performance of these two important operations. The hour of +breakfast is generally nine in the morning. The meal consists of boiled +mutton (_Sancochado_), soup (_Caldo_), with yuccas, a very +pleasant-tasted root, and _Chupe_. This last-mentioned dish consists, in +its simplest form, merely of potatoes boiled in very salt water, with +cheese and Spanish pepper. When the chupe is made in better style, eggs, +crabs, and fried fish are added to the ingredients already named; and it +is then a very savory dish. Chocolate and milk are afterwards served. A +negress brings the _Chocolatera_ into the breakfast-room, and pours out +a cup full for each person. The natives prefer the froth to the actual +beverage; and many of the negresses are such adepts in the art of +pouring out, that they will make the cup so overflow with foam, that it +contains scarcely a spoonful of liquid. Chocolate is the favorite +beverage of the Peruvians. In the southern parts of the country it is +customary to offer it to visitors at all hours of the day. The visitor +is no sooner seated than he is presented with a cup of coffee, which is +often so thick that the spoon will stand upright in it. It would be a +breach of politeness to decline this refreshment, and whether agreeable +or not it must be swallowed! + +The best cocoa is obtained from the Montanas of Urubamba, and from the +Bolivian Yungas. The long land transport, however, renders it very +dear, and therefore the nuts brought from Guayaquil are those commonly +used in Lima. + +Dinner, which takes place about two or three in the afternoon, commences +with a very insipid kind of soup. This is followed by the _Puchero_, +which is the principal dish. Puchero, made in its best style, contains +beef, pork, bacon, ham, sausage, poultry, cabbage, yuccas, camotes (a +sort of sweet potato), potatoes, rice, peas, _choclitas_ (grains of +maize), quince and banana. When served up, the different kinds of meat +are placed in one dish, and the vegetable ingredients in another. I was +at first astonished at the poorness of the soups in Lima, considering +the quantity of meat used in preparing them; but I soon discovered that +the soup served up to table was little more than water, and that the +strong gravy of the meat was either thrown away or given to the negroes. +There prevails an almost universal belief that the liquor in which the +meat is first stewed is injurious to health. Only a very few families +are sufficiently free from this prejudice to allow the strong gravy to +be used in the preparation of _caldo_, &c. The Puchero is an excellent +and nutritious dish, and would in itself suffice for a dinner, to which, +however, in Lima, it is merely the introduction. Roast meat, fish, +vegetables, preserves and salad are afterwards served. Another dish not +less indispensable to a Lima dinner than _puchero_, is _picante_. Under +this denomination are included a variety of preparations, in which a +vast quantity of cayenne pepper is introduced. The most favorite +_picantes_ are the _calapulcra_, the _lagua_, the _zango_, the +_charquican_, the _adobas_, the _picante de ullucos_, &c. The +_calapulcra_ is composed of meat and potatoes dried and finely pounded; +the _lagua_ is made of maize flour and pork; the _zango_, of the same +ingredients, but differently prepared; the _adobas_ consists of pork +alone; and the _picante de ullucos_ is made of a root resembling the +potato, cut into small square bits. These dishes, though much too highly +seasoned for European palates, are considered great dainties by the +Limenos. All the _picantes_ have a very red color, owing to the quantity +of cayenne used in preparing them; the _achote_ grains, which are also +used, produce a beautiful vermilion tint. Another dish, common on the +dinner-table in Lima, is called _ensalada de frutas_. It is a most +heterogeneous compound, consisting of all sorts of fruits stewed in +water. To none but a Limanian stomach could such a mixture be agreeable. +The dessert consists of fruits and sweets (_dulces_). The Limeno must +always drink a glass of water after dinner, otherwise he imagines the +repast can do him no good; but to warrant the drinking of the water, or, +as the phrase is, _para tomar agua_, it is necessary first to partake of +_dulces_. The one without the other would be quite contrary to rule. The +dulces consist of little cakes made of honey or of the pulp of the +sugar-cane; or they are preserved fruits, viz., pine-apple, quince, +citron, and sometimes preserved beans or cocoa-nut. There is also a +favorite kind of dulce made from maize, called _masamora_. + +The Peruvians have some very singular prejudices on the subject of +eating and drinking. Every article of food is, according to their +notions, either heating (_caliente_), or cooling (_frio_); and they +believe that certain things are in opposition one to another, or, as the +Limenos phrase it, _se oponen_. The presence in the stomach of two of +these opposing articles of food, for example, chocolate and rice, is +believed to be highly dangerous, and sometimes fatal. It is amusing to +observe the Limenos when at dinner, seriously reflecting, before they +taste a particular dish, whether it is in opposition to something they +have already eaten. If they eat rice at dinner, they refrain from +drinking water, because the two things _se oponen_. To such an extreme +is this notion carried, that they will not taste rice on days when they +have to wash, and laundresses never eat it. Frequently have I been asked +by invalids whether it would be safe for them to take a foot-bath on +going to bed, as they had eaten rice at dinner! + +The white Creoles, as well as all the superior class of people in Lima, +are exceedingly temperate in drinking. Water and a kind of sweet wine +are their favorite beverage; but the lower classes and the people of +color are by no means so abstemious. They make free use of fermented +drinks, especially brandy, chicha, and guarapo. The brandy of Peru is +very pure, and is prepared exclusively from the grape. On the warm sea +coast, the use of this liquor is not very injurious; there, its evil +effects are counteracted by profuse perspiration. But one half the +quantity that may be drunk with impunity on the coast, will be very +pernicious in the cool mountainous regions. An old and very just maxim +of the Jesuits is, "_En pais caliente, aguardiente; en pais frio, agua +fria_" (in the warm country, brandy; in the cold country, water). + +Guarapo is a fermented liquor, made of sugar-cane pulp and water. It +is a very favorite beverage of the negroes. There are several kinds of +guarapo. The best sorts are tolerably agreeable. _Chicha_ is a sort of +beer prepared from maize. The seeds of the maize are watered and left +until they begin to sprout, after which they are dried in the sun. +When sufficiently dry they are crushed, boiled in water, and then +allowed to stand till fermentation takes place. The liquid is of a +dark yellow color, and has a slightly bitter and sharp taste. Chicha +is likewise made from rice, peas, barley, yuccas, pine-apples, and +even bread. The kind most generally used is that made from maize. Even +before the Spanish conquest of Peru, this maize beer was the common +beverage of the Indians. In Lima there are some very dirty and +ill-arranged _restaurations_, styled _picanterias_. These places are +divided by partitions into several small compartments, each of which +contains a table and two benches. The _restaurateur_, usually a zambo +or a mulatto, prides himself in the superiority of his _picantes_ and +his _clicha_. The most motley assemblages frequent these places in the +evening. The Congo negro, the grave Spaniard, the white Creole, the +Chino, together with monks and soldiers, may be seen, all grouped +together, and devouring with evident relish refreshments, served out +in a way not remarkable for cleanliness. Brandy and guarapo are +likewise sold in shops which are to be met with at the corner of +almost every street. The coffee-houses are very inferior; most of +them are very dirty, and the attendance is wretched. + +Every street in Lima contains one or more cigar shops, in which +mestizos and mulattos are busily employed in making cigars. Smoking is +a universal custom, and is practised everywhere except in the +churches. The cigars used in Lima are short, and the tobacco is rolled +in paper, or in dried maize leaves. The tobacco is brought from the +northern province, Jaen de Bracamoras, in very hard rolls called +_masos_, about a yard long and two inches thick. Another kind of +cigars is made of Peruvian or Columbian tobacco. They are scarcely +inferior to the Havannah cigars, and would be quite equal to them, if +they were kept long enough and well dried: but in Lima they are smoked +within a few hours after being made. When any one wants to light his +cigar in the street, he accosts the first smoker he happens to meet, +whatever be his color, rank, or condition; and asks him for a light. +The slave smokes in the presence of his master, and when his cigar +dies out, he unceremoniously asks leave to relight it at his master's. +It has been calculated that the daily cost of the cigars smoked in +Lima and the immediate vicinity amounts to 2,300 dollars. + +Formerly the market was held on the Plaza Mayor, and was always +abundantly supplied with vegetables, fruit, and flowers. Now it is +held in the Plazuela de la Inquisicion, and it is very inferior to +what it used to be. Along the sides of the Plaza are stalls kept by +women, who sell sausages and fish. The central part of the market is +appropriated to the sale of vegetables, of which there is always an +excellent supply. Facing the Palace of the Inquisition are the +butchers' shops. The meat is good, though not very plentifully +displayed. The most abundant kinds of meat are mutton and beef. The +slaughtering of young animals being strictly prohibited by law, veal, +lamb, and sucking pigs are never seen in the market. The daily +consumption of butcher's meat in Lima is about twenty-eight or thirty +heads of horned cattle, and between one hundred and sixty and two +hundred sheep. Pork, neither fresh nor cured, is seen in the market; +though great numbers of swine are slaughtered. The fleshy parts of the +animal are cut into small square pieces, and boiled; the fat or lard +is used in cookery, and the pieces of pork, which are spread over with +lard, are called _chicharones_, and are held in high esteem by +Limanian epicures. There is an abundant show of poultry in the market, +especially fowls and turkeys, which are brought from Huacho. Game is +never sold, and but very little is obtained in the neighborhood of +Lima. The flower market, which is held on the Plaza Mayor, is but +sparingly supplied with the gifts of Flora. The ladies of Lima recal +pleasing recollections of the former glory of their flower market, and +speak with regret of its present degenerate condition. The +much-vaunted _pucheros de flores_ are still occasionally displayed for +sale. They are composed of a union of fragrant fruits and flowers. +Several small fruits are laid on a banana leaf, and above them are +placed odoriferous flowers, tastefully arranged according to their +colors: the whole is surmounted with a strawberry, and is profusely +sprinkled with _agua rica_, or lavender water. These _pucheros_ are +very pleasing to the eye, on account of the tasteful arrangement of +the flowers; but their powerful fragrance affects the nerves. They +vary in price, according to the rarity of the fruits and flowers of +which they are composed. Some cost as much as six or eight dollars. +A _puchero de flores_ is one of the most acceptable presents that +can be offered to a Lima lady. + +A mingled feeling of disgust and surprise takes possession of the +European who witnesses the joy which pervades all classes of the +inhabitants of Lima on the announcement of a bull-fight. For several +days the event is the exclusive topic of conversation, and, strange to +say, the female portion of the population takes greater interest in it +than the men. Bills notifying the approaching entertainment are stuck up +at the corners of the streets; and every one is anxious to obtain a +_lista de los toros_. When the season of the toros[36] commences, a +bull-fight takes place every Monday, and then the whole city of Lima is +thrown into a state of indescribable excitement. The ladies prepare +their finest dresses for the occasion, and they consider it the greatest +possible misfortune if anything occurs to prevent them going to the +bull-fight: indeed, a Monday passed at home in the season of the toros +would be regarded as a lost day in the life of a Limena. Those who +cannot go to the _corrida_, resort to the bridge, or to the Alameda, +where they sit and amuse themselves by looking at the throngs of people +passing and repassing. + +In the time of the Viceroys, bull-fights frequently took place on the +Plaza Mayor. Now there is a place expressly built for these +entertainments, called the _Plaza firme del Acho_. It is a spacious +amphitheatre without a roof, and is erected at the end of the new avenue +of the Alameda. The preparations for the sport commence at an early hour +in the morning. Along the Alameda are placed rows of tables covered with +refreshments, consisting of lemonade, brandy, chicha, picantes, fish, +dulces, &c. About twelve o'clock, those who have engaged places in the +amphitheatre begin to move towards the Plaza del Acho. + +Most European ladies would turn with horror, even from a description +of these cruel sports, which the ladies of Lima gaze on with delight. +They are barbarous diversions, and though they form a part of national +customs, they are nevertheless a national disgrace. At the same time +it would be unjust to make this love of bull-fighting a ground for +unqualified censure on the Limenos, or a reason for accusing them of +an utter want of humanity. Being accustomed to these diversions from +early childhood, they regard them with perfect indifference; and +custom, no doubt, blinds them to the cruelties they witness in the +bull-ring. The same extenuation may be urged in behalf of the women: +and though to most of the Limenas a bull-fight affords the highest +possible gratification, yet there are some who form honorable +exceptions to this remark, and who, with true feminine feeling, shrink +with horror from such scenes. + +Peru is the only one of the South American states in which bull-fights +are included in the category of public amusements. As Peru was the last +to answer the cry of independence, and to shake off the yoke of Spanish +domination, so she adheres with most tenacity to the customs of the +mother country; for she has not the energy requisite for developing a +nationality of her own. Even here is apparent that want of independence +of character for which the Peruvians are remarkable. The faults of the +Spaniards in them become vices, because, in imitating without +reflecting, they push everything to an extreme. Thus, if bull-fights are +cruel in Spain, they are barbarous in Lima. The government, too, finds +it expedient to court popularity by favoring public entertainments, +among which bull-fights take the lead. By allowing the people to indulge +unrestrainedly in all their favorite amusements, the government gains a +two-fold object, viz., that of securing the support, if not the love of +the people, and of averting public attention from political affairs. +These, it must be confessed, are important objects in a country which, +like Peru, is continually disturbed by revolutions caused by the +outbreaks of a turbulent populace, or an undisciplined army. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 31: A very small number in a population of 55,000.] + +[Footnote 32: _Puquio_ in the Quichua language signifies springs.] + +[Footnote 33: These fine blocks of ice clearly refute the assertion +made by some travellers, that the first real glaciers are found in +19 deg. S. lat. The extensive fields of ice from which the blocks in +question are brought are situated in 11 deg. 14' S. lat.] + +[Footnote 34: A sort of arabesque resembling the backbone of a fish +called the _Tollo_.] + +[Footnote 35: Laurel leaves and seed.] + +[Footnote 36: _Toros_ (Bulls) is used by way of contraction for +_Corrida de Toros_ (Bull Course).] + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +Geographical Situation of Lima--Height above Sea +level--Temperature--Diseases--Statistical Tables of Births and +Deaths--Earthquakes--The Valley of Lima--The River Rimac--Aqueducts, +Trenches, &c.--Irrigation--Plantations--Cotton--Sugar--Various +kinds of Grain--Maize--Potatoes, and other tuberous +roots--Pulse--Cabbage--Plants used for Seasoning--Clover--The Olive +and other Oil Trees--Fruits--Figs and Grapes--The Chirimoya--The +Palta--The Banana and other Fruits. + + +Lima, according to the careful observations made by Herr Scholtz, is +situated in 12 deg. 3' 24'' south latitude, and 77 deg. 8' 30'' west longitude +from Greenwich. It may, however, be mentioned that the longitude from +Greenwich is very differently stated. In sea charts and Manuals of +Geography it is often marked 76 deg. 50'. Humboldt makes it 77 deg. 5' 5''; and +Malaspina 77 deg. 6' 45''. According to Ulloa it is 70 deg. 37' west of Cadiz. +The latitude is very generally fixed at 12 deg. 2' 3'' south. The height +above the level of the sea is also differently estimated. Rivero, in the +_Memorial de Ciencias Naturales_, I., 2, page 112, states it to be 154 +metres, or 462 French feet. On another occasion he makes it 184-4/5 +Castilian varas (each vara being equal to 33 inches English). He gives +the following account of heights, according to the barometer, between +Callao and Lima, in varas, viz., Callao, 00; Baquijano, 24-3/5; _La +Legua_, 50-2/5; Mirones, 94-3/20; Portada del Callao, 150; _Plaza de +Lima_, 184-4/5. + +The first estimate given by Rivero is the most correct. Gay makes the +height of Lima, at the corner of the church of _Espiritu Santo_, 172.2 +Castilian varas; but most of his heights are incorrectly stated. + +The conical hill in the north-east of Lima, called Cerro de San +Cristoval, is, according to trigonometrical measurements, made in 1737, +by Don Jorge Juon, and De la Condamines, 312 varas higher than the Plaza +Mayor, or 134 toises above the sea; but one of the most exact +measurements is Pentland's, who found the height to be 1275 English +feet. + +The average temperature during the hottest period of the year, from +December to March, is 25 deg. C. The medium temperature during the cold +season, from April to November, 17.5 deg. C. Highest rise of the hygrometer, +21.5 deg.. + +The low temperature of Lima at the distance of only twelve degrees from +the Equator is to be ascribed to the situation of the town, and the +prevailing atmospheric currents. The Cordilleras, rising at the distance +of only twenty-eight Spanish leagues east of the city, are crowned with +eternal snow; and on the west the sea is distant only two leagues. The +prevailing wind blows from the south-south-west. West winds are not very +common, though they sometimes blow with extraordinary violence for those +regions, and breaking on the surrounding mountains, they form +atmospheric whirlwinds, which diffuse alarm through the whole +population. In June, 1841, I had the opportunity of observing one of +these dreadful whirlwinds, which swept away huts, and tore up trees by +the roots. The atmospheric currents from the north, which pass over the +hot sand-flats, are not of constant occurrence, but they are +oppressively sultry. There must be other causes for the low temperature +of Lima, for in the villages, only a few miles from the city, and +exposed to the same atmospheric influences, it is much higher. + +Miraflores is a small place, about one Spanish league and a half from +Lima, but it is much hotter. Among the records of the thermometer are +the following:-- + + December 20 to 27, maximum 31.8 deg. C.; minimum, 25.9 deg. C. + + December 28, at 6 in the morning, 26.0 deg. C.; at 2 P.M., 32.7 deg. C.; + at 10 at night, 27.3 deg. C. + + January 1, at 2 P.M., 33.1 deg. C., maximum of the day. + + January 18, at 2 P.M., maximum 34.2 deg. C. + +A comparison with the temperature of Lima, on the same days, gives an +average of 5.7 deg. C. of heat in favor of Miraflores. + +The River Rimac, which rises among the glaciers of the Cordilleras, and +after a course of no great length, intersects the city, doubtless +contributes to cool the atmosphere. + +The climate of Lima is agreeable, but not very healthy. During six +months, from April to October, a heavy, damp, but not cold mist, +overhangs the city. The summer is always hot, but not oppressive. The +transition from one season to another is gradual, and almost +imperceptible. In October and November the misty canopy begins to rise; +it becomes thinner, and yields to the penetrating rays of the sun. In +April the horizon begins to resume the misty veil. The mornings are cool +and overcast, but the middle of the day is clear. In a few weeks after, +the brightness of noon also disappears. The great humidity gives rise to +many diseases, particularly fevers, and the alternations from heat to +damp cause dysentery. On an average, the victims to this disease are +very numerous. It is endemic, and becomes, at apparently regular but +distant periods, epidemic. The intermittent fevers or agues, called +_tercianos_, are throughout the whole of Peru very dangerous, both +during their course and in their consequences. It may be regarded as +certain that two-thirds of the people of Lima are suffering at all times +from _tercianos_, or from the consequences of the disease. It usually +attacks foreigners, not immediately on their arrival in Lima, but some +years afterwards. In general the tribute of acclimation is not so soon +paid by emigrants in Lima as in other tropical regions. + +In consequence of the ignorance of the medical attendants, and the +neglect of the police, the statistical tables of deaths are very +imperfectly drawn up, and therefore cannot be entirely depended upon. +I may, however, here subjoin one of them, which will afford the reader +some idea of the mortality of Lima. + +The annual number of deaths in Lima varies from 2,500 to 2,800. + +In the ten months, from the 1st of January to the 30th of October, 1841, +the number of marriages was 134, of which 46 were contracted by whites, +and 88 by people of color. + + + DEATHS IN LIMA FROM JANUARY 1, TO OCTOBER 30, 1841:- + + Diseases. Men. Women. Children. Total. + + Dysentery 171 105 59 335 + Fevers, chiefly intermittent 57 88 71 216 + Typhus 14 7 24 45 + Pulmonary Consumption 87 110 11 208 + Inflammation of the Lungs 78 75 26 179 + Dropsy, for the most part a + consequence of intermittent fevers 33 32 7 72 + Hooping-cough 36 36 + Small Pox 3 1 4 + Sudden death 23 13 1 37 + Shot 3 3 + Various Diseases 271 228 610 1,109 + --- --- --- ----- + 740 658 846 2,244 + + +The number of births were:-- + + + Boys. Girls. Total. + + In marriage 410 412 822 + Not in marriage 432 428 860 + --- --- ----- + 842 840 1,682 + + +The number of births not in marriage (860) is remarkable, and no less so +is the number of dead children exposed, which, during the above +interval, was 495. These are most decided proofs of the immorality and +degraded state of manners prevailing in Lima, particularly among the +colored part of the population. Though there is no certain evidence of +the fact, yet there is reason to conjecture that a considerable number +of those infants are destroyed by the mothers. Of the children born out +of marriage, nearly two-thirds, and of those exposed dead, full +four-fifths are Mulattos. + +The important annual surplus of deaths over births is a matter of +serious consideration for Lima. The above tables show, in the course of +ten months, a surplus of 562 deaths. By a comparison of the lists of +births and deaths from 1826 to 1842, I find that on an average there are +annually 550 more deaths than births. It would lead me too far to +endeavor to investigate all the grounds of this disparity, but I may +observe that one of the causes, unquestionably, is the common, though +punishable crime of producing abortion. + +Along the whole coast of Peru the atmosphere is almost uniformly in a +state of repose. It is not illuminated by the lightning's flash, or +disturbed by the roar of the thunder: no deluges of rain, no fierce +hurricanes destroy the fruits of the fields, and with them the hopes of +the husbandman. Even fire appears here to have lost its annihilating +power, and the work of human hands seems to be sacred from its +attack.[37] But the mildness of the elements above ground is frightfully +counterbalanced by their subterranean fury. + +Lima is frequently visited by earthquakes, and several times the city +has been reduced to a mass of ruins. At an average forty-five shocks may +be counted on in a year. Most of them occur in the latter part of +October, in November, December, January, May, and June. Experience gives +reason to expect the visitation of two desolating earthquakes in a +century. The period between the two is from forty to sixty years. The +most considerable catastrophes experienced in Lima since Europeans have +visited the west coast of South America, happened in the years 1586, +1630, 1687, 1713, 1746, 1806. There is reason to fear that in the course +of a few years this city may be the prey of another such visitation. + +The slighter shocks are sometimes accompanied by a noise; at other +times, they are merely perceptible by the motion of the earth. The +subterraneous noises are manifold. For the most part they resemble the +rattling of a heavy loaded wagon, driven rapidly over arches. They +usually accompany the shock, seldom precede it, and only in a few +cases do they follow it; sounding like distant thunder. On one +occasion the noise appeared to me like a groan from the depth of the +earth, accompanied by sounds like the crepitation of wood in +partitions when an old house is consumed by fire. + +Of the movements, the horizontal vibrations are the most frequent, and +they cause the least damage to the slightly-built habitations. Vertical +shocks are most severe; they rend the walls, and raise the houses out of +their foundations. The greatest vertical shock I ever felt was on the +4th of July, 1839, at half-past seven in the evening, when I was in the +old forests of the Chanchamoyo territory. Before my hut there was an +immense stem of a felled tree, which lay with its lower end on the stump +of the root. I was leaning against it and reading, when suddenly, by a +violent movement, the stem rose about a foot and a half, and I was +thrown backwards over it. By the same shock the neighboring river, +Aynamayo, was dislodged from its bed, and its course thereby changed for +a considerable length of way. + +I have had no experience of the rotatory movements of earthquakes. +According to the statements of all who have observed them, they are very +destructive, though uncommon. In Lima I have often felt a kind of +concussion, which accords with that term in the strictest sense of the +word. This movement had nothing in common with what may be called an +oscillation, a shock, or a twirl: it was a passing sensation, similar to +that which is felt when a man seizes another unexpectedly by the +shoulder, and shakes him; or like the vibration felt on board a ship +when the anchor is cast, at the moment it strikes the ground. I believe +it is caused by short, rapid, irregular horizontal oscillations. The +irregularity of the vibrations is attended by much danger, for very +slight earthquakes of that kind tear away joists from their joinings, +and throw down roofs, leaving the walls standing, which, in all other +kinds of commotion, usually suffer first, and most severely. + +Humboldt says that the regularity of the hourly variations of the +magnetic needle and the atmospheric pressure is undisturbed on +earthquake days within the tropics. In seventeen observations, which I +made during earthquakes in Lima with a good Lefevre barometer, I found, +in fifteen instances, the position of the mercury quite unaltered. On +one occasion, shortly before a commotion, I observed it 2.4 lines lower +than it had been two hours before. Another time, I observed, also on +the approach of the shock and during the twelve following hours, a +remarkable rising and sinking in the column. During these observations +the atmosphere was entirely tranquil. + +Atmospheric phenomena are frequent, but not infallible prognostics of +an earthquake. I have known individuals in Lima, natives of the coast, +who were seldom wrong in predicting an earthquake, from their +observation of the atmosphere. In many places great meteors have been +seen before the commotion. Before the dreadful earthquake of 1746, +there were seen fiery vapors (_exhalaciones encendidas_) rising out of +the earth. On the island of San Lorenzo these phenomena were +particularly remarked. + +Many persons have an obscure perception--a foreboding, which is to +them always indicative of an approaching earthquake. They experience a +feeling of anxiety and restlessness, a pressure of the breast, as if +an immense weight were laid on it. A momentary shudder pervades the +whole frame, or there is a sudden trembling of the limbs. I, myself, +have several times experienced this foreboding, and there can scarcely +be a more painful sensation. It is felt with particular severity by +those who have already had the misfortune to have been exposed to the +dangers of an earthquake. + +I will here only briefly mention the celebrated earthquake of 1746, as +all its details are fully described in many publications. The reader +need scarcely be reminded that it happened on the 28th of October, the +day of St. Simon and St. Jude. During the night, between ten and eleven +o'clock, the earth having begun to tremble, a loud howling was heard, +and, in a few minutes, Lima became a heap of ruins. The first shock was +so great, that the town was almost completely destroyed by it. Of more +than 3000 houses, only twenty-one remained. Still more horrible was the +destruction in the harbor of Callao. The movement of the earth had +scarcely been felt there, when the sea, with frightful roaring, rushed +over the shore, and submerged the whole town with its inhabitants. Five +thousand persons were instantly buried beneath the waves. The Spanish +corvette San Fermin, which lay at anchor in the port, was thrown over +the walls of the fortress. A cross still marks the place where the stern +of the vessel fell. Three merchant vessels, heavily laden, suffered the +same fate. The other ships which were at anchor, nineteen in number, +were sunk. The number of lives sacrificed by this earthquake has not +been, with perfect accuracy, recorded.[38] Humboldt, in his Cosmos, +mentions that during this earthquake a noise like subterraneous thunder +was heard at Truxillo, eighty-five leagues north of Callao. It was first +observed a quarter of an hour after the commotion occurred at Lima, but +there was no trembling of the earth. According to the old chronicle +writers, the earthquake of 1630 was more disastrous. + +The serious commotions which take place on the Peruvian coast appear to +acquire progressively greater extension, but only in the southern and +northern directions. A shock, of which Lima is the centre, though felt +fifty leagues towards the north, and as far towards the south, may, +nevertheless, be imperceptible in the easterly direction (towards the +mountains) at the distance of ten or twelve leagues. This peculiarity is +made manifest, not only by the terraqueous oscillations, but also by the +undulations of the sound, which usually proceeds still further in a +direction towards the south or the north. + +Slight shocks are usually only local, and are not felt beyond the limits +of a few square miles. + +The atmospheric phenomena during and after earthquakes are very +different. In general, the atmosphere is tranquil, but occasionally a +stormy agitation is the harbinger of a change. I was unexpectedly +overtaken by a violent commotion on the sand-flat between Chancay and +Lima. The whole surface of the plain presented a kind of curling +movement, and on every side small columns of sand rose, and whirled +round and round. The mules stopped of their own accord, and spread out +their legs as for support and to secure themselves against +apprehended danger. The _arieros_ (mule-drivers) leaped from their +saddles, threw themselves on their knees beside the animals, and +prayed to heaven for mercy. + +The effect of earthquakes on the fertility of the soil is sometimes +remarkable. Numerous observations tend to show that after violent +commotions luxuriant lands often become barren wastes, and for several +years produce no thriving vegetation. Several Quebradas in the province +of Truxillo, formerly remarkable for their fertility in grain, were left +fallow for twenty years after the earthquake of 1630, as the soil would +produce nothing. Similar cases occurred at Supe, Huaura, Lima, and Yca. +All kinds of grain appear to be very susceptible to the changes produced +by earthquakes. Cases are recorded in which, after slight shocks, fields +of maize in full bloom have withered; and in the course of a day or two +the crops have perished. + +The causes of the frequent earthquakes on the coast of Lima are +involved in an obscurity too deep to be unveiled. That they are +connected with volcanic phenomena seems probable. Lima is more than +ninety leagues distant from the nearest active volcano, that of +Arequipa. But the earthquakes of the Peruvian capital are uniformly +independent of any state of activity in that volcano, and it is +certain that the town of Arequipa, which lies at the foot of the +mountain, experiences fewer earthquakes than Lima. Of the six serious +earthquakes, the dates of which I have mentioned, only that of 1687 +stands in connection with a decided shock in Arequipa, and an eruption +of the volcano. Earthquakes are of rarer occurrence in the mountainous +districts than on the coast, yet Huancavellica, Tarma, Pasco, +Caramarca, have been visited by heavy shocks; and within a recent +period the village Quiquijana, in the Province of Quipichanchi, +Department of Cusco, suffered from a serious commotion. In a letter +from an eye-witness I received the following account of it. + +"In November, 1840, the earth began to move faintly back and forward, +and a dull, distant, subterraneous noise continued without interruption. +The first powerful shock occurred on the 23d of December. During the +whole month of January, 1841, heavy thunder prevailed, but without any +motion of the earth. On February 11th, we again had a smart shock, and +from that day the vibrations recommenced, which, strange enough, were +always most violent on Mondays and Thursdays. The subterraneous noise +resounded incessantly; but it was heard only in the village; for at the +distance of half a league from it all was tranquil. The heaviest shocks +were felt in a circuit within the radius of three leagues. From May 21st +to June 2d, all was tranquil; after the last-mentioned date the +vibrations recommenced, and frequently became heavy commotions. They +continued until the middle of July, 1841. From that time we have not +been disturbed, and we have now returned to the ruins of our village." + +The volcano of Arequipa, which is forty-five leagues distant from +Quiquijana, manifested, during the whole of this time, no unusual +phenomena, a circumstance which speaks forcibly against the idea of any +local connection between the earthquake and the volcano. + +On most men earthquakes make a powerful and extraordinary impression. +The sudden surprise, often in sleep, the imminent danger, the +impossibility of escape, the dull subterraneous noise, the yielding of +the earth under the feet,--altogether make a formidable demand on the +weakness of human nature. + +Humboldt in the Cosmos truly observes--"What is most wonderful for us to +comprehend is the undeception which takes place with respect to the kind +of innate belief which men entertain of the repose and immovability of +the terrestrial strata." And further on he says--"The earthquake appears +to men as something omnipresent and unlimited. From the eruption of a +crater, from a stream of lava running towards our dwellings, it appears +possible to escape, but in an earthquake, whichever way flight is +directed the fugitive believes himself on the brink of destruction!" No +familiarity with the phenomenon can blunt this feeling. The inhabitant +of Lima who, from childhood, has frequently witnessed these convulsions +of nature, is roused from his sleep by the shock, and rushes from his +apartment with the cry of "_Misericordia!_" The foreigner from the north +of Europe, who knows nothing of earthquakes but by description, waits +with impatience to feel the movement of the earth, and longs to hear +with his own ears the subterraneous sounds which he has hitherto +considered fabulous. With levity he treats the apprehension of a coming +convulsion, and laughs at the fears of the natives. But as soon as his +wish is gratified he is terror-stricken, and is involuntarily prompted +to seek safety in flight. + +In Lima, the painful impression produced by an earthquake is heightened +by the universality of the exercise of the devotions (_plegarias_) on +such a calamity. Immediately on the shock being felt, a signal is given +from the cathedral, and the long-measured ten-minute tollings of all the +church bells summon the inhabitants to prayers. + +Taking a comprehensive view of the whole coast of Peru, we perceive +that Lima lies in one of those oases which break the continuity of the +extensive sand-flats. These valleys present themselves wherever a +river, after a short course from the Cordilleras, falls into the sea; +they are always fan-shaped widenings of the mountain ravines. The +valley of Lima lies in the widest extension of the Quebrada of +Mutucamas. This narrow gorge, which has its main direction from E.N.E. +to W.S.W., widens at Cocachacra, and extends into San Pedro Mama, +where the Quebrada of San Geronimo unites with it. It then runs down +to the coast, extending more and more in width, and is intersected by +the Rimac.[39] This river rises in two branches, the largest of which +has its source in some small lagunes, in the upper part of Antarangra, +on a height 15,600 feet above the level of the sea. The second and +shorter branch takes its source from a small lake in the heights of +Carampoma, flows through the valley of San Geronimo, and near San +Pedro unites with the Rimac. The most considerable streams of the +south-eastern confluence are those which rise in the heights of +Carhuapampa, and near Tambo de Viso, flow into the main stream. During +winter the Rimac is very inconsiderable, but when the rainy season +sets in it swells greatly, and in the upper regions, particularly +between Surco and Cocachacra, causes great devastations. In the lower +part where the bed becomes broad and the banks are not much built on, +no considerable damage occurs. + +Several small conduits are brought from the Rimac, some for giving +moisture to fields, and others for filling the street trenches of Lima. +The water for supplying the fountains of the Capital does not, however, +come from the river, but from two springs situated 1-1/4 league from +Lima in a thicket near an old Indian settlement, called Santa Rosa, in +the valley of Surco. They are inclosed within a building called the +Puello, or Atarrea, whence the waters are conveyed by a subterraneous +trench to the Reservoir (Caja de Santa Tomas), from which it is +distributed by pipes to 112 public and private fountains. During the +insurrection of the Indians in 1781, which was instigated by the +unfortunate Cacique Don Jose Gabriel Tupac Amaru, one of the sworn +determinations of the participators in that very extensive conspiracy +was to drive the Spaniards out of Lima by artifice or force. Among the +numerous plans for accomplishing that object, I will mention two which +have reference to the water of Lima. One scheme was to poison the whole +of the inhabitants. For this purpose a rich Cacique of the vale of +Huarochirin went to an apothecary near the bridge, and asked for two +hundred weight of corrosive sublimate, saying that he would pay well for +it. The apothecary had not entire confidence in the Indian, but he did +not think it right to forego the opportunity of making a very profitable +sale; so, instead of the sublimate, he made up the same quantity of alum +for the Cacique and received the price he demanded. Next morning all the +water in Lima was unfit for use. On examination it was found that the +enclosure of the Atarrea was broken down, and the source saturated with +alum. The offender remained undiscovered. + +The second plan was formed with more circumspection. The conspirators +resolved on a certain day to send into the city a number of Indians, who +were to conceal themselves on the roofs of the shops (_Pulperias_), in +which quantities of firewood were kept for sale. The moment the +cathedral struck the hour of midnight, the concealed Indians were to set +fire to the wood. Another division of Indians was immediately to dam up +the river at the convent of Santa Clara, and thereby lay the streets +under water. During the unavoidable confusion, which must have taken +place, the main body of the Indians was to enter the town and massacre +all the whites. This well-combined plan was by mere accident discovered, +when it was of course frustrated. + +The fertility of the soil round Lima is very great when irrigation is +practicable. Where this cannot be accomplished, the earth withholds +even the most scanty vegetation. The _riego_, or irrigation, is thus +effected. On certain days the water conduits are closed, and the +fields are laid under water. When there is a deficient supply of +water, the trenches, or conduits, are not opened till the following +day. When, however, the supply of water is abundant, the _riego_ takes +place early every morning. + +As the same identical plants are cultivated along almost the whole +coast, I will here notice them, to save the necessity of returning to +them hereafter. + +COTTON is cultivated only in a few plantations in the immediate +vicinity of Lima; but it abounds more in the northern districts, +particularly in the department de la Libertad, in the coast province +Piura, in Lambayeque, and in Truxillo. In the southern province, Yca, +a considerable quantity is also reared for exportation. The brown +cotton was chiefly cultivated in the time of the Incas. Most of the +bodies found in the ancient graves on the coast are enveloped in +this kind of cotton. + +The SUGAR CANE is cultivated with success in all plantations where +there is sufficient moisture of soil; and of all the agricultural +produce of the country, yields the greatest profit. The sugar estates +lie on the sea-coast, or along the banks of rivers. The vertical limit +of the sugar cane growth is on the western declivity of the +Cordilleras, about 4500 feet above the level of the sea, at which +height I saw fields covered with it. The largest plantations, however, +do not rise above 1200 feet above the level of the sea; while those of +the same extent on the eastern declivity are at the height of 6000 +feet. Within the last forty years the introduction of the Otaheitan +cane has greatly improved the Peruvian plantations in quality, and has +more especially increased the quantity of their produce; for the +Otaheitan canes are found to yield proportionally one third more than +the West India canes, which were previously cultivated. + +The preparation of the sugar is, as yet, conducted in a very rude and +laborious manner. In most of the plantations the cane is passed through +wooden presses with brass rollers. These machines are called _trapiches_ +or _ingenios_. They are kept in motion by oxen or mules. In some large +estates water power is employed, and in San Pedro de Lurin a +steam-engine has been put up, which certainly does the work quickly; but +it often has to stand for a long time idle. A part of the sugar cane +juice is used for making the liquor called guarapo, or distilled for +making rum; for since the independence, the law which strictly +prohibited the distillation of spirituous liquors in plantations has +been repealed. The remainder is boiled down into a syrup, or further +simmered until it thickens into cakes, called chancacas, or brown sugar. +After a careful purification it is made into the white cakes called +alfajores, or prepared as white sugar. In fineness of grain and purity +of color it is inferior to the Havannah sugar, which, however, it +exceeds in sweetness. The regular weight of the sugarloaf is two arobas; +only for convenience of transport into the mountainous districts their +weight is sometimes diminished. The consumption of sugar in the country +is great and its export is considerable, but it goes only to Chile. + +Of the different kinds of grain, maize is most generally and most +successfully cultivated in Peru. It grows on the sandy shore, in the +fertile mountain valleys, and on the margin of the forest, where the +warmth is great. There are several varieties of maize, which are +distinguished one from another by the size of the head and by the form +and appearance of the grain. The most common kinds on the coast +are--1st, the _Mais Morocho_, which has small bright yellow or reddish +brown grains; 2d, the _Mais Amarillo_, of which the grain is large, +heart-shaped, solid and opaque; 3d, _Mais Amarillo de Chancay_, similar +to the _Mais Amarillo_, but with a semi-transparent square-shaped grain, +and an elongated head. The Morocho and Amarillo maize are chiefly +planted in the eastern declivity of the Andes. They run up in stalks +eight or nine feet high, and have enormously large heads. In one of them +I counted seventy-five grains in a single row. + +Maize forms the bread of the Peruvians. It is almost the only sustenance +of the Indians of the mountains, and is the principal food of the slaves +on the coast. Like the potatoe in Europe, it is cooked in a variety of +ways. Two of the most simple preparations of maize are those called +_choclas_ and _mote_. _Choclas_ are the unripe maize heads merely soaked +in warm water; they form a very agreeable and wholesome article of food. +_Mote_ consists of ripe maize first boiled and then laid in hot ashes, +after which the husks are easily stripped off. + +As to whether maize is indigenous to Peru, or when it was introduced +there, much has already been written, and I shall refrain from entering +into the investigation of the question here. I may, however, mention +that I have found very well preserved ears of maize in tombs, which, +judging from their construction, belong to a period anterior to the +dynasty of the Incas; and these were fragments of two kinds of maize +which do not now grow in Peru. If I believed in the transmigration and +settlement of Asiatic races on the west coast of America, I should +consider it highly probable that maize, cotton, and the banana, had been +brought from Asia to the great west coast. But the supposed epoch of +this alleged immigration must carry us back to the earliest ages; for, +that the Incas were (as the greater number of inquirers into Peruvian +history pretend) of Asiatic origin, is a mere vague hypothesis, +unsupported by anything approximating to historical proof. + +Since the earthquake of 1687 the crops of maize on the Peruvian coast +have been very inconsiderable. In the mountainous parts it is somewhat +more abundant, but still far from sufficient to supply the wants of the +country. Chile supplies, in return for sugar, the maize required in +Peru. Of the other kinds of grain barley only is raised; but it does not +thrive on the coast, and is cultivated successfully at the height of +from 7000 to 13,200 feet above the level of the sea. The assertion of +some travellers, that barley was known to the Peruvians before the +arrival of the Spaniards, is groundless. It is true that barley is +sometimes found in pots in Indian graves. Those graves, however, as I +have had repeated opportunities of being convinced, belong, without +exception, to modern times, chiefly to the seventeenth century. + +Potatoes are not planted on the coast, where, it appears, the climate +and soil are unfavorable to them. In those parts they are small and +watery. On the higher ridges which intersect the coast at short +distances from the sea, the potatoe grows wild. I am inclined to believe +that the root is indigenous in these parts, as well as in Chiloe and +Chile, and that the ancient Peruvians did not obtain this root from the +south, but that they removed it from their own high lands in order to +cultivate it on a more favorable soil.[40] The best potatoe grows about +twenty-two leagues from Lima, in Huamantanga, which is about 7000 feet +above the level of the sea, to the north-west of the Quebrada of Canta. +This potatoe is small and round, with a thin white skin, and when +bisected the color is a clear bright yellow. It is called the _Papa +amarilla_, and there is much demand for it in the markets, where it +fetches a good price. The other potatoes come chiefly from the Quebrada +of Huarochirin, and they are very well flavored. + +The Camotes (_Convolvulus batatas_, L.), not improperly called sweet +potatoes, grow to a considerable size. There are two kinds of camotes, +the yellow and the violet; the latter are called _Camotes moradas_. +These two kinds are much liked for their excellent flavor. Beyond the +height of 3500 feet above the level of the sea they cease to grow. + +The Aracacha (_Conium moschatum_, H. B. Kth.) grows on the coast, but it +is more abundant on the projecting ridges of the Cordilleras, and on the +eastern declivity of the Andes. It is a very agreeable and nutritive +kind of tuberous vegetable, in flavor not unlike celery. It is cooked by +being either simply boiled in water, or made into a kind of soup. In +many districts the aracacha yields two crops in the year. + +The Yucca (_Jatropha manihot_) is one of the finest vegetables of +Peru. The stalk of the plant is between five and six feet high, and +about the thickness of a finger. The roots are from one to two feet +long, somewhat of the turnip form. Internally they are pure white; but +the external skin is tough, somewhat elastic, and of a reddish-brown +color. The roots are the edible parts of the plant. They are very +agreeable in taste, and easy of digestion. When raw they are hard and +tough, and their taste somewhat resembles chestnuts. When boiled in +water the root separates into fibres, and is rather waxy, but when +laid in hot ashes it becomes mealy. + +In some parts of Peru the Indians prepare a very fine flour from the +yucca, and it is used for making fine kinds of bread, and especially a +kind of biscuits called _biscochuelos_. The yucca roots are not good +after they have been more than three days out of the earth, and even +during that time they must be placed in water, otherwise green or black +stripes appear on them, which in the cooking assume a pale red color. +Their taste is then disagreeable, and they quickly become rotten. + +To propagate the yucca the stalk is cut, particularly under the thick +part, into span-long pieces, which are stuck obliquely into the earth. +In five or six months the roots are fit for use, but they are usually +allowed to remain some time longer in the earth. The stalks are +sometimes cut off, and the roots left in the earth. They then put forth +new leaves and flowers, and after sixteen or eighteen months they become +slightly woody. The Indians in the Montana de Vitoc sent as a present to +their officiating priest a yucca, which weighed thirty pounds, but yet +was very tender. On the western declivity of the Cordillera, the +boundary elevation for the growth of the yucca is about 3000 feet above +the level of the sea. + +Among the pulse there are different kinds of peas (_garbanzos_) on the +coast; beans (_frijoles_), on the contrary, occupy the hilly grounds. +All vegetables of the cabbage and salad kinds cultivated in Europe will +grow in Peru. The climate, both of the coast and the hills, suits them +perfectly; but the hot, damp temperature of the eastern declivity of the +Andes is adverse to them. Numerous varieties of the genus _Cucurbita_ +are cultivated in the _chacras_, or Indian villages, on the coast. They +are chiefly consumed by the colored population. I did not find them very +agreeable to the taste. They are all sweetish and fibrous. + +Among the edible plants which serve for seasoning or spicery, I must +mention the love-apple (_Tomate_), which thrives well in all the warm +districts of Peru; and the Spanish pepper (_Aji_), which is found only +on the coast and in the mild woody regions. There are many species of +the pepper (_Capsicum annuum, baccatum, frutescens, &c._), which are +sometimes eaten green, and sometimes dried and pounded. In Peru the +consumption of aji is greater than that of salt; for with two-thirds of +the dishes brought to table, more of the former than of the latter is +used. It is worthy of remark that salt diminishes, in a very striking +degree, the pungency of the aji; and it is still more remarkable that +the use of the latter, which in a manner may be called a superfluity, +has no injurious effect on the digestive organs. If two pods of aji, +steeped in warm vinegar, are laid as a sinapism on the skin, in the +space of a quarter of an hour the part becomes red, and the pain +intolerable; within an hour the scarf-skin will be removed. Yet I have +frequently eaten twelve or fifteen of these pods without experiencing +the least injurious effect. However, before I accustomed myself to this +luxury, it used to affect me with slight symptoms of gastritis. On the +eastern declivity of the Cordilleras I found no capsicum at a greater +height than 4800 feet above the level of the sea. + +Lucern (_Medicago sativa_), called by the natives _alfa_ or _alfalfa_, +is reared in great abundance throughout the whole of Peru, as fodder for +cattle. It does not bear great humidity, nor severe heat or cold; yet +its elevation boundary is about 11,100 feet above the level of the sea. +On the coast it flourishes very luxuriantly during the misty season; but +during the months of February and March it is almost entirely dried up. +The maisillo (_Paspalum purpureum_, R.) then supplies its place as +fodder for cattle. In the mountainous districts it is also most abundant +during the humid season; but, as soon as the first frost sets in, it +decays, takes a rusty-brown color, and remains in a bad state until the +beginning of the rainy season. On an average, the _alfalfa_ may be cut +four times in the year; but in highlying districts only three times; +and in humid soils on the coast, particularly in the neighborhood of +rivers, five times. Once in every four or five years the clover-fields +are broken up by the plough, and then sown with maize or barley. In the +sixth year clover is again raised. + +The olive-tree is cultivated chiefly in the southern provinces of the +coast. In flavor, its fruit approximates to the Spanish olive. That +the oil is not so fine is probably owing to the bad presses which are +used, and the rude manner in which the operation is performed. The +olives (_Aceytunas_) are preserved in a peculiar manner. They are +allowed to ripen on the tree, when they are gathered, slightly +pressed, dried, and put up in small earthen vessels. By this process +they become shrivelled and quite black. When served up at table pieces +of tomato and aji are laid on them: the latter is an excellent +accompaniment to the oily fruit. Some preserve them in salt water, by +which means they remain plump and green. + +The castor-oil plant (_Ricinus communis_) grows wild, but it is also +cultivated in many plantations. The considerable quantity of oil which +is pressed out of the seeds is used unpurified in Lima for the street +lamps, and also in the sugar plantations, for greasing the machines +employed in the works. The purified Ricinus oil required for medicine is +imported from England or Italy. + +The Pinoncillo tree (_Castiglionia lobata_, R.) is cultivated only about +Surco, Huacho, and Lambayeque, in some of the Indian chacras; but it +grows wild in considerable abundance. Its bean-like fruit, when roasted, +has an agreeable flavor. When eaten raw, the etherial oil generated +between the kernel and the epidermis is a strong aperient, and its +effect can only be counteracted by drinking cold water. When an incision +is made in the stem, a clear bright liquid flows out; but after some +time it becomes black and horny like. It is a very powerful caustic, and +retains its extraordinary property for years. + +The fruits of the temperate climates of Europe thrive but indifferently +in the warm regions of the coast of Peru. Apples and pears are for the +most part uneatable. Of stone fruits only the peach succeeds well. Vast +quantities of apricots (called duraznos) grow in the mountain valleys. +Of fifteen kinds which came under my observation, those called +_blanquillos_ and _abridores_ are distinguished for fine flavor. +Cherries, plums, and chestnuts I did not see in Peru, yet I believe the +climate of the Sierra is very favorable to their growth. Generally +speaking, the interior of the country is well suited to all the fruits +and grain of central Europe; and doubtless many of our forest trees +would flourish on those Peruvian hills which now present no traces of +vegetation. But as yet no system of transplantation has been seriously +set on foot. The praiseworthy attempts made by many Europeans, who have +sent seeds and young plants to Peru, have failed of success, owing to +the indifference of the natives to the advancement of those objects. + +All the fruits of southern Europe thrive luxuriantly in the warm regions +of Peru. Oranges, pomegranates, lemons, limes, &c., grow in incredible +abundance. Though the trees bloom and bear fruit the whole year round, +yet there are particular times in which their produce is in the greatest +perfection and abundance. On the coast, for example, at the commencement +of winter, and in the woody districts in the months of February and +March, melons and Sandyas (_water melons_) are particularly fine. + +The figs are of two kinds: the one called _Higos_, and the other +_Brevas_. In the former the pulp is red, in the latter it is white. +They are usually large, very soft, and may be ranked among the most +delicious fruits of the country. Fig-trees grow frequently wild in the +neighborhood of the plantations and the Chacras: and the traveller may +pluck the fruit, and carry away a supply for his journey; for, beyond +a certain distance from Lima figs are not gathered, being a fruit not +easy of transport in its fresh state; and when dried, it is not liked. +Pomegranates and quinces seldom grow on the coast: they are chiefly +brought to the Lima market from the neighboring Quebradas. The +mulberry-tree flourishes luxuriantly and without cultivation; but its +fruit is not thought worth gathering, and it is left as food for the +birds. In the southern province of Yca, the cultivation of the vine +has been attended by most successful results. In the neighborhood of +Lima grapes are seen only in a few Huertas (_orchards_); but for +size, sweetness, and aromatic flavor, there are no such grapes in any +other part of the world. + +Of tropical fruits, the number is not so great in Peru as in the more +northerly district of Guayaquil. But there are some Peruvian fruits, the +delicious flavor of which cannot be excelled. One of these is the +Chirimoya (_Anona tripetala_). Hanke, in one of his letters, calls it "a +master-work of Nature." It would certainly be difficult to name any +fruit possessing a more exquisite flavor. + +In Lima the Chirimoya is comparatively small, often only the size of an +orange. Those who have tasted it only in Lima, can form but a very +imperfect idea of its excellence. In Huanuco, its indigenous soil, it +grows in the greatest perfection, and often attains the weight of +sixteen pounds, or upwards. The fruit is of roundish form, sometimes +pyramidal, or heart-shaped, the broad base uniting with the stem. +Externally it is green, covered with small knobs and scales, and often +has black markings like net-work spread over it. When the fruit is very +ripe, it has black spots. The skin is rather thick and tough. +Internally, the fruit is snow-white and juicy, and provided with a +number of small seeds well covered with a delicate substance. The +Chirimoyas of Huanuco are also distinguished from those of the coast by +having only from four to six seeds; whereas on the coast they are found +with from twenty-five to thirty. The question as to what the taste of +this fruit may be compared with, I can only answer by saying, that it is +incomparable. Both the fruit and flowers of the Chirimoya emit a fine +fragrance, which, when the tree is covered with blossom, is so strong as +to be almost overpowering. The tree which bears this finest of all +fruits is from fifteen to twenty feet high. It has a broad flat top, and +is of a pale-green color. + +The Palta (_Persea gatissima_, Gaert.) is a fruit of the pear form, and +dark-brown in color. The rind is tough and elastic, but not very thick. +The edible substance, which is soft and green, encloses a kernel +resembling a chestnut in form and color. This fruit is very astringent +and bitter, and on being cut, a juice flows from it which is at first +yellow, but soon turns black. The taste is peculiar, and at first not +agreeable to a foreigner; but it is generally much liked when the palate +becomes accustomed to it. The fruit of the Palta dissolves like butter +on the tongue, and hence it is called in some of the French colonies +_beurre vegetale_. It is sometimes eaten without any accompaniment, and +sometimes with a little salt, or with oil and vinegar. The kernels make +very good brandy. The Palta-tree is slender and very high, with a small +dome-like top. On the eastern declivity of the Andes, I have seen some +of these trees more than sixty feet high. + +The Platanos (_Bananas_) thrive well in most of the Peruvian +plantations. They require great heat and humidity. They grow in the +greatest perfection on the banks of small rivulets. On the coast the +tree does not yield such abundance of fruit as in the woody regions, +where it is not unusual to see a tree with three hundred heads of fruit +lying one over another, like tiles on a roof. In the country adjacent to +Lima, and also on other parts of the coast, three favorite species are +cultivated. The _Platano de la Isla_, or of Otaheite, was introduced +from that archipelago in 1769. The fruits are from three to four inches +long, generally prismatic, as they grow thickly on the stem, and lie one +over another. The skin is yellow, the fruit of a palish red, and rather +mealy. The Limenos prefer this to any other species of the platano, and +they consider it the most wholesome. The fruits of the _Platano Guineo_ +are not longer, but much thicker than those of the _Platano de la Isla_, +but they are so full that they burst when quite ripe. They are straight +and cylindrical in form, as they grow on the stem at some distance one +from the other. They are of a bright yellow color, but near the stem +spotted with black. The edible part is whiter and softer than that of +the _Platano de la Isla_, to which it is greatly superior in flavor and +aroma. The natives believe this fruit to be very unwholesome, and they +maintain that drinking brandy after eating Platanos Guineos causes +immediate death. This is, as my own often-repeated experiments have +shown, one of the deep-rooted, groundless prejudices to which the +Peruvians obstinately cling. On one of my excursions I had a controversy +on this subject with some persons who accompanied me. To prove how +unfounded their notions were, I ate some platanos, and then washing down +one poison by the other, I immediately swallowed a mouthful of brandy. +My Peruvian friends were filled with dismay. Addressing me alternately +in terms of compassion and reproach, they assured me I should never +return to Lima alive. After spending a very agreeable day, we all +arrived quite well in the evening at Lima. At parting, one of my +companions seriously observed that we should never see each other again. +Early next morning they anxiously called to inquire how I was, and +finding me in excellent health and spirits, they said:--"Ah! you see, an +_herege de gringo_ (a heretic of a foreigner) is quite of a different +nature from us." A piece of the Platano Guineo soaked in brandy retains +its color unchanged; but the rib-like fibres which connect the rind with +the pulp then become black, and imbibe a bitter taste. + +The fruit of the third kind of platano, the _Platano Largo_, is from six +to eight inches long, rather narrow, and curved crescent-wise. The rind +is of a light straw color, and when the fruit is very ripe it has large +black spots. The edible part is of a whitish hue, harder and drier than +that of the two species already described; and its flavor its quite as +agreeable. Its fruit is less abundant than that of the Platano Guineo, +and it requires longer time to become fully ripe. A fourth kind, which +grows in the forest regions, I have never seen on the coast. It is the +_Platano Altahuillaca_. It bears at most from twenty to twenty-five +heads of fruit. The stem is more than two inches thick, and above an ell +long. The color of the husk is light yellow, the enclosed substance is +white, tough, and hard. In the raw state it is flavorless, but when +roasted in hot ashes, or cooked with meat, it makes a fine dish. + +When the platanos of the uppermost row, that is, those which form the +base of the conical-formed reflex cluster, begin to turn yellow, or, as +the natives say, _pintar_, the whole is cut off, and hung up in an airy, +shady situation, usually in an apartment of the Rancho, or hut, where it +may quickly ripen. The largest fruits are cut off as soon as they are +yellow and soft, and so the cutting goes on gradually up to the top, for +they ripen so unequally that those at the base show symptoms of decay +while those at the top are still hard and green. As soon as the +_cabeza_, or cluster of fruit, is cut, the whole branch is immediately +lopped off, in order to facilitate the shooting of the fresh sprouts. +Each branch bears only one _cabeza_, and eight or ten months are the +period usually required for its complete development. + +The platanos belongs indisputably to the most useful class of fruit +trees, especially in regions where they can be cultivated extensively, +for then they may very adequately supply the place of bread. In +northern Peru and Guayaquil, the platano fruit is prepared for food in +a variety of ways. + +Pine-apples (_Ananas_) are not much cultivated on the coast of Peru. The +market of Lima was formerly entirely supplied with this fruit from the +Montana de Vitoc. When brought from thence they used to be cut before +they were ripe, and packed on the backs of asses. The journey is of +sixteen or twenty days' duration, and the road lies across two of the +Cordilleras. After being several days in the cold snowy region of the +Puna, the fruit came to Lima in a very indifferent state; but since the +communication by steam navigation with Guayaquil, pine-apples are +brought from the latter place in large quantities. They are large, +succulent, and very sweet. + +The Granadilla (_Passiflora quadrangularis_) is about the size of an +apple, but rather oblong. The skin is reddish-yellow, hard, and rather +thick. The edible part is grey and gelatinous, and it contains numerous +dark-colored seeds. The fruit is very agreeable, and in taste resembles +the gooseberry, and is very cooling. The Granadilla is a shrub or bush, +and it twines round the trunks of trees, or climbs up the walls of the +Ranchos. It is less abundant on the coast than in the adjacent valleys. + +The Tunas are fruits of different species of Cactus. The husk, which is +covered with sharp prickles, is green, yellow, or red in color, and is +easily separated from the pulp of the fruit. When being plucked, the +tunas are rubbed with straw to remove the prickles, which, however, is +not always completely accomplished. It is therefore necessary to be +cautious in handling the husks, for the small prickles cause +inflammation when they get into the fingers. + +The Pacay is the fruit of a tree of rather large size (_Prosopis +dulcis_, Humb.), with a rather low and broad top. It consists of a pod +from twenty to twenty-four inches long, enclosing black seeds, which are +embedded in a white, soft, flaky substance. This flaky part is as white +as snow, and is the only eatable part of the fruit. It tastes sweet, +and, to my palate at least, it is very unpleasant; however, the Limenos +on the coast and the monkeys in the woods are very fond of the pacay. + +The Lucuma is produced only in the southern provinces of the coast of +Peru, and is chiefly imported from the north of Chile. The fruit is +round. The grey-brown husk encloses a fibrous, dry, yellow-colored +fruit with its kernel. + +The Guayava (_Psidium pomiferum_) grows on a low shrub, chiefly in the +valleys of the coast, and on the eastern declivity of the Andes. It is +of the form and size of a small apple. The rind is bright, yellow, and +thin. The pulp is either white or red, and is full of little egg-shaped +granulations. Its flavor is pleasant, but not remarkably fine. In Lima +it is not a favorite, for numerous insects lay their eggs in it, and, +when the fruit is ripe, larvae are found in it. + +The Pepino (a _cucurbitacea_) is grown in great abundance in the fields. +The plant is only a foot and a half high, and it creeps on the ground. +The fruit is from four to five inches long, cylindrical, and at both +ends somewhat pointed. The husk is of a yellowish green color, with long +rose-colored stripes. The pulp or edible part is solid, juicy, and +well-flavored. The kernel lies in the middle, in a long-shaped furrow. +By the natives the pepino is, and not altogether unreasonably, believed +to be injurious. They maintain that this fruit is too cold in the +stomach, and that a glass of brandy is necessary to counteract its +injurious properties. This much is certain, that the pepinos are very +indigestible, and that eating them frequently, or at improper times, +brings on fits of illness. + +The Mani, or Earth Almond (_Arachis hypogaea_), is produced in the +northern provinces. The plant is from a foot and a half to two feet +long, and very leafy. The kernels have a grey, shrivelled husk: they +are white, and contain much oil. When roasted and crushed, they are +eaten with sugar. + +The Capulies (_Prunus capulin_, Ser.) grows in the open fields. In towns +it is planted in gardens or in pots. The fruit is a little bigger than a +cherry. It is of a deep yellow color, and has an acid taste. The +capulies are not frequently eaten. On account of their very pleasant +odor, they are used in making _Pucheros de_ flores, or with other +odoriferous flowers, they are besprinkled with agua rica, and laid in +drawers to perfume linen. The ladies of Lima wear them in their bosoms. +The same uses are made of the Palillos (_Campomanesia lineatifolia_, +R.), which grow on trees from twenty to thirty feet high. The bright +yellow fruit is as large as a moderately-sized apple. The palillo emits +an exceedingly agreeable scent, and is one of the ingredients used in +making the perfumed water called _mistura_. When rubbed between the +fingers, the leaves smell like those of the myrtle; but they have an +acid and a stringent taste. + +The coast of Peru is poorly supplied with Palm-trees, either wild or +cultivated. The Cocoa Palm is grown only in a few of the northern +provinces, and the Date Palm chiefly about Yca. With a very little +care, these trees would thrive excellently in all the oases of the +coast of Peru. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 37: A great fire is a thing almost unknown in Lima. The houses +are of brick, and seldom have any wooden beams, so there is little food +for a fire. The only fire which I heard of in Lima was that of the 13th +January, 1835, when the interior of the _Capilla del Milagro_ of San +Francisco was destroyed. The repairs cost 50,000 dollars. On the 27th +November, 1838, it was again solemnly consecrated.] + +[Footnote 38: The date of this catastrophe recalls the following passage +in Schiller's William Tell:-- + + "'s ist heut Simons und Judae + Da ras't der See und will sein Opfer haben." + + "'Tis the festival of Simon and Jude, + And the lake rages for its sacrifice." +] + +[Footnote 39: RIMAC is the present participle of _rimay_, to speak, to +prattle. The river and the valley were known by this name among all the +ancient Indians. The oracle of a temple with an idol, which stood in the +neighborhood of the present city of Lima, conferred the name. It is said +that before the time of the Incas persons suspected of magic were +banished to the valley of the Rimac, on which account it obtained the +name of _Rimac-malca_, that is, the WITCHES-VALLEY. This account, which +is given by some early travellers, requires farther historical and +philological inquiry, before its correctness can be admitted.] + +[Footnote 40: The Quichua language has no word for potatoe, but in the +Chinchayauyo language, which is spoken along the whole coast of Peru, +the potatoe is called _Acsu_.] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +Robbers on the coast of Peru--The Bandit Leaders Leon and Rayo--The +Corps of Montoneros--Watering Places near Lima--Surco, Atte and +Lurin--Pacchacamac--Ruins of the Temple of the Sun--Difficulties of +Travelling on the Coast of Peru--Sea Passage to Huacho--Indian +Canoes--Ichthyological Collections--An old Spaniard's recollections +of Alexander Von Humboldt--The Padre Requena--Huacho--Plundering of +Burial Places--Huaura--Malaria--The Sugar Plantation at +Luhmayo--Quipico--Ancient Peruvian Ruins--The Salinas, or Salt +Pits--Gritalobos--Chancay--The Piques--Mode of extracting +them--Valley of the Pasamayo--Extraordinary Atmospheric +Mirrors--Piedras Gordas--Palo Seco. + + +All the inhabited parts of the coast of Peru, especially the districts +adjacent to Lima and Truxillo, are infested by robbers, and travelling +is thereby rendered extremely unsafe. These banditti are chiefly runaway +slaves (simarrones, as they are called), free negroes, zambos, or +mulattos. Occasionally they are joined by Indians, and these latter are +always conspicuous for the cruelties they perpetrate. Now and then a +white man enters upon this lawless course; and, in the year 1839, a +native of North America, who had been a purser in a ship of war, was +shot in Lima for highway robbery. These robbers are always well mounted, +and their fleet-footed steeds usually enable them to elude pursuit. It +is no unfrequent occurrence for slaves belonging to the plantations to +mount their masters' finest horses, and after sunset, when their work is +over, or on Sundays, when they have nothing to do, to sally forth on +marauding expeditions. + +Most of the highway robbers who infest the coast of Peru belong to an +extensive and systematically-organized band, headed by formidable +leaders, who maintain spies in the towns and villages, from whom they +receive regular reports. They sometimes prowl about in parties of thirty +or forty, in the vicinity of the capital, and plunder every traveller +they encounter; but they are most frequently in smaller detachments. If +they meet with resistance they give no quarter; therefore, it is most +prudent to submit to be plundered quietly, even when the parties +attacked are stronger than the assailants, for the latter usually have +confederates at no great distance, and can summon reinforcements in case +of need. Any person who kills a robber in self-defence must ever +afterwards be in fear for his own life: even in Lima the dagger of the +assassin will reach him, and possibly at the moment when he thinks +himself most safe. + +Foreigners are more frequently waylaid than natives. Indeed, the rich +and influential class of Peruvians are seldom subjected to these +attacks,--a circumstance which may serve to explain why more stringent +police regulations are not adopted. + +The most unsafe roads are those leading to Callao, Chorillos, and +Cavalleros. This last place is on the way to Cerro de Pasco, whither +transports of money are frequently sent. A few weeks before my departure +from Lima a band of thirty robbers, after a short skirmish with a feeble +escort, made themselves masters of a remittance of 100,000 dollars, +destined for the mine-workers of Pasco. The silver bars from Pasco are +sent to Lima without any military guard, for they are suffered to pass +unmolested, as the robbers find them heavy and cumbrous, and they cannot +easily dispose of them. These depredations are committed close to the +gates of Lima, and after having plundered a number of travellers, the +robbers will very coolly ride into the city. + +The country people from the Sierra, who travel with their asses to Lima, +and who carry with them money to make purchases in the capital, are the +constant prey of robbers, who, if they do not get money, maltreat or +murder their victims in the most merciless way.[41] In July, 1842, I was +proceeding from the mountains back to Lima, and, passing near the Puente +de Surco, a bridge about a league and a half from Lima, my horse +suddenly shied at something lying across the road. On alighting I +found that it was the dead body of an Indian, who had been murdered, +doubtless, by robbers. The skull was fractured in a shocking manner +by stones. The body was still warm. + +The zambo robbers are notorious for committing the most heartless +cruelties. In June, 1842, one of them attacked the Indian who was +conveying the mail to Huacho. "Shall I," said the robber, "kill you or +put out your eyes?" "If I must choose," replied the Indian, "pray kill +me at once." The barbarian immediately drew forth his dagger and stuck +it into the eyes of the unfortunate victim, and then left him lying on +the sand. In this state the poor Indian was found by a traveller, who +conveyed him to a neighboring village. The following anecdote was +related to me by an Indian, in whose dwelling I passed a night, at +Chancay:--About half a league from the village he met a negro, who +advanced towards him, with musket cocked, and commanded him to halt. My +host drew out a large riding pistol, and said, "You may be thankful that +this is not loaded or you would be a dead man." The negro laughing +scornfully, rode up and seized the Indian, when the latter suddenly +fired the pistol, and shot him dead. + +When these Peruvian banditti are attacked by the military or the police, +they defend themselves with desperate courage. If they can effect their +escape they fly for concealment into the woods and thickets, which, if +not too extensive, are surrounded and set on fire, so that the fugitives +have no alternative but to surrender, or to perish in the flames. + +Within the last few years, two negroes, named Escobar and Leon, were +daring leaders of banditti. Leon, who was originally a slave, commenced +his career of crime by the murder of his master. He eluded the pursuit +of justice, became a highway robber, and for many years was the terror +of the whole province of Lima. The police vainly endeavored to secure +him. Leon knew the country so well, that he constantly evaded his +pursuers. When the price of 2000 dollars was set upon his head, he +boldly entered Lima every evening and slept in the city. At length +placards were posted about, calling on Leon's comrades to kill him, and +offering to any one who might deliver him up dead into the hands of the +police the reward of 1000 dollars and a pardon. This measure had the +desired result, and Leon was strangled, whilst asleep, by a zambo, who +was his godfather. The body was, during three days, exposed to public +view in front of the cathedral. + +Another celebrated bandit was the zambo, Jose Rayo. He took an active +part in several of the political revolutions; and having, during those +commotions, been serviceable to the president, he was raised to the rank +of a lieutenant-colonel, and made chief of the country police, called +the _Partida montada del campo_. This post he still fills, and he is +admirably well adapted to it, as experience has rendered him thoroughly +acquainted with banditti life, and he knows every hiding-place in the +country round Lima. Nevertheless he could not catch the negro Leon, or +possibly he would not seize him, for Leon was his godfather, a +relationship which is held sacred throughout all classes in Peru. When +Rayo speaks of the president and ministers he always styles them _sus +mejores amigos_ (his best friends). I fell in with him once, when +travelling on the road to Chaclacayo, and rode in company with him as +far as the Hacienda de Santa Clara. I found him exceedingly complaisant +and courteous in his manners; but his true zambo nature was not wholly +concealed beneath the smooth surface. + +Robbers, when captured and brought to Lima, undergo a very summary +trial, and are then sentenced to be shot. The culprits have the +privilege of choosing their place of execution, and they generally fix +on the market-place. They are allowed the assistance of a priest for +twelve hours prior to their death, and they are conducted from the +chapel to the place of execution, carrying a bench, on which they sit to +undergo the punishment. Four soldiers fire at the distance of three +paces from the culprit; two aiming at his head, and two at his breast. +On one of these occasions a singular instance of presence of mind and +dexterity occurred a few years ago in Lima. A very daring zambo, +convicted of highway robbery, was sentenced to death. He made choice of +the Plaza de la Inquisicion as the scene of his execution. It was market +time, and the square was crowded with people. The culprit darted around +him a rapid and penetrating glance, and then composedly seated himself +on the bench. The soldiers according to custom levelled their muskets +and fired; but how great was the surprise, when the cloud of smoke +dispersed, and it was discovered that the zambo had vanished. He had +closely watched the movements of the soldiers, and when they pulled the +triggers of their muskets, he stooped down, and the balls passed over +his head. Then suddenly knocking down one of the guards who stood beside +him, he rushed into the midst of the crowd, where some of his friends +helped him to effect his escape. + +In time of war a corps is raised, consisting chiefly of highway robbers +and persons who, by various offences against the laws, have forfeited +their freedom or their lives. This corps is called the Montoneros, and +they are very important auxiliaries when the coast is the theatre of the +war. The Montoneros, not being trained in military manoeuvres, are not +employed as regular cavalry, but only as outposts, scouts, +despatch-bearers, &c. They are good skirmishers, and they harass the +enemy by their unexpected movements; sometimes attacking in front and +sometimes in the rear. They have no regular uniform, and their usual +clothing consists of dirty white trousers and jacket, a poncho, and a +broad-brimmed straw hat. Many of them are not even provided with shoes, +and their spurs are fastened on their bare heels. Their arms consist +of a short carbine and a sword. When the corps is strong, and is +required for active service, it is placed under the command of a +General of the Army. In 1838, General Miller, now British Consul at +the Sandwich Islands, commanded a corps of 1000 Montoneros, who were +in the service of Santa Cruz. They are held in the strictest +discipline by their commanders, who punish theft with death. There is, +however, one sort of robbery which they are suffered to commit with +impunity, viz, horse-stealing. The horses obtained in this way are +used for mounting the cavalry; and detachments of Montoneros are sent +to the plantations to collect horses. They are likewise taken from +travellers, and from the stables in the capital; but sometimes, after +the close of the campaign, the animals are returned to their owners. +When the war is ended the Montoneros are disbanded, and most of them +return to their occupation as highway robbers. + +In all campaigns the Montoneros are sent forward, by one or two days' +march in advance of the main army, either in small or large +detachments. When they enter a village they experience no difficulty in +obtaining quarters and provisions, for the inhabitants are not disposed +to refuse anything that such visitors may demand. A troop of Montoneros +is a picturesque, but, at the same time, a very fearful sight. Their +black, yellow, and olive-colored faces, seared by scars, and expressive +of every evil passion and savage feeling; their motley and tattered +garments; their weary and ill-saddled horses; their short firelocks and +long swords;--present altogether a most wild and disorderly aspect. The +traveller, who suddenly encounters such a band, may consider himself +exceedingly lucky if he escapes with only the loss of his horse. + +A universal panic pervades the city of Lima whenever a detachment of +Montoneros enters within the gates. On every side are heard cries of +"_Cierra puertas!_" (close the doors!) "_Los Montoneros!_" Every person +passing along the streets runs into the first house he comes to, and +closes the door after him. In a few moments the streets are cleared, and +no sound is heard but the galloping of the Montoneros' horses. + +Within the distance of a few leagues from Lima there are several pretty +villages, to which the wealthier class of the inhabitants of the capital +resort in the summer seasons, for sea-bathing. The nearest, situated +about three-quarters of a league from Lima, is Magdalena, where the +Viceroy of Peru formerly had a beautiful summer residence. Miraflores, +about midway between Lima and Chorillos, is a small village containing a +plaza and some neatly-built houses. Though the heat is greater here than +in the capital, yet the air is purer, and Miraflores may be regarded as +the healthiest spot in the neighborhood of Lima. The sultry atmosphere +is refreshed by the sea breezes. Surrounded by verdant though not +luxuriant vegetation, and sufficiently distant from the marshes, +Miraflores appears to combine within itself all that can be wished for +in a summer residence. For asthmatic patients the air is particularly +favorable. An old Spaniard of my acquaintance, who was engaged during +the day in business in Lima, used to go every night to sleep at +Miraflores: he assured me that if he slept a night in the capital he +suffered a severe attack of asthma. + +Chorillos is a poor, ill-looking village. The streets are dirty and +crooked, and the houses are mere ranchos. It is built close to the sea, +on a steep sandy beach; but, though anything but a pleasant place, +Chorillos is the favorite resort of the wealthy Limayan families. Not a +tree is visible in the neighborhood of the village, and the unshaded +rays of the sun are reflected with twofold power from the hot sand. A +broad, steep road leads down to the bathing-place on the sea-beach, +which is rough and shingly. A row of small huts, covered with matting, +serve as dressing-rooms. Both ladies and gentlemen use bathing dresses, +which are very neatly made of a kind of blue cloth. The ladies are +accompanied by guides (_banaderos_). These are Indians, who dwell in the +village. In winter they employ themselves in fishing, and in summer they +live by what they get from the visitors who resort to Chorillos. They +are a good-looking, hardy race of people. + +The time for bathing is early in the morning. The interval between +breakfast and dinner is devoted to swinging in the hammock, either in +the sala or in the corridor. The afternoon and evening are spent on the +promenade, and the later hours of the night at the gaming-table. The +routine of the day's occupations and amusements is much the same as in +most of the watering-places of Europe, excepting that, in the latter, +the hammock is suspended by the chair in the reading-room and +coffee-house, or the bench on the promenade. The sultry nights in +Chorillos are rendered doubly unpleasant by the swarms of vermin which +infest the houses. Fleas, bugs, mosquitoes and sancudos, combine to +banish rest from the couch of even the soundest sleeper. + +Surco is situated about half a league from Chorillos, and further into +the interior of the country. It is a poor but pleasant village, +surrounded by tropical trees and luxuriant vegetation. The climate is +not so hot as that of Lima or Chorillos. Surco is a very pretty spot, +though seldom resorted to by the inhabitants of the capital; because it +boasts neither baths nor gaming-tables. + +Two leagues eastward of Lima, in the direction of the mountains, is +the village El Ate. It lies in a fertile valley, and enjoys a pure +and equal temperature. It is much resorted to by invalids suffering +from pulmonary disorders, which, if not cured, are at least relieved +by the pure air. + +Lurin is situated five leagues south from the capital, and a quarter of +a league from the Rio de Lurin, which intersects the Quebrada of +Huarochirin. Fine gardens, and well-cultivated lands, impart beauty to +the surrounding scenery. At Michaelmas Lurin is visited by many of the +inhabitants of the capital, St. Michael being the patron saint of the +place. The village stands about a thousand paces from the margin of the +sea-shore, which is two miles distant from the rocky islands of +Tarallones, Santo Domingo, and Pacchacamac. Prior to the Spanish +conquest, the valley of Lurin was one of the most populous parts of the +coast of Peru. The whole of the broad valley was then called +Pacchacamac, because near the sea-shore and northward of the river, +there was a temple sacred to the "Creator of the Earth."[42] Pacchacamac +was the greatest deity of the Yuncas, who did not worship the sun until +after their subjugation by the Incas. The temple of Pacchacamac was then +dedicated to the sun by the Incas, who destroyed the idols which the +Yuncas had worshipped, and appointed to the service of the temple a +certain number of virgins of royal descent. In the year 1534, Pizarro +invaded the village of Lurin: his troops destroyed the temple, and the +Virgins of the Sun were dishonored and murdered. + +The ruins of the temple of Pacchacamac are among the most interesting +objects on the coast of Peru. They are situated on a hill about 558 +feet high. The summit of the hill is overlaid with a solid mass of +brick-work about thirty feet in height. On this artificial ridge stood +the temple, enclosed by high walls, rising in the form of an +amphitheatre. It is now a mass of ruins; all that remains of it being +some niches, the walls of which present faint traces of red and yellow +painting. At the foot, and on the sides of the hill, are scattered +ruins which were formerly the walls of habitations. The whole was +encircled by a wall eight feet in breadth, and it was probably of +considerable height, for some of the parts now standing are twelve +feet high, though the average height does not exceed three or four +feet. The mania of digging for treasures every year makes +encroachments on these vestiges of a bygone age, whose monuments +are well deserving of more careful preservation. + +Travelling on the coast of Peru is difficult and tedious. The roads +lead through plains of sand, where often not a trace of vegetation is +to be seen, nor a drop of water to be found for twenty or thirty +miles. It is found desirable to take all possible advantage of the +night, in order to escape the scorching rays of a tropical sun; but +when there is no moonlight, and above all, when clouds of mist obscure +the directing stars, the traveller runs the risk of getting out of his +course, and at daybreak, discovering his error, he may have to retrace +his weary way. This extra fatigue may possibly disable his horse, so +that the animal cannot proceed further. In such an emergency a +traveller finds his life in jeopardy; for should he attempt to go +forward on foot he may, in all probability, fall a sacrifice to +fatigue and thirst. Numbers of beasts of burden sink every year under +the difficulties of such a journey; and their bones serve to mark the +direction of the road. Long journeys over these sand plains should be +undertaken only with good and well-tried horses. For the most part the +horses cannot stand hunger and thirst forty-eight hours without +becoming so exhausted that the rider has the greatest difficulty in +making them drag on; and if he is inconsiderate enough to force the +animal to take a quicker pace, the horse lies down and dies. The mule, +which more easily supports the difficulties of a severe journey on the +sparest food, is, in Peru, the camel of the desert. Without mules, a +long journey on most parts of the coast would be impracticable. The +horse obeys the spur until he falls dead under the rider. Not so the +mule: when too weary to journey onward he stands stock still, and +neither whip nor spur will move him until he has rested. After that he +will willingly proceed on his way. By this means the traveller has a +criterion by which he can judge of the powers of his animal. + +Excursions along the coast have been greatly facilitated by the +introduction of steam navigation, and travellers now eagerly avail +themselves of that rapid and secure mode of conveyance. Even in sailing +vessels voyages from south to north can be conveniently performed in +consequence of the regularity of the tradewind. + +During my residence in Lima, in the commencement of the year 1841, I +visited the port of Huacho, situated to the north. A packet bound to +Panama had permission to touch at Huacho, without casting anchor, as she +had to convey political prisoners under sentence of transportation to +Panama. I was one of five passengers who landed at Huacho, and among the +number was the pastor of the town, that very original individual, "the +Cura Requena." The passage, which is usually made in fourteen hours, +lasted two days and a half. Off the port we fell in with a Peruvian +sloop of war, which, on our sailing from Callao, had been sent to watch +us, and to stop the prisoners in case they attempted to escape. Our +captain lay to, and we stepped into a boat. Our movements were +observed from the shore, where, for some days, a report had prevailed +that Santa Cruz was coming with Corsairs, to make a descent. The +inhabitants believed that our ship must belong to that expedition. +They were the more confirmed in their notion, inasmuch as the +appearance of a sloop of war, which had sailed about for some hours in +the bay, could not otherwise be explained. Accordingly the alarm bell +was rung. The custom-house officers and the coast guards, headed by +the port captain, and followed by a crowd of people, came down to the +shore, some armed with muskets and pistols, others with swords and +cudgels, to repel the intended attack. + +At the entrance to the port of Huacho the breakers are so dangerous that +an ordinary-sized boat cannot put in. Landing is therefore effected in +the small canoes of the Indians. When we approached the shore we made +signals, and called loudly for canoes, but in vain. The dismayed +Huachanos showed no inclination to assist their supposed enemies. Our +captain, who was with us in the boat, said, that as a fresh wind from +the shore was springing up he could wait no longer, and that he must +take us with him to Panama. This very unpleasant piece of information +prompted us to put into execution a plan which was suggested by despair. +The tall, lank pastor, wrapped in the black ecclesiastical robe, called +the _talar_, was placed at the prow, where he stood up, making signs of +peace and friendship to the natives. This had the desired effect. The +port captain had a good glass, with which he quickly recognized the +marked features of the Cura, and several Indian boats were instantly +despatched to convey us on shore. These Indian canoes consist of long +narrow stumps of trees, hollowed longitudinally. On either side is +nailed a _palo de balzas_, viz., a beam of a very porous kind of wood. +One Indian sits forward, another more backward, each having a short +wooden shovel-shaped oar, with which they strike the water right and +left, and thus scull the boat onward. The passengers must crouch or +kneel down in the middle, and dare not stir, for the least irregularity +in the motion would upset the boat. We landed safely, and amused +ourselves by referring to the mistake of the brave guardians of the +coast. Horses were provided for us, and we rode to the town, which is +situated at about half a league up the gently-rising coast. + +My principal occupation, during a six weeks' residence on this part of +the coast, which is very rich in fishes, was to augment my +ichthyological collection, and to make myself well acquainted with the +environs of Huacho. Every morning, at five o'clock, I rode down to the +shore, and waited on the strand to see the boats returning with what had +been caught, during the night, by the fishers, who readily descried me +at a distance, and held up, in their boat, such strange inhabitants of +the deep as had come into their possession. I succeeded in making out, +from several hundred individual specimens, one hundred and twenty +distinct species of sea and river fish. But an unlucky fate hovered over +this fine collection. The fishes were all put into a cask with brandy, +which, by neglect of the commissary of the port, was left on the Mole at +Callao, for several months, in the burning heat of the sun: in +consequence its contents were utterly destroyed. A second collection was +prepared, and immediately shipped for Europe, and in the packing the +greatest care was observed. Nevertheless it arrived, after a voyage of +fifteen months, in a state quite useless. Thus the fruits of much labor +and a considerable expense were entirely lost. + +Huacho is a little village, which, since the war of Independence, has +received the title of "city." It has more than 5000 inhabitants, of +whom four-fifths are Indians and the rest mestizes. Very few whites +have settled here. Among them I met an old lame Spaniard, "Don Simon," +who, at the beginning of the present century, accompanied the +celebrated Alexander von Humboldt to the beds of salt situated a few +miles to the south. In relating, with enthusiastic pleasure, his +recollections of the youthful and indefatigable traveller, he told me +that, some years ago, he had read through the book which Humboldt +wrote on America, and he added, with great simplicity, "_pero, Senor, +ahi he perdido los estribos_."[43] + +The natives employ themselves in fishing, agriculture, and the +breeding of poultry. Most of the poultry brought to market in Lima +comes from Huacho. Every Friday large caravan-like processions of +Indian women repair to the capital with fowls, ducks, and turkeys. +Fifteen or twenty are tied together by the feet, and make a sort of +bunch; and two of such bunches are hung at the pommel of the saddle, +so that one hangs down on either side of the horse. The chola[44] sits +in the middle. Under this burthen the poor animal has to travel two +days and a half. Only when the caravan halts does he enjoy the relief +of being unsaddled and fed. Some of the Indians of Huacho work in the +salt-pits. The women plait coarse straw hats, and a kind of mats +called _petates_, which they carry to Lima for sale. + +The Huachanos cannot be ranked among the best classes of the Indians. +They are malicious, revengeful, and knavish. Their character has +evidently deteriorated amidst the numerous revolutions which preceded +the establishment of the Republic, and the frequent passage of troops +through the town. The Padre Requena sketched to me a terrible picture +of his _Indios brutos_; but truly, under the guidance of such a +shepherd, it were unreasonable to expect the flock to be very good. +This venerable Cura was a fair type of the Peruvian priesthood. He was +passionately fond of hunting, and for the enjoyment of that recreation +he kept a number of excellent horses, and several packs of hounds, +particularly _galgos_ (greyhounds), for some of which he paid 150 or +200 dollars. In the most shameless way he violated the ecclesiastical +vow of celibacy, and he was usually surrounded by several of his own +children, who called him _uncle_, addressing him by the appellation of +_tio_, the term usually employed in Peru to express that sort of +relationship. The Padre used to boast of his alleged friendship with +Lord Cochrane, in which he affected to pride himself very greatly. He +died in a few weeks after his return to Huacho. He refused so long to +make his confession, that the Indians, uttering furious menaces, +assembled in crowds about his house. Some even compelled a priest to go +in to him, to represent the awful consequences of his obstinacy. On the +approach of death, he declared that the thought which most occupied him +was his separation from his hounds, and when his hands were becoming +cold he called to his negro to fetch a pair of buckskin hunting gloves, +and desired to have them drawn on. + +In Peru the clergy have no fixed stipend. Their emoluments are derived +from the fees and perquisites which their ecclesiastical functions bring +in. For baptisms, marriages, and masses, fixed sums are established; but +it is not so with burials, for which the priest receives a present +proportional to the circumstances of the deceased. The interment of a +poor person (_entierro baxo_) costs at least from eight to ten dollars, +which sum is extorted from the survivors with the most unrelenting +rigor. For the burial of a rich person (_entierro alto_) the sum of two +hundred dollars is frequently paid. If a wealthy man should express in +his will his desire for an _entierro baxo_, the priest sets this clause +aside, and proceeds with the costly ceremonies, the payment for which is +insured by the pious feelings of the family. Hence some of the richer +_comunerias_, of which Huacho is one, yield to the priest annually from +12,000 to 14,000 dollars. When a priest dies, the clergy of the +neighboring villages meet and bury him with great pomp, free of any +payment except a good banquet. + +A rich Indian of Huacho made a bargain with his countrymen that, on +their paying him weekly a medio (the sixteenth part of a dollar), he +would defray the expenses of their funerals. By this agreement he +realized a considerable sum of money. The Cholos made it a condition +that they should be buried in coffins, which is not common with the +lower classes in Peru. The Indian complied with this condition. When a +Cholo died, a coffin was sent to his residence. If too short, the corpse +was bent and forced into it. The interment then took place according to +the ritual of the Church. On the following night the Indian who had +contracted for the burials repaired with a confidential servant to the +churchyard, dug up the coffin, threw the body back into the grave, and +carried off the coffin, with the _mortaja_ (the funeral garment), which +served for the next customer. The contractor made each coffin last as +long as the boards would hold together. This system, at all events, +secured the Cholos against the danger of being buried alive. + +The churchyard of Huacho presents a revolting spectacle. A low wall +surrounds a space of sandy ground, which is strewed with skulls, bones, +fragments of burial clothes, and mutilated human bodies. The coffin +plunderer, on replacing the corpse in the grave, merely throws some +loose sand over it, and the consequence is that the remains of the dead +frequently become the prey of dogs, foxes, and other carrion feeders. +When the family of a deceased person can contribute nothing to defray +the funeral expenses, the body is conveyed privately during the night to +the churchyard. In the morning it is found half consumed. + +The environs of Huacho abound in fine fruit gardens, and productive +Indian farms. The climate is healthful, though very hot. The vicinity of +the sea and the convenience of good bathing would render it an agreeable +place of residence, were it not infested with vermin. Fleas propagate in +the sand in almost incredible multitudes, especially in the neighborhood +of the Indian huts, and any person entering them is in a moment covered +with hundreds of those tormentors. Bugs, too, swarm in the lime walls; +though that description of vermin is less numerous in Huacho than in +some of the more northern towns. + +In a fine valley, about two short leagues from Huacho, the little town +of Huaura is situated on the bank of a river of the same name. This Rio +de Huaura is formed by the union of two rivers. The larger of the two +rises in the Cordillera de Paria, and flows through the wild ravine of +Chuichin: the smaller river, called the Rio Chico de Sayan, rises from a +lake of considerable size in the Altos de Huaquimarci. Both unite below +the village of Sayan. In the vicinity of Huaura the river forms several +marshes, in which malaria is generated. In very few places have I seen +the stratum of malaria so distinctly separated from the atmosphere as +here. It lies at an average about two, or two and a half feet above the +marsh, and is carried over it by strong atmospheric currents. It is +distinguished by a peculiar kind of opalization, and on certain +changes of light it exhibits a yellowish tint. This is particularly +perceptible in the morning, on coming down from the high grounds. The +marshy plain then appears overhung with a thick color-changing sheet +of malaria. Malignant intermittent fever and diseases of the skin are +frequent in Huaura. The town is thinly peopled; the number of +inhabitants being not more than 2000. + +A great sugar plantation, called El Ingenio, is situated at about a +quarter of a league from Huaura. It formerly belonged to the Jesuits, +but is now the property of a rich Lima family. The _trapiche_, or +sugar-mill, is worked by a water-wheel, the first ever established in +Peru, a circumstance of which the owner proudly boasts. + +The valley which opens here is magnificent, and to ride through it +easterly eleven leagues towards Sayan is one of the finest excursions +which can be made in Peru. Over this beautiful district are scattered +many rich plantations. The one next in importance to El Ingenio is +Acaray, which, though not very large, is most carefully cultivated: +another, called Huillcahuaura, has a splendid building erected on it. In +the middle of the valley is the extensive sugar plantation of Luhmayo. +Near this place I saw, in a negro's hut, an ounce of immense size, which +had been killed a few weeks previously. More than fifty Negroes and +Indians had been engaged in subduing this ferocious animal, which was +not killed until after a conflict of two days, in the course of which +several negroes were dangerously wounded. This gigantic specimen +measured, from the snout to the tip of the tail, eight feet three +inches; the tail itself measuring two feet eight inches. + +At the sugar works of Luhmayo, notwithstanding the number of pipes, and +other methods of supplying water, the cylinders are always worked by +oxen, and are kept in motion day and night. I took a view of the works +during the night, and the extraordinary picture I beheld will never be +effaced from my memory. In the middle of the spacious building +appropriated to the operations blazed a large fire, fed by the refuse +of sugar canes. Around lay negroes, some asleep, and others muttering +to each other in an under-tone. Here and there sat one perfectly +silent, wrapped in his own reflections, and apparently brooding over +some gloomy plan. The oxen paced slowly round the pole, which directed +the movement of the cylinders; the animals alternately disappearing in +the obscure background, and returning to the point where the glare of +the fire, falling full upon them, lighted them up as if by the sudden +effect of magic. Behind them stalked a tall black figure, driving them +on with a rod made of brambles. Groups of children were busily +employed in thrusting the full sugar canes between the cylinders; and +after they were pressed, collecting together the sapless reeds, and +piling them up in regular heaps. + +Next morning the person who officiated as medical superintendant of the +plantation, showed me all the arrangements of the establishment. He gave +me an account of his cures and operations, and told me that he often +found it necessary to amputate, because the slaves purposely injure +their fingers and arms in the _Phalangeles_ (machines) in order to +disable themselves. The worthy AEsculapius had never in his life read a +regular medical work. He had originally been an overseer of slaves, +and had afterwards turned doctor. He informed me that some time before +I saw him, ninety negroes, his patients, had died of small-pox in the +space of nine months, whereby the owner of the plantation had lost +45,000 dollars. The hospital was clean and well fitted up, but +over-crowded with sick. Most of them died from intermitting fever, and +from dropsy and rheumatism which followed it. Not a few of the male +negroes suffer from a peculiar kind of cutaneous disease, which shows +itself by large pustules on the arms and breast. After suppuration +they dry and fall off, but leave indelible spots, which, on a black +skin, are of a whitish color; on a brown skin, olive-green, and on a +white skin, black. I never saw the disease in any other part of the +country except in this valley. Negroes and persons of mixed blood are +more subject to it than the whites. + +The two plantations on the east side of the valley are Chambara and +Quipico. The latter is celebrated for the fine sugar it produces, and is +also well known on account of the original character of its late +proprietor, Castilla. When I rode into the court, I was in a moment +surrounded by about fifty fine greyhounds, and from every side others +came springing forward. This was but a remnant of Castilla's collection. +He was passionately devoted to hunting, and generally kept from 200 to +300 greyhounds, with which he rode out daily. A bell was rung at certain +hours to collect the light-footed tribe to their meals. A gallows was +erected in the court, where the intractable underwent capital punishment +as a warning to the rest. One day when Castilla went out to hunt, he was +joined in the chase by an Indian, who brought with him a common mongrel. +This animal outstripped some of the greyhounds in speed, and quickly +overtook the deer. Castilla immediately bought the dog, for which he +gave the immense price of 350 dollars. A few days after he rode out to +hunt with his best greyhounds, together with the newly-purchased dog. +The pack being let loose, all the dogs set off in full chase, but the +mongrel remained quietly beside the horses. On returning to the +plantation, he was hung up on the gallows as a warning example. + +To the north of Huacho, the _Pampa del medio mundo_, a sand plain, seven +leagues long, stretches out to the village of Supe. At short successive +distances farther to the north are the villages of _Baranca_, +_Pativilca_ (or rather Pati Huillca), and _la Fortaleza_. Then there +intervenes a vast waste, which extends nearly to Huarmay. Between that +village and the Port of Casma there is a similar long plain of sand. +Thus do wastes, and fruitful valleys, alternate along the whole coast +until near Tumbez, on the frontiers of the Republic of the Ecuador. + +The whole district is rich in memorable monuments of the time of the +Incas. The most important are the remains of the palace of King Chimu +Cancha, not far from the harbor of Huanchaco, and the ruins of +Paramanca, near la Fortaleza. Doctor Unanue[45] is of opinion that the +latter edifice was built to commemorate the peace between King Chimu +Cancha and his conqueror, Capac Yupanqui; and that of two other +buildings, one (the larger), situated towards the east, marks the +dominions of the powerful Inca Pachacutec, and the other (the smaller), +towards the west, indicates the territory of the conquered Chimu. This +supposition is, in my opinion, quite erroneous. Independently of the +plainly-recognizable character of those ruins, the construction of which +shows them to have been fortifications, their situation bears evidence +against the inference of Unanue. Supposing the larger building to have +indicated the position of the Inca Empire, it ought to have been +situated to the south, and the smaller building would have been to the +north. The only passable road along the coast led between these two +fortified hills; and by them the road on that side to the Kingdom of +Chimu could be cut off. The Incas well knew, from experience, that the +subdued populations, usually after a longer or a shorter time, again +revolted, and endeavored to shake off their yoke, and therefore they +were on their guard against such an occurrence. Capac Yupanqui must +have greatly mistrusted an enemy so formidable as Chimu Cancha, who +had only yielded after the most obstinate resistance, and it is no +slight proof of this that Paramanca[46] was built as a fortress to +hold the subjugated nations in check. It was not, however, built as a +monument of victory, for such monuments were always erected in Cozco, +the capital, and never on the field of battle. Etymology affords no +solution of this question. Some write Paramonga, others Paramanca. I +regard the latter as the most correct. Garcilaso de la Vega calls the +valley Parmunca. In the Quichua dialect _Paramanca_[47] signifies a +pot for rain. It is therefore possible that the name may indicate an +allusion to heavy torrents of rain, which, though now unusual on this +particular part of the coast, may have occurred in this basin-like +valley after a great earthquake. + +Five leagues to the south of Huacho are the extensive _Salinas_, or salt +pits, which supply Peru and Chile with excellent salt. They spread from +the sea coast to the distance of half a league eastward, and present a +most extraordinary aspect. On approaching them the traveller might fancy +he beholds a field of glaciers, on which the sun's rays produce +wonderful effects of variegated color. + +This salt is the produce of a natural evaporation of the sea water, +which trickles through the porous stones of the coast, and fills every +intervening hollow. The whole space is parcelled into divisions, called +fields, from which, according to a definite regulation, square masses, +weighing each one hundred pounds, are cut. In a few days the holes are +again filled up with sea water, which, in the space of twelve to +sixteen, or sometimes twenty to twenty-four months, being evaporated by +the sun, leaves a precipitate completely filling up the square holes. +The government has farmed the salinas to a private individual in Huacho, +who keeps on the spot an overseer with the necessary number of +laborers. This establishment is an inexhaustible source of wealth, and +it can only be destroyed by a violent earthquake. In the bay on which +the salinas border there is very convenient and secure anchoring +ground, where coasters are constantly lying, ready to receive the +salt, and convey it to any Peruvian or Chilean port. Most of the +laborers employed in the salinas suffer from diseases of the skin and +rheumatism. Water and provisions have to be brought from Huacho. The +Indians, when they come from the mountains to convey salt, never take +their llamas to the salinas. They go straight to Huacho, where the +animals are loaded at the great depots. Each llama carries the weight +of one hundred pounds, which, however, is not, like ordinary burthens, +laid on the bare back of the animal--beneath it is placed a layer of +thick woollen cloth, called a _jerga_. + +The road southward from the Salinas runs, for the distance of nine +leagues, through deep sand, chiefly along the sea-coast, and is bounded +on the east by the _Lomas de Lachay_. Here flocks of strand snipes and +flamingoes fly constantly before the traveller, as if to direct his +course. In the _pescadores_ (fishermen's huts), five leagues from the +Salinas, brackish water and broiled fish may be obtained, and sometimes +even clover, which is brought hither, from the distance of several +miles, to feed the hungry horses. From the pescadores the road crosses +steep sand-hills, which rise from three to four hundred feet high, and +fall with a declivity of more than sixty degrees towards the sea. The +road leads along the side of these hills, and, where the ground is not +firm, it is exceedingly dangerous. On a false step of the horse the +ground yields beneath his hoof, and rolls down the declivity; but by due +care the rider can easily recover a solid footing. There is on one of +these hills a very large stone, which at a certain distance presents in +color and form a deceptious similarity to an enormous-sized seal. Almost +perpendicularly under it is a small bay, inhabited by a multitude of +seals. The dull crashing sound made by the breakers on the shore, +mingling with the howling of these animals, makes a gloomy impression on +the traveller who is passing along the height above them, and creates a +sort of shuddering sensation. The natives call this place and its sounds +the _Grita Lobos_ (the Sea-dog's Howl). From this hilly ground the road +descends into the fruitful valley of the _Pasamayo_, which contains two +villages and eighteen plantations. + +Chancay, the principal town in this valley, is the residence of a +sub-prefect. It is a league and a half from the river, and a short +league from the sea, where there is an inconsiderable and not very safe +port, which can only be entered by small vessels. The number of +inhabitants is about 1200, chiefly Indians and Mulattos. Excellent +fruits and vegetables, good beef, mutton, and poultry, and well-flavored +fish, are found here in abundance. The houses are all of the poorest +structure, and are sparingly and rudely furnished. In the neighboring +farms, some of which are large, as Torreblanco, Pasamayo, &c., maize is +extensively cultivated for exportation and for food to the swine, which +are very numerous. In no other valley of Peru are there so many +earth-fleas, or _piques_, as they are called, particularly about the +plantations. The _pique_ is a small, white insect, which lives in sand, +but fastens as a parasite on man and beast, more particularly on swine. +It attacks man by penetrating the skin, for the most part under the +toe-nails, where an egg is laid, from which a painful tumor is +afterwards formed. Should this be neglected, the brood is developed, and +penetrates further into the flesh. Then follow violent inflammations and +imposthumes, which sometimes assume so serious a character that the +amputation of the foot becomes necessary. While the _pique_ is +penetrating there is no sensation of its presence; it is first felt on +the development of the egg, and then it is still easy to remove the +bag which contains it, and the mother with it. The Negresses +accomplish this with great dexterity. They make an aperture in the +skin by scratching it with a needle, and then they draw the bag out. +Should it burst, they take out the egg with the needle; but this is a +very delicate operation. I have always been able to do it more +speedily and more securely with the lancet. The hole is commonly of +the size of a bean, and hot cigar ashes are put into it to destroy any +eggs or larvae which may remain. These insects do not always confine +themselves to the feet; they sometimes attack the body and the face, +and it is in general extremely difficult for the patient to discover +how or where he became acquainted with such troublesome companions. I +once had six tumors, caused by broods of _piques_, on my right foot, +and I could not trace the annoyance to any other cause than having +stopped for a few minutes, while my horse was being saddled, in the +_corral_, or yard, of a plantation. + +The road from Chancay to the Haciendas of Bisquira, Andahuasi, and the +village of Sayan, extends in a northeasterly direction, through a dreary +valley of sand, between rows of sterile hillocks of the most singular +forms. I had once to travel along twelve leagues of this wearisome road, +under the most oppressive heat of the sun. The mules were quite +overcome, and when we reached the _Cuesta de los ahorcados_ (the hill of +the hanged) they would not move another step. We had to descend and give +them a long rest. We stretched ourselves under the bellies of the +animals, the only shade we could get in this treeless waste. At last, +after a very difficult journey, during which we lost ourselves in a +marsh in the neighborhood of Bisquira, we arrived about midnight at +Andahuasi. On this road, only two leagues from Chancay, near the +Hacienda of Chancayllo, are situated the Colcas, most remarkable +subterraneous structures, of the time of the Incas. According to +tradition, they were built by the Yuncas, during the campaign of Capac +Yupanqui against Chimu Cancha, as provision magazines for the numerous +army, more than 120,000 strong. + +At the mouth of the Pasamayo, on the north bank, there are some salinas, +which, however, are far more inconsiderable than those of Huacho. + +The first time I went from Huacho to Lima, I wished to pass over the +whole road, twenty-eight leagues, in one uninterrupted ride; accordingly +I left Huacho at two o'clock, P. M., in order that I might cross the +great sand-flats during the night. A negro who knew the road accompanied +me. We passed through Chancay at midnight. Some muleteers, lying before +a hut, called to us, and warned us to stop, as the river had swelled +very much. Nevertheless we proceeded onward, and by one o'clock we +reached the Pasamayo, which, in consequence of the heavy rains from the +mountains, had overflowed its banks. Several travellers had stretched +themselves on the ground to wait for the morning light, and in the hope +that the flood would by that time subside. No Chimbadores[48] were to be +had. My negro guide looked at the water with dismay, and declared that +he had never before witnessed so furious a swell. However, we had no +time to lose, and I resolved to attempt the passage of the river. +Trusting to my well tried horse, which had already carried me safely +through many difficult coasting journeys, I cautiously rode into the +river, which became deeper at every step. The overwhelming force of the +stream was felt by my horse; and he presently lost his footing, though +he still continued to struggle vigorously against the force of the +current. At this juncture, some passing clouds obscured the moon, and I +lost sight of a group of trees which, before leaving the opposite bank, +I fixed my eye upon as a guiding beacon. Quite powerless, my horse +and I were carried away by the stream, and driven against a rock in +the middle of the river. I now heard the anxious outcries of my negro +and the travellers on the bank, whilst the waves rose over my head. +With a convulsive effort I pulled the bridle, and the horse then +turning completely round, once more gained his solid footing. I then +gave him the spur, and the courageous animal dashing again into the +midst of the current, swam with me to the bank. I rode forward with my +negro in search of a better fording-place, and after several fruitless +attempts, we at length found one, and we crossed the river safely. The +other travellers did not venture to follow our example, but called out +begging us not to leave them behind. I sent the negro back on my horse +to bring them over; and the noble animal went backward and forward no +less than seven times without making one false step. After all this +exertion, he bore me with unflagging spirit into Lima, where we +arrived at noon on the following day. + +From the Pasamayo, the road runs for the space of two leagues +tolerably level, and for the most part amidst plantations. Then +succeed steep sandy hills, for the distance of about four leagues. +The roads are very wearisome both to horse and rider, especially in +the declivities towards the plains, where the horse is frequently +over his knees in sand. In those parts there are also some +extraordinary atmospheric mirrors, in which we beheld ourselves in +reflection, riding over our own heads, and our figures magnified to +gigantic proportions. Six leagues from Chancay, there are two wretched +huts, forming the tambo, or inn, in which travellers obtain +refreshment. From thence the road runs through a stony tract, +partially strewn with large masses of rock, called the _Piedras +gordas_, and leading to the marshes which surround the Copacahuana +plantations. Two leagues further on is the river Chillon, which, like +the Pasamayo, may generally be easily forded, but which swells +furiously during heavy falls of rain. At a short distance behind the +river, the road, called the Camino de Valles, joins that leading to +Cerro de Pasco. About a league from Lima there is a place called _Palo +seco_, which, like _Piedras gordas_, is a celebrated haunt of robbers. +The traveller has reason to congratulate himself if he passes these +two places without an attack. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 41: The Indians resort to very artful methods of hiding their +money. They sometimes conceal it between the boards of the boxes in +which their eggs are packed, or stitch it into the stuffing of their +asses' saddles. They often submit to be killed rather than avow where +their money is concealed.] + +[Footnote 42: The word Pacchacamac signifies _He who created the world +out of nothing_. It is compounded of _Paccha_, the earth, and _camac_, +the participle present of _caman_, to produce something from nothing.] + +[Footnote 43: Literally--"But there, sir, I lost the stirrups." Meaning +that he did not understand it. The Spanish phrase, _Perder los +estribos_, signifies to get confused or embarrassed.] + +[Footnote 44: _Chola_ is the common designation for an Indian female. +The masculine is _Cholo_.] + +[Footnote 45: Nuevo dia del Peru. 1824.] + +[Footnote 46: According to some ancient authors Paramanca was built by +King Chimu as a frontier fortress against the neighboring nations. There +is some foundation for this view of the subject, as Chimu Cancha had, +long before he was attacked by Capac Yupanqui, carried on war most +fiercely with Cuyz Mancu, King of Pacchacama, and Chuquiz Mancu, King of +Runahuanac (the present Lunahuana).] + +[Footnote 47: _Para_ (rain) _Manca_ (pot).] + +[Footnote 48: Guides, who conduct travellers across rivers, being well +acquainted with the fords. They are also called Vadeadores.] + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +The Coast southward of Lima--Chilca--Curious Cigar cases made +there--Yauyos--Pisco--Journey to Yca--A night on the Sand +Plains--Fatal Catastrophe in the year 1823--Vine Plantations at +Yca--Brandy and Wine--Don Domingo Elias--Vessels for transporting +Brandy (Botijas and odres)--Cruel mode of skinning Goats--Negro +Carnival--Peculiar species of Guinea Pig--The Salamanqueja--Cotton +Plantations--Quebrada of Huaitara--Sangallan--Guano--Retrospect of the +Peruvian Coast--Rivers--Medanos--Winds--Change of Seasons--the +Garuas--The Lomas--Mammalia--Birds--Amphibia. + + +The coast, southward of Lima, is similar in aspect, climate, and +character, to those parts north of the city which have just been +described. Fruitful valleys, villages, and plantations, commodious +sea-ports, and vast sandy wastes, alternate one with the other. Heat, +sometimes almost insupportable, is succeeded by chilly and unhealthy +mists; whilst here and there the scattered monuments of the wealth and +greatness of bygone ages present a remarkable and painful contrast to +present poverty and misery. + +Proceeding southward of Lima by way of Lurin, we arrive at Chilca, a +wretched village situated on a soil which affords nothing to supply the +wants of human existence. It appears an incomprehensible mystery that +man should have fixed his abode on a spot where Nature has granted +nothing for his nourishment, not even a drop of pure water; whilst at +the distance of a few miles, luxuriant valleys offer, spontaneously, +those products which the most laborious toil must fail to extort from +the ungrateful soil of Chilca. The hope of wealth from commercial +speculation or mining industry has peopled many inhospitable shores, and +has raised populous towns on barren deserts; but at Chilca there are no +such stimuli of interests. Nevertheless, they may possibly have existed +in former ages, for the numerous ruins scattered around the village +tend to confirm the opinion that the population was very extensive under +the government of the Incas. The force of custom and of local attachment +which frequently chains man to the spot where his progenitors have lived +happily, is all that can bind the natives of Chilca to their miserable +dwelling-place. In few villages, as in Chilca, have the Indians for more +than 300 years so carefully avoided mixing with people of other races. +They employ themselves in plaiting straw for hats and cigar-cases. The +latter they make in a singularly beautiful style with white and colored +straw, which they plait into various figures and patterns--sometimes +into names, and even lines of poetry. Some of these cigar-cases sell for +upwards of a hundred dollars. Fishing is a less profitable occupation to +the people of Chilca, or, as they are called in the country, the +Chilquenos; for, owing to the great distance, only certain kinds of fish +can be sent to the Lima market. Near the village there is a bed of very +strong red-colored salt, which is exported to the mountains, but which +sells at a lower price than the salt of Huacho. + +Five leagues south of Chilca, on the river of the same name, lies the +village called Canete, which is the residence of a Sub-prefect. The very +interesting province of Yauyos extends from this village in an easterly +direction towards the Cordilleras. The inhabitants of this province are +distinguishable by their faces and figures, and also by their manners +and language, from the Indians of the coast and the mountains. In +stature they are small. They have expanded foreheads, animated eyes, +prominent cheek-bones, and wide mouths. Their limbs are slender, and +their skin is of a swarthy brown. Their dialect, the Cauqui, contains +many radical words of the Quichua language. After this nation was +subjugated by the Incas their language was so intermixed with others, +that it is now very difficult to trace out its origin. It appears to be +totally different from the Chinchaysuyo language. + +Some very considerable sugar plantations, and several villages, lie +between Canete and Pisco. Among the villages, Lunahuana and Chincha +(upper and lower) are celebrated for their great fertility. Two rivers, +at the distance of five leagues from each other, flow in a parallel +direction between Chincha and Pisco, and to their waters the valleys are +indebted for their rich vegetation. On account of their width these +rivers can only be passed with the assistance of Chimbadores, and many +travellers annually perish in their incautious attempts to ford them. +The little town of Pisco is on the left bank of the south river, and +half a league from it there is a secure harbor with good anchoring +ground. This town has acquired some importance by the exportation of +brandy; and it has recently become more active and populous owing to the +near vicinity of the Guano islands. The custom-house and the port +captain's office are on the shore, where there is also a large building +erected by Don Domingo Elias, for a brandy depot. The little town of +Pisco has suffered much from the plundering attacks of European pirates, +from earthquakes, and more recently from the War of Independence. +Several parts of it have been rebuilt. Within the few last years much +has been done in the way of improving and ornamenting it. A broad trench +has been dug round the town, serving the purpose of drainage, and +thereby greatly contributing to preserve the health of the place. Pisco +is merely the key to the large interior town of Yca, which is fourteen +leagues distant. I visited it in the year 1842. The steamer conveyed me +in eighteen hours from Callao to Pisco, where I hired horses and a +guide. He was a Catalonian, who had frequently travelled to Yca. + +At three o'clock, P. M., we left Pisco. At first the road passed over +very hard ground, then through deep sand, which continued till we got +to Yca. Notwithstanding the heat, which in the month of February is +insupportable, I was wrapped up in my woollen poncho. Experience had +taught me that in the hotter districts the change of temperature which +takes place at night, and causes fever, is least injurious when the +traveller is protected in warm clothing. My Catalonian guide, who, +with his arms covered merely by his shirt sleeves, nevertheless +suffered greatly from the heat, could not comprehend why I had chosen +such a dress. When I informed him that eleven days before I had, in +the same clothing, passed a night on the Cordilleras, in the midst of +snow, he shook his head in token of incredulity. Whilst the bell rang +for evening prayers we rode into the Huilla Curin Plantation, which +is surrounded by a charming grove of palm trees. We stopped for a few +moments to gather some excellent figs. About midnight a heavy fog +spread over the plain, and veiled from our sight a cross on the south, +which had hitherto served to keep us in the right direction. We, +however, advanced about a league farther. The Catalonian then often +alighted to smell the sand, in order to ascertain whether we were +taking the proper course. This is a very good practical method; for in +deserts through which caravans frequently pass, the dung of the beasts +of burthen mixed with the sand affords a sure indication of the track. +When we had got about three quarters of a league farther on, we came +close against a rock, which my guide--in whose acquaintance with the +locality I had the most unbounded confidence--declared was quite +unknown to him. There was therefore no doubt that we had got out of +the right course. I lighted a cigar, and on examining, by its feeble +light, my pocket compass, I discovered that instead of keeping to the +south-east we had diverged to the west. As there was now no hope that +the fog would clear away before day-break, we rolled ourselves in the +warm sand, to await the coming morning. + +I afterwards learned that in this very spot numerous travellers had lost +their way, and had perished of thirst. In the year 1823, a ship stranded +on this coast, with three hundred and twenty dragoons on board, under +the command of Colonel Lavalle. The soldiers succeeded in getting +ashore, but thirty-six hours afterwards they were lost in this sandy +desert. When intelligence of the shipwreck reached Pisco, a cavalry +regiment was despatched to search for the sufferers, and to supply them +with provisions and water; but when they were found it was discovered +that one hundred and sixteen men had died from fatigue and thirst, and a +few days after fifty more perished from exhaustion. It is generally +supposed that a healthy man can live four or five days unsupplied with +food and drink. In the temperate climate of Europe, and with bodily +rest, this, perhaps, may be the case; but in the burning wastes of Peru +to be deprived of nourishment for only forty-eight hours, and at the +same time to wander about in deep sand, would be followed by certain +death. Severe thirst is the most horrible of torments, especially when +the body is surrounded by a medium altogether of an arid nature. At sea +it can be much longer endured than on a surface of sand. + +When the grey dawn of morning appeared we again mounted our horses, and +rode by my compass in the direction of E.S.E. After riding a few +leagues, we turned an acute angle, which brought us into the main road, +and we arrived that forenoon in Yca. + +On my return I so arranged my journey as to pass the night in Huilla +Curin, where the horses were supplied with forage, consisting of the +shoots and leaves of the Mastick-tree (_schinus molle_). + +Yca is a moderately large and very agreeably situated town. Like most of +the larger towns on the coast it is peopled with inhabitants of all +colors, particularly Mestizos. It is the residence of a sub-prefect and +many rich planters. Scarcely anything but the vine is cultivated in the +Haciendas of the environs; and this branch of husbandry contributes +greatly to enrich the province. It is astonishing to see with what +facility the vine thrives in a soil apparently so unfruitful. The young +shoots are stuck into the sand almost half a foot deep, then tied up and +left to themselves. They quickly take root and shoot forth leaves. +Whilst the surrounding country bears the appearance of a desert, the +vineyards of Yca are clothed in delightful verdure. The grapes are of +superior quality, very succulent and sweet. The greater part are used +for making brandy, which is extremely good and very well flavored. All +Peru and a great part of Chile are supplied with this liquor from the +Vale of Yca. The common brandy is called _Aguardiente de Pisco_, because +it is shipped at that port. A kind of brandy of superior quality, and +much dearer, made from Muscatel grapes, is called _Aguardiente de +Italia_. It is distinguished by a very exquisite flavor. Very little +wine is made at Yca. In some plantations they make a thick dark-brown +kind, which is very sweet, and much liked by the Peruvians, though not +very agreeable to a European palate. Only one planter, Don Domingo +Elias,[49] the richest and most speculative cultivator on the whole +coast, makes wine in the European manner. It is very like the wine of +Madeira and Teneriffe, only it is more fiery, and contains a more +considerable quantity of alcohol. Specimens which have been sent to +Europe have obtained the unqualified approbation of connoisseurs. The +flavor is considerably improved by a long sea voyage. + +The brandy, which is exported by sea, is put into large vessels made of +clay, called _botijas_. In form they are like a pear, the broad ends +being downwards. At the top there is a small aperture, which is +hermetically closed with gypsum. The large _botija_ when filled weighs +six or seven arobas. Two are a load for a mule. To the pack-saddle, or +_aparejo_, two baskets are fastened, in which the _botijas_ are placed +with the small ends downwards. These _botijas_ were formerly also used +for conveying the brandy across the mountains; but, in consequence of +the dangerous, slippery roads, over which the mules often fell, many +were broken. Still greater damage was sustained at the springs and +wells on the coast, for the poor animals, after their long journeys +through the sandy wastes, rushed, on perceiving water, in full flight +to the springs. As it happens that there is often room for only five +or six mules, and from seventy to eighty were often pressing forward, +a great number of the _botijas_ were unavoidably dashed to pieces in +spite of all the caution the arrieros could exercise. The annual loss +of brandy was immense, and to counteract this evil, bags of goatskin +were introduced. These skins are now generally used for the +conveyance of brandy across the mountains. The method of skinning the +goats is the most horribly cruel that can be conceived. A negro hangs +the living animal up by the horns, and makes a circular incision +round his neck, which, however, goes no further than to the flesh. He +then draws the skin from the body of the writhing animal, which +utters the most frightful cries. When the skin is completely removed, +and not till then, is the suffering animal killed. The negroes assert +that the skin is most easily removed in this manner, and that the +_odres_[50] become thereby more durable. It is to be hoped that +humanely disposed planters will soon put an end to this barbarous +and unreasonable practice. + +I happened to be in Yca at the time of the celebration of the negro +carnival, which I will here briefly describe. In some of the principal +streets of the town large arches are erected, and gaily decorated with +ribbons. Round these arches negresses and mestizas dance, and endeavor +to stop the negroes whilst riding at full gallop under the arches. The +negroes start from the distance of about one hundred paces, and gallop +straight to the boundary, where the women endeavor to seize the bridle, +and to throw the rider from his saddle. The task of the men is to ride +past the women without being stopped; and when they fail in so doing, +they have to pay a fine, and are hooted into the bargain. It is hard to +say which is most surprising;--the speed of the horses, the dexterity of +the riders, or the courage of the negresses, who fearlessly throw +themselves in the way of the galloping horses. During the race the +negroes are pelted with unripe oranges and lemons, which, when thrown by +the vigorous arm of a zamba, inflict a sufficiently heavy blow. I saw a +negro gallop to and fro for the space of an hour, at full speed, and +every time he passed under the arch he dexterously evaded the +outstretched hands of the women; thus giving proof of uncommon bodily +strength. While dashing at full speed through the arch of the bridge, +and leaning forward on the horse's neck, he seized two negresses, one +with each of his arms, and pulled them into the saddle beside him. + +The climate of Yca is hot, and not altogether healthy, for the torrents +of rain which fall from the hills swell the river so as to make it +overflow its lower bank, where marshes are formed, in which malaria is +developed. Most of the plantations in the environs are more healthy. + +All the bushes in the vicinity of the town are inhabited by a kind of +Guinea pig (_Cavia Cuttleri_, King). These animals are exceedingly +numerous. After sunrise and towards evening, they leave their lurking +places and play about in the grass. Upon the whole they are not shy, +and they allow people to approach them pretty closely. The natives +call this little animal the _Cui del Montes_, and they believe it to +be the progenitor of the tame Guinea pig. This notion is, however, +quite erroneous. + +Along the whole of the Peruvian coast there is found a small animal of +the lizard kind, of which the natives are very much afraid. They call it +the _Salamanqueja_. It lives in the fissures of walls, and is sometimes +seen creeping along the lime plaster of houses. Its bite is believed to +be mortal. From the descriptions given of this animal, I was curious to +see it, and I commissioned some persons to procure me one. At last, an +Indian brought me a specimen very much crushed, and I found that I had +already got several of them in my collections. I now obtained more of +them, and the natives beheld me with astonishment carrying them alive in +my hand. Of the Salamanqueja there are two species, the _Diplodactylus +lepidopygus_, Tsch., and the _Discodactylus phacophorus_, Tsch. They are +nearly related to each other, being only distinguished by one species +having an orifice in the thighs, serving as a passage for an issue from +a gland which secretes a very acrid fluid. This little animal never +bites; but it is possible that the fluid by touching a fresh wound, or +scratch, may cause very serious consequences. + +To the south of Yca there are some large cotton plantations; the most +considerable of which belong to Don Domingo Elias. The cotton for +exportation is shipped at the port of San Nicolas. Many experienced +captains of ships declare the bay of San Nicolas to be the safest and +best along the whole of the western coast of South America. + +The Quebrada of Huaitara, which stretches to the east of Yca, is the +principal channel of communication between this part of the coast and +the rich mountain provinces of Jauja and Huancavelica, and from the +latter places to Ayacucho and Cosco. + +Opposite to Pisco and Chinca there is a group of small islands, of which +the largest, Sangallan, is six English miles distant from Pisco. These +islands have of late years become celebrated on account of the great +quantity of guano that has been exported from them. + +Guano (or according to the more correct orthography, Huanu)[51] is +found on these islands in enormous layers of from 35 to 40 feet thick. +The upper strata are of a greyish-brown color, which lower down becomes +darker. In the lower strata the color is a rusty red, as if tinged by +oxide of iron. The Guano becomes progressively more and more solid from +the surface downward, a circumstance naturally accounted for by the +gradual deposite of the strata, and the evaporation of the fluid +particles. Guano is found on all the islands, and on most of the +uninhabited promontories of the west coast of South America, especially +in those parts within the tropics. I have often been assured that beds +of Guano several feet high, covered with earth, are found inland at some +distance from the sea; but I never met with any, and I have some doubt +of the correctness of the statement. If, however, these inland strata +really exist, I am inclined to believe that they can only be found on +hilly ground; and in that case they afford strong evidence of a +considerable elevation of the coast. + +Guano is formed of the excrements of different kinds of marine birds, +as mews, divers, sheerbeaks, &c.; but the species which I can name +with more precision are the following:--_Larus modestus_, Tsch.; +_Rhinchops nigra_, Lin.; _Plotus Anhinga_, Lin.; _Pelecanus thayus_, +Mol.; _Phalacrocorax Gaimardii_, and _albigula_, Tsch. (_Pelecanus +Gaimardii_, Less., _Carbo albigula_, Brandt), and chiefly the _Sula +variegata_, Tsch. + +The immense flocks of these birds as they fly along the coast appear +like clouds. When their vast numbers, their extraordinary voracity, and +the facility with which they procure their food, are considered, one +cannot be surprised at the magnitude of the beds of Guano, which have +resulted from uninterrupted accumulations during many thousands of +years. I kept for some days a living _Sula variegata_, which I fed +abundantly with fish. The average weight of the excrement daily was +from 3-1/2 to five ounces. I have no doubt that when the bird is in a +state of freedom the weight must be much greater, for these birds are +constantly plunging into the sea, in order to devour the fishes which +they find in extraordinary masses around all the islands. When an +island is inhabited by millions of sea-birds, though two-thirds of +the guano should be lost while flying, still a very considerable +stratum would be accumulated in the course of a year. + +The marine birds nestle on the uninhabited islands, or on rocks near the +shore; but they never settle on the flat beach, or any place distant +from it inland. On this fact, I ground my conjecture that those beds of +guano in the interior, which may have been removed from the shore by +important elevations of the coast, are to be found only on hills. + +During the first year of the deposit the strata are white, and the guano +is then called _Guano Blanco_. In the opinion of the Peruvian +cultivators, this is the most efficacious kind. It is found in the Punta +de Hormillos, on the islands of Islay, Jesus, Margarita, &c. + +As soon as the dealers in guano begin to work one of the beds, the +island on which it is formed, is abandoned by the birds. It has also +been remarked, that since the increase of trade and navigation, they +have withdrawn from the islands in the neighborhood of the ports. + +Much has recently been written on the employment and utility of guano; +but the manner in which it is applied as manure in Peru, seems to be but +little known. The Peruvians use it chiefly in the cultivation of maize +and potatoes. A few weeks after the seeds begin to shoot, a little +hollow is dug round each root, and is filled up with guano, which is +afterwards covered with a layer of earth. After the lapse of twelve or +fifteen hours, the whole field is laid under water, and is left in that +state for some hours. Of the _Guano Blanco_ a less quantity suffices, +and the field must be more speedily and abundantly watered, otherwise +the roots would be destroyed. The effect of this manure is incredibly +rapid. In a few days the growth of a plant is doubled. If the manure be +repeated a second time, but in smaller quantity, a rich harvest is +certain. At least, the produce will be threefold that which would have +been obtained from the unmanured soil. + +The haciendas of the valley of Chancay have, during the last fifty +years, consumed annually from 33,000 to 36,000 bushels of guano brought +from the islands of Chancha and Pisco. The price of the bushel of +colored guano is one dollar and a quarter, and the price of the white +from two to three dollars. The price has recently undergone many +fluctuations, in consequence of the great exports to Europe. + +The employment of this kind of manure is very ancient in Peru; and there +is authentic evidence of its having been used in the time of the Incas. +The white guano was then chiefly found on the islands opposite to +Chincha; so that for upwards of 600 years the deposit has been +progressively removed from those islands without any apparent decrease +of the accumulation. The uniformity of climate on a coast where there is +not much rain, must contribute to render the Peruvian guano a more arid +manure than the African, as fewer of the saline particles of the former +being in solution, they are consequently less subject to evaporation. + +From 3 deg. 35' to 21 deg. 48' south latitude, a plain of sand, 540 leagues +long, and varying from 3 to 20 leagues in breadth, stretches along the +coast of the Pacific Ocean. It is intersected by chains of small +hillocks, which, extending westward from the Cordilleras, gradually +diminish in height, and either become blended with the plain, or form +abrupt promontories, which project into the sea. Between the river Loa, +which marks the southern frontier of the Peruvian coast, and the Tumbez, +on the northern boundary, fifty-nine rivers, great and small, pass +through the line of coast. Proceeding from the avalanches of the Andes +or the small alpine lakes, they force their way through narrow +mountain-valleys, irrigate the waste grounds, and then, after brief +courses, flow into the great ocean. + +A fine light yellow drift sand covers hill and dale. It is only where +rivers intersect the plain that oases of luxuriant vegetation are +formed. The peril of traversing these plains is greatly increased by +the movability of the sand and the _Medanos_. The strong winds raise +immense clouds of dust and sand. The sand rises in columns of from +eighty to a hundred feet high, which whirl about in all directions, as +if moved by magic. Sometimes they suddenly overshadow the traveller, who +only escapes from them by rapid riding. + +The medanos are hillock-like elevations of sand, some having a firm, +others a loose base. The former, which are always crescent-shaped, are +from ten to twenty feet high, and have an acute crest. The inner side is +perpendicular, and the outer or bow side forms an angle with a steep +inclination downward. When driven by violent winds, the medanos pass +rapidly over the plains. The smaller and lighter ones move quickly +forwards before the larger ones; but the latter soon overtake and crush +them, whilst they are themselves shivered by the collision. These +medanos assume all sorts of extraordinary figures, and sometimes move +along the plain in rows forming most intricate labyrinths, whereby what +might otherwise be visible in the distance is withdrawn from the view of +the traveller. A plain often appears to be covered with a row of +medanos, and some days afterwards it is again restored to its level and +uniform aspect. Persons who have the greatest experience of the coast +are apt to mistake their way, when they encounter these sand-hills. + +The medanos with immovable bases are formed on the blocks of rock which +are scattered about the plain. The sand is driven against them by the +wind, and as soon as it reaches the top point it descends on the other +side until that is likewise covered; thus gradually arises a +conical-formed hill. Entire hillock-chain with acute crests are formed +in a similar manner. The small hillock-chain, by which the coast is +intersected obliquely from east to west, is a boundary which arrests the +progress of the wandering medanos; otherwise fruitful oases would soon +be converted into barren sand-flats. A correct observation of these +hillock-chains affords a most certain scale for ascertaining the +direction of the prevailing wind. On their southern declivities are +found vast masses of sand drifted thither by the mid-day gales. The +northern declivity, though not steeper than the southern, is only +sparingly covered with sand. If a hillock-chain somewhat distant from +the sea extends in a line parallel with the Andes, namely from S.S.E. to +N.N.W., the western declivity is almost entirely free of sand, as it is +driven to the plain below by the southeast wind, which constantly +alternates with the wind from the south. + +The movements and new formations in the deserts (like restorations +from death to life) are only in full activity during the hot season; +for then the parched sand yields to the slightest pressure of the +atmosphere. In the cold season its weight increases by the absorption +of humidity. The particles unite in masses, and more easily resist +the wind. In the meantime the hillocks also acquire more firmness or +compression by the increased weight which presses on them from above. + +In November, summer commences. The rays of the sun are refracted on the +light grey sandy carpet, and are reflected back with scorching power. +Every living thing which does not quickly escape from their influence is +devoted to certain destruction. No plant takes root in the burning soil, +and no animal finds food on the arid lifeless surface. No bird, no +insect moves in the burning atmosphere. Only in the very loftiest +regions, the king of the air, the majestic condor, may be seen floating, +with daring wing, on his way to the sea coast. Only where the ocean and +the desert blend with each other is there life and movement. Flocks of +carrion crows swarm over the dead remains of marine animals scattered +along the shore. Otters and seals impart life to the inaccessible rocks; +hosts of coast birds eagerly pounce on the fish and mollusca cast on +shore; variegated lizards sport on the sand hillocks; and busy crabs and +sea spiders work their way by furrows through the humid coast. + +The scene changes in May. A thin veil of mist then overspreads the sea +and the shore. In the following months the thickness of the mist +increases, and it is only in October that it begins to disperse. In the +beginning and at the end of the period called winter this mist commonly +rises between nine and ten o'clock in the morning, and disappears about +three, P.M. It is heaviest in August and September; and it then lies for +weeks immoveable on the earth. It does not resolve into what may be +properly called rain, but it becomes a fine minute precipitate which the +natives call GARUA (thick fog or drizzling rain). Many travellers have +alleged that there are places on the Peruvian coast which have been +without rain for centuries. The assertion is to a certain degree +correct, for there are many districts in which there never is rain +except after an earthquake, and not always even then. + +Though the _garua_ sometimes falls in large drops, still there is +this distinction between it and rain, that it descends not from +clouds at a great height, but is formed in the lower atmospheric +regions, by the union of small bubbles of mist. The average +perpendicular height over which this fog passes does not exceed one +thousand two hundred feet; its medium boundary is from seven to eight +hundred feet. That it is known only within a few miles of the sea is +a highly curious phenomenon; beyond those few miles it is superseded +by heavy rains; and the boundary line between the rain and the mist +may be defined with mathematical precision. I know two plantations, +the one six leagues from Lima, the other in the neighborhood of +Huacho: one half of these lands is watered by the garuas, the other +half by rain, and the boundary line is marked by a wall. + +When the mists set in, the chain of hillocks (_Lomas_) bordering the +sand-flats on the coasts undergoes a complete change. As if by a stroke +of magic, blooming vegetation overspreads the soil, which, a few days +previously, was a mere barren wilderness. Horses and cattle are driven +into these parts for grazing, and during several months the animals find +abundance of rich pasture. There is, however, no water; but they do not +appear to suffer from the want of it, for they are always in good +healthy condition on leaving the Lomas. + +In some parts of northern Peru, where the garuas are scanty, the +fertility of the soil depends wholly on the mountain rains, for in +summer most of the rivers are dried up. When there is a deficiency of +rain, the cattle on the coast suffer greatly. A few years ago a +haciendado, or cultivator, in the vale of Piura, lost 42,000 sheep; +the usual flood, without which the necessary fodder could not be +raised, did not come on at the proper time. At Piura there is such a +total absence of dew, that a sheet of paper left for a whole night +in the open air does not, in the morning, exhibit the smallest trace +of humidity. In central and south Peru the moisture scarcely +penetrates half an inch into the earth. + +In the oases the garuas are much heavier than in the adjacent wastes. +Along the whole of the coast there is no rain, and no vegetation +throughout a large circuit. The rain commences first in the north at +Tumbez, and there extensive woods are seen. Towards the east it begins +first in the valleys of the Cordilleras, which abound in vegetation. +These very extraordinary phenomena remain as yet unexplained; they, +however, merit the closest investigation of meteorologists. + +I may conclude this chapter by a brief view of the Fauna of the higher +vertebral animals. In the region of the coast I have found twenty-six +species of mammalia, only eight of which belong exclusively to the +coast. Sixteen of the other species are to be found in the mountains or +in the forests. The relation of this number to the whole of the mammalia +of Peru is 1:4, 3. Distributed by single orders, they are in the +following proportions:--Bats, four species, of which only one +(_Vespertilio innoxius_, Gerv.) belongs to this region alone. Beasts of +prey, ten kinds; among them one of the mephitic class, known to the +natives by the name of _zorillo_, or _anash_; an otter (_Lutra +chilensis_, Ben.); a fox (_Canis azarae_, Pr. Max.), which abounds in the +cotton plantations in the neighborhood of Lima and throughout all the +Lomas, where he preys on the lambs; several of the feline race, among +which are the two great American species--the puma and the ounce, which +are seldom seen on the coast, but are considerably larger than those in +the mountains. The American lion is timid, and shuns man. When caught +young he is easily tamed. The Indians of the northern provinces +sometimes bring these lions to Lima, and get money for showing them. +They lead them by a string, or put them in large sacks, and carry them +about on their backs, until a show-loving crowd assembles around them. +The ounces are very bold and fierce. They penetrate into plantations, +and attack children and horses. They very cunningly avoid the numerous +snares laid for them by the Indians. An encounter with this animal is +serious and dangerous. A hunt seldom ends without some of the pursuers +being killed or wounded by the animal. + +I have already spoken of the seals. There are three kinds of didelphic +or marsupial animals on the coast. The natives call them _mucamuca_. +They live in bushes and shrubberies, and they often find their way into +the store-rooms of the plantations. + +Of the great section of the _Rodentia_, I know of only seven species in +Peru; but I have no doubt that this number might be doubled by a careful +search in the valleys on the coast. The common house-mouse is very +numerous in Lima. The brown rat appears seldom. It came to Peru only a +few years ago; but there is reason to apprehend that it will soon be +very numerous. Probably it has been imported by Hamburgh ships. In +Callao I saw specimens of some that had been killed. I did not see the +common black rat in Peru. + +The Armadillo (_Dasypus tatuay, Desm._, L.) is seldom seen. It is found +in some of the Yucca and Camote plantations. The negroes eat it, and its +flesh is said to be good. + +Of wild ruminating animals there is only one on the coast: it is a kind +of Roe (_Cervus nemorivagus_, F. Cuv., the _venado_ of the natives). The +venados chiefly inhabit the brushwood along the coast; but after sunset +they visit the plantations, where they commit considerable damage. They +are smaller than our European roe, and somewhat more brown. Englishmen +at Lima go out to hunt them. The natives do not take much interest in +the chase. This animal is also met with in the coldest regions of the +Cordilleras; but it does not come down to the old forests, where the Red +Deer (_Cervus rufus_, F. Cuv.) supplies its absence. + +In the woods which surround some of the plantations in the valleys of +Lima, wild boars (_Chanchos Simarones_) are occasionally found. They are +of immense size. At the plantation called the _Hacienda de Caraponga_, +one was killed, of which the head alone was an ordinary burthen for a +mule. + +The number of birds in this very extensive quarter of Peru (the marine +and river fowl being excepted) is very inconsiderable. The scarcity of +woods and high trees may probably account for this. Besides the carrion +vulture, condors collect in great numbers on the shore to prey on the +stranded whales. Falcons seldom appear, except the small Sparrow Hawk +(_Falco sparverius_, L.), which is very numerous in Peru. One of the +most common birds is the little Earth Owl (_Noctua urucurea_, Less.), +which is met with in nearly all the old ruins scattered along the coast. +The Pearl Owl (_Strix perlata_, L.) is bred in several plantations, as +it is found useful in catching mice. Swallows are not very common; they +do not nestle on the housetops, but on walls at some distance from +towns. The Peruvians give them the euphonious name, _Palomitas de Santa +Rosa_ (Santa Rosa's little pigeons). Among the singing-birds the Crowned +Fly King (_Myoarchus coronatus_, Cab.) is the most distinguished. The +head, breast, and belly of this bird are deep red, the wings and back +very dark brown. He always plants himself on the highest point of a +tree, flies perpendicularly upward, whirls about in the air singing, and +drops down again straight to his former perch. The Limenos have given +this elegant bird a very unbecoming name, which I need not repeat here. +On some parts of the coast it is called _Saca-tu-real_ (draw out your +real), because his song sounds like these words. Some fine Tanagers +(_Tanagra frugilega_, Tsch.; _Tanagra analis_, Tsch.) visit the fruit +gardens round Lima. I saw two birds, of the starling species, the +red-bellied Picho (_Sturnella militaris_, Viell.), and the +glossy-black Chivillo (_Cassicus palliatus_, Tsch.), which are kept +in cages on account of their very melodious song. Three kinds of +parrots, which abound in the valleys on the coast, commit great +depredations in the maize fields. The largest (_Conurus tumultuosus_, +Tsch.) is green, with a red forehead, and some red feathers scattered +over the body. A second sort builds its nest chiefly on the sides of +rocks (_Conurus rupicola_, Tsch.), and only occasionally visits the +plantations. The third is the smallest, but at the same time the most +beautiful of the whole (_Conurus sitophaga_, Tsch.). A fine green +overspreads all the upper part of the body, a blue fringe borders the +feathers of the wings; and a bright citron-yellow is diffused over +the forehead, neck, breast, and belly. It is only seven inches long. +Pigeons, large and small, swarm in such multitudes over the +corn-fields, and in the environs, that they may almost be called the +great plague of the country. One of the finest is the little +_Turtuli_ (_Chaemepelia gracilis_, Tsch.), on the wing of which +there is a row of very beautiful shining violet spots. The _Cuculi_, +one of the largest pigeons, is a great favorite. It is kept much in +cages. Its song, which is monotonous, yet very melodious, is kept up +from the earliest hours of the morning until midday, and it begins +again nearly at sunset. The song consists merely of a threefold +repetition of _cu-cu-li_. After a pause, it resumes the song again. +There are, however, some of those birds which repeat the _cuculi_ +oftener than thrice, and their price increases according to the +number of their uninterrupted repetitions, which seldom exceed five +or six. In Cocachacra, however, I heard one of these birds which +repeated its _cuculi_ fourteen times. The owner would not sell it +under fourteen gold ounces. + +The amphibia on the Peruvian coast are proportionally much better +represented than the two foregoing classes. The gigantic tortoises +(_Chelonia imbricata_ and _Ch. midas_, Schweig.) visit in great +numbers the few little frequented inlets. The elephant tortoise +(_Testudo Schweigeri_) is often found on some islands, and in the +marshy mouths of several rivers. + +Two kinds of Crocodiles (_Champsa sclerops_ and _Ch. fissipes_, Wagl.) +inhabit the Rio de la Chira. They grow to the length of fourteen +or fifteen feet. + +Among the lizard class of reptiles, very large bright green Iguanas are +found on the south coast; for instance, in the Caletas near Merillones, +&c.; but there are great numbers of the land Agama, of which I found +several new species, viz., _Steirolepis tigris_, _thoracica_, +_quadrivittata_, _xanthostigma_, Tsch.; _Liolaemus elegans_, Tsch.; +_Ctenoblepharys adspersa_, Tsch., &c., &c. I have already mentioned the +Gecko, called the _Salamanqueja_. + +Serpents upon the whole are rather seldom seen. They belong to +different kinds, some poisonous, some innoxious (for example, +_Zacholus_, _Psammophis_, _Oxyrrhopus_, _Siphlophis_, _Ophis_, _Elaps_, +&c., &c.). A very poisonous viper (_Echidna ocellata_, Tsch.) inhabits +the sugar-cane fields. Its bite is almost instantaneously mortal. + +The genuine frog is not to be found on the coast, and of the bladder +frog only two kinds are known (_Cystignathus roseus_ and _nodosus_, +Dum. Bibr.). I have found three amphibia of the toad class. The Thorn +toad (_Bufo spinulosus_, Wiegam.), which has its body thickly covered +with a thorny kind of warts. The beautiful red spotted toad (_Bufo +thaul_), and a very curious and ugly kind with a round, swelled out +body, a loose skin, and a large bladder under the chin (_Anaxyrus +melancholicus_, Tsch.). At night the cry of this animal is a discordant +melancholy howl. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 49: Elias is eminent not only as an extensive landowner and +cultivator, but as a statesman. During the revolution of 1843 and 1844, +he was called upon to place himself at the head of the government. He +discharged the duties of that high office with singular judgment and +moderation. He and his lady are distinguished for their courteous and +liberal hospitality; and many foreign visitors, like myself, look back +with pleasure on the happiness they derived from the friendship of Don +Domingo Elias.] + +[Footnote 50: An odre is a goat-skin prepared for carrying wine.] + +[Footnote 51: The original word is Huanu, which is a term in the +Quichua dialect meaning "animal dung;" for example, _Huanacuhuanu_ +(excrement of the Huanacu). As the word is now generally used it is an +abbreviation of _Pishu Huanu--Bird-dung_. The Spaniards have converted +the final syllable _nu_ into _no_, as they do in all the words adopted +from the Quichua which have the like termination. The European +orthography _Guano_, which is also followed in Spanish America, is +quite erroneous, for the Quichua language is deficient in the letter +_G_, as it is in several other consonants. The _H_, in the commencement +of the word, is strongly aspirated, whence the error in the orthography +of the Spaniards, who have sadly corrupted the language of the +Autochthones of Peru.] + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +Roads leading to the Sierra--Chaclacayo and Santa Ines--Barometrical +observations--San Pedro Mama--The Rio Seco--Extraordinary Geological +Phenomenon--Similar one described by Mr. Darwin--Surco--Diseases +peculiar to the Villages of Peru--The Verugas--Indian mode of treating +the disorder--The Bird-catching Spider--Horse-Shoeing--Indian +Tambos--San Juan de Matucanas--The Thorn-apple and the Tonga--The Tambo +de Viso--Bridges--San Mateo--Passports--Acchahuari--Malady called the +Veta--Its effects on horses--Singular tact and caution of +Mules--Antarangra and Mountain Passes--Curious partition of +Water--Piedra Parada--Yauli--Indian Smelting Furnaces--Mineral +Springs--Portuguese Mine owners--Saco--Oroya--Hanging +Bridges--Huaros--Roads leading from Oroya. + + +From Lima two main roads lead to the Sierra or the mountains. One runs +northward through the valley of Canta, in the direction of the rich +silver mines of Cerro de Pasco; the other, taking a more southerly +direction, passes through the Quebrada of Matucanas, to the villages of +Tarma, Jauja, and Huancayo; and still further south, leads to +Huancavelica, Ayacucho, and Cuzco. All the roads running from the coast +to the Sierra, present a similarity of character. Taking an oblique +direction from the margin of the coast, they run into one or other of +the fan-shaped Cordillera valleys, all of which are intersected by +rivers. Following the course of these rivers, the roads become steeper +and steeper, and the valleys soon contract into mere ravines, +terminating at the foot of the Cordillera. The traveller then threads +his way up the acclivity, amidst stupendous masses of rock, until he +reaches the lofty ridge. Then a gradual descent leads to the level +heights, and thence into the deep mountain valleys. + +Former travellers having already described the route by way of Canta, I +will here trace the course through the Quebrada of Matucanas. In so +doing, I am enabled to present to the reader the results of some +barometrical observations which are the more interesting, inasmuch as +the Cordillera here advances more nearly to the coast than at any other +point. + +The most easterly gate of the city of Lima (the Portada de Maravillas) +opens upon a broad road, which runs directly eastward. At the distance +of about a league and a half from the city, the road passes over a stone +bridge called the _Puente de Surco_, a place famed for robbers. At this +point the surrounding country presents a wild and dreary aspect. Ranges +of grey and barren hills encompass the valley; the ground is for the +most part covered with sand and gravel. Desolate remains of plantations +and the ruins of habitations bear evidence of the life and activity that +once animated this desert region, now abandoned by all save the fierce +bandit and his victim, the solitary traveller. + +Along the margins of the river, patches of moor-ground here and there +serve as pasture. Clover and maize are produced only in those parts +where the soil is manured and artificially watered. Low brushwood and +reeds, growing on the banks of the Rimac, supply firewood to the city of +Lima, and are a source of profit to some of the plantation-owners in +the valley. At Periachi, four leagues from the capital, the road takes +a turn to north-east, and continues in that direction, with but little +deviation, as far as the base of the Cordillera. Two leagues beyond +Pariachi we reach Chaclacayo, a village containing about thirty +miserable reed huts. The plantation of Santa Ines, a little further +on, is situated at 2386 feet above the level of the sea.[52] Mr. +Maclean, an English merchant in Lima, who has sent many interesting +Peruvian plants to the hothouses of England, and who has made some +very attentive barometrical observations during a journey in the +interior of the country, calculates the altitude of Chaclacayo at 2265 +feet above the sea.[53] Rivero makes it 2010 feet above that level.[54] +The difference between these calculations is remarkable; and in more +considerable altitudes the discrepancy is still more considerable, being +sometimes as much as from eight to nine hundred feet. I am inclined to +believe that it is attributable less to inaccuracy of observation than +to the very imperfect instrument made use of by Rivero. Maclean's +observations, with some trifling exceptions, correspond with mine. He +used one of Fortin's barometers, and I one of Lefevre's, which, prior to +my departure from Europe, had, during several weeks, been regulated at +the observatory in Paris. Unluckily, this excellent instrument was +injured by a fall from my horse, and I found it impossible to get it +repaired. Some barometrical observations made by M. C. Gay, during a +journey in Peru, in the years 1839-40, with one of Bunten's barometers, +deviate very considerably from all those above mentioned. Between the +calculations of Gay and Rivero there is an average difference of from +six hundred to one thousand feet. + +On the road to Pasco, the Hacienda of Cavallero corresponds, in its +distance from the capital, with the village of Chaclacayo, on the road I +am here describing. At Chaclacayo wheat and sugar are cultivated. The +sugar cane thrives well, and might be grown in greater quantity. In some +of the coast districts I have seen the sugar cane cultivated at the +height of 4500 feet above the sea; and I have seen it grow +spontaneously, and attain perfect maturity, as high as 6800 feet. + +From Santa Ines the road continues gradually ascending to the little +village of San Pedro Mama, where the two rivers, San Mateo and Santa +Olaya, unite and form the Rimac. The walls of mountain which enclose the +valley here rise almost perpendicularly, and afford nestling-places for +small, richly-plumed parrots (_Conurus rupicola_, Tsch.). I was much +surprised to see these birds inhabiting the barren rocks, as the parrot +always dwells in woody regions, and is found in other places only when +on its passage. I know no other species of this family, save the one I +have just mentioned, which permanently nestles on mountains. + +Three leagues beyond San Pedro lies the village of Cocachacra. It is a +small and poor place, but is picturesquely situated, and enjoys a fine +climate. Its name, signifying _coca-field_, or _plantation_, denotes +that coca must formerly have been cultivated here. At present that +plant is not grown in any part near the coast, as it requires a damp and +very warm climate. Cocachacra is 5386 feet above the level of the sea. +Maclean fixes the altitude of San Pedro Mama, Santa Olaya, and +Cocachacra, at 5331 feet. Supposing this calculation to be correct with +respect to the latter village, it cannot also apply to San Pedro Mama +and Santa Olaya, which lie much lower. At the two last-mentioned places +I made no barometrical observations. + +On the Pasco road the hamlet of Llanga is situated, at twelve leagues +from Lima. On the other road Cocachacra is the same distance from the +capital; but Cocachacra is about 2400 feet higher than Llanga. Between +Cavallero and Llanga there is an interesting geological phenomenon, +which I will here describe. + +At the distance of two leagues from Lima the road takes a turn. At first +it runs direct north, or north-north-west; suddenly it turns to +north-north-east, and advances along the bank of the river Chillon as +far as Cavallero. From thence, with slight deviations, it continues in +the same course to Llanga, but at a considerable distance from the +river, as the latter takes a wide sweep northward. From Cavallero the +road runs for the space of three leagues, still ascending, through a +barren district, along the dry bed of a river, called the Rio Seco. The +last half-league of the way is very steep, and leads to the ridge of a +chain of hillocks running diagonally across the valley. The ground is +strewed with fragments of porphyry and other kinds of rock, like the bed +of the Rimac. On reaching the ridge of the line of hillocks, the +traveller beholds on the other side a hollow basin, like the dry bed of +a lake: a furrow, extending lengthwise through this hollow, is the +continuation of the bed of the river which is intersected by the chain +of hills. Descending into the valley, and again following the course of +the Rio Seco to the distance of about three leagues, we reach the +village of Alcocoto, and once more arrive on the bank of the Rio de +Chillon. + +Here, therefore, we have evidence of the following remarkable facts, +viz.:--that at some former period the river of Chillon flowed +north-westward from Alcocoto to Cavallero, in the bed that is now +dry; and that a chain of hills has been upheaved diagonally across the +valley and the river. By this chain of hills the water, being dammed +up, formed a lake; then it was again driven back; until the stream +broke into a new course at Alcocoto, by which means the lake emptied +itself, and, having no new supply of water, it dried up. Now the Rio +de Chillon flows from Alcocoto to Cavallero, taking a wide turn, first +westward, next south-westward, and lastly, direct south, until, at a +sharp angle, it unites with the old bed of the river. The point of +junction is a quarter of a mile from the Hacienda Cavallero. This is, +however, not a solitary example of the course of a river being +interrupted by the uplifting of a ridge of hills. A similar instance +is mentioned by Mr. Darwin, who, however, did not see it himself, but +who describes it as follows, from the observation of his countryman, +Mr. Gill, the engineer:-- + +"Travelling from Casma to Huaraz, not far distant from Lima, he (Mr. +Gill) found a plain covered with ruins and marks of ancient cultivation, +but now quite barren. Near it was the dry course of a considerable +river, whence the water for irrigation had formerly been conducted. +There was nothing in the appearance of the water-course to indicate that +the river had not flowed there a few years previously; in some parts, +beds of sand and gravel were spread out; in others, the solid rock had +been worn into a broad channel, which in one spot was about forty yards +in breadth, and eight feet deep. It is self-evident that a person +following up the course of a stream will always ascend at a greater or +less inclination. Mr. Gill, therefore, was much astonished, when walking +up the bed of this ancient river, to find himself suddenly going down +hill. He imagined that the downward slope had a fall of about forty or +fifty feet perpendicular. We here have unequivocal evidence that a ridge +had been uplifted right across the old bed of the stream. From the +moment the river-course was thus arched the water must necessarily have +been thrown back, and a new channel formed. From that period, also, the +neighboring plain must have lost its fertilizing stream, and become a +desert."[55] + +The inference here deduced is, that the rising took place at a period +when the district was inhabited and cultivated by men. Of the period +of the uplifting between Cavallero and Alcocoto I could discern no +proofs. But the impression produced by the dry river bed involuntarily +suggests the idea that, at no very distant period, it must have been +the lodgment of a stream; for it is in all respects similar to the +temporary dry river beds so frequently met with on the coast of Peru. + +I made repeated visits to the Rio Seco, and I always contemplated with +wonder the curious deviation of the river's course. But I must candidly +confess that during my abode in Peru, I did not venture to attribute +that deviation to so partial an uplifting; for I was ignorant of the +existence of any similar phenomenon which would have supported such an +opinion. Now, however, the example referred to by the eminent English +geologist, and which has its existence on the same coast of Peru, sets +all my doubts at rest, and I am quite convinced of the correctness of +Mr. Darwin's view of the subject. + +Having made this digression, I must now carry the reader back to +Cocachacra. Pursuing the road to the distance of three leagues further, +we arrive at San Geronimo de Surco. The valley in this part becomes more +contracted; but on the whole its character is unchanged, with the +exception that the mountains gradually become higher and steeper, and +the soil less fertile. The road frequently runs along lofty walls of +rock, or winds round sharp projections, which overhang deep chasms, in +passing which the greatest precaution is requisite. + +In several of the valleys on the road from the coast to the Sierra, and +above all in the valley of Surco, there are certain springs, the water +of which the Indians never drink. When a stranger unguardedly approaches +one of these springs for the purpose of quenching his thirst, he is +saluted by warning cries of _Es agua de Veruga!_ (It is veruga water!) +Even horses and mules are not suffered to refresh themselves at these +springs, where the water is supposed to have the effect of producing a +disorder called the _Verugas_. As the existence of this disease is not +known in any other country, there appears ground for believing that it +has its origin in certain local circumstances. The verugas first +manifests itself by sore throat, pains in the bones, and other feverish +symptoms. In the course of a few days an eruption of red-colored +pimples, or boils, appears. These pimples sometimes increase in +magnitude, till, in some parts of the body, they become nearly as large +as an egg, and blood flows from them to such an excess, that the +strength of the patient is exhausted, and consumption frequently +follows. From the small verugas the flow of blood is greatest. I knew an +instance of a half-caste Indian who from a small veruga below the ankle +lost two pounds of blood. + +I was not able to trace this disease to any other cause than that which +the Indians assign to it. At all events, it is certain that travellers +who abstain from drinking the water of the condemned springs, escape the +verugas; whilst those who only once taste such water, are attacked by +the disorder. It is the same with mules and horses. One of my mules +which drank veruga water was attacked by a large tumor on the leg. The +disease is notoriously prevalent in the village of Santa Olaya. + +The medical treatment of the Verugas by the Indians is quite empirical. +They administer to the patient the infusion of a plant which they call +_Huajra-Huajra_; that is, Horn-Horn.[56] I never witnessed any +convincing proof of its efficacy. Its operation appears to be merely +sudorific. A preparation of white maize is also frequently given, and +it has the effect of assisting the action of the skin. When the +eruption of the verugas is tardy, a few spoonfuls of wine are found to +be of great service. Sudorific and purifying medicines, together with +cutting out the large verugas, and keeping the wounds for a time in a +state of suppuration, have heretofore been found the best mode of +treatment. An accurate chemical analysis of the water which the Indians +declare to be _agua de veruga_, would be very desirable.[57] + +In the Quebrada of Canta, where the verugas are less common than in +that of Matucanas, another disease, called the Uta, is of very frequent +occurrence. The uta is a sort of cancer, and it is more fearful in its +consequences than the verugas. Probably in no country in the world do +so many local diseases prevail as in Peru. Every valley has its own +peculiar disease, which frequently does not extend beyond the boundary +of a few square miles, and is quite unknown in neighboring districts. +The origin of these disorders is, doubtless, to be traced to certain +mineral or vegetable influences as yet unknown. It is remarkable how +unequally these baneful visitations affect the different races of the +inhabitants. The Indians and the lighter classes of half-castes are +most frequently attacked by the verugas; the whites are less liable to +the disease, whilst the negroes and people of the darker shades of +mixed blood seldom suffer from it. The Indians and the Chinos are +particularly liable to the uta. The caracha, of which I have already +spoken,[58] visits the Negroes, the Zamboes, and the Mulattoes; the +lighter-complexioned races being much less liable to it. + +At Quibe I saw a bird-catching spider (_mygale_), of extraordinary large +size. The back part of the body alone measured two inches. Being at some +distance I supposed it to be one of the rodent animals, and I fired at +it. To my mortification I discovered my mistake when too late, for the +specimen was completely destroyed by the shot, and was useless for my +collection. The Indians assured me that on the margin of the stream +which flowed near the plantation many larger individuals were to be +found; but I never saw another of such remarkable size as the one I +inadvertently destroyed. + +San Geronimo de Surco is 6945 feet above the level of the sea. It is a +long village, and is situated in one of the most fertile parts of the +valley. The houses are detached one from another, and each is +surrounded by a little chacra. This place may be regarded as the +boundary-line between the coast and the Sierra. The climate is +agreeable--rather hot than cold. Most of the coast plants thrive here +with little culture. Bananas, chirimoyas, superb granadillas, +pomegranates, camotes, &c., grow here in luxuriant abundance. Yuccas I +did not see: their elevation boundary is lower. San Geronimo de Surco +is infested with swarms of annoying insects, especially sancudos +(_Culex molestus_, Kell.), and stinging flies (species of _Simoleum_), +which banish sleep from the resting-place of the weary traveller. + +In this village there is an old Spaniard who keeps a tambo, and at the +same time exercises the calling of a farrier. One of my horse's shoes +being loose, I got him to fasten it on. For hammering in eight nails he +made me pay half a gold ounce, and at first he demanded twelve dollars. +He doubtless bore in mind the old Spanish proverb: "_Por un clavo se +pierde una herradura, por una herradura un cavallo, por un cavallo un +cavallero_,"[59] and he felt assured that I must have the damage repaired +at any price. Shortly after my arrival in the Sierra I got myself +initiated in the art of horse-shoeing, and constantly carried about with +me a supply of horse-shoes and nails, a plan which I found was generally +adopted by travellers in those parts. It is only in the larger Indian +villages that farriers are to be met with, that is to say in places +fifty or sixty leagues distant from each other. + +From Surco the road runs to the distance of two leagues tolerably +level, and very close to the river, which, from Cocachacra, bears the +name of Rio de San Mateo. The next village is San Juan de Matucanas, at +a little distance from which there is a tambo, situated at the height +of 8105 feet above the sea.[60] These tambos of the Sierra are wretched +places, but the traveller may find in them shelter, and possibly some +miserable kind of food. Even in Lima the tambos are not much better. In +the capital a tambo affords the traveller the accommodation of a room, +containing a table, a chair, and a bedstead; for it is always +understood that he brings his mattress and bedding along with him. In +the interior of the country the accommodation is limited to an empty +space on the floor, just large enough to spread a mattress upon. +Whenever the state of the weather permitted I always preferred sleeping +in the open air. Even on a rainy night a lodging on the outside of the +door is preferable to the interior of the hut, where Indians, negroes, +dogs and pigs are all huddled together. In these tambos there is +seldom any scarcity of brandy or chicha; but the hungry traveller +sometimes cannot get even a potatoe or a bit of maize. Frequently, when +the Indians really have provisions they will not produce them, because +they are fearful of not being paid. This suspicion is pardonable +enough; for when troops march through the villages the inhabitants are +often cheated by the officers, and ill-treated into the bargain. +Generally, in this part of the country, the people are civil, and will +readily sell provisions if they are paid. Not so the Indians of the +higher mountains eastward of the Cordillera. To the traveller's demand +for something to eat, their uniform reply is "_Manam canchu_" (we have +nothing); and it is often found necessary to resort to force in order +to convert this monotonous answer into the more agreeable "_Ari +conchu_" (here is something). + +Matucanas, which is rather a large village, lies on the left bank of the +Rimac. The houses are of brick, and roofed with straw. The soil round +this village is fertile, though not favorable to the growth of those +plants which demand a very warm temperature. The agricultural produce is +therefore limited to maize, wheat, lucerne (which is very abundant), and +potatoes; the latter are sent in great quantities to the capital. The +cactus grows on the hills, and its excellent fruit (_tunas_) forms also +an article of trade. + +Beyond Matucanas the valley contracts into a narrow ravine no broader +than the bed of the river, and it gradually assumes a wilder character. +The way is difficult along the ridge of hills which borders the left +bank of the river. The vegetation is less monotonous and scanty than in +the valleys of the coast, and all the fissures of the hills are filled +with verdure. The stunted willow (_Salix Humboldtii_, Wild.) grows along +the banks of the river, and on the less steep declivities is seen the +red thorn-apple (_Datura sanguinea_, R. Pav.). To the latter the natives +give the names _Huacacachu_, _Yerba de Huaca_, or _Bovachevo_; and they +prepare from its fruit a very powerful narcotic drink, called _tonga_. +The Indians believe that by drinking the tonga they are brought into +communication with the spirits of their forefathers. I once had an +opportunity of observing an Indian under the influence of this drink. +Shortly after having swallowed the beverage he fell into a heavy stupor: +he sat with his eyes vacantly fixed on the ground, his mouth +convulsively closed, and his nostrils dilated. In the course of about a +quarter of an hour his eyes began to roll, foam issued from his +half-opened lips, and his whole body was agitated by frightful +convulsions. These violent symptoms having subsided, a profound sleep of +several hours succeeded. In the evening I again saw this Indian. He was +relating to a circle of attentive listeners the particulars of his +vision, during which he alleged he had held communication with the +spirits of his forefathers. He appeared very weak and exhausted. + +In former times the Indian sorcerers, when they pretended to transport +themselves into the presence of their deities, drank the juice of the +thorn-apple, in order to work themselves into a state of ecstasy. Though +the establishment of Christianity has weaned the Indians from their +idolatry, yet it has not banished their old superstitions. They still +believe that they can hold communications with the spirits of their +ancestors, and that they can obtain from them a clue to the treasures +concealed in the _huacas_, or graves; hence the Indian name of the +thorn-apple--_huacacachu_, or grave plant. + +A few miles beyond Matucanas there is a lateral valley, larger and more +pleasant than the principal valley. It is called the Quebrada de Viso, +and is watered by a little stream. At the point where this Quebrada +forms a junction with the principal valley is situated the Tambo de +Viso. It is 9100 feet above the level of the sea.[61] At this tambo the +traveller may find a tolerable night's lodging for himself, and fodder +for his horse. Here the river is crossed by a bridge, and the road then +proceeds along the left bank of the river, after having been on the +right bank all the way from Lima. The bridges across these mountain +streams are always constructed at points where the river is most +contracted by the narrow confines of the ravine. They consist merely of +a few poles made of the trunk of the Maguay-tree (_Agave Americana_), +and connected together by transverse ropes; the ropes being overlaid +with twisted branches and pieces of hoops. These bridges are not more +than three feet broad, and have no balustrades. When the space between +the banks of the river is too long for the Maguay stems, strong ropes +made of twisted ox-hides are substituted. In crossing these bridges +accidents frequently happen, owing to the hoofs of the horses and mules +getting entangled in the plaited branches along the pathway. A little +way beyond San Mateo I narrowly escaped being precipitated, with my +mule, into the rocky chasm forming the bed of the river. + +The road between Viso and San Mateo, a distance of about three +leagues, is exceedingly difficult and dangerous. The ravine becomes +narrowed to a mere cleft, between walls of mountain rising on either +side to the height of more than a thousand feet; sometimes +perpendicularly, and at other times inclining inwards, so as to form +gigantic arches. The path runs along the base of these mountains, +washed by the foaming waves of the stream; or it winds up the side of +the precipice, over huge fragments of rock, which, being loosened by +the rain, afford no secure footing for the heavily laden mules. +Frequently these loosened blocks give way, and roll down into the +valley. The journey from Viso to San Mateo is associated in my mind +with the recollection of a most mortifying accident. A mass of rock, +such as I have just described, gave way, and rolling down the +precipice, hurled one of my mules into the foaming abyss. My most +valuable instruments, a portion of my collections, my papers, and--to +me an irreparable loss--a diary carefully and conscientiously kept for +the space of fourteen months, were in a moment buried in the river. +Two days afterward the current washed the dead mule ashore at +Matucanas, but its load was irrecoverably lost. + +Every year many beasts of burthen, and even travellers, perish on this +road. In the Tambo de Viso I met an officer who, with two of his sons, +was coming from the Sierra. He had placed the youngest before him, and +the other, a boy of ten years of age, was seated on the mule's +crupper. When they were within about half a league from Viso, a huge +mass of rock, rolling down from the mountain, struck the elder boy, +and hurled him into the river. The afflicted father was anxiously +seeking to recover the body of his lost child. + +San Mateo is on the right bank of the river, and is the largest +village in this valley. It corresponds in situation with Culluay in +the Quebrada of Canta; as Matucanas corresponds with the village of +Obrajillo. San Mateo is 10,947 feet above the level of the sea.[62] +The soil produces abundance of potatoes, Ocas (_Oxalis tuberosa_) and +Ullucas (_Tropaeolum tuberosum_). Maize ripens here perfectly, but the +heads are small. The lucerne is also small, but very abundant; it is +very much exposed to injury from the frost, and is only good for use +during the five rainy months of the year. Five hundred feet higher, +that is to say, about 11,500 feet above the sea, is the boundary +elevation for the growth of lucerne. + +The spirit of hospitality, so generally prevalent among the Sierra +Indians, does not seem to animate the Cholos of San Mateo. Their manners +are rude and reserved, and they are very distrustful of strangers. As +soon as a traveller enters the village, the Alcade and the Rejidores +make their appearance, and demand his passport. If he cannot produce it, +he may possibly be put upon a donkey, and conducted to the nearest +Prefect, or may moreover run the risk of being ill-treated. But, +fortunately, it is easy to escape such annoyances. Any scrap of printed +or written paper will answer for a passport, as it rarely happens that +either the Alcade or the Rejidores can read. On one occasion when my +passport was demanded, I discovered I had lost it. Fortunately, I had in +my pocket a bit of waste paper, which I had used instead of wadding in +loading my gun. I ventured at all hazards to hand it to the Indian +Rejidor, who having unfolded it stared very gravely at the words _Lucia +di Lammermoor_, which he saw printed in large characters. It was the +bill of the opera I had attended a few evenings before my departure from +Lima. After examining the bill very attentively, and then scanning me +very narrowly, the Rejidor returned the paper, with the observation that +the passport was quite correct. + +From San Mateo the road runs for half a league through a gloomy +ravine; and then suddenly takes a steep ascent up the side of the +mountain, over fragments of stones, lying one above another like +flights of steps. The stream dashes from rock to rock, covering the +narrow path with foam, and washing away the blocks of stone which, in +some of the most dangerous parts, serve as barriers along the edge of +the precipice. On this road long trains of mules are frequently met +coming from the Sierra. The traveller, at their approach, seeks some +little recess into which he may creep, and there stand closely jammed +against the mountain until the train passes by. This is attended by +great loss of time, owing to the slow and cautious pace at which the +mules proceed. On such a rencounter in a narrow mountain path, I was +once obliged to wait for several hours, whilst two hundred mules +passed by; and at the spot where I and my horse stood, the laden +animals had scarcely space sufficient to set down their feet at the +very edge of the pathway. In some places it is perfectly impossible +either to go on one side or to turn back; and when horses or mules +meet at these difficult points, one of the animals is obliged to +plunge into the stream, before the other can have room to pass. The +numerous curvatures of the road, and the projecting masses of +mountain, render it impossible to see advancing objects in sufficient +time to avoid collision. + +After having passed this difficult tract, which is called by the natives +Cacray, we reach the summit of the acclivity down which the mountain +stream descends. Here the valley presents quite the Sierra character. It +is no longer confined within steep and rugged mountain walls, but runs +in undulating contours along the bases of the hills, and gently ascends +eastward towards the principal chain of the Cordillera. The road is +sometimes on the right and sometimes on the left bank of the river. Two +leagues beyond San Mateo lies Chicla, a miserable Indian village, which, +according to Maclean's calculation, is 12,712 feet above sea level. In +some of the more sheltered parts barley is planted; but it does not +ripen, and is merely used as fodder (_Alcazer_). Chicla is the last +place in this valley where the soil is in any degree capable of +cultivation. Half a league further on, there are a few scattered Indian +huts, called the village of Acchahuari. One of these huts is a tambo, +which can never be forgotten by any unfortunate traveller who may have +taken up his abode in it. Necessity several times compelled me to seek a +night's lodging in this horrible tambo; but I never could remain in it +till morning; and even amidst snow or rain I have been glad to get out, +and take up my resting-place on the outside of the door. The hostess is +a dirty old Indian woman, assisted by her daughter; and the hut is +filthy beyond description. For supper, the old woman cooks a vile mess +called _Chupe_, consisting of potatoes and water, mixed with Spanish +pepper; but it is so dirtily prepared, that nothing but the most deadly +hunger would induce any one to taste it. The beds consist of sheep-skins +spread on the damp floor; and one bedchamber serves for the hostess, her +daughter, her grandchildren, and the travellers; an immense woollen +counterpane or blanket being spread over the whole party. But woe to the +unwary traveller who trusts himself in this dormitory! He soon finds +himself surrounded by enemies from whose attacks it is impossible to +escape; for the hut is infested with vermin. Even should he withdraw +into a corner, and make a pillow of his saddle, the annoyance pursues +him. Add to all this a stifling smoke, and all sorts of mephitic +exhalations, and troops of guinea-pigs who run about during the whole +night, and gambol over the faces and bodies of the sleepers,--and it may +readily be conceived how anxiously the traveller looks for the dawn of +morning, when he may escape from the horrors of this miserable tambo. +Acchahuari is 13,056 feet above the sea level. The climate is very +ungenial. During the winter months, rain and snow fall without +intermission; and even during the summer, heavy drifts of snow are not +unfrequent. From April to July, the medium temperature during the night +is 4 deg. R. + +After passing Cacray the diminished atmospheric pressure begins to +produce an effect on coast horses which have not been accustomed to +travel in the Sierra. They are attacked with a malady called the _veta_, +which shows itself by difficulty of breathing and trembling. The animals +are frequently so overpowered that they are unable either to move or +stand, and if they are not immediately unsaddled and allowed to rest +they perish. The arrieros consider bleeding a cure for this malady. They +sometimes slit the horse's nostrils, a remedy which is probably +efficacious, as it enables the animal to inhale the air freely. Chopped +garlic put into the nostrils is supposed to be a preventive of the veta. +Mules are less liable to the malady probably because they ascend the +acclivities more slowly than horses. The disease does not attack the +native horses of the Sierra, for which reason they are better than the +coast horses for mountain travelling. Mules, however, are preferable to +either. It is wonderful with what tact and penetration the mule chooses +his footing. When he doubts the firmness of the ground he passes his +muzzle over it, or turns up the loose parts with his hoof before he +ventures to step forward. When he finds himself getting into soft and +marshy ground he stands stock still, and refuses to obey either stirrup +or whip. If by accident he sinks into a morass, he makes a halt, and +waits very contentedly until he receives assistance. But in spite of all +this sagacity the traveller will not do well to resign himself wholly to +the guidance of his mule. In ordinary cases these animals allow +themselves to be guided, and sometimes they appear to think it more safe +to trust to the bridle than to themselves. One of my mules frequently +gave me curious proofs of this sort of calculation. When, in very +difficult parts of the road, I dismounted, in order to walk and lead him +by the bridle, I found it impossible to get the animal to move either by +force or persuasion. He spread out his legs, fixed his hoofs firmly into +the ground, and obstinately resisted all my endeavors to make him move. +But as soon as I remounted he willingly obeyed every movement of the +bridle. With this mule I could ride through marshes, which I could never +do with any other. He appeared to reflect that, as I only dismounted +when the road was unsafe, his life was in no less danger than mine. + +About a league beyond Acchahuari the valley is bounded by the +principal chain of the Cordillera. The ascent may be gained by two +different roads. One, the steeper of the two, runs southward, across +the Piedra Parada; the other, on which the ascent is somewhat easier, +takes an easterly direction, over Antarangra. We will first trace the +latter course, which is the most frequented. At the extremity of the +valley, and twenty-eight leagues from the capital, is situated the +last village, Cashapalca, 13,236 feet above the sea. Its inhabitants +are chiefly employed in mining. Formerly, vast quantities of silver +were obtained here. But most of the mines are now either under water +or exhausted, and the village, with its mine works, has dwindled into +insignificance. Beyond Cashapalca there is a tract of marshy ground, +which being passed, a narrow winding road of about two leagues leads +up the acclivity. The soil is clayey, and thinly bestrewed with alpine +grass, intermingled with syngenesious and cruciferous plants. Two +plants which are called by the natives _mala yerba_ and _garban +zillos_, and are a deadly poison to mules and horses, grow in great +abundance here. The numerous skeletons of beasts of burthen seen along +the road bear evidence of the fatal effects of those plants. Higher up +the ascent the vegetation becomes more and more scanty, until at +length it entirely disappears, and nothing is visible but the barren +rock of the Sierra highlands. + +The last division of acclivity is called by the natives the Antarangra +(copper rock). On it there is a small heap of stones, which I shall +describe by and by, and a cross made of the stems of the _Baccharis_. +From this point the traveller catches a distant glimpse of the +heaven-towering summit of the Cordillera. + +I speedily mounted the ascent, and reached the goal of my journey. +Here I found myself disappointed in the expectation I had formed of +commanding an uninterrupted view over boundless space and distance. +The prospect is greatly circumscribed by numerous rocky elevations, +which spring up in every direction. The mountain passes running across +the ridge of the Cordillera are bounded on all sides by rocks, +sometimes not very high, but at other times rising to the elevation of +1000 feet. The pass of Antarangra (also called Portachuelo del Tingo, +or Pachachaca) is 15,600 above the sea.[63] Nevertheless it is, during +a great part of the year, free from snow. Scarcely a quarter of a +league further northward are the eternal glaciers, and they are +several hundred feet lower than the Pass. That the Pass itself is not +permanently covered with snow is a circumstance which may probably be +accounted for by the direction of the atmospheric currents. The east +winds penetrate into the deep recesses of the valleys, which are +sheltered against the cold south wind by the adjacent mountain ridge. +The passes have a gloomy character, and the rugged grandeur of the +surrounding country presents an aspect of chaotic wildness and +disorder. The ground is covered with huge masses of rock; and the +ungenial fruitless soil is shunned alike by plants and animals. The +thin tendrils of a lichen, here and there twining on a damp mass of +stone, are the only traces of life. Yet the remains of human industry +and activity are everywhere observable. On all sides are seen the deep +cavities which formed the entrances to the now exhausted mines. These +cavities are sometimes situated at elevated points of the almost +inaccessible walls of rock, and are occasionally found in the level +part of the valley, and close on the roadway. Instances have occurred +of travellers being killed by falling into these holes, when they have +been covered by thick falls of snow. + +It is curious to observe, on the Pass of Antarangra, the partition of +the waters flowing into the two great oceans, the Atlantic and the +Pacific. Scarcely thirty paces distant from each other there are two +small lagunas. That situated most to the west is one of the sources of +the Rio de San Mateo, which, under the name of the Rimac, falls into the +Pacific. The other laguna, that to the eastward, sends its waters +through a succession of small mountain lakes into the Rio de Pachachaca, +a small tributary to the mighty Amazon river. It is amusing to take a +cup of water from the one laguna and pour it into the other. I could not +resist indulging this whim; and in so doing I thought I might possibly +have sent into the Pacific some drops of the water destined for the +Atlantic. But the whim, puerile as it may be, nevertheless suggests +serious reflections on the mighty power of nature, which has thrown up +these stupendous mountains from the bosom of the earth; and also on the +testaceous animals found on these heights, memorials of the time when +the ocean flowed over their lofty summits. + +From the ridge the road runs eastward along a branch of the principal +mountain chain. This branch forms the southern boundary of a +gently-sloping valley. The declivity is terrace-formed, and on each +terrace there is a small clear lake. This series of lakes is called +_Huascacocha_ (the chain of lakes). In their waters, as in most of the +mountain rivers, there is found in great numbers a small species of +shad-fish (_Pygidium dispar_, Tsch.). They are caught during the night +in nets, or by lines, to which the bait is fastened by small +cactus-thorns. + +The third in the series of the lagunas is called _Morococha_ (the +colored lake). On its banks some buildings have been constructed, for +the smelting of copper ore. The mines which yield this metal are on the +southern declivity, close to the road leading down from the Cordillera. +Formerly these mines were worked for silver, but were not found very +productive of that metal. Now they are again actively worked, and copper +is obtained from them. The working of the Peruvian copper mines has +hitherto been much neglected, though copper ore is exceedingly abundant. + +The road from Morococha to Pachachaca is very uniform. The latter +village, which is situated 12,240 feet above the level of the sea, was +formerly a place of much greater importance than it now is. In its +neighborhood there are a number of spacious buildings constructed at +the time of the unfortunate English mining speculation. Most of them +are only half finished. At the entrance of the village there is a +large hacienda. In some of the apartments the flooring is of wood; a +thing seldom seen in these parts, where the wood for such purposes +must be brought from the eastern declivity of the Andes: the +difficulty and expense attending this transport are so considerable, +that a wooden floor is a great rarity in the habitations of the +Cordillera. A mine belonging to the hacienda is situated five leagues +north-west of Pachachaca, and yields rich silver ore; but a great +part of it is at present under water, and its drainage would be a very +difficult undertaking. + +Returning to the point where the two roads across the Cordillera +separate at Cashapalca, we will now trace the route by way of Piedra +Parada. This way is shorter than that by Antarangra, but the ascents +are much steeper. The first objects met with by the traveller on this +road are some Indian huts, called _yauliyacu_, and the ruined hacienda +of San Rafael. These being passed, the ascent continues over broken +masses of rock. About 15,200 feet above the sea there is a huge block +of mountain, called the Piedra Parada, close against which a chapel +was formerly erected; the mountain forming the back wall of the +structure. Now there is merely an iron cross, fixed on the upper part +of the block of mountain. On this spot the Archbishop used formerly to +celebrate mass, when he was on his rounds through the diocese. The +chapel was destroyed by lightning, and has not been rebuilt. The pass +of the Piedra Parada is 16,008 feet above the sea, and is always +covered with snow. Travellers frequently lose their way in this pass, +an accident which befel me in March, 1842, when I was proceeding alone +by that route. Being overtaken by a violent fall of snow, I could +scarcely see a few paces before me. After wandering about for several +hours, my horse became weary, and I began to despair of extricating +myself from the dreary plains of snow. Late in the evening I reached a +little valley, where, sheltered by some rocks, I passed the night. On +the following morning I renewed my journey, and after considerable +exertion I arrived at an Indian hut, where I obtained such directions +as enabled me to recover the right course. + +The eastern declivity of the Pass of Piedra Parada is steeper than that +of Huascacocha. After a difficult ride of about two leagues, we reach +first the valley, and then the village of Yauli. The village lies at the +height of 13,100 feet above the sea, and consists of about one hundred +and fifty miserable huts, affording habitations for between twelve and +fourteen thousand Indians, most of whom are employed in mining. + +The Cordillera, in the neighborhood of Yauli, is exceedingly rich in +lead ore, containing silver. Within the circuit of a few miles, above +eight hundred shafts have been made, but they have not been found +sufficiently productive to encourage extensive mining works. The +difficulties which impede mine-working in these parts are caused +chiefly by the dearness of labor and the scarcity of fuel. There being +a total want of wood, the only fuel that can be obtained consists of +the dried dung of sheep, llamas, and huanacus. This fuel is called +_taquia_. It produces a very brisk and intense flame, and most of the +mine-owners prefer it to coal. The process of smelting, as practised +by the Indians, though extremely rude and imperfect, is nevertheless +adapted to local circumstances. All European attempts to improve the +system of smelting in these districts have either totally failed, or +in their results have proved less effective than the simple Indian +method. Complicated furnaces made after European models are +exceedingly expensive, whilst the natives can construct theirs at the +cost of fifty or sixty dollars each. These Indian furnaces can, +moreover, be easily erected in the vicinity of the mines, and when the +metal is not very abundant the furnaces may be abandoned without any +great sacrifice. For the price of one European furnace the Indians may +build more than a dozen, in each of which, notwithstanding the paucity +of fuel, a considerably greater quantity of metal may be smelted than +in one of European construction. + +About half a league beyond Yauli there are upwards of twenty mineral +springs, all situated within a circuit of a quarter of a mile. Several +of them contain saline properties. One is called the _Hervidero_ (the +whirlpool). It is in the form of a funnel, and at its upper part is +between ten and twelve feet diameter. Its surface is covered with +foam. The temperature of the water is only 7 deg. C. higher than the +atmosphere. Some of these springs are tepid and sulphuric; and the +temperature of one of them is as high as 89 deg. C. Near some of the +springs quadrangular basins have been constructed for baths, which are +said to be very efficacious in cutaneous and rheumatic complaints. The +climate of Yauli is exceedingly rigorous. In summer the medium +temperature of the night is 8 deg. C., but the days are mild. In winter, +on the other hand, the night is +1 deg. C., and the day scarcely +3 deg. C., +as the sky is continually overhung with thick clouds, which disperse +themselves in continual falls of snow. I passed several weeks in Yauli +and in the wild country around it, and during that time I made many +valuable additions to my natural history collection. + +The distance between Yauli and Pachachaca is two leagues. The road +descends gently along the right bank of the Rio de Yauli, which forms +the principal source of the Rio de Oroya. In this direction, as well as +in other parts adjacent to Yauli, there are numerous remains of mining +works, formerly the property of Portuguese. These works were destroyed +at the time of the persecution of the Portuguese in Peru, when the +consul, Juan Bautista, was hanged by the Inquisition, in Lima. Over +those events there hangs a veil of mystery, which will probably never be +removed. The Portuguese were the most powerful and intelligent +mine-owners in Peru, and their prosperity excited the envy of the +Spanish viceroy. A number of Portuguese emigrants, who came from +Brazil, to settle in the Peruvian province of Maynas, furnished the +viceroy with a ground of complaint, real or pretended. He set forth +that the Portuguese of the eastern parts of South America intended to +make themselves masters of Peru, and conjointly with the Inquisition +he commenced coercive measures against them. Their consul was accused +of heresy, condemned and hanged, and the emigrants were pursued and +put to death. Some of them escaped into the forests, where they were +massacred by the Indians, and only a very few succeeded in getting +back to Brazil. Many of the wealthy Portuguese mine-owners, seeing the +danger that threatened them, sank their vast treasures in lakes, or +buried them in retired places in the plains. These treasures consisted +chiefly of smelted ore and silver coin, and only a very small portion +was afterwards discovered. Thus were these active and intelligent +mine-owners sacrificed, either to a chimerical and unfounded +suspicion, or to a feeling of avarice, which, after all, failed in +attaining its object. The consequences were disastrous to the country. +Peruvian mining has never recovered the prosperity which it enjoyed +under the management of the Portuguese. + +Between Yauli and Pachachaca the way is difficult, and without an +accurate knowledge of the route, the traveller is likely to lose his +way, and may even incur the danger of sinking in the marshes which +spread along the bank of the river. From Pachachaca a broad and gentle +sloping valley conducts to La Oroya, a distance of about three leagues. +In the range of mountains forming the southern boundary of this valley, +the river winds its way through deep ravines. About half a league from +Pachachaca there is a ford where the road divides; one division passing +over the steep mountains of Yanaclara to Jauja, and the other running +into the wild valleys of Huayhuay. Midway between Pachachaca and La +Oroya there is a small, miserable Indian village called Saco, which is +seldom visited by travellers, as it is difficult to procure in it the +commonest necessaries of food. In this place there is a natural bridge +across the river, which has worked out a bed for itself beneath the +rocks. At several points along the course of this river I observed +similar bridges of rock, but this one only is passable for horses. + +La Oroya lies on the left bank of the river of that name, and +communicates with the right bank by means of a large hanging bridge +(Puente de Soga). These bridges are composed of four ropes (sogas) made +of twisted cow-hide, and about the thickness of a man's arm. The four +ropes are connected together by thinner ones of the same material, +fastened over them transversely. The whole is covered with branches, +straw, and roots of the Agave tree. On either side, a rope rather more +than two feet above the bridge serves as a balustrade. The sogas are +fastened on each bank of the river by piles, or riveted into the rock. +During the long continuous rains these bridges become loose and require +to be tightened; but they are always lower in the middle than at the +ends, and when passengers are crossing them they swing like hammocks. It +requires some practice, and a very steady head, to go over the soga +bridges unaccompanied by a Puentero.[64] However strongly made, they are +not durable; for the changeableness of the weather quickly rots the +ropes, which are made of untanned leather. They frequently require +repairing, and travellers have sometimes no alternative but to wait for +several days until a bridge is passable, or to make a circuit of 20 or +30 leagues. The Puente de Soga of Oroya is fifty yards long, and one and +a half broad. It is one of the largest in Peru; but the bridge across +the Apurimac, in the province of Ayacucho, is nearly twice as long, and +it is carried over a much deeper gulf. + +Another curious kind of bridge is that called the Huaro. It consists +of a thick rope extending over a river or across a rocky chasm. To +this rope are affixed a roller, and a strong piece of wood formed +like a yoke, and by means of two smaller ropes, this yoke is drawn +along the thick rope which forms the bridge. The passenger who has to +cross the Huaro is tied to the yoke, and grasps it firmly with both +hands. His feet, which are crossed one over the other, rest on the +thick rope, and the head is held as erectly as possible. All these +preliminaries being completed, an Indian, stationed on the opposite +side of the river or chasm, draws the passenger across the Huaro. This +is altogether the most disagreeable and dangerous mode of conveyance +that can possibly be conceived. If the rope breaks, an accident of no +unfrequent occurrence, the hapless traveller has no chance of escaping +with life, for being fastened, he can make no effort to save himself. +Horses and mules are driven by the Indians into the river, and are +made to swim across it, in doing which they frequently perish, +especially when being exhausted by a long journey, they have not +strength to contend against the force of the current. + +The village of Oroya, about a quarter of a mile from the bridge, is +built on a declivity, and according to Maclean's calculation is 12,010 +feet above the level of the sea. It contains fifty-one miserable huts, +which are the habitations of about two hundred Indians. From Oroya +several roads branch off into the different mountain districts. The most +frequented is that over the level height of Cachi-Cachi to Jauja. Along +this road there are extensive tracts of ground covered with calcareous +petrifactions. Another road leading to Tarma passes by the ancient Inca +fortress Huichay. A third, and much frequented road is that by way of +Huaypacha, and from thence to Junin and Cerro de Pasco. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 52: All these calculations are by English feet.] + +[Footnote 53: Jardine and Selby's Annals of Natural History.] + +[Footnote 54: Nivelacion barometrica desde el Callao hasta Pasco, por el +camino de Obrajillo, y desde el mismo lugar hasta la capital por via de +Tarma, hecha y calculada por Mariano Eduardo Rivero y Usturitz in +Memorial de Ciencias naturales, &c.] + +[Footnote 55: Darwin's Journal, p. 350] + +[Footnote 56: The Spaniards term this plant _Una de gato_ (Cat's-claw), +the stalk being furnished with hooked thorns resembling claws.] + +[Footnote 57: For further information relative to this disease, see my +communication to Wunderlich and Roser's "_Archiv fuer Physiologische +Heilkunde_."] + +[Footnote 58: See page 153.] + +[Footnote 59: By a nail is lost a shoe, by a shoe a horse, and by a +horse a rider.] + +[Footnote 60: According to Maclean, the elevation of Matucanas is 8026 +feet above the level of the sea. I presume that this calculation +refers to the village itself, which is situated about the eighth of a +league from the tambo, and lies much lower.] + +[Footnote 61: According to Maclean's calculation, the Tambo de Viso is +9072 feet above the sea.] + +[Footnote 62: Maclean states the elevation to be 10,984 feet above +the sea. Rivero makes it 9570, and Gay 10,408 feet. Gay's is the only +measurement which in any manner corresponds with mine and Maclean's. +In general Gay's calculations are between 600 and 800 feet higher +than ours.] + +[Footnote 63: Maclean makes it 15,543 feet; Gay, 15,924 feet; and Rivero, +only 14,608 feet above the level of the sea.] + +[Footnote 64: The _Puenteros_ (Bridge Guides) are Indians who assist +travellers in crossing these dangerous bridges.] + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +The Cordillera and the Andes--Signification of the terms--Altitude +of the Mountains and Passes--Lakes--Metals--Aspect of the +Cordillera--Shattered Rocks--Maladies caused by the diminished +Atmospheric Pressure--The Veta and the Surumpe--Mountain Storms--The +Condor--Its habits--Indian mode of Catching the Bird--The Puna or +Despoblado--Climate--Currents of Warm Air--Vegetation--Tuberous +Plant called the Maca--Animals of the Puna--The Llama, the Alpaco, +the Huanacu and the Vicuna--The Chacu and the Bolas--Household +Utensils of the Ancient Peruvians--The Viscacha and the +Chinchilla--Puna Birds and Amphibia--Cattle and Pasture--Indian +Farms--Shepherds' Huts--Ancient Peruvian Roads and +Buildings--Treasure concealed by the Indians in the Puna. + + +Two great mountain chains, running parallel with each other, intersect +Peru in the direction from S.S.W. to N.N.E. The chain nearest the coast +of the Pacific is at the average distance of from sixty to seventy +English miles from the sea. The other chain takes a parallel direction +but describes throughout its whole course a slight curve eastward. These +two ranges of mountain are called the Cordilleras, or the Andes: both +terms being used indiscriminately. Even the creoles of Peru confound +these two terms, sometimes calling the western chain by one name, and +sometimes by the other. Nevertheless, a strict distinction ought to be +observed:--the western chain should properly be called the Cordillera, +and the eastern chain the Andes. The latter name is derived from the +Quichua word Antasuyu; _Anta_ signifying metal generally, but especially +copper, and _Suyu_ a district; the meaning of Antasuyu, therefore, is +the metal district. In common parlance, the word Suyu was dropped, and +the termination _a_ in _Anta_ was converted into _is_. Hence the word +_Antis_, which is employed by all old writers and geographers; and even +now is in common use among the Indian population of Southern Peru. The +Spaniards, according to their practice of corrupting the words of the +Quichua language, have transformed Antis into _Andes_, and they apply +the name without distinction to the western and the eastern chain of +mountains.[65] + +The old inhabitants of Peru dwelt chiefly along the base of the eastern +mountain chain, where they drew from the mines the metal which afforded +material for their tasteful and ingenious workmanship: those mountains +consequently retained the name of Antis or Andes. In the time of the +Incas, both chains were called Ritisuyu (Snow-Districts). The Spaniards, +on the invasion of the country, advancing from the sea-coast, first +arrived at the western mountains, and to them they gave the name of +_Cordillera_, the term commonly employed in the Spanish language, to +designate any mountain chain. Most of the earlier travellers and +topographists named the western chain the _Cordillera de los Andes_, and +regarded it as the principal chain, of which they considered the eastern +mountains to be merely a branch. To the eastern range of mountains they +gave the name of _Cordillera Oriental_. I will here strictly observe the +correct denominations, calling the western chain the Cordillera, or the +coast mountains; and the eastern chain the Andes, or the inner +Cordillera. + +These two great mountain chains stand in respect to height in an inverse +relation one to the other; that is to say, the greater the elevation of +the Cordillera, the more considerable is the depression of the Andes. In +South Peru the ridge of the Cordillera is considerably lower than that +portion of the Andes which stretches through Bolivia. The medium height +of the Cordillera in South Peru is 15,000 feet above the sea; but here +and there particular points rise to a much more considerable elevation. +The medium height of the Andes is 17,000 feet above the sea. In central +Peru the Cordillera is higher than the Andes. There the altitude of the +latter along the body of the chain is 13,000 feet above the sea: on the +ridge there are a few points some hundred feet higher. Between Pasco +and Loxas the average height of the Cordillera is between 11,000 and +12,000 feet above the sea; and the average elevation of the Andes at the +corresponding point is about 2000 feet lower. + +The passes do not run through valleys, but always over the ridges of the +mountains. The highest mountain passes are the Rinconada (16,452 feet +above the sea); the Piedra Parada (16,008 feet); the Tingo (15,600 +feet); the Huatillas (14,850 feet); the Portachuelo de la Viuda (14,544 +feet); the Altos de Toledo (15,530 feet); and the Altos de los Huesos +(14,300 feet). In both chains there are innumerable small lakes; these +are met with in all the mountain passes, and most of them are the +sources of small rivers. + +Both the mountain chains, as well as their lateral branches, are rich in +metallic produce; but in the principal mountains gold is rare. Some rich +mines on the coast, and in the province of Arequipa, are now nearly +exhausted. Wash gold is plentiful in the rivers of North Peru, but it is +not carefully collected. Silver, which constitutes the principal wealth +of Peru, is found in greatest abundance in the principal chains, viz., +in Northern and Central Peru, in the Cordillera; and in Southern Peru in +the Andes. It presents itself in all forms and combinations, from the +pure metal to the lead-ore mixed with silver. Even in the highest +elevations, in parts scarcely trodden by human footsteps, rich veins of +silver are discovered. It is scarcely possible to pass half a day in +these regions without encountering new streaks. Quicksilver is likewise +found, but in such small quantities, that the gain does not pay the +labor of the miners. The only quicksilver vein of any magnitude is at +Huancavelica. Both mountain chains are very rich in copper-ore; but it +is extracted only from the Cordillera, for the distance of the Andes +from the coast renders the transport too expensive. The lead and iron +mines, though amazingly prolific, are not worked; the price of the metal +being too low to pay the labor. + +The Cordillera presents an aspect totally different from that of the +Andes. It is more wild and rugged, its ridge is broader, and its summits +less pyramidical. The summits of the Andes terminate in slender sharp +points like needles. The Cordillera descends in terraces to the level +heights, whilst the slope of the Andes is uniform and unbroken. The +summits of the calcareous hills which stretch eastward from the great +chain of the Cordillera are broken and rugged. Large cubical blocks of +stone become detached from them, and roll down into the valleys. In the +Quebrada of Huari near Yanaclara, which is 13,000 feet above the sea, I +collected among other fragments of rock some of a species which is found +at Neufchatel in Switzerland. This disintegration, which is the effect +of protracted rain and cold, imparts to the mountain ridges the most +singular and beautiful forms; their fantastic outlines appearing like +the work of human hands. Imagination may easily picture them to be +monuments of the time of the Incas; for viewed from a distance, they +look like groups of giants or colossal animals. In former times the +Indians viewed these masses of rock with devout reverence, for they +believed them to be the early inhabitants of the earth whom Pacchacamac +in his anger transformed to stone. I may here notice some very curious +forms of rock which have long been a subject of controversy among +Peruvian travellers. On the road leading from Ayacucho to Huancavelica, +on the level height of Paucara, about a league beyond the village of +Parcos, there is a considerable number of sand-stone pyramids from eight +to twenty-two feet high. They are of a reddish-white color; but in many +places the inclemency of the weather has overspread them with a blackish +crust. They are detached one from another. Ulloa, in his _Noticias +Americanas_, after fully describing these pyramids, declares himself +doubtful whether they are the work of man or of nature. He inclines to +regard them as human creations, and suggests that they may possibly have +been the tombs of distinguished curacas and caciques; but he admits that +he is not acquainted with any similar monuments in Peru. As each pyramid +consists of only one block of stone, and all are very regularly shaped, +Ulloa is not indisposed to believe that the Indians possessed the secret +art of melting stone. These blocks are, however, of sand-stone, and +their fractures are the result of the inclemency of the weather. They +are all pyramidal-shaped, and tolerably equal in size. In several of +them the points are as sharp and regular as though they had been wrought +by the chisel of the sculptor. These curious pyramids cover the plateau +along a distance of more than two miles: sometimes standing closely +together, and sometimes at considerable distances apart. The whole line +of chalk and slate mountains extending from Ayacucho to Huancavelica is +shattered, and presents similar, though less regular detritus. + +I have, in my last chapter, observed that the Cordillera is the point +of partition between the waters of the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans. +All the waters of the eastern declivity of the Cordillera--all those +which have their source on the level heights and on the western +declivity of the Andes,--flow from thence in the direction of the east, +and work their way through the eastern mountain chain. Throughout the +whole extent of South America there is not a single instance of the +Cordillera being intersected by a river; a fact the more remarkable +because in Southern Peru and Bolivia, the coast chain is lower than the +Andes. This interesting phenomenon, though it has deeply engaged the +attention of geologists, has not yet been satisfactorily explained. I +concur in the view taken by Mr. Darwin, who observes that it would be +too rash to assign to the eastern chain of Bolivia and Central Chile, a +later origin than the western chain (the nearest the Pacific), but that +the circumstance of the rivers of a lower mountain chain having forced +their way through a higher chain seems, without this supposition, to be +enigmatical. Mr. Darwin is of opinion that the phenomenon is assignable +to a periodical and gradual elevation of the second mountain line (the +Andes); for a chain of islets would at first appear, and as these were +lifted up, the tides would be always wearing deeper and broader +channels between them. + +In the heights of the Cordillera the effect of the diminished +atmospheric pressure on the human frame shows itself in intolerable +symptoms of weariness and an extreme difficulty of breathing. The +natives call this malady the _Puna_ or the _Soroche_; and the Spanish +Creoles give it the names of _Mareo_ or _Veta_. Ignorant of its real +causes they ascribe it to the exhalations of metals, especially +antimony, which is extensively used in the mining operations. The first +symptoms of the veta are usually felt at the elevation of 12,600 feet +above the sea. These symptoms are vertigo, dimness of sight and +hearing, pains in the head and nausea. Blood flows from the eyes, nose, +and lips. Fainting fits, spitting of blood, and other dangerous +symptoms, usually attend severe attacks of veta. The sensations which +accompany this malady somewhat resemble those of sea-sickness, and hence +its Spanish name _mareo_. But sea-sickness is unaccompanied by the +distressing difficulty of breathing experienced in the veta. This +disorder sometimes proves fatal, and I once witnessed a case in which +death was the result. Inhabitants of the coast and Europeans, who for +the first time visit the lofty regions of the Cordillera, are usually +attacked with this disorder. Persons in good health and of a spare habit +speedily recover from it, but on plethoric and stout individuals its +effects are frequently very severe. After an abode of some time in the +mountainous regions, the constitution becomes inured to the rarefied +atmosphere. I suffered only two attacks of the veta; but they were very +severe. The first was on one of the level heights; and the second on the +mountain of Antaichahua. The first time I ascended the Cordillera I did +not experience the slightest illness, and I congratulated myself on +having escaped the veta; but a year afterwards I had an attack of it, +though only of a few hours' duration. The veta is felt with great +severity in some districts of the Cordillera, whilst in others, where +the altitude is greater, the disorder is scarcely perceptible. Thus it +would seem that the malady is not caused by diminished atmospheric +pressure, but is dependent on some unknown climatic circumstances. The +districts in which the veta prevails with greatest intensity are, for +the most part, rich in the production of metals, a circumstance which +has given rise to the idea that it is caused by metallic exhalations. + +I have already described the effect of the Puna climate on beasts of +burthen. Its influence on some of the domestic animals is no less severe +than on the human race. To cats, it is very fatal, and at the elevation +of 13,000 feet above the sea those animals cannot live. Numerous trials +have been made to rear them in the villages of the upper mountains, but +without effect; for after a few days' abode in those regions, the +animals die in frightful convulsions; but when in this state they do not +attempt to bite. I had two good opportunities of observing the disease +at Yauli. Cats attacked in this way are called, by the natives, +_azorochados_, and antimony is alleged to be the cause of the distemper. +Dogs are also liable to it, but it visits them less severely than cats, +and with care they may be recovered. + +Another scourge of the traveller in the Cordillera, is the disease +called the _Surumpe_. It is a violent inflammation of the eyes, caused +by the sudden reflection of the bright rays of the sun on the snow. By +the rarefied air and the cutting wind, the eyes, being kept in a +constant state of irritation, are thereby rendered very susceptible to +the effects of the glaring light. In these regions the sky is often +for a time completely overshadowed by snow clouds, and the greenish +yellow of the plain is soon covered by a sheet of snow: then suddenly +the sun's rays burst through the breaking clouds, and the eyes, +unprepared for the dazzling glare, are almost blinded. A sharp burning +pain is immediately felt, and it speedily increases to an intolerable +degree. The eyes become violently inflamed, and the lids swell and +bleed. The pain of the surumpe is the most intense that can be +imagined, and frequently brings on delirium. The sensation resembles +that which it may be imagined would be felt if cayenne pepper or +gunpowder were rubbed into the eyes. Chronic inflammation, swelling of +the eyelids, dimness of sight, and even total blindness are the +frequent consequences of the surumpe. In the Cordillera, Indians are +often seen sitting by the road-side shrieking in agony, and unable to +proceed on their way. They are more liable to the disease than the +Creoles, who, when travelling in the mountains, protect their eyes by +green spectacles and veils. + +Heavy falls of snow in the Cordillera are usually accompanied by +thunder and lightning. During five months of the year, from November to +March, storms are of daily occurrence. They begin, with singular +regularity, about three o'clock in the afternoon, and continue until +five or half-past five in the evening. After that time storms of +thunder and lightning never occur; but the falls of snow sometimes +continue till midnight. As evening approaches, cold mists are drifted +from the mountain-tops down upon the plains; but they are dispersed by +the rays of the morning sun, which in a few hours melt the snow. The +furious tempests in these regions exceed any idea that can be formed +of them, and can only be conceived by those who have witnessed them. +Some of these mountain districts have acquired an ominous character for +storms; Antaichahua is one of the places to which this sort of fearful +celebrity belongs. For hours together flash follows flash, painting +blood-red cataracts on the naked precipices. The forked lightning darts +its zig-zag flashes on the mountain-tops, or, running along the ground, +imprints deep furrows in its course; whilst the atmosphere quivers +amidst uninterrupted peals of thunder, repeated a thousandfold by the +mountain echoes. The traveller, overtaken by these terrific storms, +dismounts from his trembling horse, and takes refuge beneath the +shelter of some overhanging rock. + +In these sterile heights, Nature withholds her fostering influence +alike from vegetable and animal life. The scantiest vegetation can +scarcely draw nutriment from the ungenial soil, and animals shun the +dreary and shelterless wilds. The condor alone finds itself in its +native element amidst these mountain deserts. On the inaccessible +summits of the Cordillera that bird builds its nest, and hatches its +young in the months of April and May. Few animals have attained so +universal a celebrity as the condor. That bird was known in Europe, at +a period when his native land was numbered among those fabulous +regions which are regarded as the scenes of imaginary wonders. The +most extravagant accounts of the condor were written and read, and +general credence was granted to every story which travellers brought +from the fairy land of gold and silver. It was only at the +commencement of the present century that Humboldt overthrew the +extravagant notions that previously prevailed respecting the size, +strength, and habits of that extraordinary bird. + +The full-grown condor measures, from the point of the beak to the end +of the tail, from four feet ten inches to five feet; and from the tip +of one wing to the other, from twelve to thirteen feet. This bird feeds +chiefly on carrion: it is only when impelled by hunger that he seizes +living animals, and even then only the small and defenceless, such as +the young of sheep, vicunas, and llamas. He cannot raise great weights +with his feet, which, however, he uses to aid the power of his beak. +The principal strength of the condor lies in his neck and in his feet; +yet he cannot, when flying, carry a weight exceeding eight or ten +pounds. All accounts of sheep and calves being carried off by condors +are mere exaggerations. This bird passes a great part of the day in +sleep, and hovers in quest of prey chiefly in the morning and evening. +Whilst soaring at a height beyond the reach of human eyes, the +sharp-sighted condor discerns his prey on the level heights beneath +him, and darts down upon it with the swiftness of lightning. When a +bait is laid, it is curious to observe the numbers of condors which +assemble in a quarter of an hour, in a spot near which not one had been +previously visible. These birds possess the senses of sight and smell +in a singularly powerful degree. + +Some old travellers, Ulloa among others, have affirmed that the plumage +of the condor is invulnerable to a musket-ball. This absurdity is +scarcely worthy of contradiction; but it is nevertheless true that the +bird has a singular tenacity of life, and that it is seldom killed by +fire-arms, unless when shot in some vital part. Its plumage, +particularly on the wings, is very strong and thick. The natives, +therefore, seldom attempt to shoot the condor: they usually catch him by +traps or by the laso, or kill him by stones flung from slings, or by the +_Bolas_. A curious method of capturing the condor alive is practised in +the province of Abancay. A fresh cow-hide, with some fragments of flesh +adhering to it, is spread out on one of the level heights, and an Indian +provided with ropes creeps beneath it, whilst some others station +themselves in ambush near the spot, ready to assist him. Presently a +condor, attracted by the smell of flesh, darts down upon the cow-hide, +and then the Indian, who is concealed under it, seizes the bird by the +legs, and binds them fast in the skin, as if in a bag. The captured +condor flaps his wings, and makes ineffectual attempts to fly; but he is +speedily secured, and carried in triumph to the nearest village. + +The Indians quote numerous instances of young children having been +attacked by condors. That those birds are sometimes extremely fierce is +very certain. The following occurrence came within my own knowledge, +whilst I was in Lima. I had a condor, which, when he first came into my +possession, was very young. To prevent his escape, as soon as he was +able to fly, he was fastened by the leg to a chain, to which was +attached a piece of iron of about six pounds weight. He had a large +court to range in, and he dragged the piece of iron about after him all +day. When he was a year and a half old he flew away, with the chain and +iron attached to his leg, and perched on the spire of the church of +Santo Tomas, whence he was scared away by the carrion hawks. On +alighting in the street, a Negro attempted to catch him for the purpose +of bringing him home; upon which he seized the poor creature by the ear, +and tore it completely off. He then attacked a child in the street (a +negro boy of three years old), threw him on the ground, and knocked him +on the head so severely with his beak, that the child died in +consequence of the injuries. I hoped to have brought this bird alive to +Europe; but, after being at sea two months on our homeward voyage, he +died on board the ship in the latitude of Monte Video. + +Between the Cordillera and the Andes, at the height of 12,000 feet +above the sea, there are vast tracts of uninhabited table-lands. These +are called in the Quichua language the _Puna_; and the Spaniards give +them the name of the _Despoblado_ (the uninhabited). These table-lands +form the upper mountain regions of the South American Highlands. They +spread over the whole extent of Peru, from north-west to south-east, a +distance of 350 Spanish miles, continuing through Bolivia, and +gradually running eastward into the Argentine Republic. With reference +to geography and natural history, these table-lands present a curious +contrast to the _Llanos_ (plains) of South America, situated on the +other side of the Andes to the north-east. Those boundless deserts, +full of organic life, are, like the Puna, among the most interesting +characteristics of the New World. + +The climate of these regions is not less rigorous than that of the high +mountain ridges. Cold winds from the west and south-west, blow nearly +all the year round from the ice-topped Cordillera; and for the space of +four months these winds are daily accompanied by thunder, lightning, and +snow-storms. The average state of the thermometer during the cold season +(which is called summer, because it then seldom snows) is, during the +night, -5 deg. R.; and at midday, +9 deg. 7' R. In winter the mercury seldom +falls during the night below freezing point, and it continues between ++1 deg. and 0 deg. R.; but at noon it ascends only to 7 deg. R. It is, however, +quite impossible to determine with precision the medium temperature of +these regions. For the space of a few hours the heat will frequently +vary between 18 deg. and 20 deg. R. The transition is the more sensibly felt on +the fall of the temperature, as it is usually accompanied by +sharp-biting winds, so keen, that they cut the skin on the face and +hands. A remarkable effect of the Puna wind is its power of speedily +drying animal bodies, and thereby preventing putridity. A dead mule is, +in the course of a few days, converted into a mummy; not even the +entrails presenting the least trace of decomposition. + +It frequently happens that, after being long exposed to these cold +winds, the traveller enters warm atmospheric currents. These warm +streams are sometimes only two or three paces, and at other times, +several hundred feet broad. They run in a parallel direction with each +other, and one may pass through five or six of them in the course of a +few hours. On the level heights between Chacapalpa and Huancavelica, I +remarked that they were especially frequent during the months of August +and September. According to my repeated observations, I found that these +warm streams chiefly follow the direction of the Cordillera; namely, +from S.S.W. to N.N.E. I once travelled the distance of several leagues +through a succession of these currents of warm air, none of which +exceeded seven-and-twenty paces in breadth. Their temperature was 11 deg. R. +higher than that of the adjacent atmosphere. It would appear they are +not merely temporary, for the mule-drivers can often foretel with +tolerable accuracy where they will be encountered. The causes of these +phenomena well merit the investigation of meteorologists. + +The aspect of the Puna is singularly monotonous and dreary. The +expansive levels are scantily covered with grasses of a yellowish-brown +hue, and are never enlivened by fresh-looking verdure. Here and there, +at distant intervals, may be seen a few stunted Quenua trees +(_Polylepis racemosa_, R. P.), or large patches of ground covered with +the Ratanhia shrub[66] (_Krameria triandria_, R. P.). Both are used by +the Indians as fuel, and for roofing their huts. + +The cold climate and sterile soil of the Puna are formidable impediments +to agriculture. Only one plant is cultivated in these regions with any +degree of success. It is the _maca_, a tuberous root grown like the +potatoe, and like it used as an article of food. In many of the Puna +districts the maca constitutes the principal sustenance of the +inhabitants. It has an agreeable, and somewhat sweetish flavor, and when +boiled in milk it tastes like the chestnut. As far as I am aware this +plant has not been mentioned by any traveller, nor has its botanical +character yet been precisely determined. Possibly it is a species of +Tropaeolum, but of this I am uncertain. The root is about the size of a +large chestnut. Macas may be kept for more than a year, if, after being +taken from the earth, they are left a few days to dry in the sun, and +then exposed to the cold. By this means they become shrivelled and very +hard. From these dried macas, the Indians prepare a sort of soup or +rather syrup, which diffuses a sweet, sickly sort of odor, but which, +when eaten with roasted maize, is not altogether unpalatable. The maca +thrives best at the height of between 12,000 and 13,000 feet above the +sea. In the lower districts it is not planted, for the Indians declare +it to be flavorless when grown there. Besides the maca barley is reared +in the Puna. I saw there fields of barley 13,200 feet above the sea. It +does not, however, attain full maturity, seldom even shoots into ears, +and is cut whilst green as fodder for horses. + +But poor and scanty as is the vegetation of the Puna, the animal +kingdom is there richly and beautifully represented. Those regions are +the native home of the great Mammalia, which Peru possessed before +horses and black cattle were introduced by the Spaniards. I allude to +the llama and his co-genera the alpaco, the huanacu, and the vicuna. +On these interesting animals I will subjoin a few observations.[67] +The two first are kept as domestic animals; the llama perfectly, and +the alpaco partially tame. + +The llama measures from the sole of the hoof to the top of the head, 4 +feet 6 to 8 inches; from the sole of the hoof to the shoulders, from 2 +feet 11 inches to 3 feet. The female is usually smaller and less strong +than the male, but her wool is finer and better. The color is very +various; generally brown, with shades of yellow or black; frequently +speckled, but very rarely quite white or black. The speckled brown llama +is in some districts called the moromoro. + +The young llamas are left with the dam for about the space of a year, +after which time they are removed and placed with flocks. When about +four years old, the males and females are separated; the former are +trained to carry burthens, and the latter are kept in the pastures of +the level heights. Most of the flocks of llamas are reared in the +southern Puna provinces, viz.:--Cuzco and Ayacucho, and from thence +they are sent to the silver mines of North Peru. The price of a strong +full-grown llama is from three to four dollars; but if purchased in +flocks in the provinces above named, they may be had for one and a +half or two dollars each. Shortly after the conquest the price of one +of these animals was between eighteen and twenty ducats; but the +increase of horses, mules, and sheep, lowered their value. The burthen +carried by the llama should not exceed one hundred and twenty-five +pounds, and the animal is seldom laden with more than a +hundred-weight. When the llama finds his burthen too heavy he lies +down, and cannot be made to rise until some portion of the weight is +removed from his back. In the silver mines the llamas are of the most +important utility, as they frequently carry the metal from the mines +in places where the declivities are so steep that neither asses nor +mules can keep their footing. + +The Indians frequently proceed with large flocks of llamas to the coast, +to procure salt. Their daily journeys are short, never exceeding three +or four leagues; for the animals will not feed during the night, and +therefore they are allowed to graze as they go, or to halt for a few +hours at feeding-time. When resting they make a peculiar humming noise, +which, when proceeding from a numerous flock at a distance, is like a +number of AEolian harps sounding in concert. + +A flock of laden llamas journeying over the table-lands is a beautiful +sight. They proceed at a slow and measured pace, gazing eagerly around +on every side. When any strange object scares them, the flock +separates, and disperses in various directions, and the arrieros have +no little difficulty in reassembling them. The Indians are very fond +of these animals. They adorn them by tying bows of ribbon to their +ears, and hanging bells round their necks; and before loading, they +always fondle and caress them affectionately. If, during a journey, +one of the llamas is fatigued and lies down, the arriero kneels beside +the animal, and addresses to it the most coaxing and endearing +expressions. But notwithstanding all the care and attention bestowed +on them, many llamas perish on every journey to the coast, as they are +not able to bear the warm climate. + +Some old travellers have stated that the Indians employ the llama for +riding and for draught; but these accounts are quite erroneous. It +sometimes happens that when crossing a river an Indian lad, to avoid +getting wet, may mount on the back of one of the llamas; but in such a +case, he immediately dismounts on reaching the opposite bank. The flesh +of the llama is spongy, and not agreeable in flavor. Its wool is used +for making coarse cloths. + +The alpaco, or paco, is smaller than the llama. It measures from the +lower part of the hoof to the top of the head only three feet three +inches, and to the shoulders two feet and a half. In form it resembles +the sheep, but it has a longer neck and a more elegant head. The fleece +of this animal is beautifully soft and very long; in some parts it is +four or five inches in length. Its color is usually either white or +black; but in some few instances it is speckled. The Indians make +blankets and ponchos of the alpaco wool. It is also frequently exported +to Europe, and it sells at a good price in England. The alpacos are kept +in large flocks, and throughout the whole of the year they graze on the +level heights. At shearing time only they are driven to the huts. They +are in consequence very shy, and they run away at the approach of a +stranger. The obstinacy of the alpaco is remarkable. When one of these +animals is separated from the flock, he throws himself on the ground, +and neither force nor persuasion will induce him to rise;--sometimes +suffering the severest punishment rather than go the way the driver +wishes. Few animals seem to require so imperatively the companionship of +its own species, and it is only when brought to the Indian huts very +young, that the alpacos can be separated from their flocks. + +The largest animal of this family is the huanacu. It measures five feet +from the bottom of the hoof to the top of the head, and three feet three +inches to the shoulders. In form it so nearly resembles the llama, that +until a very recent period, zoologists were of opinion that the llama +was an improved species of the huanacu, and that the latter was the +llama in its wild state. In the "Fauna Peruana" I have explained the +erroneousness of this opinion, and described the specific differences +existing between the two animals. On the neck, back, and thighs the +huanacu is of a uniform reddish-brown color. The under part of the body, +the middle line of the breast, and the inner side of the limbs are of a +dingy white. The face is dark grey, and the lips of a clear white. Of +the huanacus there are not those varieties which are found among the +llamas and the alpacos. The wool is shorter and coarser than that of the +llama, and it is of nearly uniform length on all parts of the body. + +The huanacus live in small herds of five or seven, seldom exceeding +the latter number. In some districts they are very shy, and retreat +when any one approaches. If taken very young they may be tamed; but +they are always ready to fall back into their wild state. It is with +great difficulty they can be trained as beasts of burthen. In the +menageries of Europe, huanacu brought from Chile are frequently +represented to be llamas. + +The vicuna is a more beautiful animal than any of those just +described. Its size is between that of the llama and the alpaco. It +measures from the sole of the foot to the top of the head four feet +one inch, and two and a half feet to the shoulders. The neck is longer +and more slender than in either of the other relative species; and +from them the vicuna is also distinguished by the superior fineness of +its short, curly wool. The crown of the head, the upper part of the +neck, the back, and thighs, are of a peculiar reddish-yellow hue, +called by the people of the country _color de vicuna_. The lower part +of the neck, and the inner parts of the limbs, are of a bright ochre +color, and the breast and lower part of the body are white. + +During the rainy season the vicuna inhabits the ridges of the +Cordillera, where some scanty vegetation is to be found. It never +ventures up to the naked rocky summits, for its hoofs being accustomed +only to turfy ground, are very soft and tender. It lives in herds, +consisting of from six to fifteen females, and one male, who is the +protector and leader of the herd. Whilst the females are quietly +grazing, the male stands at the distance of some paces apart, and +carefully keeps guard over them. At the approach of danger he gives a +signal, consisting of a sort of whistling sound, and a quick movement of +the foot. Immediately the herd draws closely together, each animal +anxiously stretching out its head in the direction of the threatening +danger. They then take to flight; first moving leisurely and cautiously, +and then quickening their pace to the utmost degree of speed; whilst the +male vicuna who covers the retreat frequently halts, to observe the +movements of the enemy. The females, with singular fidelity and +affection, reward the watchful care of their protector. If he is wounded +or killed, they gather round him in a circle, uttering their shrill +tones of lamentation, and they will suffer themselves to be captured or +killed, rather than desert him by pursuing their flight. The neigh of +the vicuna, like that of the other animals of its class, resembles a +short, sharp whistle. But when the shrill sound vibrates through the +pure Puna air, the practised ear can readily distinguish the cry of the +vicuna from that of the other animals of the same family. + +The Indians seldom employ fire-arms in hunting the vicunas. They catch +them by what they term the _chacu_. In this curious hunt, one man at +least belonging to each family in the Puna villages takes a part, and +women accompany the train, to officiate as cooks to the hunters. The +whole company, frequently amounting to seventy or eighty individuals, +proceeds to the Altos (the most secluded parts of the Puna), which are +the haunts of the vicunas. They take with them stakes, and a great +quantity of rope and cord. A spacious open plain is selected, and the +stakes are driven into the ground in a circle, at intervals of from +twelve to fifteen feet apart, and are connected together by ropes +fastened to them at the height of two or two and a half feet from the +ground. The circular space within the stakes is about half a league in +circumference, and an opening of about two hundred paces in width is +left for entrance. On the ropes by which the stakes are fastened +together the women hang pieces of colored rags, which flutter about in +the wind. The chacu being fully prepared, the men, some of whom are +mounted on horseback, range about within a circuit of several miles, +driving before them all the herds of vicunas they meet with, and forcing +them into the chacu. When a sufficient number of vicunas is collected, +the entrance is closed. The timid animals do not attempt to leap over +the ropes, being frightened by the fluttering rags suspended from them, +and, when thus secured, the Indians easily kill them by the _bolas_. +These bolas consist of three balls, composed either of lead or stone; +two of them heavy, and the third rather lighter. They are fastened to +long, elastic strings, made of twisted sinews of the vicuna, and the +opposite ends of the strings are all tied together. The Indian holds the +lightest of the three balls in his hand, and swings the two others in a +wide circle above his head; then, taking his aim at the distance of +about fifteen or twenty paces, he lets go the hand-ball, upon which all +the three balls whirl in a circle, and twine round the object aimed at. +The aim is usually taken at the hind legs of the animals, and the cords +twisting round them, they become firmly bound. It requires great skill +and long practice to throw the bolas dexterously, especially when on +horseback: a novice in the art incurs the risk of dangerously hurting +either himself or his horse, by not giving the balls the proper swing, +or by letting go the hand-ball too soon. + +The vicunas, after being secured by the bolas, are killed, and the flesh +is distributed in equal portions among the hunters. The skins belong to +the Church. The price of a vicuna skin is four reals. When all the +animals are killed, the stakes, ropes, &c., are packed up carefully, and +conveyed to another spot, some miles distant, where the chacu is again +fixed up. The hunting is continued in this manner for the space of a +week. The number of animals killed during that interval varies according +to circumstances, being sometimes fifty or sixty, and at other times +several hundred. During five days I took part in a chacu hunt in the +Altos of Huayhuay, and in that space of time 122 vicunas were caught. +With the money obtained by the sale of the skins a new altar was erected +in the church of the district. The flesh of the vicuna is more tender +and better flavored than that of the llama. Fine cloth and hats are made +of the wool. When taken young, the vicunas are easily tamed, and become +very docile; but when old, they are intractable and malicious. At Tarma +I possessed a large and very fine vicuna. It used to follow me like a +dog whenever I went out, whether on foot or on horseback. + +The frequent hunting seems not to have the effect of diminishing the +numbers of these animals. If in the vicinity of the villages where +chacus are frequently established, they are less numerous than in +other parts, it is because, to elude the pursuit of the hunters, they +seek refuge in the Altos, where they are found in vast numbers. +Several modern travellers have lamented the diminution of the vicunas, +but without reason. In former times those animals were hunted more +actively than at present. + +Under the dynasty of the Incas, when every useful plant and animal was +an object of veneration, the Peruvians rendered almost divine worship +to the llama and his relatives, which exclusively furnished them with +wool for clothing, and with flesh for food. The temples were adorned +with large figures of these animals made of gold and silver, and their +forms were represented in domestic utensils made of stone and clay. +In the valuable collection of Baron Clemens von Huegel at Vienna, there +are four of these vessels, composed of porphyry, basalt, and granite, +representing the four species, viz., the llama, the alpaco, the +huanacu, and the vicuna. These antiquities are exceedingly scarce, and +when I was in Peru I was unable to obtain any of them. How the ancient +Peruvians, without the aid of iron tools, were able to carve stone so +beautifully, is inconceivable. + +Besides the animals above mentioned, several others peculiar to the Puna +are deserving of remark. Among these are the Tarush (_Cervus +antisiensis_, Orb.); the timid roe, which inhabits the high forests +skirting the Andes; the Viscacha (_Lagidium peruanum_, May, and _L. +pallipes_, Benn.), and the Chinchilla (_Eriomys Chinchilla_, Licht.), +whose skin supplies the beautiful fur so much prized by the ladies of +Europe. The viscachas and chinchillas resemble the rabbit in form and +color, but they have shorter ears and long rough tails. They live on the +steep rocky mountains, and in the morning and evening they creep out +from their holes and crevices to nibble the alpine grasses. At night the +Indians set before their holes traps made of horse-hair, in which the +animals are easily caught. The most remarkable of the beasts of prey in +these high regions is the Atoc (_Canis Azarae_, Pr. Max.). It is a +species of fox, which is found throughout the whole of South America. +The warmer Puna valleys are inhabited by the Cuguar (_Felis concolor_, +L.), or, as the Indians call it, the Poma. When driven by hunger, this +animal ventures into the loftiest Puna regions, even to the boundary of +the eternal snow. The wild Hucumari (_Ursus ornatus_, Fr. Cuv.) but +seldom wanders into the cold Puna. The hucumari is a large black bear, +with a white muzzle and light-colored stripes on the breast. + +Of the numerous Puna birds, the majority of which may be classed as +water-fowl, I will notice only a few of the most characteristic. Next +to the condor, the most remarkable bird of prey is the Huarahuau, or +the Aloi (_Polylorus megalopterus_, Cob.),[68] one of the gyr-falcon +species. This bird, which is a constant inhabitant of the level +heights, preys on the carcases of dead horses, mules, &c., but never +attempts to meddle with living animals. It is very harmless, and has +so little timidity, that it suffers itself to be approached near +enough to be knocked down with a stick. The Acacli, or Pito (_Colaptes +rupicola_, Orb.), flutters about the mountains; it is a woodpecker, +brown-speckled, with a yellow belly. This bird is seen in very great +numbers, and it is difficult to imagine how it procures food in the +Puna, where there are no insects. All the other woodpecker species +exclusively confine themselves to woody regions. + +The thickets of rushy grass are inhabited by the Pishacas, or Yutu, a +species of partridge (_Tinamotis Pentlandii_, Vig.) which the Indians +catch by dogs. These dogs of the Puna Indians are a peculiar race +(_Canis Ingae_, Tsch.). They are distinguished by a small head, a +pointed muzzle, small erect ears, a tail curling upwards, and a thick +shaggy skin. They are in a half-wild state, and very surly and +snappish. They furiously attack strangers, and even after having +received a deadly wound they will crawl along the ground, and make an +effort to bite. To white people they appear to have a particular +antipathy; and sometimes it becomes rather a venturous undertaking for +a European traveller to approach an Indian hut, for these mountain +dogs spring up to the sides of the horse, and try to bite the rider's +legs. They are snarlish and intractable even to their masters, who are +often obliged to enforce obedience by the help of a stick. Yet these +dogs are very useful animals for guarding flocks, and they have a keen +scent for the pishacas, which they catch and kill with a single bite. + +There is a very curious little bird in the Puna, about the size of a +starling. Its plumage is exceedingly pretty, being on the back brown, +striped with black; on the throat grey, with two dark stripes, and on +the breast white. This bird has the remarkable peculiarity of making a +monotonous sound at the close of every hour, during the night. The +Indians call it the Ingahuallpa, or Cock of the Inga (_Thinocorus +Ingae_, Tsch.), and they associate many superstitious notions with its +regular hourly cry. The Puna morasses and lagunas are animated by +numerous feathered inhabitants. Among them is the huachua (_Chloephaga +melanoptera_, Eyt.), a species of goose. The plumage of the body is +dazzlingly white, the wings green, shading into brilliant violet, and +the feet and beak of a bright red. The Licli (_Charadrius resplendens_, +Tsch.) is a plover, whose plumage in color is like that of the huachua, +but with a sort of metallic brightness. There are two species of ibis +which belong to the Puna, though they are occasionally seen in some of +the lower valleys. One is the Bandurria (_Theristocus melanopis_, +Wagl.), and the other is the Yanahuico (_Ibis Ordi_, Bonap.). On the +lagunas swim large flocks of Quiullas (_Larus serranus_, Tsch.), white +mews, with black heads and red beaks, and the gigantic water-hen +(_Fulica gigantea_, Soul.). The plumage of the latter is dark-grey, and +at the root of the red beak there is a large yellow botch, in the form +of a bean, whence the Indians give this bird the name of _Anash sinqui_, +or bean nose. Among the few amphibia found in these regions one is +particularly remarkable. It is a small kind of toad (_Leiuperus +viridis_, Tsch.), and inhabits the boundaries of the perpetual snow. + +The grasses of the Puna are used as fodder, and in many of the sheltered +valleys there are farms (_Haciendas de Ganado_), where large herds of +cattle are reared. The owners of some of these farms possess several +thousand sheep, and from four to five hundred cows. During the rainy +season the cattle are driven into the Altos. They graze in those high +regions, often at the altitude of 15,000 feet above the sea. When the +frost sets in they are brought down to the marshy valleys, and they +suffer much from insufficiency of pasture. From the wool of the sheep a +coarse kind of cloth, called Bayeta, is made in the Sierra. Some of this +wool is exported, and is much prized in Europe. The old black cattle and +sheep are slaughtered, and their flesh, when dried, is the principal +food of the inhabitants of the Puna, particularly of the mining +population. The dried beef is called _Charqui_, and the mutton is called +_Chalona_. The bulls graze in the remote Altos, and most of them are +reserved for the bull fights in the Sierra villages. As they seldom see +a human being they become exceedingly wild; so much so that the herdsmen +are often afraid to approach them. In the daytime they roam about marshy +places, and at nightfall they retire for shelter beneath some +overhanging rock. These animals render travelling in many parts of the +Puna extremely dangerous, for they often attack people so suddenly as to +afford no time for defence. It is true they usually announce their +approach by a deep bellow; but the open plain seldom presents any +opportunity for escape. On several occasions a well-aimed shot alone +saved me from the attack of one of these ferocious bulls. + +The walls of the haciendas are of rough unhewn stone. They are divided +into large square rooms, always damp, cold, and uninhabitable. Beneath +the straw roofs there usually hang long rows of the stuffed skins of +foxes; for every Indian who kills an old fox receives, by way of +reward, a sheep, and for a young one a lamb. The Cholos are therefore +zealous fox-hunters, and they may possibly succeed in altogether +extirpating that animal which in some districts is so numerous as to +be a perfect scourge. + +As the sheep, even in the dry season, find pasture more easily than the +horned cattle, they are left during the whole year in the higher parts +of the Puna, under the care of Indian shepherds. At night they are +driven into _cerales_, large square roofless buildings, and are guarded +by dogs. The shepherds make a practice of every year burning the dry +grass of the Puna, in order to improve the growth of the fodder. A Puna +fire does not, however, present the imposing spectacle of the prairie +fires, as described by travellers in North America, possibly because the +Puna straw is shorter, and is always somewhat damp. + +The dwellings of the shepherds are built in the same rude style which +characterizes all the huts in the Puna, and they impress the European +traveller with a very unfavorable notion of the intelligence of the +people. The architecture of these huts consists in laying down some +large stones, in a circle of about eight or ten feet in diameter, by +way of a foundation. These stones are covered with earth or turf, and +then with successive layers of stones and earth, until the wall +attains the height of about four feet: at the point most sheltered +from the wind, an opening of a foot and a half or two feet high serves +as a door. On this low circular wall rests the roof, which is formed +in the following manner. Six or eight magay[69] poles are fastened +together, so as to form a point at the top. Over these poles thin +laths are laid horizontally, and fastened with straw-bands, and the +whole conical-formed frame-work is overlaid with a covering of Puna +straw. As a security against the wind, two thick straw-bands are +crossed over the point of the roof, and at their ends, which hang down +to the ground, heavy stones are fastened. The whole fabric is then +completed. The hut at its central point is about eight feet high; but +at the sides, no more than three and a half or four feet. The entrance +is so low, that one is obliged to creep in almost bent double; and +before the aperture hangs a cow-hide, by way of a door. + +Internally these huts present miserable pictures of poverty and +uncleanliness. Two stones serve as a stove, containing a scanty fire fed +by dry dung (_bunegas_), and turf (_champo_). An earthen pot for cooking +soup, another for roasting maize, two or three gourd-shells for plates, +and a porongo for containing water, make up the catalogue of the goods +and chattels in a Puna hut. On dirty sheep-skins spread on the ground, +sit the Indian and his wife, listlessly munching their coca; whilst the +naked children roll about paddling in pools of water formed by continual +drippings from the roof. The other inhabitants of the hut are usually +three or four hungry dogs, some lambs, and swarms of guinea-pigs. + +From all this it will readily be imagined that a Puna hut is no very +agreeable or inviting retreat. Yet, when worn out by the dangers and +fatigues of a long day's journey, and exposed to the fury of a +mountain storm, the weary traveller, heedless of suffocating clouds of +smoke and mephitic odors, gladly creeps into the rude dwelling. Taking +up his resting-place on the damp floor, with his saddle-cloth for a +pillow, he is thankful to find himself once again in a human +habitation, even though its occupants be not many degrees elevated +above the brute creation. + +In the Puna there are many remains of the great high road of the Incas, +which led from Cuzco to Quito, stretching through the whole extent of +Peru. It was the grandest work that America possessed before European +civilisation found its way to that quarter of the world. Even those who +are unacquainted with the wise dominion of the ancient Peruvian +sovereigns, their comprehensive laws, and the high civilisation they +diffused over the whole country, must by this gigantic work be impressed +with the highest idea of the cultivation of the age; for +well-constructed roads may always be regarded as proofs of a nation's +advancement. There is not in Peru at the present time any modern road +in the most remote degree comparable to the Incas' highway. The best +preserved fragments which came under my observation were in the +Altos, between Jauja and Tarma. Judging from these portions, it would +appear that the road must have been from twenty-five to thirty feet +broad, and that it was paved with large flat stones. At intervals of +about twelve paces distant one from another there is a row of smaller +stones, laid horizontally and a little elevated, so that the road +ascended, as it were, by a succession of terraces. It was edged on +each side by a low wall of small stones. + +Other remains of ancient Peru, frequently met with in these parts, are +small buildings, formerly used as stations for the messengers who +promulgated the commands of the Incas through all parts of the country. +Some of these buildings are still in a tolerably good state of +preservation. They were always erected on little hillocks, and at such +distances apart, that from each station the nearest one on either side +was discernible. When a messenger was despatched from a station a signal +was hoisted, and a messenger from the next successive station met him +halfway, and received from him the despatch, which was in this manner +forwarded from one station to another till it reached its destination. A +constant communication was thus kept up between the capital and the most +distant parts of the country. A proof of the extraordinary rapidity with +which these communications were carried on is the fact, recorded on +unquestionable authority, that the royal table in Cuzco was served with +fresh fish, caught in the sea near the Temple of the Sun in Lurin, a +distance of more than 200 leagues from Cuzco. + +The messenger stations have by some travellers been confounded with +the forts, of which remains are met with along the great Inca road. The +forts were buildings destined for totally different purposes. They were +magazines for grain, and were built by the Incas to secure to their +armies in these barren regions the requisite supplies of food. Vestiges +of these forts are frequently seen in the Altos of Southern and Central +Peru. They are broad round towers, usually built against a rocky +declivity, and with numerous long apertures for the admission of air. + +Even the broad level heights in which no trace of human habitations is +discoverable, have been excavated by the mercenary Peruvian mestizos and +creoles in search of hidden treasures. Their faith in the existence of +concealed riches is founded on the following tradition. When the last +reigning Inca, Atabiliba or Atahuallpa, was made prisoner by Don +Francisco Pizarro, in Caxamarca, he proposed to ransom himself from the +Spanish commander. The price he offered for his liberty was to fill with +gold the cell in which he was confined, to the height of a certain line +on the wall, which Pizarro marked with his sword. The cell, it may be +mentioned, was twenty-two feet long and seventeen broad. A quantity of +gold which the Inca ordered to be collected in Caxamarca and its +vicinity, when piled up on the floor of the cell, did not reach above +halfway to the given mark. The Inca then despatched messengers to Cuzco +to obtain from the royal treasury the gold required to make up the +deficiency; and accordingly eleven thousand llamas were despatched from +Cuzco to Caxamarca, each laden with one hundred pounds of gold. But ere +the treasure reached its destination, Atahuallpa was hanged by the +advice of Don Diego de Almangra and the Dominican monk Vicente de +Valverde. The terror-stirring news flew like wild-fire through the land, +and speedily reached the convoy of Indians, who were driving their +richly-laden llamas over the level heights into Central Peru. On the +spot where the intelligence of Atahuallpa's death was communicated to +them, the dismayed Indians concealed the treasure, and then dispersed. + +Whether the number of the llamas was really so considerable as it is +stated to have been, may fairly be doubted; but that a vast quantity +of gold was on its way to Caxamarca, and was concealed, is a +well-authenticated fact. That the Indians should never have made any +attempt to recover this treasure is quite consistent with their +character. It is not improbable that even now some particular +individuals among them may know the place of concealment; but a +certain feeling of awe transmitted through several centuries from +father to son, has, in their minds, associated the hidden treasure +with the blood of their last king, and this feeling doubtless prompts +them to keep the secret inviolate. + +From traditionary accounts, which bear the appearance of probability, +it would appear that the gold was buried somewhere in the Altos of Mito, +near the valley of Jauja. Searches have frequently been made in that +vicinity, but no clue to the hiding-place has yet been discovered. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 65: Some derive the word Andes from the people called Antis, +who dwelt at the foot of these chains of mountains. A province in the +department of Cuzco, which was probably the chief settlement of that +nation, still bears the name of Antas.] + +[Footnote 66: From the most remote times the Ratanhia has been employed +by the Indians as a medicine. It is one of their favorite remedies +against spitting of blood and dysentery. Most of the Ratanhia exported +to Europe is obtained in the southern provinces of Peru, particularly in +Arica and Islay. The extract which is prepared in Peru, and which was +formerly sent in large quantities to Europe, is now scarcely an object +of traffic. For several years past no Ratanhia has been shipped from +Callao, and but very little from Truxillo.] + +[Footnote 67: More lengthened information respecting them may be found in +the "Fauna Peruana." I have there noted all their specific varieties, +and have corrected the erroneous accounts given of them by some previous +travellers.] + +[Footnote 68: _Phalcoboenus montanus_, Orb.] + +[Footnote 69: The Magay is the stem of the American Agave. It has a sort +of spungy sap; but it is covered externally with a strong tough bast. +The Magay supplies the inhabitants of Upper Peru with an excellent kind +of light and strong building wood.] + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +Cerro de Pasco--First discovery of the Mines--Careless mode of working +them--Mine Owners and Mine Laborers--Amalgamating and +Refining--Produce of the Mines--Life in Cerro de Pasco--Different +Classes of the Population--Gaming and Drunkenness--Extravagance and +Improvidence of the Indian Mine Laborers--The Cerro de San +Fernando--Other Important Mining Districts in Peru--The Salcedo +Mine--Castrovireyna--Vast Productiveness of the Silver Mines of +Peru--Rich Mines secretly known to the Indians--Roads leading from +Cerro de Pasco--The Laguna of Chinchaycocha--Battle of Junin--Indian +Robbers--A Day and a Night in the Puna Wilds. + + +Having traversed the long and difficult route from the capital of Peru, +by way of the wild Cordillera to the level heights of Bombon, and from +thence having ascended the steep winding acclivities of the mountain +chain of Olachin, the traveller suddenly beholds in the distance a large +and populous city. This is the celebrated Cerro de Pasco, famed +throughout the world for its rich silver mines. It is situated in 10 deg. +48' S. latitude and 76 deg. 23' W. longitude, and at the height of 13,673 +feet above the sea level. It is built in a basin-shaped hollow, +encircled by barren and precipitous rocks. Between these rocks difficult +winding roads or paths lead down to the city, which spreads out in +irregular divisions, surrounded on all sides by little lagunes, or +swamps. The pleasing impression created by the first view of Cerro de +Pasco from the heights is very greatly modified on entering the town. +Crooked, narrow, and dirty streets are bordered by rows of +irregularly-built houses; and miserable Indian huts abut close against +well-built dwellings, whose size and structure give a certain European +character to the city when viewed from a distance. Without bestowing a +glance on the busy throng which circulates through the streets and +squares, the varied styles of the buildings sufficiently indicate to the +observer how many different classes of people have united together to +found, in the tropics, and on the very confines of the perpetual snow, a +city of such magnitude, and of so motley an aspect. The wild barrenness +of the surrounding scenery, and the extreme cold of the rigorous +climate--the remote and solitary position of the city--all denote that +one common bond of union must have drawn together the diversified +elements which compose the population of Cerro de Pasco. And so it +really is. In this inhospitable region, where the surface of the soil +produces nothing, nature has buried boundless stores of wealth in the +bowels of the earth, and the silver mines of Cerro de Pasco have drawn +people from all parts of the world to one point, and for one object. + +History relates that about two hundred and fifteen years ago an Indian +shepherd, named Huari Capcha, tended his flocks on a small pampa to the +south-east of the Lake of Llauricocha, the mother of the great river +Amazon. One day, when the shepherd had wandered farther than usual from +his hut, he sought a resting-place on a declivity of the Cerro de +Santiestevan, and when evening drew in he kindled a fire to protect +himself against the cold; he then lay down to sleep. When he awoke on +the following morning, he was amazed to find the stone beneath the ashes +of his fire melted and turned to silver. He joyfully communicated the +discovery to his master, Don Jose Ugarte, a Spaniard, who owned a +hacienda in the Quebrada de Huariaca. Ugarte forthwith repaired to the +spot, where he found indications of a very rich vein of silver ore, +which he immediately made active preparations for working. In this mine, +which is distinguished by the name of _La Descubridora_ (the +discoverer), silver is still obtained. From the village of Pasco, about +two leagues distant, where already productive mines were worked, several +rich mine owners removed to Llauricocha; here they sought and discovered +new veins, and established new mining works. The vast abundance of the +ore drew new speculators to the spot; some to work the mines, and others +to supply the necessary wants of the increasing population. In this +manner was rapidly founded a city, which, at times when the produce of +metal is very considerable, counts 18,000 inhabitants. + +In Cerro de Pasco there are two very remarkable veins of silver. One of +them, the Veta de Colquirirca, runs nearly in a straight line from north +to south, and has already been traced to the length of 9,600 feet, and +the breadth of 412; the other vein is the Veta de Pariarirca, which +takes a direction from east-south-east to west-north-west, and which +intersects the Veta de Colquirirca precisely, it is supposed, under the +market-place of the city. Its known extent is 6,400 feet in length, and +380 feet in breadth. From these large veins numberless smaller ones +branch off in various directions, so that a net-work of silver may be +supposed to spread beneath the surface of the earth. Some thousand +openings or mouths (_bocaminas_) are the entrances to these mines. Most +of these entrances are within the city itself, in small houses; and some +are in the dwellings of the mine-owners. Many of them are exceedingly +shallow, and not more than five hundred deserve the name of shafts. All +are worked in a very disorderly and careless way; the grand object of +their owners being to avoid expense. The dangerous parts in the shafts +are never walled up, and the excavations proceed without the adoption +of any measures of security. The consequence is, that accidents caused +by the falling in of the galleries are of frequent occurrence; and +every year the lives of numbers of the Indian miners are sacrificed. A +melancholy example of the effects of this negligence is presented by +the now ruined mine of Matagente (literally _Kill People_), in which +three hundred laborers were killed by the falling in of a shaft. I +descended into several of the mines, among others into the +_Descubridora_, which is one of the deepest, and I always felt that I +had good reason to congratulate myself on returning to the surface of +the earth in safety. Rotten blocks of wood and loose stones serve for +steps, and, where these cannot be placed, the shaft, which in most +instances runs nearly perpendicular, is descended by the help of rusty +chains and ropes, whilst loose fragments of rubbish are continually +falling from the damp walls. + +The mine laborers, all of whom are Indians, are of two classes. One +class consists of those who work in the mines all the year round without +intermission, and who receive regular wages from the mine owners;--the +other class consists of those who make only temporary visits to Cerro de +Pasco, when they are attracted thither by the _boyas_.[70] This latter +class of laborers are called _maquipuros_. Most of them come from the +distant provinces, and they return to their homes when the boya is at an +end. The mine laborers are also subdivided into two classes, the one +called _barreteros_, whose employment consists in breaking the ore; and +the other called _hapires_, or _chaquiris_, who bring up the ore from +the shaft. The work allotted to the hapires is exceedingly laborious. +Each load consists of from fifty to seventy-five pounds of metal, which +is carried in a very irksome and inconvenient manner in an untanned +hide, called a capacho. The hapire performs his toilsome duty in a state +of nudity, for, notwithstanding the coldness of the climate, he becomes +so heated by his laborious exertion, that he is glad to divest himself +of his clothing. As the work is carried on incessantly day and night, +the miners are divided into parties called _puntas_, each party working +for twelve successive hours. At six o'clock morning and evening the +_puntas_ are relieved. Each one is under the inspection of a mayor-domo. +When a mine yields a scanty supply of metal, the laborers are paid in +money; the barreteros receiving six reals per day, and the hapires only +four. During the _boyas_ the laborers receive instead of their wages in +money, a share of the ore. The Indians often try to appropriate to +themselves surreptitiously pieces of ore; but to do this requires great +cunning and dexterity, so narrowly are they watched by the mayor-domos. +Nevertheless, they sometimes succeed. One of the hapires related to me +how he had contrived to carry off a most valuable piece of silver. He +fastened it on his back, and then wrapping himself in his poncho, he +pretended to be so ill, that he obtained permission to quit the mine. +Two of his confederates who helped him out, assisted him in concealing +the treasure. The _polvorilla_, a dark powdery kind of ore, very full of +silver, used to be abstracted from the mines by the following stratagem. +The workmen would strip off their clothes, and having moistened the +whole of their bodies with water, would roll themselves in the +_polvorilla_ which stuck to them. On their return home they washed off +the silver-dust and sold it for several dollars. But this trick being +detected, a stop was soon put to it, for, before leaving the mines, the +laborers are now required to strip in order to be searched. + +The operation of separating the silver from the dross is performed at +some distance from Cerro de Pasco, in haciendas, belonging to the great +mine owners. The process is executed in a very clumsy, imperfect, and at +the same time, a very expensive manner. The amalgamation of the +quicksilver with the metal is effected by the tramping of horses. The +animals employed in this way are a small ill-looking race, brought from +Ayacucho and Cuzco, where they are found in numerous herds. The +quicksilver speedily has a fatal effect on their hoofs, and after a few +years the animals become unfit for work. The separation of the metals is +managed with as little judgment as the amalgamation, and the waste of +quicksilver is enormous. It is computed that on each mark of silver, +half a pound of quicksilver is expended. The quicksilver, with the +exception of some little brought from Idria and Huancavelica, comes from +Spain in iron jars, each containing about seventy-five pounds weight of +the metal. In Lima the price of these jars is from sixty to 100 dollars +each, but they are occasionally sold as high as 135 or 140 dollars. +Considering the vast losses which the Peruvian mine owners sustain by +the waste of quicksilver and the defective mode of refining, it may +fairly be inferred, that their profits are about one-third less than +they would be under a better system of management. + +In Cerro de Pasco there are places called _boliches_, in which the +silver is separated from the dross by the same process as that practised +in the _haciendas_, only on a smaller scale. In the _boliches_ the +amalgamation is performed, not by horses but by Indians, who mix the +quicksilver with the ore by stamping on it with their feet for several +hours in succession. This occupation they usually perform barefooted, +and the consequence is, that paralysis and other diseases caused by the +action of mercury, are very frequent among the persons thus employed. +The owners of the _boliches_, who are mostly Italians, are not mine +proprietors. They obtain the metal from the Indians, who give them their +_huachacas_[71] in exchange for brandy and other articles. On the other +hand, the owners of the _boliches_ obtain the money required for their +speculations from capitalists, who make them pay an enormous interest. +Nevertheless, many amass considerable fortunes in the course of a few +years; for they scruple not to take the most unjust advantage of the +Indians, whose laborious toil is rewarded by little gain. + +The law requires that all the silver drawn from the mines of Cerro de +Pasco shall be conveyed to a government smelting-house, called the +_Callana_, there to be cast into bars of one hundred pounds weight, to +be stamped, and charged with certain imposts. The value of silver in +Cerro de Pasco varies from seven to eight dollars per mark. The standard +value in Lima is eight dollars and a half. + +It is impossible to form anything like an accurate estimate of the +yearly produce of the mines of Cerro de Pasco; for a vast quantity of +silver is never taken to the Callana, but is smuggled to the coast, +and from thence shipped for Europe. In the year 1838, no less than +85,000 marks of contraband silver were conveyed to the sea port of +Huacho, and safely shipped on board a schooner. The quantity of silver +annually smelted and stamped in the Callana is from two to three +hundred thousand marks--seldom exceeding the latter amount. From 1784 +to 1820, 1826, and 1827, the amount was 8,051,409 marks; in the year +1784 it was 68,208 marks; and in 1785, 73,455 marks. During seventeen +years it was under 200,000 marks; and only during three years above +300,000. The produce of the mines is exceedingly fluctuating. The +successive revolutions which have agitated the country have tended +very considerably to check mining operations. On the overthrow of +Santa Cruz, Don Miguel Otero, the most active and intelligent mine +owner of Cerro de Pasco, was banished; an event which had a very +depressing influence on all the mining transactions of that part of +South America. Within the last few years, however, mining has +received a new impetus, and attention has been directed to the +adoption of a more speedy and less expensive system of amalgamation. + +As a place of residence Cerro de Pasco is exceedingly disagreeable; +nothing but the pursuit of wealth can reconcile any one to a long +abode in it. The climate, like that of the higher Puna, is cold and +stormy. The better sort of houses are well built, and are provided +with good English fire-places and chimneys. But however comfortably +lodged, the new comer cannot easily reconcile himself to the +reflection that the earth is hollow beneath his feet. Still less +agreeable is it to be awakened in the night by the incessant hammering +of the Indian miners. Luckily earthquakes are of rare occurrence in +those parts: it would require no very violent shock to bury the whole +city in the bosom of the earth. + +Silver being the only produce of the soil, the necessaries of life are +all exceedingly dear in the Cerro, as they have to be brought from +distant places. The warehouses are, it is true, always plentifully +supplied even with the choicest luxuries; but the extortion of venders +and the abundance of money render prices most exorbitant. The market +is so well supplied with provisions that it may vie with that of Lima. +The products of the coast, of the table-lands and the forests, are all +to be procured in the market of Cerro de Pasco; but the price demanded +for every article is invariably more than double its worth. House +rents are also extravagantly high; and the keep of horses is +exceedingly expensive. + +The population of Cerro de Pasco presents a motley assemblage of human +beings, such as one would scarcely expect to find in a city situated +at 14,000 feet above the sea, and encircled by wild mountains. The Old +and the New Worlds seem there to have joined hands, and there is +scarcely any nation of Europe or America that has not its +representative in Cerro de Pusco. The Swede and the Sicilian, the +Canadian and the Argentinian, are all united here at one point, and +for one object. The inhabitants of this city may be ranked in two +divisions, viz., traders and miners--taking both terms in their most +comprehensive sense. The mercantile population consists chiefly of +Europeans or white Creoles, particularly those who are owners of large +magazines. The keepers of coffee houses and brandy shops are here, as +in Lima, chiefly Italians from Genoa. Other shops are kept by the +Mestizos, and the provision-dealers are chiefly Indians, who bring +their supplies from remote places. + +The mining population may be divided into mine owners (_mineros_) and +Indian laborers. The majority of the mineros are descendants of the old +Spanish families, who, at an early period, became possessors of the +mines, whence they derived enormous wealth, which most of them +dissipated in prodigal extravagance. At the present time, only a very +few of the mineros are rich enough to defray, from their own resources, +the vast expense attending the operations of mining. They consequently +raise the required money by loans from the capitalists of Lima, who +require interest of 100 or 120 per cent., and, moreover, insist on +having bars of silver at a price below standard value. To these hard +conditions, together with the custom that has been forced upon the +miners of paying their laborers in metal, at times when it is very +abundant, may be traced the cause of the miserable system of +mine-working practised in Cerro de Pasco. To liquidate his burthensome +debts the minero makes his laborers dig as much ore as possible from the +mine, without any precautions being taken to guard against accidents. +The money-lenders, on the other hand, have no other security for the +recovery of their re-payment than the promise of the minero, and a +failure of the usual produce of a mine exposes them to the risk of +losing the money they have advanced. + +Under these circumstances it can scarcely be expected that the character +and habits of the minero should qualify him to take a high rank in the +social scale. His insatiable thirst for wealth continually prompts him +to embark in new enterprises, whereby he frequently loses in one what he +gains in another. After a mine has been worked without gain for a series +of years, an unexpected _boya_ probably occurs, and an immense quantity +of silver may be extracted. But a minero retiring on the proceeds of a +boya is an event of rare occurrence. A vain hope of increasing fortune +prompts him to risk the certain for the uncertain: and the result +frequently is, that the once prosperous minero has nothing to bequeath +to his children but a mine heavily burthened with debt. The +persevering ardor of persons engaged in mining is truly remarkable. +Unchecked by disappointment, they pursue the career in which they have +embarked. Even when ruin appears inevitable, the love of money subdues +the warnings of reason, and hope conjures up, from year to year, +visionary pictures of riches yet to come. + +Joined to this infatuated pursuit of the career once entered on, an +inordinate passion for cards and dice contributes to ruin many of the +mineros of Cerro de Pasco. In few other places are such vast sums staked +at the gaming-table; for the superabundance of silver feeds that +national vice of the Spaniards and their descendants. From the earliest +hours of morning cards and dice are in requisition. The mine owner +leaves his silver stores, and the shop-keeper forsakes his counter, to +pass a few hours every day at the gaming-table; and card-playing is +the only amusement in the best houses of the town. The mayordomos, +after being engaged in the mines throughout the whole day, assemble +with their comrades in the evening, round the gaming-table, from which +they often do not rise until six in the morning, when the bell summons +them to resume their subterraneous occupations. They not unfrequently +gamble away their share of a boya before any indication of one is +discernible in the mine. + +The working class of miners is composed of Indians, who throng to Cerro +de Pasco from all the provinces, far and near, especially when boyas are +expected. At times, when the mines are not very productive, the number +of Indian laborers amounts to between three and four thousand; but when +there is a great supply of metal, the ordinary number of mine-workers is +more than tripled. The Indians labor with a degree of patient industry, +which it would be vain to expect from European workmen similarly +circumstanced. This observation applies to the hapires in particular. +Content with wretched food, and still more wretched lodging, the hapire +goes through his hard day's work, partaking of no refreshment but coca, +and at the end of the week (deduction being made for the food, &c., +obtained on credit from the minero), he, possibly, finds himself in +possession of a dollar. This sum he spends on his Sunday holiday in +chicha and brandy, of which he takes as much as his money will pay +for, or as he can get on credit. When excited by strong drinks, such +as maize beer, chicha, and brandy, to which they are very much +addicted, the Indian miners are exceedingly quarrelsome. The laborers +belonging to the different mines go about the streets rioting and +attacking each other, and they frequently get involved in dangerous +affrays. No Sunday or Friday passes over without the occurrence of +battles, in which knives, sticks, and stones are used as weapons; and +the actors in these scenes of violence inflict on each other severe +and often fatal wounds. Any effective police interference to quell +these street riots, is out of the question. + +When an unusually abundant produce of the mines throws extra payment +into the hands of the mine laborers, they squander their money with the +most absurd extravagance, and they are excellent customers to the +European dealers in dress and other articles of luxury. Prompted by a +ludicrous spirit of imitation, the Indian, in his fits of drunkenness, +will purchase costly things which he can have no possible use for, and +which he becomes weary of, after an hour's possession. I once saw an +Indian purchase a cloak of fine cloth, for which he paid ninety-two +dollars. He then repaired to a neighboring pulperia,[72] where he drank +till he became intoxicated, and then, staggering into the street, he +fell down, and rolled in the kennel. On rising, and discovering that his +cloak was besmeared with mud, he threw it off, and left it in the +street, for any one who might choose to pick it up. Such acts of +reckless prodigality are of daily occurrence. A watchmaker in Cerro de +Pasco informed me that one day an Indian came to his shop to purchase +a gold watch. He showed him one, observing that the price was twelve +gold ounces (204 dollars), and that it would probably be too dear for +him. The Cholo paid the money, and took the watch; then, after having +examined it for a few minutes, he dashed it on the ground, observing +that the thing was of no use to him. When the Indian miner possesses +money, he never thinks of laying by a part of it, as neither he nor +any of his family feel the least ambition to improve their miserable +way of life. With them, drinking is the highest of all gratifications, +and in the enjoyment of the present moment, they lose sight of all +considerations for the future. Even those Cholos who come from distant +parts of the country to share in the rich harvest of the mines of +Cerro de Pasco, return to their homes as poor as when they left them, +and with manners and morals vastly deteriorated. + +Besides the mines of Cerro de Pasco, which in point of importance are +nowise inferior to those of Potosi, there are numerous very rich mining +districts in Peru. Among the most prolific may be ranked the provinces +of Pataz, Huamanchuco, Caxamarca, and Hualgayoc. In this last-named +province is situated the Cerro de San Fernando, on which Alexander Von +Humboldt has conferred so much celebrity. The rich silver veins were +discovered there in the year 1771; and there are now upwards of 1400 +bocaminas. On the insulated mountain the veins of metal intersect each +other in every direction, and they are alike remarkable for being easily +worked and exceedingly prolific. The mines of Huantaxaya, situated on +the coast in the neighborhood of Iquique, were also very rich, and the +silver obtained from them was either pure or containing a very slight +admixture of foreign substances. They yielded an incredible quantity of +metal, but they were speedily exhausted; and are now totally barren. The +chains of hills in the southern districts of Peru contain a multitude of +very rich mines, of which the most remarkable are those of San Antonio +de Esquilache, Tamayos, Picotani, Cancharani, and Chupicos; but owing to +bad working and defective drainage, many of the veins are in a very +ruinous state, and the metal drawn from them bears no proportion to the +quantity they contain. The Salcedo mine is very celebrated for the vast +abundance of its produce, and the tragical end of its original owner. + +Don Jose Salcedo, a poor Spaniard, who dwelt in Puno, was in love with a +young Indian girl, whose mother promised, on condition of his marrying +her daughter, that she would show him a rich silver mine. Salcedo +fulfilled the condition, obtained possession of the mine, and worked it +with the greatest success. The report of his wealth soon roused the envy +of the Count de Lemos, then viceroy of Peru, who sought to possess +himself of the mine. By his generosity and benevolence Salcedo had +become a great favorite with the Indian population, and the viceroy took +advantage of this circumstance to accuse him of high treason, on the +ground that he was exciting the Indians against the Spanish government. +Salcedo was arrested, tried, and condemned to death. Whilst he was in +prison, he begged to be permitted to send to Madrid the documents +relating to his trial, and to appeal to the mercy of the king. He +proposed, if the viceroy would grant his request, that he would pay him +the daily tribute of a bar of silver, from the time when the ship left +the port of Callao with the documents, until the day of her return. When +it is recollected that at that period the voyage from Callao to Spain +occupied from twelve to sixteen months, some idea may be formed of the +enormous wealth of Salcedo and his mine. The viceroy rejected this +proposition, ordered Salcedo to be hanged, and set out for Puno to take +possession of the mine.[73] + +But this cruel and unjust proceeding failed in the attainment of its +object. As soon as Salcedo's death-doom was pronounced, his +mother-in-law, accompanied by a number of relations and friends, +repaired to the mine, flooded it with water, destroyed the works, and +closed up the entrance so effectually that it was impossible to trace it +out. They then dispersed; but some of them, who were afterwards +captured, could not be induced, either by promises or tortures, to +reveal the position of the mouth of the mine, which to this day remains +undiscovered. All that is known about it is that it was situated in the +neighborhood of Cerro de Laycacota and Cananchari. + +Another extraordinary example of the productiveness of the Peruvian +mines, is found at San Jose, in the department of Huancavelica. The +owner of the mines of San Jose requested the viceroy Castro, whose +friend he was, to become godfather to his first child. The viceroy +consented, but at the time fixed for the christening, some important +affair of state prevented him from quitting the capital, and he sent +the vice-queen to officiate as his proxy. To render honor to his +illustrious guest, the owner of the San Jose mines laid down a triple +row of silver bars along the whole way (and it was no very short +distance), from his house to church. Over this silver pavement the +vice-queen accompanied the infant to the church, where it was +baptized. On her return, her munificent host presented to her the +whole of the silver road, in token of his gratitude for the honor she +had conferred on him. Since that time, the mines and the province in +which they are situated have borne the name of Castrovireyna. In most +of these mines the works have been discontinued. Owing to defective +arrangements, one of the richest of these mines fell in, and 122 +workmen were buried in the ruins. Since that catastrophe, the Indians +refuse to enter the mines. Many stories are related of spirits and +apparitions said to haunt the mines of Castrovireyna. I was surprised +to hear these tales, for the imagination of the Indian miners is not +very fertile in the creation of this sort of superstitious terrors. + +Notwithstanding the enormous amount of wealth, which the mines of Peru +have already yielded, and still continue to yield, only a very small +portion of the silver veins has been worked. It is a well-known fact, +that the Indians are aware of the existence of many rich mines, the +situation of which they will never disclose to the whites, nor to the +detested mestizos. Heretofore mining has been to them all toil and +little profit, and it has bound them in chains from which they will not +easily emancipate themselves. For centuries past, the knowledge of some +of the richest silver mines has been with inviolable secresy transmitted +from father to son. All endeavors to prevail on them to divulge these +secrets have hitherto been fruitless. In the village of Huancayo, there +lived, a few years ago, two brothers, Don Jose and Don Pedro Yriarte, +two of the most eminent mineros of Peru. Having obtained certain +intelligence that in the neighboring mountains there existed some veins +of pure silver, they sent a young man, their agent, to endeavor to gain +further information on the subject. The agent took up his abode in the +cottage of a shepherd, to whom, however, he gave not the slightest +intimation of the object of his mission. After a little time, an +attachment arose between the young man and the shepherd's daughter, and +the girl promised to disclose to her lover the position of a very rich +mine. On a certain day, when she was going out to tend her sheep, she +told him to follow her at a distance, and to notice the spot where she +would let fall her _manta_; by turning up the earth on that spot, she +assured him he would find the mouth of a mine. The young man did as he +was directed, and after digging for a little time, he discovered a mine +of considerable depth, containing rich ore. Whilst busily engaged in +breaking out the metal, he was joined by the girl's father, who +expressed himself delighted at the discovery, and offered to assist +him. After they had been at work for some hours, the old Indian handed +to his companion a cup of chicha, which the young man thankfully +accepted. But he had no sooner tasted the liquor than he felt ill, and +he soon became convinced that poison had been mixed with the beverage. +He snatched up the bag containing the metal he had collected, mounted +his horse, and with the utmost speed galloped off to Huancayo. There, +he related to Yriarte all that had occurred, described as accurately +as he could the situation of the mine, and died on the following +night. Active measures were immediately set on foot, to trace out the +mine, but without effect. The Indian and all his family had +disappeared, and the mine was never discovered. + +In Huancayo there also dwelt a Franciscan monk. He was an inveterate +gamester, and was involved in pecuniary embarrassments. The Indians in +the neighborhood of his dwelling-place were much attached to him, and +frequently sent him presents of poultry, cheese, butter, &c. One day, +after he had been a loser at the gaming-table, he complained bitterly of +his misfortunes to an Indian, who was his particular friend. After some +deliberation, the Indian observed, that possibly he could render him +some assistance; and, accordingly, on the following evening, he brought +him a large bag full of rich silver ore. This present was several times +repeated; but the monk, not satisfied, pressed the Indian to show him +the mine from whence the treasure was drawn. The Indian consented, and +on an appointed night he came, accompanied by two of his comrades, to +the dwelling of the Franciscan. They blindfolded him, and each in turn +carried him on his shoulders to a distance of several leagues, into the +mountain passes. At length they set him down, and the bandage being +removed from his eyes, he discovered that he was in a small and somewhat +shallow shaft, and was surrounded by bright masses of silver. He was +allowed to take as much as he could carry, and when laden with the rich +prize, he was again blindfolded, and conveyed home in the same manner as +he had been brought to the mine. Whilst the Indians were conducting him +home, he hit on the following stratagem. He unfastened his rosary, and +here and there dropped one of the beads, hoping by this means to be +enabled to trace his way back on the following day; but in the course of +a couple of hours his Indian friend again knocked at his door, and +presenting to him a handful of beads, said, "Father, you dropped your +rosary on the way, and I have picked it up." + +When I was in Jauja, in the year 1841, an Indian whom I had previously +known, from his having accompanied me on one of my journeys in the +Sierra, came to me and asked me to lend him a crow-bar. I did so, and +after a few days, when he returned it, I observed that the end was +covered with silver. Some time afterwards I learned that this Indian had +been imprisoned by order of the sub-prefect, because he had offered for +sale some very rich silver ore, and on being questioned as to where he +had obtained it, his answer was that he found it on the road; a tale, +the truth of which was very naturally doubted. The following year, when +I was again in Jauja, the Indian paid me another visit. He then informed +me that he had been for several months confined in a dark dungeon and +half-starved, because the sub-prefect wanted to compel him to reveal the +situation of a mine which he knew of, but that he would not disclose the +secret, and adhered firmly to the statement he had made of having found +the ore. After a little further conversation, he became more +communicative than I had any reason to expect, though he was fully +convinced I would not betray him. He confessed to me that he actually +knew of a large vein containing valuable silver, of which he showed me a +specimen. He further told me that it was only when he was much in want +of money that he had recourse to the mine, of which the shaft was not +very deep; and, moreover, that after closing it up, he always carried +the loose rubbish away to a distance of some miles, and then covered +the opening so carefully with turf and cactus, that it was impossible +for any one to discern it. This Indian dwelt in a miserable hut, about +three leagues from Jauja, and his occupation was making wooden stirrups, +which employment scarcely enabled him to earn a scanty subsistence. He +assured me it was only when he was called upon to pay contributions, +which the government exacts with merciless rigor, that he had recourse +to the mine. He then extracted about half an aroba of ore, and sold it +in Jauja, in order to pay the tax levied on him. + +I could quote many well-authenticated instances of the same kind; but +the above examples sufficiently prove the reluctance of the Indians to +disclose the secret of their hidden treasures, and their indifference +about obtaining wealth for themselves. It is true that the Indians are +not, in all parts of the country, so resolutely reserved as they are in +Huancayo and Jauja, for all the most important mines have been made +known to the Spaniards by the natives. But the Peruvian Indians are +composed of many different races, and though all were united by the +Incas into one nation, yet they still differ from each other in manners +and character. The sentiment of hatred towards the whites and their +descendants has not been kept up in an equal degree among them all. In +proportion as some are friendly and social with the Creoles, others +are reserved and distrustful. In general, the Indians regard with +unfriendly feelings those whites who seek to trace out new mines; for +they cherish a bitter recollection of the fate of Huari Capcha, the +discoverer of the mines of Cerro de Pasco, who, it is said, was thrown +into a dungeon by the Spaniard, Ugarte, and ended his days in +captivity. I have not met with any proofs of the authenticity of this +story, but I frequently heard it related by the Indians, who referred +to it as their justification for withholding from the whites any +directions for finding mines. + +But to return to Cerro de Pasco. That city has, by its wealth, become +one of the most important in the Peruvian Republic; and under improved +legislation, and a judicious mining system, it might be rendered still +more prosperous and fully deserving of its title of "Treasury of +Peru." Though from its situation Cerro de Pasco is cut off from the +principal lines of communication with other parts of Peru, yet the +city is itself the central point of four roads, on which there is +considerable traffic. Westward runs the road to Lima, through the +Quebrada of Canta, by which all the silver that is not contraband is +transported to the capital. The silver, when melted into bars, is +consigned to the care of the mule-drivers, merely on their giving a +receipt for it; and in this manner they are sometimes entrusted with +loads of the value of several hundred thousand dollars, which they +convey to Lima unattended by any guards or escort. There is, however, +no danger of their being plundered; for the robbers do not take the +stamped bars of silver. The silver specie, on the other hand, which is +sent from Lima, is escorted by a military guard as far as Llanga or +Santa Rosa de Quibe. The escort is not, however, very adequate to +resist the highway robbers, consisting of numerous bands of armed +negroes. On the east is the road running through the Quebrada de +Huarriaca to the town of Huanuco and the Huallaga Forests. The road on +the north of Cerro de Pasco leads to the village of Huanuco el Viejo, +one of the most remarkable places of Peru, being full of interesting +ruins of the time of the Incas. From Huanuco the road leads to Huaraz, +and from thence to the north coast. The south road passes over the +level heights to Tarma, Jauja, and the other southern provinces. + +From the village of Pasco two roads diverge, the one leading to Lima, +the other to Tarma. The former crosses the Pampa of Bombon and the +Diezmo, and continues onward to the Pass of La Viuda. The latter leads +by way of the Tambo Ninacaca, and the village of Carhuamayo[74] to +Junin, passing near a very large lake, situated at the height of 13,000 +feet above the sea. This lake is the Laguna de Chinchaycocha,[75] which +is twelve leagues long, and at its utmost breadth measures two leagues +and a half. It is the largest of the South American lakes, next to the +Laguna de Titicaca, which is eighty-four English miles long and +forty-one broad. As the lake of Chinchaycocha loses by various outlets +much more water than it receives from its tributary sources, it is +evident that it must be fed by subterraneous springs. Its marshy banks +are overgrown by totora (_Malacochaete Totora_), and are inhabited by +numerous water fowl. The Indians entertain a superstitious belief that +this lake is haunted by huge, fish-like animals, who at certain hours of +the night leave their watery abode to prowl about the adjacent pasture +lands, where they commit great havoc among the cattle. The southwestern +end of the lake is intersected by a marshy piece of ground, interspersed +with stones, called the Calzada, which forms a communication between the +two banks of the lake. At the distance of about half a league from the +lake is a village, which, under the Spanish domination, was called +Reyes. Adjacent to it is the celebrated Pampa of Junin, which, on the +24th of August, 1824, was the scene of a battle between the Spanish +forces, commanded by General Canterac, and the insurgents, headed by Don +Simon Bolivar. The result of this battle had an important influence on +the destiny of Peru. It is generally believed that treachery in the +Spanish army threw the victory into the hands of the insurgents. A few +days prior to the battle Bolivar is said to have received, from the +Spanish camp, a letter in cypher, which he transmitted for explanation +to his minister, Monteagudo, in Cerro de Pasco. The answer received +from the minister was, that the letter recommended Bolivar to attack +the enemy without a moment's delay, for that on the part of the +Spaniards the victory was insured to him. The bearer of the letter is +still living, and he does not deny that he was in the secret of the +whole plot. The insurgents were victorious, and in commemoration of +their triumph they gave to the village of Reyes, and to the whole +province, the name of Junin, calling them after the plain on which the +battle was fought. + +From Junin, the road runs to the distance of eight leagues across a +difficult level height, to Cacas, a hamlet containing only a few +huts. From thence, it is continued three leagues further, through +several narrow Quebradas, and finally terminates in the beautiful +valley of Tarma. + +Many of the Indians in the neighborhood of Cerro de Pasco, especially +those who dwell in the Puna, in the direction of Cacas, infest the roads +for the purpose of plunder. They conceal themselves behind the rocks, +where they lie in wait for travellers, whom they severely wound, and +sometimes even kill, by stones hurled from their slings. When great +boyas occur in the mines of the Cerro, these roads are so unsafe that it +is not prudent to travel, except in well-armed parties. The solitary +traveller who seeks a night's lodging in one of the Puna huts, exposes +himself to great peril; for the host not unfrequently assassinates his +sleeping guest. Nor is there much greater security in villages, such as +Junin and Carhuamayo. Only a few years ago, the bodies of three +travellers were found in the house of the Alcalde of Junin, the +principal authority in the village. The travellers had sought shelter +for the night, and were inhumanly murdered. Every year persons known to +have been travelling in these parts, mysteriously disappear, and there +is every reason to believe they have been murdered by the Indians. Many +of these Indians are mine laborers, who, for their incorrigible +turpitude, have been banished from the Cerro, and who live by pillage. + +I will close this chapter with a brief description of four-and-twenty +hours which I passed during a journey in the wildest part of the Puna +region. + +On the 12th of January, 1840, having passed the night in the hut of a +Puna shepherd, I awoke next morning at day-break. The sun was just +beginning to cast a light tinge of red on the snow-capped tops of the +Cordillera. Through the aperture in the roof of the hut, which served +the purpose of a chimney, there penetrated a feeble light, just +sufficient to show the misery and poverty that prevailed in the interior +of the habitation. I rose from the resting-place on which, only a few +hours previously, I had stretched myself exhausted by cold and fatigue, +and raising the cow-hide, which closed the doorway of the hut, I crept +out to make preparations for the continuance of my journey. + +I saddled my mule, and put into one of the saddle-bags a small supply +of food. Whilst I was thus engaged, one of those fierce little dogs +which are domiciled in every Indian hut, slily watched my movements; +and though he had rested at the foot of my bed during the night, yet he +was only prevented, by the repeated threats of his master, from making +an attack upon me. My Indian host handed me my gun; I paid for my +night's lodging by a few reals and some paper cigars; and having asked +him to direct me on my way, I rode off whilst he was expressing his +gratitude, and his kind wishes in the words, "_Dios lo pague!_" + +The sky was overhung by a thick mist, and the snow which had fallen +during the night covered the ground as far as the eye could reach. On my +way I met an old Indian woman driving her sheep. The bleating flock +moved slowly on, leaving a deep furrow in the snow, and seeming +impatient till the genial sun should dispel the mist and dissolve the +white covering which overspread their scanty pasture. A little further +on I met the son of this same Indian shepherdess. He and his dog were +busily engaged in catching partridges, destined to be sold on the +following Sunday, in the nearest village. + +My road lay along a gentle acclivity, interspersed with rocks and +swamps, which often obliged me to make wide detours. The swamps (or as +the natives call them, _Attoladeros_) are dangerous enemies to +travellers in the Puna, who, with their horses and mules, sometimes +sink into them and perish. Even in the most open parts of the country +it is not easy to discern the swamps, and the ground often sinks +beneath the rider where he least expects it. At length the sun began to +disperse the mist, and the snow gradually melted beneath his burning +rays. Inspired with new vigor, I took a survey of the wild solitude +around me. I was now on one of the level heights, about 14,000 feet +above the sea. On both sides arose the high Cordillera summits crowned +with eternal ice; detached peaks here and there towering to the skies. +Behind me lay, deep and deeper, the dark valleys of the lower mountain +regions, which, with the scarcely discernible Indian villages, receded +in the distance, till they blended with the line of the horizon. Before +me stretched the immeasurable extent of the level heights, at intervals +broken by ridges of hills. It seemed as though here, in the snow plains +of the Cordillera, Nature had breathed out her last breath. Here life +and death meet together as it were to maintain the eternal struggle +between being and annihilation. + +How little life had the sun yet wakened around me! The dull yellow Puna +grass, scarcely the length of one's finger, blended its tint with the +greenish hue of the glaciers. Advancing further on my onward course, how +joyfully I greeted as old acquaintance the purple gentiana and the +brown calceolaria! With what pleasure I counted the yellow blossoms of +the echino-cactus! and presently the sight of the ananas-cactus pictured +in my mind all the luxuriance of the primeval forests. These cacti were +growing amidst rushes and mosses and syngeneses, which the frost had +changed to a rusty brown hue. Not a butterfly fluttered in the rarefied +atmosphere; no fly nor winged insect of any kind was discernible. A +beetle or a toad creeping from their holes, or a lizard warming himself +in the sun, are all that reward the search of the naturalist. + +As I journeyed onward, animate life awakened in rich variety around me. +Birds, few in species, but numerous in individuals, everywhere met my +view. Herds of vicunas approached me with curious gaze, and then on a +sudden fled with the swiftness of the wind. In the distance I observed +stately groups of huanacus turning cautiously to look at me, and then +passing on. The Puna stag (_tarush_) slowly advanced from his lair in +the mountain recesses, and fixed on me his large, black, wondering eyes; +whilst the nimble rock rabbits (_viscachas_) playfully disported and +nibbled the scanty herbage growing in the mountain crevices. + +I had wandered for some hours admiring the varieties of life in this +peculiar alpine region, when I stumbled against a dead mule. The poor +animal had probably sunk beneath his burthen, and had been left by his +driver to perish of cold and hunger. My presence startled three +voracious condors, which were feeding on the dead carcass. These kings +of the air proudly shook their crowned heads, and darted at me furious +glances with their blood-red eyes. Two of them rose on their giant +wings, and in narrowing circles hovered threateningly above my head, +whilst the third, croaking fiercely, kept guard over the booty. I +cocked my gun in readiness for defence, and cautiously rode past the +menacing group, without the least desire of further disturbing their +banquet. These condors were the only hostile animals I encountered in +this part of the Puna. + +It was now two o'clock in the afternoon, and I had ridden on a +continuous though gradual ascent since sunrise. My panting mule +slackened his pace, and seemed unwilling to mount a rather steep ascent +which we had now arrived at. To relieve him I dismounted, and began +walking at a rapid pace. But I soon felt the influence of the rarefied +atmosphere, and I experienced an oppressive sensation which I had never +known before. I stood still for a few moments to recover myself, and +then tried to advance; but an indescribable oppression overcame me. My +heart throbbed audibly; my breathing was short and interrupted. A +world's weight seemed to lie upon my chest; my lips swelled and burst; +the capillary vessels of my eyelids gave way, and blood flowed from +them. In a few moments my senses began to leave me. I could neither see, +hear, nor feel distinctly. A grey mist floated before my eyes, and I +felt myself involved in that struggle between life and death which, a +short time before, I fancied I could discern on the face of nature. Had +all the riches of earth, or the glories of heaven, awaited me a hundred +feet higher, I could not have stretched out my hand towards them. + +In this half senseless state I lay stretched on the ground, until I felt +sufficiently recovered to remount my mule. One of the Puna storms was +now gathering, thunder and lightning accompanied a heavy fall of snow, +which very soon lay a foot deep on the ground. In a short time I +discovered that I had missed my way. Had I then known the Puna as well +as I afterwards did, I should have shaped my course by the flight of +birds. But unluckily I pursued the fresh track of a herd of vicunas, +which led me directly into a swamp. My mule sank, and was unable to +extricate himself. I was almost in despair. Nevertheless, I cautiously +alighted, and with incredible difficulty I succeeded in digging out with +a dagger the mud in which the animal's legs were firmly fixed, and at +length I got him back to a solid footing. After wandering about in +various directions, I at length recovered the right path, which was +marked by numerous skeletons protruding above the snow. These were the +remains of beasts of burthen, which had perished on their journeys; a +welcome, though an ominous guide to the wandering traveller. The clouds +now suddenly separated, and the blazing light of the tropical sun glared +dazzlingly on the white plain of snow. In a moment I felt my eyes +stricken with _surumpe_. + +Suffering the most violent pain, and tormented by the apprehension of +blindness, I with great difficulty pursued my way. My mule could +scarcely wade through the sward, which was becoming more and more +thick; and night was advancing. I had lost all feeling in my feet, my +benumbed fingers could scarcely hold the bridle, and I well knew that +the nearest point at which I could obtain the shelter of a human +habitation was eight German miles distant. I was beginning to give +myself up for lost, when I observed a cave beneath an overhanging rock. +Mother Nature, in whose service I had undertaken my long and perilous +wanderings, at that critical juncture, provided for me a retreat, +though in one of her rudest sheltering places. I entered the cave, +which protected me securely against the wind and the snow. Having +unsaddled my mule, I made a bed of my saddle clothes and poncho. I tied +the animal to a stone, and whilst he eagerly regaled himself with the +little grass that was not buried beneath the snow, I satisfied my +hunger with some roasted maize and cheese. + +Exhausted by the fatigue of the day, I lay down to sleep; but no sooner +had I fallen into a slumber, than I was awaked by a violent smarting +in my eyes, occasioned by the _surumpe_. There was no longer any hope +of sleep. The night seemed endless. When the dawn of morning appeared, +I made an effort to open my eyes, which were closed with coagulated +blood. On looking around me I beheld all the horror of my situation. A +human corpse had served for my pillow. Shuddering I went in search of +my mule, for I was eager to hurry from this dismal spot; but my misery +was not yet at an end. The poor beast lay dead on the ground; in his +ravenous hunger he had eaten of the poisonous _garbancillo_. What +could I do! In despair I turned back to the cave. + +The sun had now fully risen, and his genial rays diffused warmth over +this frozen region. Somewhat roused by the reviving light and life +around me, I began to examine the body of my lifeless companion. Haply, +thought I, he may be one of my own race; a traveller who has perished +of cold and hunger. No. He was a half-caste Indian, and many deadly +wounds on his head showed that he had died of the slings of Indian +robbers, who had stripped him even of his clothes, and concealed the +body in the cave. + +I seized my gun and shot a rock rabbit, then collecting some fuel, I +kindled a fire, and roasted the little animal, which afforded me a no +very savory breakfast. I then waited patiently in the hope that some +timely help would deliver me from my dreary situation. + +It was about noon. I heard a monotonous short cry. With joy I +recognized the well-known sound. I climbed up the nearest rock, and +looking down into a hollow, I perceived two Indians whom I had seen the +day before, driving their llamas to the nearest mine works. I prevailed +on them, by the gift of a little tobacco, to let me have one of their +llamas to carry my luggage, and having strewed a few handfuls of earth +on the corpse of the murdered man, I departed. The scene of the +incidents above described was the Cave of Lenas, in the Altos which +lead southward to the Quebrada of Huaitara. + +FOOTNOTE: + +[Footnote 70: A mine is said to be in _boya_ when it yields an +unusually abundant supply of metal. Owing to the great number of mines +in Cerro de Pasco, some of them are always in this prolific state. +There are times when the _boyas_ bring such an influx of miners to +Cerro de Pasco that the population is augmented to double or triple its +ordinary amount.] + +[Footnote 71: Huachacas are the portions of ore which are distributed +among the Indians at the time of the _boyas_, instead of their wages +being paid in money.] + +[Footnote 72: A shop in which chicha, brandy, &c., are vended.] + +[Footnote 73: The date of Salcedo's death was May, 1669.] + +[Footnote 74: Ninacaca is 12,853 feet, and Carhuamayo 13,087 feet above +the sea level.] + +[Footnote 75: It is also called the Laguna de Reyes, and the Laguna de +Junin.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +The Sierra--Its Climate and Productions--Inhabitants--Trade--Eggs +circulated as money--Mestizos in the Sierra--Their Idleness and Love of +Gaming and Betting--Agriculture--The Quinua Plant, a substitute for +Potatoes--Growth of Vegetables and Fruits in the Sierra--Rural +Festivals at the Seasons of Sowing and Reaping--Skill of the Indians in +various Handicrafts--Excess of Brandy-Drinking--Chicha--Disgusting mode +of making it--Festivals of Saints--Dances and Bull-Fights--Celebration +of Christmas-Day, New-Year's Day, Palm Sunday, and Good +Friday--Contributions levied on the Indians--Tardy and Irregular +Transmission of Letters--Trade in Mules--General Style of Building in +the Towns and Villages of the Sierra--Ceja de la Montana. + + +The Peruvian highlands, or level heights, described in a previous +chapter under the designation of the Puna, are intersected by numerous +valleys situated several thousand feet lower than the level heights, +from which they totally differ in character and aspect. These valleys +are called the Sierra. The inhabitants of Lima usually comprehend under +the term Sierra, the whole interior of Peru, and every Indian who is not +an inhabitant of the coast, or of the forest regions, is called by them +a _Serrano_. But strictly speaking, the Sierra includes only the valleys +between the Cordillera and the Andes, and I shall here use the term in +its more limited and proper sense. + +In the Sierra there are only two seasons throughout the year. The winter +or rainy season commences in October; but the rains are neither so heavy +nor so continuous as in the forest districts. The falls of rain seldom +last longer than two or three days in succession. Storms of thunder and +lightning are very frequent in the Sierra; they are not accompanied by +snow as in the Puna, but often by hail. The thermometer never falls +below +4 deg. R., and during the daytime it is on the average at +11 deg. R. In +April the summer season sets in, bringing with it an uninterrupted +succession of warm bright days. The nights in summer are colder than in +winter. In a summer night the thermometer will sometimes fall below +freezing point, and the cold is often very severe. About noon the heat +is oppressive, though the average heat of the day does not exceed 13, 9 deg. +R. During the summer season the horizon is frequently obscured by heavy +dark clouds, which seldom break over the valleys, but continue frowning +over the hills. The natives call these portentous clouds _Misti +Manchari_ (terror of the whites),[76] because the inhabitants of the +coast always regard them as indicative of stormy weather. + +The climate of the Sierra favors the natural fruitfulness of the soil, +which richly repays the labor of the husbandman; but plants, peculiar to +the warm tropical regions, do not thrive well here. Prior to the +European emigration to Peru, only maize, quinua (_Chenopodium Quinoa_, +L.), and a few tuberous roots were grown in the Sierra; but since the +Spanish conquest, the European cereals, lucerne, and various kinds of +vegetables are cultivated with perfect success. But the eye of the +traveller seeks in vain for those stately forests which clothe the +mountainous districts of Europe; the barren acclivities afford nurture +only for the agave-tree, and some very large species of cactus. Groups +of willow trees (_Salix Humboldtii_), which attain the height of about +twenty or twenty-five feet, together with the quinua-tree, form here and +there little thickets on the banks of rivers. + +These regions, so favored by nature, have from the earliest period +been the chosen dwelling-places of the Peruvians; and therefore in the +Sierra, which, measured by its superficies, is not of very great +extent, the population has increased more than in any other part of +Peru. The valleys already contain numerous towns, villages, and +hamlets, which would rise in importance, if they had greater facility +of communication one with another. But they are surrounded on all +sides by mountains, which can be crossed only by circuitous and +dangerous routes. The few accessible pathways are alternately up +rugged ascents, and down steep declivities; or winding through narrow +ravines, nearly choked up by broken fragments of rock, they lead to +the dreary and barren level heights. + +The Serranos, or inhabitants of the Sierra, especially those who dwell +in the smaller villages, are chiefly Indians. In the towns and larger +villages, the mestizos are numerous. The whites are very thinly +scattered over the Sierra; but many of the mestizos are very anxious to +be thought white Creoles. A rich serrano, who bears in his features the +stamp of his Indian descent, will frequently try to pass himself off to +a foreigner for an old Spaniard. Here, even more than on the coast, the +mestizo is ambitious to rank himself on a level with the white, whilst +he affects to regard the Indian as an inferior being. + +The few Spaniards who reside in the Sierra are men who have served in +the Spanish army, and who, at the close of the war of independence, +settled in that part of Peru. Many of them keep shops in the towns and +villages, and others, by advantageous marriages, have become the +possessors of haciendas. Those who have enriched themselves in this way +are remarkable alike for ignorance and pride, and give themselves the +most ludicrous airs of assumed dignity. The Creoles are the principal +dealers in articles of European commerce. They journey to Lima twice or +thrice a year to make their purchases, which consist in white and +printed calicoes, woollen cloths, hard-wares, leather, soap, wax, and +indigo. In the Sierra, indigo is a very considerable article of traffic: +the Indians use a great quantity of it for dyeing their clothes; blue +being their favorite color. Wax is also in great demand; for in the +religious ceremonies, which are almost of daily occurrence, a vast +quantity of tapers is consumed. The principal articles of traffic +produced by the natives are woollen ponchos and blankets, unspun colored +wool, saddle-cloths, stirrups and horseshoes. The last-named articles +are purchased chiefly by the arrieros of the coast. It may seem strange +that stores of horseshoes should be kept ready made; but so it is; for +though in Europe we make the shoe to fit the hoof, yet in Peru it is the +practice to cut the hoof to fit the shoe. On Yca brandy more money is +expended than on every other article of trade combined. The quantity of +that spirit annually transported to the Sierra exceeds belief. To see +the Indians on Sundays and festival days thronging to the shops of the +spirit dealers, with their jugs and bottles, one might fairly presume +that more brandy is drunk in the Sierra in one day, than in many of the +towns of Europe in a year. In some parts--for example, in the province +of Jauja--hens' eggs are circulated as small coin, forty-eight or fifty +being counted for a dollar. In the market-place and in the shops the +Indians make most of their purchases with this brittle sort of money: +one will give two or three eggs for brandy, another for indigo, and a +third for cigars. These eggs are packed in boxes by the shop-keepers, +and sent to Lima. From Jauja alone, several thousand loads of eggs are +annually forwarded to the capital. + +Most of the mestizos possess little estates (_chacras_), the produce of +which, consisting of grain, vegetables and clover, is disposed of in the +towns of the Sierra, or in the mining districts of the Puna. As the +profits arising from the chacras usually suffice to provide their owners +with a comfortable subsistence, the mestizos pass their lives in +idleness and pleasure. They spend the chief portion of the day in the +true Spanish style, gossiping in groups in the streets, and wrapped in +their mantles. When the state of the weather does not admit of this sort +of out-door lounging the time is passed in gaming or cock-fighting. This +latter diversion is no less in favor in the Sierra than in Lima. Such +enormous bets are laid at these cock-fights, that the losses frequently +entail ruin on persons of tolerably good fortune. + +The agriculture of the Sierra is wholly consigned to the Indians, who +either cultivate their own lands, or for very poor wages labor for the +mestizos. In September, the ground is ploughed and prepared for sowing, +which operation is performed in October, and the reaping takes place in +April or May. By this means the seed is left in the ground throughout +all the rainy season. In February violent frost frequently comes on +during the night, by which the seed is so much injured that the harvest +fails, and the scarcity occasions severe suffering and even famine. When +the cold clear nights create apprehensions of damage to the seed, the +people form themselves into processions, and go through the villages +and towns imploring the mercy of Heaven. In the dead of the night it is +no unusual thing to be aroused by the ringing of bells. The inhabitants +then get up and hurry to church, where the solemn processions are +formed. Penitents clothed in sackcloth go through the streets, scourging +themselves; and the Indians, in their native language, utter prayers and +offer up vows to Heaven. For the space of some hours an incessant +movement and agitation pervade the streets, and when day begins to dawn +the people return to their homes, trembling between hope and fear. The +fate of the Indians, when their harvest fails them, is indeed truly +miserable, for, abstemious as they are, they can scarcely procure +wherewith to satisfy their hunger. In the year 1840, which was a period +of scarcity, I saw the starving Indian children roaming about the +fields, and eating the grass like cattle. + +Maize is the species of grain most extensively cultivated in the Sierra: +it is of excellent quality, though smaller than that grown on the coast. +Wheat, though it thrives well, is cultivated only in a very limited +quantity, and the bread made from it is exceedingly bad. The other +species of European grain, barley excepted, are unknown to the Serranos. +To compensate for the want of them, they have the quinua (_Chenopodium +Quinoa_, L.), which is at once a nutritious, wholesome, and pleasant +article of food. The leaves of this plant, before it attains full +maturity, are eaten like spinach; but it is the seeds which are most +generally used as food. They are prepared in a variety of ways, but most +frequently boiled in milk or in broth, and sometimes cooked with cheese +and Spanish pepper. The dried stems of the quinua are used as fuel. +Experiments in the cultivation of this plant have been tried in some +parts of Germany, and with considerable success. It would appear, +however, that its flavor is not much liked; a circumstance rather +surprising to the traveller who has tasted it in Peru, where it is +regarded in the light of a delicacy. It were to be wished that the +general cultivation of the quinua could be introduced throughout Europe; +for during the prevalence of the potatoe disease this plant would be +found of the greatest utility. It is a well-known fact that potatoes and +tea, two articles now in such universal use, were not liked on their +first introduction into Europe. The quinua plant, which yields a +wholesome article of food, would thrive perfectly in our hemisphere, +and, though in its hitherto limited trial it has not found favor, there +is no reason to conclude that it may not at a future time become an +object of general consumption. + +Four kinds of tuberous plants are successfully cultivated in the Sierra; +viz., the potatoe, the ulluco, the oca, and the mashua. Of potatoes +there are several varieties, and all grow in perfection. The ulluco +(_Tropaeolum tuberosum_) is smaller than the potatoe, and is very various +in its form, being either round, oblong, straight, or curved. The skin +is thin, and of a reddish-yellow color, and the inside is green. When +simply boiled in water it is insipid, but is very savory when cooked as +a _picante_. The oca (_Oxalis tuberosa_) is an oval-shaped root; the +skin pale red, and the inside white. It is watery, and has a sweetish +taste; for which reason it is much liked by the Peruvians. The mashua is +the root of a plant as yet unknown to botanists. It is cultivated and +cooked in the same manner as those already described. In form, however, +it differs from them all. It is of a flat pyramidal shape, and the lower +end terminates in a fibrous point. It is watery, and insipid to the +taste; but is nevertheless much eaten by the Serranos. As the mashua +roots will not keep, they are not transported from the places in which +they are grown, and, therefore, are not known in Lima. The Indians use +the mashua as a medicine: they consider it an efficacious remedy in +cases of dropsy, indigestion, and dysentery. + +The vegetables and fruits of Europe thrive luxuriantly in the warm +Sierra valleys; yet but few of them have been transplanted thither, and +those few are but little esteemed. Some of the cabbage and salad +species, together with onions, garlic, and several kinds of pulse, are +all that are cultivated. It is remarkable that in these regions no +indigenous fruit-trees are to be seen. The only fruit really belonging +to the Sierra is the Tuna. In some of the sheltered ravines, or, as they +are called, Quebradas, oranges, lemons, and granadillas flourish at the +height of 10,000 feet above sea level. The fruits which have been +transplanted from Europe are for the most part indifferent, as not the +least care is bestowed on their cultivation. The effect of this neglect +is particularly obvious in apples, pears, and damson-plums. Cherries and +chestnuts are unknown in these parts; but on the other hand, peaches and +apricots (_duraznos_) grow in amazing abundance, and many very fine +species are found, especially in the southern provinces. Excursions to +the _duraznales_ (apricot gardens), in the months of April and May, to +eat the ripe fruit fresh plucked from the trees, are among the most +favorite recreations of the Serranos. Some of the Sierra districts are +celebrated throughout Peru for their abundance of fruit. This luxuriance +is particularly remarkable in several of the deep valleys, for instance, +in Huanta; but, strictly speaking, these deep valleys partake less of +the character of the Sierra than of the higher forest regions. + +The periods of sowing and reaping are celebrated by the Indians with +merry-making, a custom which has descended from the time of the Incas, +when those periods corresponded with the two great divisions of the +year. Even a scanty harvest, an event of frequent occurrence, occasions +no interruption to these rustic festivals. Bands of music, consisting of +trumpets, fiddles, and flutes, play whilst the corn is cut down, and +during their work, the laborers freely regale themselves with chicha, +huge barrels of which are placed for their unrestrained use. The +consequence is, that they are almost continually intoxicated; and yet +whilst in this state it is no unusual thing to see them dancing with +heavy loads of sheaves on their heads. Their dinner is cooked in the +fields, in large pots and kettles, and to partake of it they all sit +down on the ground in rows, one behind another. The wheat and barley +when cut are spread out in little heaps on the ground, and, instead of +thrashing, the grain is pressed out of the ears by the tramping of +horses, the animals being driven round and round in a circle. As soon as +this process is ended, the agents of the Government and the priests make +their appearance to claim the tithes. + +In the larger villages and towns of the Sierra, the Indians frequently +employ themselves in handicrafts, in some of which they attain a high +degree of perfection, for they are not wanting either in talent or in +mechanical dexterity. As goldsmiths they are remarkably skilful, and in +this branch of industry they produce work which, for taste and +exquisite finish, cannot be excelled in the capitals of Europe. The +various kinds of vessels and figures of silver wire (_filigranas_), made +by the cholos in Ayacucho, have always been favorite articles of +ornament in Spain. The Indians of Jauja are very skilful in working +iron, and the objects of their workmanship are much esteemed throughout +Peru. Of leather also they make various things in very beautiful style; +and saddle-cloths, bridles, &c., of their manufacture are much more +elegant and infinitely cheaper than those made in Lima. In Cuzco and the +adjacent provinces many of the Indians evince considerable talent in +oil-painting. Their productions in this way are, of course, far from +being master-pieces; but when we look on the paintings which decorate +their churches, and reflect that the artists have been shut out from the +advantages of education and study; and moreover, when we consider the +coarse materials with which the pictures have been painted, it must be +acknowledged that they indicate a degree of talent, which, if duly +cultivated, would soar far above mediocrity. In Tarma and its +neighborhood the natives weave an exquisitely fine description of +woollen cloth. They make ponchos of vicuna wool, which sell for 100 or +120 dollars each, and which are equal to the finest European cloth. +The beauty of these Indian textures is truly wonderful, considering +the rude process of weaving practised by the natives. They work +various colors, figures, and inscriptions in the cloth, and do all +this with a rapidity which equals the operations of ordinary looms. +The most valuable textures they weave are those produced from the wool +of the vicuna and the alpaco. They likewise make very fine textures of +cotton and silk. It is curious that the Indians of each province have +some particular branch of industry to which they exclusively apply +themselves, to the neglect of all others. + +The Serranos are a very sociable people. In the towns they keep up a +continual round of evening parties, in which singing and dancing are +favorite amusements; but on these occasions they indulge in +brandy-drinking to a terrible excess. As soon as a party is assembled, +bottles and glasses are introduced, and each individual, ladies as well +as gentlemen, drinks to the health of the company. For a party of thirty +or more persons, not more than three or four glasses are brought in, so +that one glass is passed repeatedly from hand to hand, and from mouth to +mouth. The quantity of brandy drunk at one of the evening parties called +in the Sierra _Jaranas_, is almost incredible. According to my +observation, I should say that a bottle to each individual, ladies +included, is a fair average estimate, the bottles being of the size of +those used in Europe for claret. In the year 1839, whilst I was residing +for a time in one of the largest towns of the Sierra, a ball was given +in honor of the Chilian General Bulnes; on that occasion the brandy +flowed in such quantities, that, when morning came, some members of the +company were found lying on the floor of the ball-room in a state of +intoxication. These facts naturally create an impression very +unfavorable to the inhabitants of the Sierra; but a due allowance must +be made for the want of education and the force of habit on the part of +those who fall into these excesses. These people possess so many +excellent moral qualities, that it would be unjust to condemn them +solely on account of these orgies. The Serrano is far from being +addicted to habitual drunkenness, notwithstanding his intemperate use of +strong drinks amidst the excitement of company. + +But if the vice of excessive drinking be occasionally indulged in among +the better class of people of the Sierra, it is much more frequent among +the Indian inhabitants. Every one of their often-recurring festivals is +celebrated by a drinking bout, at which enormous quantities of brandy +and chicha are consumed. In some districts of the Sierra the chicha is +prepared in a peculiar and very disgusting manner by the Indians. +Instead of crushing the _jora_ (dried maize-grain) between two stones, +which is the usual method, the Indians bruise it with their teeth. For +this purpose a group of men and women range themselves in a circle round +a heap of _jora_; each gathers up a handful, chews it, and then ejects +it from the mouth into a vessel allotted for its reception. This mass, +after being boiled in water, and left to ferment, is the much admired +_chicha mascada_ (that is to say, _chewed chicha_), the flavor of which +is said to surpass that of the same beverage made in any other way. But +they who have been eye-witnesses of the disgusting process, and who bear +in mind various other preparations of Indian cookery in which the teeth +perform a part, require some fortitude ere they yield to the pressing +invitation of the hospitable Serrano, and taste the proffered nectar. + +When it is wished to make the chicha particularly strong and well +flavored, it is poured into an earthen jar along with several pounds of +beef. This jar is made perfectly air-tight, and buried several feet deep +in the ground, where it is left for the space of several years. On the +birth of a child it is customary to bury a _botija_ full of chicha, +which, on the marriage of the same child, is opened and drunk. This +chicha has a very agreeable flavor, but is so exceedingly potent, that a +single glass of it is sufficient to intoxicate a practised +chicha-drinker, or, as they say in the country, a _chichero_. + +Every village in the Sierra has its own tutelary saint, whose festival +is celebrated with great solemnity. Bull-fights and dances constitute +the principal diversions on these occasions. These dances are relics of +the _Raymi_ or monthly dances, by which the Incas used to mark the +divisions of time; and they are among the most interesting customs +peculiar to these parts of Peru. The dancers wear dresses similar to +those worn by the ancient Peruvians when they took part in the _Raymi_. +Their faces and arms are painted in various colors, and they wear +feather caps and feather ponchos. They have bracelets and anklets, and +they are armed with clubs, wooden swords, and bows and arrows. Their +music, too, is also similar to that of their forefathers. Their +instruments consist of a sort of pipe or flute made of reed, and a drum +composed simply of a hoop with a skin stretched upon it. To the +inharmonious sound of these instruments, accompanying monotonous Quichua +songs, the dances commence with those solemn movements with which the +Incas used to worship the sun: they then suddenly assume a more joyous +character, and at last change to the wild war-dance, in which the mimic +contest, stimulated by copious libations of chicha, frequently ends in a +real fight. In the larger towns, where the Mestizo portion of the +population predominates, these dances are discouraged, and in course of +time they will probably be entirely discontinued, though they are +scrupulously adhered to by the Indians. + +On festival days, bull-fights constitute the most favorite popular +diversion. In the Sierra this barbarous sport is conducted with even +more recklessness and cruelty than in the _Corridas_ of Lima. Every +occasion on which an entertainment of this sort takes place is attended +with loss of life, and sometimes the sacrifice both of men and horses is +very considerable. During my residence in Jauja, fourteen Indians and +nineteen horses were killed or seriously wounded in a bull-fight; yet +catastrophes of this kind appear to make no impression on the people. + +Some of the church festivals are celebrated by the Indians of the +Sierra, in a manner which imparts a peculiar coloring to the religious +solemnities. In the midnight mass on Christmas Eve, they imitate in the +churches the sounds made by various animals. The singing of birds, the +crowing of cocks, the braying of asses, the bleating of sheep, &c., are +simulated so perfectly, that a stranger is inclined to believe that the +animals have assembled in the temple to participate in the solemnity. At +the termination of the mass, troops of women perambulate the streets, +during the remainder of the night. Their long black hair flows loosely +over their bare shoulders; and in their hands they carry poles with +long fluttering strips of paper fixed to the ends of them. They +occasionally dance and sing peculiarly beautiful melodies, accompanied +by a harp, a fiddle, and a flute; and they mark the measure of the +music by the movement of their poles. + +The celebration of Christmas-day is marked by the appearance of what are +termed the _Negritos_. These are Indians, with their faces concealed by +hideous negro masks. Their dress consists of a loose red robe, richly +wrought with gold and silver thread, white pantaloons, and their hats +are adorned with waving black feathers. In their hands they carry gourd +bottles, painted in various gay colors, and containing dried seeds. +Whilst they sing, the _Negritos_ shake these gourds, and mark the time +by the rattling of the dried seeds. They perform the dances of the +Guinea negroes, and imitate the attitudes and language of a race which +they hold in abhorrence and contempt. For the space of three days and +nights these negritos parade the streets, entering the houses and +demanding chicha and brandy, with which the inhabitants are glad to +supply them, to avoid violence and insult. + +On New Year's Day other groups of mummers, called _Corcobados_, +perambulate the streets. They are enveloped in cloaks of coarse grey +woollen cloth, their head-gear consists of an old vicuna hat, with a +horse's tail dangling behind. Their features are disguised by ludicrous +masks with long beards; and, bestriding long sticks or poles, they move +about accompanied by burlesque music. Every remarkable incident that has +occurred in the families of the town during the course of the year, is +made the subject of a song in the Quichua language; and these songs are +sung in the streets by the _Corcobados_. Matrimonial quarrels are +favorite subjects, and are always painted with high comic effect in +these satirical songs. The Corcobados go about for two days; and they +usually wind up their performances by drinking and fighting. When two +groups of these Corcobados meet together, and the one party assails with +ridicule anything which the other is disposed to defend, a terrible +affray usually ensues, and the sticks which have served as hobby-horses, +are converted into weapons of attack. + +In order to facilitate the conversion of the idolatrous Indians, the +Spanish monks who accompanied Pizarro's army, sought to render the +Christian religion as attractive as possible in the eyes of the heathen +aborigines of Peru. With this view they conceived the idea of +dramatizing certain scenes in the life of Christ, and having them +represented in the churches. In the larger towns these performances have +long since been discontinued, but they are still kept up in most of the +villages of the Sierra; indeed the efforts made by enlightened +ecclesiastics for their suppression, have been met with violent +opposition on the part of the Indians. + +On Palm Sunday, an image of the Saviour seated on an ass is paraded +about the principal streets of the town or village. The Indians strew +twigs of palm over the animal, and contend one with another for the +honor of throwing their ponchos down on the ground, in order that the +ass may walk over them. The animal employed in this ceremony is, when +very young, singled out for the purpose, and is never suffered to carry +any burthen save the holy image. He is fed by the people, and at every +door at which he stops, the inmates of the house pamper him up with the +best fodder they can procure. The ass is looked upon as something almost +sacred, and is never named by any other appellation than the _Burro de +Nuestro Senor_ (our Lord's ass). In some villages I have seen these +animals so fat that they were scarcely able to walk. + +Good Friday is solemnized in a manner the effect of which, to the +unprejudiced foreigner, is partly burlesque and partly seriously +impressive. From the early dawn of morning the church is thronged with +Indians, who spend the day in fasting and prayer. At two in the +afternoon a large image of the Saviour is brought from the sacristy and +laid down in front of the altar. Immediately all the persons in the +church rush forward with pieces of cotton to touch the wounds. This +gives rise to a struggle, in which angry words and blows are +interchanged; in short, there ensues a disgraceful scene of uproar, +which is only checked by the interposition of one of the priests. Order +being restored, the sacred image is fixed on the cross by three very +large silver nails, and the head is encircled by a rich silver crown. On +each side are the crosses of the two thieves. Having gaped at this +spectacle to their hearts' content, the cholos retire from the church. +At eight in the evening they reassemble to witness the solemn ceremony +of taking down the Saviour from the cross. The church is then +brilliantly lighted up. At the foot of the cross stand four white-robed +priests, called _los Santos Varones_ (the holy men), whose office it is +to take down the image. At a little distance from them, on a sort of +stage or platform, stands a figure representing the Virgin Mary. This +figure is dressed in black, with a white cap on its head. A priest, in a +long discourse, explains the scene to the assembled people, and at the +close of the address, turning to the Santos Varones, he says, "Ye holy +men, ascend the ladders of the cross, and bring down the body of the +Redeemer!" Two of the Santos Varones mount with hammers in their hands, +and the priest then says, "Ye holy man, on the right of the Saviour, +strike the first blow on the nail of the hand, and take it out!" The +command is obeyed, and no sooner is the stroke of the hammer heard, than +deep groans and sounds of anguish resound through the church; whilst the +cry of "_Misericordia! misericordia!_" repeated by a thousand imploring +voices, produces an indescribable sensation of awe and melancholy. The +nail is handed to one of the priests standing at the foot of the altar, +who transfers it to another, and this one in his turn presents it to the +figure of the Virgin. To that figure the priest then turns and addresses +himself, saying: "Thou afflicted mother, approach and receive the nail +which pierced the right hand of thy holy Son!" The priest steps forward +a few paces, and the figure, by some concealed mechanism, advances to +meet him, receives the nail with both hands, lays it on a silver plate, +dries its eyes, and then returns to its place in the middle of the +platform. The same ceremony is repeated when the two other nails are +taken out. Throughout the whole performance of these solemnities, an +uninterrupted groaning and howling is kept up by the Indians, who at +every stroke of the hammer raise their cries of _Misericordia!_ These +sounds of anguish reach their climax when the priest consigns the body +of the Saviour to the charge of the Virgin. The image is laid in a +coffin tastefully adorned with flowers, which, together with the figure +of the Virgin Mary, is paraded through the streets. Whilst this +nocturnal procession, lighted by thousands of wax tapers, is making the +circuit of the town, a party of Indians busy themselves in erecting +before the church door twelve arches decorated with flowers. Between +every two of the arches they lay flowers on the ground, arranging them +in various figures and designs. These flower-carpets are singularly +ingenious and pretty. Each one is the work of two cholos, neither of +whom seems to bestow any attention to what his comrade is doing; and +yet, with a wonderful harmony of operation, they create the most +tasteful designs--arabesques, animals, and landscapes, which grow, as it +were by magic, under their hands. Whilst I was in Tarma, I was at once +interested and astonished to observe on one of these flower-carpets the +figure of the Austrian double eagle. On inquiry I learned from an Indian +that it had been copied from the quicksilver jars, exported from Idria +to Peru. On the return of the procession to the church, a hymn, with +harp accompaniment, is sung to the Virgin, as the figure is carried +under the arches of flowers. The bier of the Saviour is then deposited +in the church, where it is watched throughout the night. + +On the following morning, at four o'clock, the ceremony of hanging Judas +takes place in front of the church. A figure of Judas, the size of +life, is filled with squibs and crackers, and is frequently made to bear +a resemblance to some obnoxious inhabitant of the place. After the match +is applied to the combustible figure, the cholos dance around it, and +exult in the blowing up of their enemy. + +In the Sierra, as well as on the coast, the priests are usually the +tyrants rather than the guardians of their flocks; and they would +frequently be the objects of hatred and vengeance but for the +deep-rooted and almost idolatrous reverence which the Indians cherish +for priestcraft. It is disgusting to see the Peruvian priests, who +usually treat the Indians like brutes, behaving with the most degrading +servility when they want to get money from them. The love of the Indians +for strong drinks is a vice which the priests turn to their own +advantage. For the sake of the fees they frequently order religious +festivals, which are joyfully hailed by the Indians, because they never +fail to end in drinking bouts. + +Added to the ill treatment of the priests, the Indians are most unjustly +oppressed by the civil authorities. In the frequent movements of troops +from one place to another, they are exposed to great losses and +vexations. They are compelled to perform the hardest duties without +payment, and often the produce of their fields is laid under +contribution, or their horses and mules are pressed into the service of +the military. When intelligence is received of the march of a battalion, +the natives convey their cattle to some remote place of concealment in +the mountains, for they seldom recover possession of them if once they +fall into the hands of the soldiery. + +Every fortnight a mail is despatched with letters from Lima to Tarma, +Jauja, Huancavelica, Ayacucha, Cuzco, and into Bolivia; another +proceeds to the northern provinces; a third to Arequipa and the +southern provinces; and every week one is despatched to Cerro de +Pasco. In Lima, the letter-bag is consigned to the charge of an +Indian, who conveys it on the back of a mule to the next station,[77] +where it is received by another Indian; and in this manner, handed +from cholo to cholo, the letter-bag traverses the whole of its +destined route, unaccompanied by an official courier. As soon as the +mail arrives at a station, a flag is displayed at the house of the +post-master, to intimate to those who expect letters that they may +receive them; for they are not sent round to the persons to whom they +are addressed, and it is sometimes even a favor to get them three or +four days after their arrival. The Peruvian post is as tardy as it is +ill-regulated. On one of my journeys, I started from Lima two days +after the departure of the mail. On the road I overtook and passed the +Indian who had charge of the letters, and, without hurrying myself, I +arrived in Tarma a day and a half before him. Ascending the +Cordillera, I once met an Indian very leisurely driving his ass before +him with the mail-bag fastened to its back. Between the towns which do +not lie in the regular line of route, there is no post-office +communication; for example, between Pasco and Caxamarca, or between +Pasco and Tarma, or Jauja; and when it is wished to despatch letters +from one to another of these towns, private messengers must be +employed. The consequence is, that business, which in Europe would be +conducted through the medium of correspondence, can be arranged only +by personal communication in Peru. Travelling is difficult, but not +very expensive, as every one possesses horses or mules. + +The best mules employed in the Sierra are obtained from the province +of Tucuman in Buenos Ayres. Formerly the arrieros used annually to +bring droves of several thousand mules through Bolivia and the +Peruvian Sierra, selling as many as they could on the way, and taking +to Cerro de Pasco those that remained unsold. During the Spanish +domination, the mule trade was in the hands of the Government, to +whose agents it afforded ample opportunity for the exercise of +injustice and extortion. It was one of the most oppressive of the +_repartimientos_.[78] Every Indian was compelled to purchase a mule, +and was not allowed even the privilege of choosing the animal. The +mules were distributed by the authorities, and were tied to the doors +of the houses for whose occupants they were destined. After the +distribution of the mules, a collector went round to receive the +payment. During the war in Buenos Ayres the traffic in mules suffered +very considerably. For the space of twelve years not a mule had been +brought from that part of South America to Peru, when in 1840 the +Tucumanians revisited the Sierra with their droves of mules. They were +joyfully welcomed by the Serranos, who gave good prices for the +animals, and since then the traffic has begun to revive. + +In tracing the characteristic features of the Sierra, I have as far as +possible confined myself to generalities, and I will not now weary the +reader by entering upon a minute description of particular towns and +villages. All are built pretty nearly after one model. The large +quadrangular Plaza is closed on three of its sides with buildings, among +which there is always the Government house (_cabildo_), and the public +jail; the fourth side is occupied by a church. From this Plaza run in +straight lines eight streets, more or less broad, and these streets are +crossed at right angles by others; all presenting the same uniformity as +in Lima. The houses are roomy, surrounded by court-yards, and consist of +a ground-floor and a story above, but very frequently of the +ground-floor only. The walls are of brick, and the roofs are tiled. +The churches are in very bad taste, with the exception of a few in the +larger towns, which have a good appearance externally, and are richly +decorated within. The smaller Indian villages are poor and dirty, and +are built with little attention to regularity. But even in them the +quadrangular Plaza is never wanting, and at least four straight +streets issue from it. + +The Sierra is by far the most populous part of Peru. The banks of the +rivers flowing through the fertile valleys are thickly clustered with +villages, which give a peculiar charm to the landscape, doubly pleasing +to the eye of the traveller who comes from the barren parts of the +country. The cultivated lands afford evidence of progressive +improvement, and it is easy to imagine the flourishing condition to +which this country might arrive with increased population. + +From the Sierra two separate roads lead to the eastern declivity of the +Andes. One lies along the banks of the mountain rivers, and the other +passes over the ridges of the mountains. The first way is very +difficult, and scarcely practicable, for in some parts the streams flow +through narrow ravines, bordered on each side by perpendicular rocks, +and occasionally their course is hidden amidst impenetrable forests. The +other way, across the mountains, leads again into the Puna region, and +from thence over the steep ridges of the Andes to their barren summits. +Descending from these summits, we arrive on the sharp ridges of one of +the many side branches of the Puna Cordillera, which run eastward. The +Peruvians call these sharp mountain ridges _Cuchillas_ (knives). After +crossing the Andes, and descending a few hundred feet lower, in the +direction of the east, the traveller beholds a country totally different +from that which he left on the western declivity of the mountains. On +the eastern side the soil is richly covered with vegetation. From the +cuchillas the road ascends to some higher ridges, crowned with stunted +trees and brushwood, which, gradually spreading upward, blend with the +high forests. These wooded ridges are called by the natives _Ceja de la +Montana_ (the mist of the mountains). In these regions the climate is +generally more mild than in the Sierra, for the mercury never falls to +freezing point, and in the middle part of the day it never rises so +high as in the warm Sierra valleys. Throughout the whole year the +_Ceja de la Montana_ is overshadowed by thick mists, rising from the +rivers in the valleys. In the dry season these mists are absorbed by +the sun's rays, but in winter they float in thick clouds over the +hills, and discharge themselves in endless torrents of rain. The damp +vapors have an injurious effect on the health of the inhabitants of +these districts, which are, however, very thinly populated, as the +constant moisture unfits the soil for the cultivation of anything +except potatoes. The pure alpine air of the Puna is preferred by the +Indians to the vapory atmosphere of the Ceja. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 76: The Indians apply the designation _Misti_, meaning +_Mestizo_, to all persons except Indians or Negroes, whether they be +Europeans or White Creoles.] + +[Footnote 77: The distance from one station to another varies from six +to twelve miles.] + +[Footnote 78: _Repartimientos_ (literally, distributions) were the +compulsory sale of articles by the provincial authorities.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +Road to the Primeval Forests--Barbacoas, or Indian Suspension +Bridges--Vegetation--Hollow Passes--Zoology--the +Montana--Plantations--Inhabitants--Trade in Peruvian Bark--Wandering +Indians--Wild Indians or Indios Bravos--Languages, Manners, and +Customs of the Indios Bravos--Dress--Warlike Weapons and Hunting +Arms--Dwellings--Religion--Physical formation of the Wild Indian +Tribes--Animals of the Aboriginal Forests--Mammalia--Hunting the +Ounce--Birds--Amphibia--Poisonous Serpents--Huaco--Insects--Plants. + + +Leaving Ceja de la Montana, we will trace the route to the Aboriginal +forests, which extend eastwardly from the bases of the Andes. The whole +plain is overspread by a thick veil of mist, which does not disperse +until about noon, and then an undulating dark green canopy clouds the +vapory atmosphere. A European, whose heart throbs at the bare idea of +one of those vast virgin forests, gazes anxiously forward on the +boundless distance, and finds the pace of his cautious mule too tardy +for his impatient hopes and wishes. He beholds in perspective the goal +of his long journey. Nature, in all her virginal freshness and grandeur, +opens to his astonished eyes, and he feels a sensation of delight he +never before experienced. Regardless of present toil and danger, he sees +only the pleasure to come. But he is soon drawn back to cool reality, +and is forcibly reminded of the truth, that every enjoyment must be +earned by labor. The road is broken, narrow, and steep; over the woody +sides of the hill it is easily passable; but as soon as it begins to +descend, it presents all those difficulties which have been +interestingly described by the early travellers in Peru. The scanty +population of the surrounding districts, the native listlessness of the +Indians, and their indifference to the conveniences of life, are +obstacles to the making of roads which might be passable without +difficulty and danger. However, where nature from the state of the +country has compelled man to establish a communication, it is executed +in the most rude and unsatisfactory manner. A most decided proof of this +is apparent in the bridges called _barbacoas_, which are constructed +where the way is through a _derumbo_, or a small narrow mountain-pass, +or where there is an obstruction caused by a rock which cannot be passed +circuitously. The barbacoas are constructed in the following manner. +Stakes from three to three and a half feet long are driven into the +ground, or into the crevices of rocks. Over the ends of these stakes are +fastened strong branches of trees, the interstices are filled up with +mud, and the whole is covered by a sort of matting composed of plaited +branches and reeds. If the ground admits of it, which is seldom the +case, a pile of stones is built up beneath the barbacoa, extending to at +least one half its breadth. When it is considered that there is, +probably, on the one side of this bridge, a rock inclining at a very +acute angle, or an almost perpendicular declivity of a hill of loose +earth, and that on the other side there yawns a deep abyss against which +there is not the least protection, the traveller may well be pardoned if +he shudders as he passes over the creaking and shaking barbacoa. These +fragile bridges are often so much worn, that the feet of the mules slip +through the layers of mud and reeds, and whilst making efforts to +disengage themselves, the animals fall over the edge of the barbacoa, +and are hurled into the chasm below, dragging down the crazy structure +along with them. In consequence of these accidents, the way is often for +weeks, or even months, impassable. + +In the construction of these rude bridges, I observed that the Indians, +in their simplicity, always faithfully copy their great instructress, +nature. The majority of the plants growing in these regions belong, if I +may use the expression, to an aerial vegetation. The small, gnarled, +low-branched trees, have often scarcely one half of their roots in the +earth: the other half spreads over the surface of the soil; then winding +round the roots or branches of some neighboring plant, fastens on it, +and intimately uniting with it, forms a kind of suspension bridge, over +which the intertwining of numerous luxuriant climbing plants makes a +strong, impenetrable network. All the trees and shrubs are covered with +innumerable parasites, which, in the higher regions, are met with in +their smaller forms, as lichens, mosses, &c.; but lower down, in the +course of the various transformations they undergo, they appear in +larger development. + +The whole vegetable kingdom here is stamped by a peculiar character. It +presents immense fulness and luxuriance: it spreads widely, with but +little upward development, rising on the average only a few feet above +the earth. Trees, shrubs, and tendrils, in endless complication of +color, entwine together, sometimes fostering, sometimes crushing each +other. Out of the remains of the dead arises a new generation, with an +increase of vital impulse. It seems as though the ice-crowned Andes +looked down with envy on the luxuriant vegetation of the forests, and +sought to blight it by sending down cold, nightly winds. The low +temperature of the night counteracts that extreme development which +the humidity of the soil and the great heat of the day promote. But +what the vegetation loses in upward growth it gains in superficial +extension, and thereby it secures more protection against the +ever-alternating temperature. + +The further we descend the eastern declivity, the more difficult becomes +the way. During the rainy season deep fissures are worked out by the +flow of waters; the ground is slippery and full of holes. The sides of +these hollow passes are often so close together that the rider cannot +keep his legs down on each side of his mule, and is obliged to raise up +his feet and thrust them forward. When beasts of burthen, coming in +opposite directions, meet in these places, the direst confusion ensues, +and frequently sanguinary conflicts arise among the Indians. The weaker +party are then obliged to unload their mules, and the poor beasts are +dragged backward by their hind legs, until they reach a point at which +there is sufficient space for the others to pass. When I was proceeding +through one of these cavities on Christmas-eve, 1840, I encountered a +heavily laden ass coming down a steep declivity. Ere I had time to leap +from my saddle, the ass came direct upon me with such force that my +horse was driven backwards by the concussion, and I was thrown. Ten +months afterwards, another encounter of the same kind threatened me with +a similar disaster, and to save myself I had no alternative but to shoot +the ass. The Indian who was driving the animal neglected the usual +warning cry, given by the arrieros when they enter those dangerous +passes, and he was regardless of my repeated calls desiring him to stop. + +In some steep places, with the view of improving the roads, the Indians +lay down large stones in the form of steps; but to ride over these rude +flights of steps is no easy task, for the stones are small, and are +placed at the distance of a foot and a half or two feet apart. The mule +begins by placing his hind feet on the first stone, then springing +forward he reaches the third stone with his fore feet, at the same time +placing his hind feet to the second. By this manoeuvre the mule's body +is kept at full stretch, and the rider is obliged to lean forward over +the animal's neck to avoid being thrown head-foremost by the violent +jerks when the mule springs from step to step. It is absolute torture +to ride down a descent of five or six leagues, along a road such as I +have just described: willingly would the harassed rider dismount and +pursue his course on foot; but were he to attempt to do so, the mule +would stand stock still. I have already remarked the singular +obstinacy with which the mules refuse to proceed when their riders +dismount, and it sometimes gives rise to very comical scenes. On my +way to Vitoc, I was passing through a ravine in which the uprooted +trunk of a tree was resting slantwise against a rock. Though there was +not room for me to ride under it, yet there was sufficient space to +allow my mule to pass, and I accordingly dismounted; but all my +efforts to drive the animal forward were fruitless. I had no +alternative but to ride close up to the tree, then spurring the mule, +I quickly slipped out of the saddle, and seizing the trunk of the +tree, I hung to it until the mule had passed on. + +No less difficult and dangerous are the steep declivities over loamy +soils, which are frequently met with in these districts. On them the +mule has no firm footing, and is in danger of slipping down at every +step. But the wonderful instinct of these animals enables them to +overcome the difficulty. They approximate the hind and fore feet in +the manner of the Chamois goat, when he is about to make a spring, and +lowering the hinder part of the body in a position, half sitting half +standing, they slide down the smooth declivity. At first this sliding +movement creates a very unpleasant feeling of apprehension, which is +not altogether removed by frequent repetitions. Accidents frequently +occur, in which both mule and rider are mortally injured. + +There is more variety of animals in these regions than in the +mountainous parts; but they have few peculiarities of character. The +swift-footed roe of the Cordillera roams here and dwells in the +thickets, avoiding the warm forest. The dark brown coati (_Nasua +montana_, Tsch.) howls, and digs at the roots of trees in search of +food; the shy opossum crawls fearfully under the foliage; the lazy +armadillo creeps into his hole; but the ounce and the lion seldom +stray hither to contest with the black bear (_Ursus frugilegus_, +Tsch.) the possession of his territory. The little hairy tapir +(_Tapirus villosus_, Wagn.) ventures only at twilight out of his close +ambush to forage in the long grass. + +Of the birds there is not much variety of species; but all are +remarkable for gay-colored plumage. Among the most characteristic of +these districts are the red-bellied tanagra (_Tanagra igniventris_, +Orb.), the fire-colored pyranga (_Phoenisoma bivittata_, Tsch.), two +species of the crow, one of which is of a fine blue color (_Cyanocorax +viridicyanus_, G. R. Gray), the other green on the back and bright +yellow on the belly (_Cyanoc. peruanus_, Cab.). The Indians call the +latter _Quienquien_, as it utters a sort of screaming sound resembling +these syllables. Individual birds belonging to the Penelope family (_P. +rufiventris_ and _adspersa_, Tsch.) and the green pepper-eater +(_Pteroglossus caeruleo-cinctus_, Tsch., _Pt. atrogularis_, Sturm.) are +found in the lower forests. + +Proceeding still further downward we at length reach the _Montana_. The +Peruvians apply this name to the vast aboriginal forests which extend +across the whole country from north to south along the eastern foot of +the Andes. Those which lie higher, and in which the spaces between the +lofty trees are overgrown with thick masses of bushes and twining +plants, are called by the natives simply _Montanas_. Those which are +free from these intermediate masses of vegetation they call _Montanas +reales_ (royal mountains). At first sight they produce the impression of +a virgin forest of oaks. + +The distance from the Ceja to the district properly called the Montana +is very various at different points. In some parts it takes six or +eight days' hard riding; in other directions the traveller may, in the +morning, leave the snow-covered Puna huts, and at sunset, on the +uninhabited margin of the primeval forest, he may taste pine-apples +and bananas of his own gathering. Such a day certainly deserves to +form an epoch in his life; for in the course of a few hours he passes +through the most opposite climates of the earth, and the gradual +progression of the development of the vegetable world is spread out in +visible reality before him. + +The Montanas of Peru are, in general, but thinly peopled with Christian +Indians. They are employed either in cultivating their own fields, or in +working as day-laborers in the great plantations. The productions of the +haciendas consist chiefly of sugar, coffee, maize, coca, tobacco, +oranges, bananas, and pine-apples, which are sent to the Sierra. The +cultivation of bark, balsams, gums, honey and wax, also occupies a +great number of Indians. + +The plantation buildings stand on rising grounds. The walls are +constructed of reeds, the interstices being filled up with loam, and the +roofs are of straw or palm leaves. Around the buildings are the fields +allotted to cultivation, in which the soils favorable to the production +of certain plants are selected. The coffee usually grows round the +house, and an adjacent building contains the store-rooms. The +fruit-trees grow along the margins of the maize fields; marshy ground +is selected for the sugar fields; in the vicinity of brooks and +streams the useful banana flourishes; the pine-trees are ranged in +rows on the hot, dry declivities, and the coca is found to thrive best +in warm, hollow dells. + +As the humidity of the atmosphere, added to the multitudes of insects, +mice and rats, prevents any lengthened preservation of provisions, the +cultivators sell or exchange them as speedily as possible; hence arises +a very active intercourse in business between the Montanas and the +Sierra. The mountain Indians bring llamas, dried meat, potatoes, bark, +and salt, to exchange for fruit; it is very seldom that any money +circulates in this traffic. Only the owners of plantations sell their +productions for ready money, with which they purchase, in the upland +towns, European goods, particularly printed and plain cottons, coarse +woollen stuffs, knives, hatchets, fishing-tackle, &c.; with these goods +they pay their laborers, charging them for every article five or even +six times its value. As there is throughout these forest regions a great +want of men, the plantation owners endeavor to get the few Indians who +settle voluntarily on their property, fixed to it for ever. They sell +them indispensable necessaries at an extravagant price, on condition of +their paying for them by field labor. + +I have seen an Indian give five days' labor, from six o'clock in the +morning to sunset, for a red pocket-handkerchief, which in Germany would +not be worth four groschen. The desire to possess showy articles, the +necessity of obtaining materials for his wretched clothing, or +implements to enable him, in his few free hours, to cultivate his own +field, and, above all, his passion for coca and intoxicating drinks, all +prompt the Indian to incur debt upon debt to the plantation owner. The +sugar-cane is seldom used in the forest plantations for making sugar. +The juice is usually converted into the cakes called _chancacas_, which +have been already mentioned, or it is made into _guarapo_, a strong +liquor, which the Indians spare no effort to procure. When they begin to +be intoxicated, they desire more and more of the liquor, which is +readily given, as it is the interest of the owners to supply it. After +some days of extreme abstinence they return to their work, and then the +Mayordomo shows them how much their debt has increased, and the +astonished Indian finds that he must labor for several months to pay it; +thus these unfortunate beings are fastened in the fetters of slavery. +Their treatment is, in general, most tyrannical. The Negro slave is +far more happy than the free Indians in the haciendas of this part of +Peru. At sunrise all the laborers must assemble in the courtyard of +the plantation, where the Mayordomo prescribes to them their day's +work, and gives them the necessary implements. They are compelled to +work in the most oppressive heat, and are only allowed to rest thrice +for a few minutes, at times fixed, for chewing their coca and for +dinner. For indolence or obstinacy they suffer corporal punishment, +usually by being put into a kind of stocks, called the CEPO, in which +the culprit stands from twelve to forty-eight hours, with his neck or +legs fixed between two blocks of wood. + +The labor of bringing the forest lands into a productive state is one of +the severest tasks in the Montanas, and it can only be performed in the +hottest season of the year. As the soil is always moist, and the +vegetation full of sap, the trees must be cut down about the end of the +rainy season, and after drying for some months they are burned; but they +are seldom brought into a state of such aridity as to be destroyed by +the action of the fire. This is a considerable obstruction to the +progress of raising plants; for the seed must be sown between the felled +trees, which are perhaps only half-charred, and are still damp. In +consequence of this, the practice is, in the first year, to plant maize +at the places where the burnt trees are laid; the maize grows in almost +incredible abundance, and the result is a singularly rich harvest, after +which, part of the burned wood is removed. The same process is renewed +after every harvest, until all the burnt trees are cleared off and a +free field gained for the cultivation of the perennial plants. + +Far more fortunate than the Indians who are neighbors of the +plantations, are those who live far back in the interior of the +forests, and who, in consequence of their great distance from any +settlement, seldom have intercourse with the civilized world. Content +with what bounteous nature offers them, and ignorant of the wants of +more refined life, they seek nothing beyond such things as they can, +without any great efforts, obtain in the districts in which they +dwell. There they plant their little patches of ground, the care of +which is consigned to the women. The men takes their bows and arrows +and set out on hunting expeditions, during which they are for weeks, +often months, absent from their homes. The rainy season drives them +back to their huts, where they indulge in indolent repose, which is +only occasionally suspended when they are engaged in fishing. The +return of the sunny sky draws them out again on their expeditions, in +which they collect a sufficient supply of food for the year. + +But wherever these Indians have settled on the banks of great rivers, +the trading intercourse produces an alteration in their mode of life. +Europeans and Creoles then try to create among them, as among the +plantation Indians, a desire to satisfy unnecessary wants, and thereby +they are induced to collect the valuable productions of the forests. +In the loftier districts of the Montanas the Peruvian bark is found: +the lower and more marshy places produce the sarsaparilla, and a sort +of wood for dyeing called _Llangua_. This last-named article has not +yet found its way to Europe. + +In the month of May the Indians assemble to collect the Peruvian bark, +for which purpose they repair to the extensive Cinchona woods. One of +the party climbs a high tree to obtain, if possible, an uninterrupted +view over the forest, and to spy out the _Manchas_, or spots where there +are groups of Peruvian bark trees. The men who thus spy out the trees +are called _Cateadores_, or searchers. It requires great experience to +single out, in the dark leaf-covered expanse, the Cinchona groups merely +by the particular tint of the foliage, which often differs but very +little from that of the surrounding trees. As soon as the cateador has +marked out and correctly fixed upon the mancha, he descends to his +companions, and leads them with wonderful precision through the almost +impenetrable forest to the group. A hut is immediately built, which +serves as a resting-place during night, and is also used for drying +and preserving the bark. The tree is felled as near the root as +possible, divided into pieces, each from three to four feet long, and +with a short curved knife a longitudinal incision is made in the bark. +After a few days, if the pieces are found to be getting dry, the bark +already incised is stripped off in long slips, which are placed in the +hut, or in hot weather laid before it to dry. In many parts, +particularly in the central and southern districts of Peru, where the +moisture is not very great, the bark is dried in the forest, and the +slips are packed in large bundles. In other districts, on the +contrary, the bark is rolled up green, and sent to the neighboring +villages, where it is dried. Towards the end of September the +_Cascarilleros_[79] return to their homes. + +In the more early periods of South American history, the bark was a +principal article of Peruvian commerce. Since the commencement of the +present century its value has, however, considerably diminished, chiefly +in consequence of adulterated and inferior kinds, which are supplied +from other quarters, perhaps also on account of the more frequent use of +quinine; for in the production of the alkaloids less bark is employed +than was formerly used in substance. During the war of independence the +bark trade received its death-blow, and for the space of several years +scarcely more than a few hundred-weights of bark were exported from +Peru. The Montanas of Huanuco, which once furnished all the apothecaries +of Europe with the "divine medicine," are beginning again to yield +supplies. From the roots of the felled trees a vigorous after-growth has +commenced. In the Montanas of Huamalies a kind of bark is found, the +nature of which is not yet defined by botanists; and from the Montanas +of Urubamba comes the highly esteemed _Cascarilla de Cuzco_, which +contains an alkaloid, named _Cusconin_.[80] Possibly the medicinal +bark may again become a flourishing branch of trade for Peru, though +it can never again recover the importance which was attached to it a +century ago. During my residence in Peru, a plan was in agitation for +establishing a quinine manufactory at Huanuco. The plan, if well +carried out, would certainly be attended with success. There is in +Bolivia an establishment of this kind conducted by a Frenchman; but +the quinine produced is very impure. The inhabitants of the Peruvian +forests drink an infusion of the green bark as a remedy against +intermitting fever. I have found it in many cases much more +efficacious than the dried kind, for less than half the usual dose +produces, in a short time, convalescence, and the patient is secure +against returning febrile attacks. + +A class of Indians who live far back in the heart of the woods of +Southern Peru and Bolivia employ themselves almost exclusively in +gathering balsams and odorous gums from resinous plants, many of which +are burned in the churches as incense. They also collect various +objects, supposed to be sympathetic remedies, such as the claws of the +tapir, against falling sickness; and the teeth of poisonous snakes +which, carefully fixed in leaves, and stuck into the tubes of rushes, +are regarded as powerful specifics against headache and blindness. +Various salves, plasters, powders, seeds, roots, barks, &c., to each of +which is attributed some infallible curative power, are prepared and +brought to market by the Indians. When the rainy season sets in they +leave the forest and proceed in parties to the mountainous country. On +these occasions, contrary to the general custom of the Indians, the men, +not the women, carry the burthens. They are accompanied by the women as +far as the Sierra; for the loads, which are often very heavy, graze the +backs of the men who carry them, and the women then act as surgeons. The +injured part is first carefully washed with copaiba balsam, moistened, +then covered with leaves fixed on with small strips of leather, overlaid +with the hide of some forest animal. These operations being performed, +the loads are again fastened on the backs of the Indians. In their +native forests these people wear but little clothing. Their dress is +limited to a sort of loose tunic without sleeves for the women, and for +the men merely a piece of cloth fastened round the waist. They go +barefooted; but they paint their feet and legs with the juice of the +Huito (_Genipa oblongifolia_, R. Pav.) in such a manner that they seem +to be wearing half-boots. The juice of the Huito has the effect of +protecting them against the stings of insects. The coloring adheres so +strongly to the skin that it cannot be washed off by water; but oil +speedily removes it. In the Sierra these Indians put on warmer clothing, +and on their feet they wear a kind of boots called _aspargetas_, made of +the plaited tendrils of plants. + +The stock of balsams and drugs being disposed of, the Indians, after a +few months' absence, return to their homes. Some of them, however, +wander to the distance of two or three hundred leagues from their native +forests, traversing the greater part of Peru, and even visiting Lima, +carrying large flask gourds filled with balsams. These wandering tribes +seek frequent contact with other nations. They are not distrustful and +reserved, but, on the contrary, annoyingly communicative. It is not easy +to discover the cause of this exception, or to ascertain the time when +the Indians began to travel the country as physicians and apothecaries. +The earliest writers on the oldest epochs of Peruvian history make no +mention of this race of medical pedlars. + +The Indians here alluded to all profess Christianity, and must, as +_Indios Christianos_, in strict correctness, be distinguished from the +wild Indians, _Indios Bravos_, who exclusively inhabit the eastern +Montanas of Peru, towards the frontiers of Brazil. These Indios Bravos +comprehend numerous tribes, each of which has its own customs, religion, +and also, in general, its own language. Only very few of them are known, +for since the overthrow of the missions there is little communication +with them. Respecting the Indios Bravos who inhabit the Montanas of +Southern Peru, I have been unable to collect any accurate information. +They remain quite unknown, for impenetrable wilds intervene between them +and the civilized world, and seldom has a European foot ventured into +their territory. The wild Indians in Central Peru are most set against +the Christians, particularly those called Iscuchanos, in the Montana de +Huanta, and those known by the name of Chunchos, in the Montana de +Vitoc. The Iscuchanos sometimes maintain with the inhabitants of Huanta +a trade of barter; but this intercourse is occasionally interrupted by +long intervals of hostility, during which the Iscuchanos, though rather +an inoffensive race, commit various depredations on the Huantanos; +driving the cattle from the pastures, carrying off the produce of the +soil, and spreading terror throughout the whole district. Some years +ago, when the inhabitants of Huanta had assembled for the procession of +the Festival of Corpus Christi, a troop of Iscuchanos came upon them +with wild bulls, turning the infuriated animals against the procession, +which was dispersed, and many of the Huantanos were killed or severely +wounded. These Iscuchanos are so favored by the locality of the district +they inhabit, that even were a military expedition sent to drive them +farther back into the woods, it would probably be unsuccessful. + +The Chunchos are far more dangerous, and are one of the most formidable +races of the Indios Bravos. They inhabit the most southern part of the +Pampa del Sacramento (the terra incognita of Peru), and chiefly the +district through which flow the rivers Chanchamayo and Perene. Those +regions are inhabited by a great number of tribes, most of which are +only known by name. The frontier neighbors of the Chunchos are the +sanguinary Campas or Antes who destroyed the missions of Jesus Maria in +Pangoa, and who still occasionally pay hostile visits to San +Buenaventura de Chavini, the extreme Christian outpost in the Montana de +Andamarca. The savage race of the Casibos, the enemies of all the +surrounding populations, inhabit the banks of the river Pachitea. This +race maintains incessant war with all the surrounding tribes, and +constantly seeks to destroy them. According to the accounts of the +missionaries, they, as well as the Antes and Chunchos, are still +cannibals, and undertake warlike expeditions for the purpose of +capturing prisoners, whom they devour. After the rainy season, when +the Simirinches, the Amapuahas, or Consbos, hunt in the western +forests, they often fall into the hands of the Casibos, who imitate in +perfection the cries of the forest animals, so that the hunters are +treacherously misled, and being captured, are carried off as victims. +Many horrible accounts of this barbarous tribe were related by the +missionaries centuries ago, when romantic stories and exaggerations of +every kind were the order of the day; but the most recent +communications of the missionaries from Ocopa confirm the fact, that +in the year 1842, the Casibos continued to be savage Anthropophagi. It +is worthy of remark that they never eat women, a fact which some may +be inclined to attribute to respect for the female sex. It is, +however, assignable to a different feeling. All the South American +Indians, who still remain under the influence of sorcery and +empiricism, consider women in the light of impure and evil beings, and +calculated to injure them. Among a few of the less rude nations this +aversion is apparent in domestic life, in a certain unconquerable +contempt of females. With the Anthropophagi the feeling extends, +fortunately, to their flesh, which is held to be poisonous. + +The languages spoken by the wild Indian tribes are very various. From +the Maranon to Omaguas, Quichua, the language of the Incas, is spoken. +On the left bank of the Ucayali the dialect of the Panos prevails. On +the right bank the Cascas, the Sinabus, and the Diabus, preserve their +own idioms, which are so different that those races are reciprocally +unable to communicate with each other. On Upper Ucayali evidences of +common origin are said to be apparent between the Simirinches, Campas, +Runaguas, and Mochobos. But on this subject no accurate conclusions +can be formed; for the accounts given by the missions in early periods +were very imperfect, and most of the races are so intractable that it +has since been impossible to collect correct information. According +to the accounts of travelled missionaries which I had the opportunity +of examining in the convent of Ocopa, it appears that, besides the +Quichua, the idioms spoken by the Panos, Cascas, Simirinches, and the +Chunchos, may be set down as dialects of decidedly different origins. + +The mode of living among all these Indians is very much the same. War +and hunting in summer, and repairing their warlike weapons in winter, +are the occupations of the men. The women cultivate the fields, lay up +the stores of provisions, fish, spin and cook. Their clothes are of the +most simple kind. Many of the races wear no clothing, and have their +bodies wholly or partially bedaubed with paint. The men of some races +wear a kind of shirt without sleeves, and the women a petticoat reaching +from the waist to the knees. These garments are made of cotton obtained +from the uncultivated tree _Bombax_, and their color is white, blue, or +red. The custom of boring the ears, the nose, and the under lip, for the +insertion of some ornament, is much practised, particularly by the +Panos, Shipeos, and Pirras. They paint their bodies, but not exactly in +the tattoo manner; they confine themselves to single stripes. The Sensis +women draw two stripes from the shoulder, over each breast, down to the +pit of the stomach; the Pirras women paint a band in the form of a +girdle round the waist, and they have three of a darker color round each +thigh. These stripes, when once laid on, can never be removed by +washing. They are made with the unripe fruit of one of the Rubiacaceae. +Some tribes paint the face only; others, on the contrary, do not touch +that part; but bedaub with colors their arms, feet, and breasts. + +In hunting, bows and arrows are the principal weapons used by the +Indians. In war they use, besides bows and arrows, clubs and a kind of +sword made of wood. The arrows are reeds, five or six feet long, and +of the thickness of a finger. The point is of very hard wood, and is +strongly barbed by notches and with sharp fish teeth about three +inches long. To the other extremity of the arrow colored feathers are +always affixed. + +Among many Indians, particularly in the western and northern districts +of the Pampa del Sacramento, the _Pocuna_ is a weapon much used in +hunting. It is made of a long reed, and measures eight or ten, or even +more, feet. At one end are fixed two teeth of a javali, or white-lipped +peccary (_Dicotyles labiatus_), on which the reed is rested when taking +aim. The arrows, which are only one and a half or two inches long, are +made of the thick part of a strong cactus stem. In general their small +arrows are poisoned, for otherwise the wound would be too inconsiderable +to kill even a little bird. The poison for arrows differs almost with +every tribe, and very mysterious ceremonies are observed at its +preparation. On this account the art of preparing it, and the +ingredients employed, are only very partially known to Europeans. Their +elements are obtained from several plants not yet defined botanically, +among which the _Apihuasca_ and poison capsicum are much resorted to. +Infusions of the leaves of a very strong kind of tobacco, and of the +Sanano (_Tabernaemontana Sanano_, R. P.), and of Euphorbiaceae, are also +taken. Some modern travellers, contrary to the testimony of the oldest +writers on Peru, have asserted that no animal substance is employed in +the poison for arrows. I am, however, enabled to state, on the authority +of an Indian who had himself often made the poison, that not only the +black and very poisonous emmet (_Cryptacereo atrato affin_), but also +the teeth of the formidable serpent, known to the Indians by the name of +Miuamaru or Jergon (_Lachesis picta_, Tsch.), are used for that purpose. + +The wound of the poisoned arrow is fatal and rapid. Men and large +mammalia die in about four or five minutes after receiving the wound; +the smaller mammiferous animals and birds, in two minutes. The blow-reed +sends these deadly arrows with great certainty to the distance of +thirty-two or thirty-six paces. Hunting with the blow-reed must be long +practised in order to acquire dexterity in its use, and great caution is +requisite to avoid being self-wounded by the small sharp arrows. An +example came to my knowledge in the case of an Indian who let an arrow +fall unobserved from his quiver; he trod upon it, and it penetrated the +sole of his foot; in a very short time he was a corpse. + +The club called _Matusino_ is four or five feet long, and is encircled +in a spiral form at the thick end, by a row of deer's horns. A single +long horn is fastened in the centre, the chief use of which is to +stick it in the earth when the club is rested. Only a few races of +upper and lower Ucayali and the Sensis use this formidable weapon, +which is very inconvenient and obstructive in passing through thick +forests. The _macana_, or wooden sword, is made of strong _chunta_. +The color of this wood is a deep blackish brown; it is very hard and +heavy, and is always used for implements which require great +durability and strength. The macana is about four feet long, one inch +thick, and from five to six inches broad; towards the hilt end the +breadth is about three inches, and it is rounded. It is so well cut +and polished, that a sabre scarcely excels it in sharpness. The weapon +is so heavy that it requires both hands to wield it. + +There are not only offensive, but also defensive, weapons. One of the +latter is the _viche_, a very simple shield, one and a half or two feet +in diameter. It consists of a strong frame of twisted creeping plants, +over which the skin of a deer or tapir is stretched and fastened with +twine. On the inside there are two holds for the arm; the edge is +adorned with colored feathers. + +The Indians of the races above noticed seldom live in villages, but +chiefly in huts scattered through the forests. Sometimes they construct +a few of their dwellings near together, and so form a hamlet. Their huts +are either quadrangular, oblong, or circular. The walls consist of +strong stems of trees, bound together by twining plants; and the roof is +of palm leaves laid over a skeleton of reeds. The entrance, which is on +the side opposite to the prevailing wind, is left open, and but seldom +protected by a door. At Chanchamayo I saw a very simple kind of hut +among the Chunchos. It resembled an open umbrella with the handle stuck +in the earth. The single wall, which also formed its roof, consisted of +eight long reeds: they spread out below in the form of a fan, standing +obliquely on the earth, and fastened to three stems of trees. On this +simple skeleton were laid lengthways the leaves of the omero, a kind of +palm. A strong stem fixed firmly in the earth, extended obliquely to the +middle of the inner side of the wall, and two thinner stems on each +side, served as supports for this frail building. According to the +direction of the wind the hut is turned round. + +The Indian huts all stand detached from each other, and they are seldom +divided internally into apartments. They occupy very little ground, +never more than sixty square feet of superficies. In the principal +settlement of an Indian race, the huts are scattered over a circuit of +some miles in the forests. + +Any form of government is a thing quite unknown to most of the Indios +Bravos of Peru. Uniformity of speech, manners, and arms, unite together +a number of Indians, who thus form a race, but there is among them no +bond of subjection, or of duty to any government, either voluntarily +chosen, or self-constituted. Among the inhabitants of Lower Ucayali, +however, the oldest, or the bravest individuals of each race are either +publicly, or silently recognised as chiefs. Respect to age prevails only +among a few of the races, as the Setebos, Mayorhunas, and Panos. Among +others, as the Campos, Casibos, and Cunchos, the old are put to death. +It is a general custom of the wild Indians to kill their aged prisoners +immediately on their being captured. + +Social meetings among these races are of rare occurrence. Gloomy, +reserved, and distrustful, the Indian is only at ease in the circle he +has himself formed. When, however, the general interest of the race is +in question, then he comes boldly forward in support of the whole. The +usual assemblages are for the arrangement of long hunting excursions, +and warlike expeditions. The departures and the returns are celebrated +by tumultuous feasts, in which intoxicating drinks flow freely. Most of +the liquors are prepared from Yucca, or the fruits of the Chunta, called +the _Mazato_, or other species of palms. In the most remote forests, and +among the most insulated tribes, the preparation of intoxicating liquors +is known; and there certainly is not in all South America an Indian race +which is not familiar with it. Wild dances form part of the +entertainments, and the banquet usually ends with a sanguinary battle. + +Marriage in most races is celebrated socially, but not among those in +which polygamy prevails. The formula observed on the occasion differs in +different tribes; in some the union is effected under painful ceremonies +to the bride, in others with fasting and penitential torments to the +bridegroom. In general the Indian selects a wife for himself. In the +greater number of tribes a maiden is set up as a prize, and the young +men commence a life or death contest for her. The oldest warriors are +arbitrators, and from their hands the conqueror receives the prize. This +is the practice among the inhabitants of the Rio de Santa Catalina. With +them, as well as with most of the tribes of Western Ucayali, the birth +of a child is festively celebrated. The oldest individuals of the race +assemble to receive the child, which is repeatedly blown on to drive +demons and sickness away from it; the name of an animal is then given +to it, and, according to Don Pedro Beltran, the witnesses of the +ceremony mark with a wooden pencil some hieroglyphic characters on two +leaves, which are carefully preserved, and on the death of the Indian, +deposited in the grave with him. + +The dead are buried in the huts. The survivors having testified their +sorrow by a melancholy howl three times repeated, leave the place and +build a new residence for themselves in a distant district. They break +in pieces all the household furniture of the deceased, but they bury +with him his warlike weapons and his agricultural implements, under the +conviction that he will use them in the place to which he is going. A +peculiar custom among several races is this: the oldest son cuts a +piece from the heel of his deceased father, which he hangs round his +neck, and wears as a sacred relic. Some of the tribes on the Perene +and Capanegua do not, like most wild nations, respect the remains of +the dead, but throw the bodies into the forest unburied, to be +devoured by beasts of prey. + +Very little is correctly known of the religion of the Peruvian Indios +Bravos. All believe in the existence of superior beings, and distinguish +them as good and evil; and they are accordingly venerated from +gratitude, or from fear. The former they regard as beneficent; but the +latter as having the power of bringing into exercise all the destroying +forces of nature. These people, therefore, find in the sky, in the air, +and on the earth, objects for their adoration. Certain constellations +are regarded as favorable phenomena, while others are looked at with a +secret horror. The sun is by all gladly worshipped, more particularly by +the descendants of those who in early times stood in connexion with the +Incas. On the other hand, they pay but a reluctant tribute to the moon, +perhaps because by its pale light fearful images are reflected around +them in the forests, and because its phases are to them involved in +impenetrable mystery. They ascribe thunder and lightning to demoniacal +influences, and to the same origin they attribute certain winds which +have an injurious influence on their health. But their religious notions +are not connected exclusively with the phenomena of nature, which are to +them inexplicable. With all their ideas on surrounding nature, two +conflicting principles are invariably connected, one of which is +believed to be beneficial, the other injurious to them. In the animals +of the forest, the plants, the stones, in everything, they trace these +beneficent or demoniacal powers. Every idea, every action is with them a +consequence of the influence of one of these two powers, and free will +is impossible. Though a rude materialism cripples the intelligence of +these Indians, yet they seem to be sensible of the connexion between +that which is perceptible to their senses, and something +higher--something beyond the sphere of corporeal perception. But of the +nature of this higher something they have no comprehension, nor do they +endeavor to render to themselves any account of it. They are satisfied +with an obscure idea of the difference between the visible and the +invisible; but still this idea is so contracted that they always give to +the spiritual a corporeal form: and they attribute to natural objects +with which they come most in contact, the possession of good or evil +qualities, thus assigning to them the nature of spiritual beings. + +None of these tribes appear, as yet, to have advanced so far as to be +impressed with the persuasion that the whole of nature is guided by +unchangeable laws over which one will presides. In general, they have +no idea of a spiritual unity, and are utter strangers to the knowledge +of one God. They all, however, believe in the immortality of the soul. +They see the lifeless body, they have certain proof that the earthly +integument is no longer the abode of the soul; but, as they can form +no notion of anything spiritual entirely self-existent, they imagine +that their dead will, in new life, appear under a new bodily form. The +several tribes differ greatly in their belief of the nature of the +metamorphoses which they expect to take place. Those who look forward +to the re-appearance of the deceased in human life, bury with the men +hunting and agricultural instruments; but their notions even on this +head are not very clear, and when questioned on the subject their +answers are very confused. They say that they are going to a very +beautiful place, far from their present dwelling; but, according to +their conception, it appears that the place, though distant, is still +on earth. Those races who believe in metamorphoses into the forms of +the lower animals, are persuaded that the dead in their new forms will +inhabit the woods around their homes, and avenge the wrongs they have +suffered during life. This is the belief of the inhabitants of Upper +Ucayali and Pachitea. + +In considering the physical formation of the wild Indians, we may class +them according to their natural divisions, viz., the inhabitants of the +more highly situated lands, or mountains, and those of the low hot flat +country. The former dwell on the eastern side of the hill-chain, +dividing the river territory of the Huallaga and Ucayali, and spreading +to the banks of the Chauchamayo, Perene, and Apurimac. These are the +Iscuchanos. They are rather tall and generally slim; their limbs are +vigorous; their hands and feet small, and in walking their toes are much +turned in. The head is proportionally large, with very strong bones; the +forehead is low, the eyes small and animated, the nose large and rather +sharp, the cheek-bones a little prominent. The mouth is not large, and +the lips are delicately formed, but often disfigured by ornaments. The +ears are small, quite the reverse of those of the Indians of the flat +lands. The pointed chin is only sparingly covered with beard, which does +not appear until advanced age, and on the cheeks there is none. The hair +of the head is long, stiff, and of a brilliant black. Many of the tribes +dye their hair; the Chunchos dye it red, and the Antis are said to dye +it blue; as to the latter color it appears to me improbable, but I +mention it on the authority of Friar Leceta. The skin is fine and soft, +the color a deep rusty brown. In speaking of the South American Indians, +it is usual to describe their skin as copper color, but this term is +incorrect, for there certainly is no single tribe to which it might be +perfectly applicable. It appears to me that the color of all is much +fainter, and tending more to brown or yellow. "Rusty brown," if the +expression may be used, appears to me far more descriptive. + +The second natural section of the wild Indians inhabits the northern +part of the Pampa del Sacramento, the banks of the Ucayali, and of the +Maranon. They are smaller than those just described. There is a +certain peculiarity in the make of these people; for though they are +broad over the shoulders yet their chests are flat, and their shoulder +blades lie low. Their limbs are lank, and their hands rather small; +the soles of the feet are broad and flat. The face is broad, the eyes +long shaped, the pupil deeply set, the nose is flat, with large +oblique nostrils, and the cheek-bones are prominent. The mouth is +wide, the lips thick, and among some tribes the mouth and nose are +very close together. The chin is small and round, the ears large and +standing out from the head. The hair and beard of these Indians are +the same as in those of the hilly country. The color of the skin +varies much; in some it is a light reddish brown; in others, a kind of +yellow, very like that of the Mongols. The women of all these tribes +are exceedingly ugly, and far from corresponding with the picture a +European imagination might form of the daughters of the aboriginal +forests. These women soon become old, for they not only fulfil female +duties, but execute the greater part of those severer labors which +ought to fall to the share of the stronger sex. + +To the above outline sketch of the human inhabitants of the aboriginal +forests, I will now add some description of the animal world, as it came +under my observation in those luxuriant regions. + +Unlike the peaceful repose which presides over animal life on the level +heights, are the constant aggressions and combats which prevail in the +forest regions. There the strong attack the weak, and the cunning +inveigle the unwary: strength and intelligence, caution and instinct, +are unceasingly in active operation. The variegated forms and colors +which meet the eye, and the multifarious cries and tones which resound +through the woods, form, altogether, the most singular contrast. The +gold-feathered colibri hums lightly through the air, soaring over the +heavy, sombre-colored tapir. The sprightly singing-bird pours forth his +melodious chants amidst the thick foliage of the aged trees, whilst the +fierce ounce, prowling for his prey, growls as he passes over their +enormous, spreading roots. Slowly do the eye and the ear learn to +distinguish individuals in the vast mass of apparent chaotic confusion, +and to recognise quickly fleeting forms, or distant resounding sounds. + +The whole of the animal world is here developed to the view, and it +would be difficult to assign the predominance to any one class. Yet, +perhaps, the variegated feathered tribe is relatively most extensively +represented. The number of the mammalia is also important. They are +seldom seen by the hunter during the day, but twilight draws them from +their hiding-places. + +Troops of monkeys skip from tree to tree, looking timidly around, and +uttering mournful howls. Among them are swarms of the black marimonda +(_Ateles_), with slender long arms and red-brown or black faces; in some +the faces are encircled with white hair (_Ateles marginatus_, Geoff.), +which gives them a striking resemblance to an old negro. Next is seen a +group of silver-grey monkeys (_Lagothrix Humboldtii_, Geoff.), stalking +over heaps of broken branches and twigs in search of a resting-place. +These monkeys, which are the largest in South America, are about three +feet high, and are bold and vicious. When wounded they take a position +of defence against the hunter, struggling, and uttering loud cries, upon +which their companions hasten down from the trees to assist them. But +soon a short stifled cry is heard: it is the cry of mortal convulsion. +That sound drives them instantly back, and they disperse in wild flight. +The sly sayu ventures to approach the dwellings of men, where he +plunders maize fields with incredible dexterity. The delicate +silky-haired monkey, shivering at every cool breeze or shower of rain, +and starting at the slightest noise, creeps for shelter into the +thicket, where he lies peeping with his penetrating eyes in the +direction of the apprehended danger. + +At sunset swarms of bats flutter through field and forest in all +directions, and greedily devour the insects which in the twilight awaken +to full activity. Some of these bats (_Phyllostoma hastatum_, Geoff.) +are remarkable for their expanse of wing, which measures nearly two +feet. Others are distinguished for ugliness and for their offensive +smell. These latter fly into the Indian huts at night and greatly annoy +the inhabitants, who cannot get rid of them by fire or smoke, or any +other means, until at the midnight hour they retire of their own accord. +Not less troublesome are the leaf-nosed bats (_Phyllostoma_), which +attack both man and beast. This bat rubs up the skin of his victim, from +which he sucks the blood. The domestic animals suffer greatly from the +nocturnal attacks of these bats, and many are destroyed by the +exhaustion consequent on the repeated blood-sucking. The blood drawn by +the bat itself does not exceed a few ounces; but if, when satisfied, it +drops down to the ground, or flies away, the wound continues to bleed +for a long time, and in the morning the animal is often found in a very +weak condition, and covered with blood. One of my mules, on which a +leaf-nosed bat made a nightly attack, was only saved by having his back +rubbed with an ointment made of spirits of camphor, soap and petroleum. +The blood-suckers have such an aversion to the smell of this ointment +that on its application they ceased to approach the mule. These bats are +very mischievous in the plantations of the forests, where beasts of +burden and horned cattle are exposed to their attacks. Whether they +venture to assail man has been a much disputed question. Several +travellers declare that they do not. I may, however, mention a case +which occurred within my own knowledge. A bat (_Ph. erythromos_, Tsch.) +fastened on the nose of an Indian lying intoxicated in a plantation, and +sucked so much blood that it was unable to fly away. The slight wound +was followed by such severe inflammation and swelling that the features +of the Cholo were not recognisable. + +Many beasts of prey, and among them some of formidable strength and +fierceness, make havoc among the other animals of the forests. In the +lofty Montanas the black bear (_U. frugilegus_, Tsch.) roams as wild as +his fellow-depredator of the Cordillera. He often enters the maize +fields of the Indians, breaks the stalks of the plants and drags the +green tops away to his hole. When this bear cannot obtain his customary +vegetable food, consisting chiefly of the fruits of a pandanea +(_Phytelephas_), he watches for the deer and wild boars, or attacks the +oxen employed to turn the machinery in the sugar-mills: he has even +been known to assail solitary travellers. The lively coatis traverse the +forests in flocks. They collect round the roots of trees and search for +the larvae of insects; light-footed, they climb up bush and tree to find +birds' nests, and feast on the eggs and the young. With a monotonous +howl, not unlike that made by some dogs on a clear moonlight night, the +yellow-breasted glutton (_Galictis barbara_, Wieg.), the omeyro of the +Indians, announces his presence. But the most fierce of all these wild +forest animals are those of the feline class. The spotless dark-grey +yaguarundi, not much larger than the wild cat of Europe, pursues all +kinds of birds, particularly the pigeon, the partridge, and the +penelope. The oscollo (_F. celidogaster_, Tem.), the uturunca (_F. +pardalis_, L.), and the long-tailed, yellowish-grey tiger-cat (_F. +macrourura_, Pr. M.), all lie in wait, not only for the weaker mammalia, +but sometimes they even venture into the plantations and kill dogs and +poultry. The maneless Mexican Lion (the puma) roams through the upper +regions of the forest, where he has almost undisputed hunting-ground. He +fearlessly assails victims who cannot effectually defend themselves, +such as the horse, the mule, and the ass, and he tears large pieces of +flesh from their ribs; but he does not venture to meddle with oxen. He +shuns men, and in the forest he even flies from the unarmed Indian. I +fired at a very large puma, which immediately fled, roaring loudly. +When severely wounded and driven into a corner, this animal frequently +commences a combat of despair, and sometimes kills the hunter. The +puma measures in length about four feet, and in height more than two +feet. More direful than any of the felines mentioned above is the +sanguinary ounce,[81] which possesses vast strength, and is of a most +savage disposition. Though the favorite haunts of this animal are the +expansive Pajonales, yet he frequently takes up his abode in the +vicinity of villages and plantations, spreading terror among the +inhabitants. Far from being intimidated at the sight of men, he often +attacks individuals, and when pressed by hunger is not afraid, even +in broad daylight, to slip into the forest villages in order to carry +off food, and the booty, when once seized, is not easily recovered. + +An amusing example of this occurred in the Montana of Vitoc. An Indian +one night heard his only pig squeaking loudly, as if in pain. He +hastened to the door of his hut to see what was the matter, and he +discovered that an ounce had seized the pig by the head, and was +carrying it off. The Cholo, who determined to make an effort to recover +his property, seized the pig by the hind legs, and endeavored to drag it +from the grasp of the robber. This contest was kept up for some time, +the ounce, with his eyes glaring in the darkness, holding fast the head +of the pig, and the Indian pulling it hard by the legs. At length the +Indian's wife came to the door of the hut with a lighted fagot, and the +scared ounce, with terrible howlings, slowly retired to the forest. In +general the Indians have a great dread of these animals, and seldom +venture singly into the parts they frequent. The ounce hunter is the +only one who ventures to approach them. He is armed with a long spear, +with which he gives the ferocious animal a death-blow. He lets the ounce +come within a few paces of him without making the least show either of +flight or attack. If, however, the stroke he aims does not immediately +reach the seat of life, the hunter, in general, becomes the victim of +his bold attempt. Before he can stand on his defence, the wounded ounce +drags him to the ground, and tears the flesh from his bones. + +Sometimes the villagers collect their dogs together for a general hunt. +They drive the ounce into a place from whence there is no escape, or +often up a tree, where they shoot him with long arrows sent from their +bows or blow-tubes. In a few places snares are laid, or large holes are +dug, and a sharp-pointed stake is stuck in the middle, covered with +stalks and branches of trees, on which the bait is laid. The ounce is, +however, too cunning to be easily caught in traps, and it is only when +pressed by hunger that he can be tempted by a bait. In some districts +the ounces have increased so greatly, and done so much damage, that the +natives have been compelled to remove and settle in other places. I need +only refer to the Quebrada of Mayunmarca, in the Montana of Huanta, +near the road to Anco. There once stood the little village of Mayumarca, +which has been abandoned for more than a hundred years, as it was found +that the jaguars annually decimated the inhabitants; this Quebrada is +still in such bad repute that not a single Indian will venture into it. + +There is a black variety of the ounce, by many erroneously regarded as a +distinct species. It has the identical marks of the common jaguar, or +ounce, only its color is a dark, blackish-brown, whereby the whole of +the black spots are rendered indistinct. On the lower banks of the +Ucayali and the Maranon this dark variety is more frequently met with +than in the higher forests; in the Montanas of Huanta and Urubamba it is +also not uncommon. It is upon the whole larger, stronger, and more +daring than the lighter kind, and I have actually seen many black +skins which exceeded the usual length; but of specific distinctions +there is no indication. The superstitious Indians assign extraordinary +powers to everything that departs from the common course; the black +ounce is, accordingly, supposed to possess singular properties. The +yana chinca holds a prominent place in the religious ceremonies of +some of the Indian races. + +Turning from these fierce natives of the forest, we will now take a +glimpse at the peaceful inhabitants of those umbrageous regions. In +the hollow stems of trees, or among their canopied branches, are found +the timid marsupial animals (_Did. impavida_, and _noctivaga_, Tsch.). +These animals remain in obscure holes until the sun sinks beneath the +horizon, when they slip out in search of insects and fruit. Not +unfrequently they penetrate into the slightly guarded Indian huts, +creeping into every corner, until at last they are caught in traps +baited with pieces of banana and pine-apple. The lofty +_Terebinthaceae_, with their walnut-like fruit, are inhabited by +swarms of squirrels, which strongly remind the European of his own +woods. Numbers of the mouse family, from the small tree-mouse +(_Drymomys parvulus_, Tsch.) to the large, loathsome, spinous rat +(_Echinomys leptosoma_, Wagn.) swarm over all the Montanas, and love +to approximate to the dwellings of man. These animals destroy the +gathered harvest, and even in these remote regions they become a +plague. It is a striking fact, that certain animals are almost +inseparable from man. They keep with him, or follow him wherever he +settles. The mouse genus is one of these. On the coast, mice are not +the same as on the mountains, and in the forests they are again +different. Everywhere they leave their original dwelling-places, which +they exchange for an abode with man. As the mouse and the rat attack +the gathered fruits of the earth, the agouti preys on those yet +standing in the field. These animals are seldom found in the depths of +the forest, but more frequently on its edge near the chacras of the +Indians. Shortly before sunset they leave the thickets, and stealthily +repair to the maize, yucca, and anana fields, where they scratch up the +root and eat the grain and fruit; but the slightest noise drives them +back to their holes. In the deeper recesses of the forest resounds the +monotonous, drawling cry of the sloth. Here we have a symbol of life +under the utmost degree of listlessness, and of the greatest +insensibility in a state of languid repose. This emblem of misery fixes +itself on an almost leafless bough, and there remains defenceless; a +ready prey to any assailant. Better defended is the scale-covered +armadillo, with his coat of mail. Towards evening he burrows deep holes +in the earth, and searches for the larvae of insects, or he ventures out +of the forest, and visits the yucca fields, where he digs up the +well-flavored roots. The ant-eater rakes up with his long curved claws +the crowded resorts of ants, stretches out his long, spiral, and +adhesive tongue, into the midst of the moving swarm, and draws it back +covered with a multitude of crawling insects. + +In the soft marshy grounds, or in the damp shady recesses of the +forests, the heavy tapir reposes during the heat of the day; but when +the fresh coolness of evening sets in, he roves through the forest, +tears the tender twigs from the bushes, or seeks food in the +grass-covered Pajonales. Sometimes a multitude of tapirs sally from the +forests into the cultivated fields, to the great alarm of the Indians. A +broad furrow marks the tract along which they have passed, and the +plants they encounter in their progress are trampled down or devoured. +Such a visit is particularly fatal to the coca fields; for the tapirs +are extremely fond of the leaves of the low-growing coca plant, and they +often, in one night, destroy a coca field which has cost a poor Indian +the hard labor of a year. + +Flocks of the umbilical hog, or peccary, traverse the level Montanas. If +one of them is attacked by the hunter, a whole troop falls furiously on +him, and it is only by promptly climbing up a tree that he can escape; +then, whizzing and grunting, they surround the stem, and with their +snouts turn up the earth round the root, as if intending to pull down +the tree and so get at their enemy. The stag lurks in the thicket to +withdraw from the eyes of the greedy ounce; but towards evening he +leaves his hiding place, and sometimes strays beyond the boundary of the +forest; he ventures into the maize fields of the plantations, where he +tarries until night is far advanced. + +The same diversity of nature and habits is seen in the numerous hosts of +birds that inhabit the leafy canopies of the forest. On the loftiest +trees, or on detached rocks, eagles, kites, and falcons, build their +eyries. The most formidable of these birds of prey, both for boldness +and strength, the _Morphnus harpyia_, Cab., darts down on the largest +animals, and fears not to encounter the fiercest inhabitants of the +forest. The owl (_Noctua_, _Scops_, _Strix_), and the goat-milker +(_Caprimulgus_, _Hydropsalis_, _Chordiles_), fly with softly flapping +wings to their hunting quarters to surprise their victims while asleep. +In the hilly parts of the Montanas the black ox-bird (_Cephalopterus +ornatus_, Geoff.), the _Toropishu_ of the Indians, fills the forest with +his distant bellow, similar to the roaring of a bull. The _Tunqui_[82] +inhabits the same district. This bird is of the size of a cock; the body +is bright red, but the wings are black. The head is surmounted by a tuft +of red feathers, beneath which the orange bill projects with a slight +curve. It lives sociably with other birds in thickets, or among Cinchona +trees, the fruit of which is part of its food. Its harsh cry resembles +the grunt of the hog, and forms a striking contrast to its beautiful +plumage. Numberless fly-catchers and shrikes (_Muscicapidae_ and +_Laniadae_) hover on tree and bush, watching for the passing insects, +which they snatch up with extraordinary dexterity. Finches twitter on +the summits of the loftiest trees beyond the reach of the hunter's shot: +they are distinguished, like the _Ampelidae_, who, however, live amongst +the lower bushes, by the lively and almost dazzling colors of their +feathers. In modest plumage of cinnamon-brown, with head and neck of +dark olive, the _Organista_[83] raises, in the most woody parts of the +forest, her enchanting song, which is usually the prognostic of an +approaching storm. The tender, melancholy strains and the singular +clearness of the innumerable modulations charm the ear of the astonished +traveller, who, as if arrested by an invisible power, stops to listen to +the syren, unmindful of the danger of the threatening storm. On old +decayed stumps of trees the busy creeper[84] and the variegated +woodpecker are seen pecking the insects from under the loose bark, or by +their tapping bring them out of their concealed crevices; while the +red-tailed potter-bird (_Opetiorynchus ruficandus_, Pr. Max.) builds his +dwelling of potter's clay, or loam, as firmly as if it were destined to +last for ever. The pouched starlings[85] hang their nests, often four or +five feet long, on the slender branches of trees, where they swing to +and fro with the slightest breath of wind. Like a dazzling flash of +colored light the colibri (humming-bird) appears and disappears. No +combination of gorgeous coloring can exceed that which is presented in +the plumage of the golden-tailed humming or fly-bird (_Trochilus +chrysurus_, Cuv.) which haunts the warm primeval forests, but it is +still more frequently found in the pure atmosphere of the ceja-girded +Montanas. The silky cuckoo (_Trogon heliothrix_, Tsch.) retires into the +thickest masses of foliage, from which its soft rose-colored plumage +peeps out like a flower. The cry of the voracious chuquimbis[86] +accompanies the traveller from his first steps in the Montanas to his +entrance into the primeval forests, where he finds their relative, _Dios +te de_.[87] This bird accompanies its significant cry by throwing back +its head and making a kind of rocking movement of its body. The Indians, +who are always disposed to connect superstitious ideas with the natural +objects they see around them, believe that some great misfortune will +befall any one who may shoot this bird, because it utters the sacred +word, _Dios_. Long trains of green parrots fill the air with their noisy +chattering. One kind of these birds (_Ps. mercenarius_, Tsch.) is +remarkable for regular migrations. Every morning they sally forth in +flocks from the upper to the lower forests, where they pass the day, and +they regularly return before sunset to their roosting-places. From year +to year these parrots leave their night quarters daily at the same hour, +and return with equal punctuality before sunset. This regularity of +departing and returning has caused the natives to give them the name of +_Jornaleros_ (day-laborers). From the depth of the forests sounds often +arise which resemble human voices, and the astonished hunter then +believes that he is in the vicinity of his companions, or, perhaps, of +hostile Indians. He eagerly listens, and it is only when well acquainted +with the sounds of the winged inhabitants of the woods that he can +recognise the melancholy tones of the wood-pigeons (_C. infuscata_, +Licht.; _C. melancholica_, Tsch.). When day begins to depart, groups of +the pheasant-like Hachahuallpa[88] assemble, and with the cry of _Ven +aca_, _Ven aca_,[89] summon their distant companions. + +Not only are the trees of the forests peopled with myriads of birds, +but the earth has also its feathered inhabitants, who seldom soar +above the level of the soil. They build their nests among the roots +and fallen branches, and depend for movement more on their feet than +on their wings. Among those members of the winged tribe, who show no +disposition to soar into the regions of air, we find here the +turcassa, a pigeon with richly-shaded plumage; the beautifully +speckled toothed fowl (_Odontophorus speciosus_, Tsch.), and +short-tailed grass fowl, or crake,[90] whose flesh when cooked is +delicately white and finely flavored. In marshy places and on the +slimy banks of rivers, the jabiru (_Mycteria americana_, L.) loves to +wade, together with the rose-colored spoon-bill (_Platalea ajaja_, +L.); the fish-devouring ibis (_Tantalus loculator_, L.), the +curved-billed snipe (_Rhynchoea Hilaerea_, Val.), the party-colored +cranes, plovers, land-rails, shrites, and even sea-swallows.[91] In +the rivers there are ducks: these birds are, perhaps, carried down by +the currents from the Andes, or, possibly, they fly in great trains +from the inner waters of Brazil. + +Of the amphibia in the principal forests of Peru, only the great +fresh-water tortoise (_Hydraspis expansa_, Fitz.) is useful to the +natives. On the sandy banks of rivers this animal buries its eggs, from +which the Indians extract oil: its flesh, also, supplies well-flavored +food. All other animals of this class are objects of terror, or at least +of aversion, to the Indians. In the warm sand of the river banks, lies +the lazy caiman.[92] He keeps his jaws wide open, only closing them to +swallow the innumerable flies which he catches on his tongue. To the +helplessness of these animals when on land, the natives have to be +thankful that they are not the most dangerous scourges of the forest: in +water, their boldness and swiftness of motion are fearful. The number of +lizards here is not great, nor do they attain so considerable a size as +in other equatorial regions. The serpents are to be feared, and on +approaching them, it is not easy to decide at the first view whether +they belong to a poisonous or innoxious species. In the forests, where +the fallen leaves lie in thick, moist layers, the foot of the hunter +sinks deep at every step. Multitudes of venomous amphibia are hatched +in the half-putrescent vegetable matter, and he who inadvertently steps +on one of these animals may consider himself uncommonly fortunate if he +can effect his retreat without being wounded. But it is not merely in +these places, which seem assigned by nature for their abode, that +loathsome reptiles are found: they creep between the roots of large +trees, under the thickly interwoven brushwood, on the open grass plots, +and in the maize and sugar-cane fields of the Indians: nay, they crawl +even into their huts, and most fortunate is it for the inhabitants of +those districts that the number of the venomous, compared with the +innoxious reptiles, is comparatively small. Of the poisonous serpents, +only a few kinds are known whose bite is attended with very dangerous +consequences. The _Miuamaru_, or _Jergon_ (_Lachesis picta_, Tsch.), is, +at most, three feet long, with a broad, heart-shaped head, and a thick +upper lip. It haunts the higher forests, while in those lower down his +place is filled by his no less fearful relative _Flammon_ (_Lachesis +rhombeata_, Prince Max.), which is six or seven feet in length. These +serpents are usually seen coiled almost in a circle, the head thrust +forward, and the fierce, treacherous-looking eyes glaring around, +watching for prey, upon which they pounce with the swiftness of an +arrow; then, coiling themselves up again, they look tranquilly on the +death-struggle of the victim. It would appear that these amphibia have +a perfect consciousness of the dreadful effect of their poisonous +weapon, for they use it when they are neither attacked nor threatened, +and they wound not merely animals fit for their food, but all that +come within their reach. More formidable than the two snakes just +described, but happily much less common, is the brown, ten-inch long +viper.[93] It is brown, with two rows of black circular spots. The +effect of its bite is so rapid, that it kills a strong man in two or +three minutes. So convinced are the natives of its inevitably fatal +result, that they never seek any remedy; but immediately on receiving +the wound, lay themselves down to die. In the Montanas of Pangoa this +viper abounds more than in any other district, and never without +apprehension do the Cholos undertake their annual journey for the coca +harvest, as they fear to fall victims to the bite of this viper. The +warning sound of the rattlesnake is seldom heard in the hot Montanas, +and never in the higher regions. + +Nature, who in almost all things has established an equilibrium, +supplies the natives with remedies against the bite of the serpent. One +of the cures most generally resorted to is the root of the amarucachu +(_Polianthes tuberosa_, L.), cut into slips and laid upon the wound. +Another is the juice of the creeping plant called vejuco de huaco +(_Mikania Huaco_, Kth.), which is already very widely celebrated. This +latter remedy was discovered by the negroes of the equatorial province, +Choco. They remarked that a sparrow-hawk, called the _huaco_, picked up +snakes for its principal food, and when bitten by one it flew to the +vejuco and ate some of the leaves. At length the Indians thought of +making the experiment on themselves, and when bitten by serpents they +drank the expressed juice of the leaves of the vejuco, and constantly +found that the wound was thereby rendered harmless. The use of this +excellent plant soon became general; and in some places the belief of +the preservative power of the vejuco juice was carried so far that men +in good health were inoculated with it. In this process some spoonfuls +of the expressed fluid are drunk, and afterwards some drops are put into +incisions made in the hands, feet, and breast. The fluid is rubbed into +the wounds by fresh vejuco leaves. After this operation, according to +the testimony of persons worthy of credit, the bite of the poisonous +snake fails for a long time to have any evil effect. Besides the two +plants mentioned above, many others are used with more or less favorable +results. The inhabitants of the Montana also resort to other means, +which are too absurd to be detailed here; yet their medicines are often +of benefit, for their operation is violently reactive. They usually +produce the effect of repeated emetics, and cause great perspiration. +There is much difference in the modes of external treatment of the +wound, and burning is often employed. I saw an Indian apply to his +wife's foot, which had been bitten, a plaster, consisting of moist +gunpowder, pulverised sulphur, and finely-chopped tobacco, mixed up +together. He laid this over the wounded part and set fire to it. This +application, in connexion with one of the nausea-exciting remedies taken +inwardly, had a successful result. + +Innoxious snakes[94] wind on tendrilled climbing plants, or lie like +necklaces of coral on the brown decayed leaves (_Elap. affinis_, Fitz.). +Where the branches of rivers enter the gloomy forests and form little +narrow lagunes, over which the high trees spread in vaulted cupolas +almost impervious to the light of day, there dwells the powerful giant +snake (_Eunectes murinus_, Wagl.), called by the Indians, in their +figurative language, _yacumaman_, "mother of the waters." Stretched in +listless repose, or winding round the stem of an old tree, bathing her +tail in the cool lagune, she watches wistfully for the animals of the +forest who come to the waters to quench their thirst. Whilst she gazes +at her distant prey, the fascinating power of her eyes seems to subdue +the trembling victim, and, unable even to attempt escape, he falls an +easy sacrifice. + +The amphibia of the frog species, which lie concealed in silent repose +during the day, raise, after sunset, their far-sounding voices. The +violet colored throat-bladder (_Cystignathus silvestris_, Tsch.) +maintains his loud, uniform croak beneath the bushes, or penetrates into +the huts of the inhabitants. The _trapichero_, or sugar-mill frog, is a +large species, almost half a foot in length. Its croak resembles very +much the grating sound caused by the working of a sugar mill, for which +reason the natives have given it the name of trapichero, or the +_sugar-miller_. The croaking of these frogs, whose manifold tones blend +together in confused union, augments not a little the distressing +dreariness of a forest night. + +Of the numerous species of insects which swarm in these regions, few are +remarkable for beauty; but many fix attention by their peculiar habits. +The bites and stings of numbers of them are very dangerous, and it +requires much caution to guard against their attacks. + +Variegated butterflies flutter noiselessly among the spreading branches +of the trees, or sun themselves on the warm masses of fallen leaves. The +most remarkable of these butterflies is the large atlas, whose +brilliant blue tints shine out with lustrous radiance in the dim light +of the forest. Along the banks of rivers, and especially in hot marshy +spots, small musquitoes swarm. The bite of this animal produces an +intolerable burning sensation, and often causes considerable +inflammation. But more troublesome, and also much more numerous, are the +stinging-flies (_sancudos_). On my first arrival in the Montana, I lay +several days exceedingly ill in consequence of severe swelling of the +head and limbs, caused by the bites of these insects. To the inhabitant +of the forest the sancudos are an incessant torment. In no season of the +year, in no hour of the day or night, is there any respite from their +attacks. Rubbing the body with unctuous substances, together with the +caustic juices of certain plants, and at night enclosing one's self in a +tent made of _tucuyo_ (cotton cloth), or palm-tree bast, are the only +means of protection against their painful stings. The clothes commonly +worn are not sufficient, for they are perforated by the long sting of +the larger species, particularly of the much-dreaded +_huir-pasimi-sancudo_ (Lip-gnat). Regularly every evening at twilight +fresh swarms of these mischievous insects make their appearance. + +The ticks (_ixodes_) are a class of insects destined by nature for the +suction of plants; but they often forsake trees, shrubs, and grasses, to +fasten on man and other animals. With their long sharp stings they make +punctures, in which they insert their heads, and thereby occasion very +painful sores. These insects appear to have no preference for any +particular class of animals. They are often found on the hair of dead +mammalia, and among the feathers of birds which have been shot; even the +toad, the frog, and the scaly lizard are not spared by them. Much more +troublesome than these insects are the antanas, which are not visible to +the naked eye. They penetrate the surface of the skin, and introduce +themselves beneath it, where they propagate with incredible rapidity; +and when some thousands of them are collected together, a blackish spot +appears, which quickly spreads. If these insects are not destroyed when +they first introduce themselves into the punctures, they multiply with +incalculable rapidity, destroying the skin, and all the tender parts in +contact with it. Washing with brandy, which is often found to be a +remedy against the less mischievous isancos, is not sufficient for the +removal of the antanas. For their extirpation the only effectual remedy +is frequently bathing the part affected with a mixture of spirits of +wine and corrosive sublimate. + +Who can describe the countless myriads of ants which swarm through the +forests? Every shrub is full of creeping life, and the decayed +vegetation affords harbor for some peculiar kinds of these insects. +The large yellow _puca-cici_ is seen in multitudes in the open air, +and it even penetrates into the dwellings. This insect does not bite, +but its crawling creates great irritation to the skin. The small black +_yana-cici_, on the contrary, inflicts most painful punctures. A very +mischievous species of stinging ant is the black _sunchiron_. This +insect inflicts a puncture with a long sting, which he carries in the +rear of his body. The wound is exceedingly painful, and is sometimes +attended by dangerous consequences. My travelling companion, C. Klee, +being stung by one of these ants, suffered such severe pain and +fever, that he was for a short while delirious. A few nights +afterwards, a similar attack was made on myself during sleep. It +suddenly awoke me, and caused me to start up with a convulsive +spring. I must confess that I never, in my whole life, experienced +such severe pain as I did at that moment. + +A most remarkable phenomenon is exhibited by the swarms of the species +called the _naui-huacan-cici_,[95] the great _wandering ant_. They +appear suddenly in trains of countless myriads, and proceed forward in +a straight direction, without stopping. The small, the weak, and the +neuters are placed in the centre, while the large and the strong flank +the army, and look out for prey. These swarms, called by the natives +_Chacus_, sometimes enter a hut and clear it of all insects, amphibia, +and other disagreeable guests. This work being accomplished, they again +form themselves into a long train, and move onwards. The united force +of these small creatures is vast, and there is no approach to the +fabulous, when it is related that not only snakes, but also large +mammalia, such as agoutis, armadillas, &c., on being surprised by +them, are soon killed. On the light dry parts of the higher Montanas we +find the large conical dwellings of the termes so firmly built, that +they are impenetrable even to rifle shot. They sometimes stand singly, +sometimes together, in long lines. In form they strongly resemble the +simple, conical Puna huts. + +Before leaving the animal kingdom of these forest regions, which I have +here sketched only briefly and fragmentally, I must notice two insects, +the _Cucaracha_ and the _Chilicabra_, species of the Cockroach +(_Blatta_). They are exceedingly numerous and troublesome. The +Cucaracha, which more particularly infests the deep regions of the +forest, is an inch and a half long, and above half an inch broad; it is +reddish brown, with a yellow neck. The Chilicabra, though smaller, is +more mischievous, by reason of its greater numbers. They settle in the +huts, where they destroy provisions, gnaw clothes, get into beds, and +into the dishes at meal time. These insects defy every precaution that +can be taken against their tormenting attacks. Luckily, nature has +provided enemies for their destruction. Among these is a small reddish +yellow ant, called by the Indians, the _Pucchu-cici_, a useful member +of the ant family, for it pursues and destroys the mischievous +cockroaches. There is also a very elegant little bird, called the +_Cucarachero_ (_Troglodytes audax_, Tsch.) which wages war against +these insects. On seizing one of them it first bites off the head, then +devours the body, and throws away the tough wings. These operations +being completed, it hops to the nearest bush, and tunes its melodious +song, the sounds of which closely resemble the words "_Acabe la +tarea!_" a name which the Indians give to this bird.[96] I could yet +fill many pages with descriptions of insects which are dangerous or +troublesome, and among them are included the julus, measuring six +inches in length, the large black and red scorpion, not forgetting the +numerous poisonous wasps and the cicadas. However, those which have +been noticed will suffice to afford an idea of the ever-active +movements of animal life in the forests. + +Willingly would I take a view of the vegetation of the virgin forests, +and attempt to sketch its progressive developments and alternations +from the hilly Montanas of the eastern declivities of the Andes to the +humid level banks of the larger rivers; but I do not feel myself +competent to undertake a labor to which former travellers intimately +acquainted with the world of plants have already rendered full +justice.[97] Being devoted to the study of zoology, and, +unfortunately, too little familiar with botany, I have confined myself +to a description of the general impression produced by the luxuriant +growth of the soil, without entering into the individualities of the +vegetation. In the more highly situated Montanas, where the cinchona +is found in the place of its nativity, the gigantic orchidae, the +numerous fern plants, the tree-like nettles, the wonderful bignonias, +and the numerous, impenetrable complications of climbing plants, +powerfully rivet the attention of the observer. Lower down, in the +lighter forest soil, amidst numerous shrubs and climbers, the eye +delights to dwell on the manifold forms of the stately palm, on the +terebinthaceae, on the thickly-leaved balsam-yielding leguminosae, on +the luxuriant laurels, on the pandaneae or the large-leaved heliconias, +and on the solaneae, with their gigantic blossoms and thousands of +flowers. Descending still further, the flat lands of the forest assume +a dark and gloomy aspect. The massive foliage of trees overarches +stems which are the growth of centuries, and form a canopy almost +impervious to the light of day. On the slimy soil no small shrub +uprears its head, no flowering plant unfolds its blossom. The mighty +trees stand alone, and erect in rows, like gravestones in a +churchyard; and the child of darkness--the rapidly-shooting +mushroom--finds genial nurture on the warm humid earth. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 79: Bark-gatherers. The Peruvians call the bark +_cascarilla_, and they point out the distinctions of a great number of +species and varieties.] + +[Footnote 80: From Cuzco, the ancient residence of the Incas. It was +discovered by the French chemists Corriol and Pelletier, in the +Cascarilla which is shipped in Arica; hence this alkaloid is also +called _Aricin_.] + +[Footnote 81: The Indian name for this animal is _Chaque chinca_. The +black variety _Yana chinca_ is called by the Spaniards _Tigre_ or +_Yaguar_.] + +[Footnote 82: _Rupicola peruviana_, Ch. Dum. The color of the female +is reddish brown, and she is named by the natives _Tunqui mulato_; the +male is called _Tunqui Colorado_. In some parts of the Montana the +_Cephalopterus ornatus_ is called _Yana Tunqui_. Thus, even the +Indians have observed the relationship of these birds, which, classed +according to our system of natural history, actually belong to one +family, the _Ampelidae_. Their affinity is indicated very correctly by +the Indian name.] + +[Footnote 83: The Organistas of Peru, Brazil, and Guiana, &c., +mentioned by so many travellers, all belong to the family of the +Troglodytinae, to the two genera, _Troglodytes_, Vieill, and +_Cyphorhinus_, Cab. The Peruvian Organista above alluded to, is the +_Troglodytes leucophrys_, Tsch. In Guiana it appears to be the +_Cyphorhinus carinatus_, Cab.] + +[Footnote 84: _Xenops_, _Anabates_, _Dendrocolaptes_, and many other +kinds of _Capito_ and _Picus_.] + +[Footnote 85: These are different kinds of _Cassicus_ and _Icterus_.] + +[Footnote 86: Kinds of Pteroglossus. Those most frequently met with in +the Montanas are the _Pt. atrogularis_, Sturm; _Pt. coeruleocinctus_, +Tsch. (_Aulacorhynchus_, Orb.); and _Pt. Derbianus_, Gould.] + +[Footnote 87: _Dios te de_ signifies _May God give it thee_. The sound +which is interpreted, _Dios te de_ resembles very much the cry of most +of the Toucans, or pepper-eaters.] + +[Footnote 88: Several kinds of Penelope.] + +[Footnote 89: The cry of this bird closely resembles the Spanish words +_Ven aca_ (Come hither).] + +[Footnote 90: Seven species of Crypturus.] + +[Footnote 91: _Sterna erythrorhynchos_, Prince Max., _St. +magnirostris_, Licht.] + +[Footnote 92: _Champsa fissipes, sclerops et nigra_, Wagl.] + +[Footnote 93: _Echidna ocellata_, Tsch. This is the only species of the +viper family belonging to South America, as yet known.] + +[Footnote 94: _Sphenocephalus melanogenys_, Tsch.; _Lygophis Reginae_, +Wagl.; _L. taeniurus_, Tsch.; _L. elegans_, Tsch.] + +[Footnote 95: From _naui_, the eye, _huacay_, to cry, and _cici_, the +ant;--so called by the Indians, because the pain of its numerous stings +brings tears into the eyes.] + +[Footnote 96: "_Acabe la tarea_" may be translated "_My task is +finished_." But the Indians are not very consistent in their +interpretations of the song of the _Cucarachero_; for in some districts, +they contend that it repeats the words--_Casa te Soltera_, "_Go and get +married, Maiden_."] + +[Footnote 97: A. von Humboldt, von Martius, and, in particular, Poeppig, +who has published a narrative of his journey through Peru, distinguished +by its precision, and written in a style so elegant and simple that its +perusal affords the utmost interest and pleasure.] + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +Montana of San Carlos de Vitoc--Villages--Hacienda of Maraynioc--the +Coca Plant--Mode of Cultivating and Gathering it--Mastication of +Coca--Evil Consequences of its excessive Use--Its Nutritious +Qualities--Indian Superstitions connected with the Coca +Plant--Suggestions for its Introduction in the European +Navies--Fabulous animal called the Carbunculo--The Chunchos--Missions +to Cerro de la Sal--Juan Santos Atahuallpa--The Franciscan +Monks--Depopulation of Vitoc. + + +The Montana of San Carlos de Vitoc is, without exception, one of the +most interesting districts of Peru. It has on the one side, and at a +short distance, the populous villages of the Sierra, and on the other it +borders on the forests, through which the wild Indians range in their +hunting excursions. It was formerly the principal key to the missionary +stations of the Pampa del Sacramento, the Chanchamayo, Perenc, and Upper +Ucayali. It is only twenty leagues distant from Tarma, from whence the +road leads through the fertile valley Acobamba, to Palca. Eastward of +the latter place are the ruins of a fort, which in former times must +have been a place of considerable importance. The wild Indians have +repeatedly made hostile sallies from their forests, and it is only by +this bulwark, which, with four small field-pieces, completely defends +the narrow valley, that they have been checked in their advance on +Tarma. An exceedingly steep path runs about a league and a half up the +acclivity; then, becoming somewhat more level, it extends to the base of +the crest, which at that part is about 14,000 feet above the level of +the sea. Here the aspect of the Andes is by no means so imposing as that +of the Cordillera, for the glaciers and steep rocky summits are wanting. +The highest peaks rise only about 200 feet above the crest. As in the +Cordillera, the eastern declivity inclines much more gently than the +western, but the road is marshy, and is interspersed with large +hollows, into which the mules often fall and are killed. After passing +over the Andes, two leagues further, we come to the hacienda +Maraynioc, where numerous herds of cattle are kept. Round the hacienda +there are potato plantations, and the potatoes reared here are so +excellent, that they are celebrated throughout the whole Sierra. Every +morning the sky is obscured by heavy clouds; it rains regularly two days +in the week, and there are frequent falls of snow; yet notwithstanding +this excessive humidity, a bad harvest is an event never to be +apprehended. The cultivation of maize is, however, found to be +impracticable here, for soon after germination the ears rot. A small +stream flows past the hacienda, and after a course of about three +leagues, it reaches the Montana de Vitoc. Formerly, the road ran close +along the bank of this stream, but in consequence of the repeated +depopulation of Vitoc, it became neglected, and at length impassable. +The way is now over the Cuchillo, or sharp edge of a mountain ridge, and +it must be at least four times longer than the course formerly taken. +From Maraynioc the road proceeds, for the length of a league, through a +valley overgrown with brushwood, and then rises to a lateral branch of +the Andes, which is almost as high as the main chain. The Indians call +this ridge, _Manam rimacunan_ ("Thou shall not speak!"), for a heavy +wind, accompanied by drifting snow, blows constantly, and renders it +scarcely possible to open the mouth to utter a word. From Manarimacunan, +downwards, to the lower Montana, the road passes over stones laid in +_echelon_ form, and through a very slippery hollow way, which descends +rapidly downward, and is surrounded by almost impenetrable woods; the +only open and level place is the field of Chilpes, which is a few +hundred paces long. + +Here it is highly interesting to contemplate the rapid increase of +vegetation, and the varied changes in the animal world. From the brink +of a ridge where only feeble vegetation can be seen, we descend a few +leagues and speedily find ourselves in the region of the Cinchona tree, +and in the evening we are among lofty palms. The first human dwellings +seen on entering the Montana are half a dozen small huts, forming the +hamlet Amaruyo, formerly called Sibis, and immediately after we come to +the village of Vitoc. It consists of about fifty wretched huts, and has +a small church, in which worship is performed twice a year for the +inhabitants of the whole valley. + +Vitoc is surrounded by two rivers, which unite in a sharp angle, called +the Tingo, and which separate the valley from the territory of the wild +Indians. The valley is deep, and the surrounding heights are broken by +many quebradas. The soil is very fruitful, and the locality is less than +some others infested with troublesome insects; yet it is but scantily +peopled, for, besides the two villages and the Hacienda of Maraynioc, +already mentioned, it contains only a few scattered chacras. The +inhabitants of this, the most favored district of the Montanas, scarcely +amount to 200. The villagers employ themselves chiefly in the +cultivation of pines, which are sent to Lima. The Indians of Palca and +Tapo bring them potatoes, salt, and butcher's meat, for which the +villagers exchange their pine-apples. The fruit is conveyed by asses +to the coast, where, however, it seldom arrives in good condition. The +other productions of the Montana are maize, oranges, bananas, paltas, +Spanish pepper, &c.; but these articles are sold only in the Sierra. +Each inhabitant of the village cultivates his own piece of ground, +which he can enlarge when he pleases; but these people are too +indolent to devote themselves seriously to agriculture. It is only +when the governor in Tarma compels them to pay the annual +contribution, that they make an effort to augment their earnings; they +then seek a market for the products of their cultivation, and sell +them for ready money. Vitoc and some of the villages in its +neighborhood form altogether only one ecclesiastical community, whose +pastor lives in Tarma the whole year round. He goes to Pucara only +once in six or eight months, to read a couple of masses, and to +solemnize marriages and christenings, but chiefly to collect fees for +burials which may have taken place during his absence. + +The plantation of Pacchapata is of considerable extent, but produces +very little. The system of repartimientos, already described, by which +the poor Indian is kept in a state of slavery by advances of clothing, +meat, brandy, &c., is practised in this hacienda to a great extent. The +laborer who is set down in the plantation-book as a debtor for ten or +twelve dollars, has a good chance of remaining during the rest of his +life a tributary slave; for if he tries by prolonged labor to relieve +himself from the debt the owner of the plantation causes brandy to be +made, and this is too great a temptation to be resisted by an Indian. +The butcher's meat given to the laboring Indians in general consists of +_Chalonas_, that is, the dried flesh of sheep which have died in the +haciendas of the hilly districts. For a meagre, tough, unwholesome +chalona the Indian has to add a dollar and a half or two dollars to his +debt, while a living sheep in the Sierra would not cost half the price. +It is the same with other articles furnished by the haciendas. European +importations, such as can be purchased at very low prices in the Sierra, +are sold at high profits by the owners of plantations to the poor +Indians, who have to repay them by long and severe labor. + +At Pacchapata, besides maize, yuccas, and fruits, sugar, coffee, and +coca are also cultivated. The sugar-cane grows in abundance, and is of +good quality. An excellent kind of coffee is grown here; the bean is +slightly globular, and its color is a greenish blue. In former times the +viceroy used to send the coffee of Vitoc as a highly-esteemed present to +the court of Madrid. The coca is also very fine, and yields three +harvests in the year; which, however, is only the case in a few of the +Montanas, as, for example, at Pangoa and Huanta. I may here subjoin +some notice of this highly interesting plant. + +The coca (_Erythroxylon coca_, Lam.) is a shrub about six feet in +height, with bright green leaves and white blossoms. The latter are +succeeded by small scarlet berries. It is raised from the seed, in +garden-beds called _almazigas_. When the young shoots are one and a half +or two feet high, they are removed to regularly laid out coca fields +(_cocales_), where they are planted at the distance of about three spans +from each other. The coca requires humidity; therefore, during the first +year or two after it is planted in the fields, maize is sown between the +_matas_, or young shoots, to screen them from the too great influence of +the sun. When the leaves are ripe, that is to say, when on being bent +they crack or break off, the gathering commences. The leaves are +stripped from the branches, a task usually performed by women, and it +requires great care lest the tender leaves and young twigs should be +injured. In some districts, the Indians are so very careful in +gathering the coca, that, instead of stripping off the leaves, they cut +them from the stem by making an incision with their nails. The plant +thus rendered leafless is soon again overgrown with verdant foliage. +After being gathered, the leaves are spread out on coarse woollen cloths +and dried in the sun. The color of the leaves when dried is a pale +green. The drying is an operation which likewise demands great care +and attention, for if the leaves imbibe damp, they become dark +colored, and then they sell for a much lower price than when they are +green. The dry coca is finely packed in woollen sacks, and covered +with sand. These sacks are of various sizes and colors, in different +parts of the Montanas. In Huanuco they are grey or black, and when +filled weigh from 75 to 80 pounds. In Vitoc they are grey and white, +and contain 150 pounds. In Huanta and Anco they are small in size, and +black or brown in color, and contain merely one aroba. In the Montanas +of Urubamba, Calca, and Paucartambo, the coca leaves are put into +small baskets called _cestos_, and covered with sand. Great care is +also requisite in the carriage of the coca, for if damp be allowed to +penetrate the sack, the leaves become hot, or as the natives express +it, _Se calientan_, and are thereby rendered useless. + +The Indians masticate the coca. Each individual carries a leathern +pouch, called the _huallqui_, or the _chuspa_, and a small flask gourd, +called the _ishcupuru_. The pouch contains a supply of coca leaves, and +the gourd is filled with pulverised unslaked lime. Usually four times, +but never less than three times a day, the Indian suspends his labor, +for the purpose of masticating coca. This operation (which is termed +_chacchar_ or _acullicar_) is performed in the following manner: some of +the coca leaves, the stalks having been carefully picked off, are +masticated until they form a small ball, or as it is called an +_acullico_. A thin slip of damp wood is then thrust into the +_ishcupuru_, or gourd, and when drawn out some portion of the powdered +lime adheres to it. The _acullico_, or ball of masticated coca leaves, +is, whilst still lying in the mouth, punctured with this slip of wood, +until the lime mixing with it, gives it a proper relish, and the +abundant flow of saliva thus excited is partly expectorated and partly +swallowed. When the ball ceases to emit juice, it is thrown away, and +a new one is formed by the mastication of a fresh mouthfull of coca +leaves. In Cerro de Pasco, and in places still further south, the +Indians use, instead of unslaked lime, a preparation of the pungent +ashes of the quinua (_Chenopodium Quinua_, L.). This preparation is +called _Llucta_ or _Llipta_. In using it a piece is broken off and +masticated along with the _acullico_. In some of the Montana regions +the Llucta is made from the ashes of the musa root. The application of +the unslaked lime demands some precaution, for if it comes in direct +contact with the lips and gums, it causes a very painful burning. +During a fatiguing ride across the level heights, where, owing to the +cold wind, I experienced a difficulty of respiration, my Arriero +recommended me to chew coca, assuring me that I would experience great +relief from so doing. He lent me his _huallqui_, but owing to my +awkward manner of using it, I cauterized my lips so severely that I +did not venture on a second experiment. + +The flavor of coca is not unpleasant. It is slightly bitter, aromatic, +and similar to the worst kind of green tea. When mixed with the ashes of +the musa root it is somewhat piquant, and more pleasant to European +palates than it is without that addition. The smell of the fresh dried +leaves in a mass is almost overpowering; but this smell entirely goes +when they are packed in the sacks. All who masticate coca have a very +bad breath, pale lips and gums, greenish and stumpy teeth, and an ugly +black mark at the angles of the mouth. An inveterate _coquero_, or coca +chewer, is known at the first glance. His unsteady gait, his +yellow-colored skin, his dim and sunken eyes encircled by a purple ring, +his quivering lips and his general apathy, all bear evidence of the +baneful effects of the coca juice when taken in excess. All the mountain +Indians are addicted more or less to the practice of masticating coca. +Each man consumes, on the average, between an ounce and an ounce and a +half per day, and on festival days about double that quantity. The +owners of mines and plantations allow their laborers to suspend their +work three times a day for the _chacchar_, which usually occupies +upwards of a quarter of an hour; and after that they smoke a paper +cigar, which they allege crowns the zest of the coca mastication. He +who indulges for a time in the use of coca finds it difficult, indeed +almost impossible, to relinquish it. This fact I saw exemplified in +the cases of several persons of high respectability in Lima, who are +in the habit of retiring daily to a private apartment for the purpose +of masticating coca. They could not do this openly, because among the +refined class of Peruvians the chacchar is looked upon as a low and +vulgar practice, befitting only to the laboring Indians. Yet, +Europeans occasionally allow themselves to fall into this habit; and I +knew two in Lima, the one an Italian and the other a Biscayan, who +were confirmed coqueros in the strictest sense of the word. In Cerro +de Pasco there are societies having even Englishmen for their members, +which meet on certain evenings for the chacchar. In these places, +instead of lime or ashes, sugar is served along with the coca leaves. +A member of one of these clubs informed me that on the few first +trials the sugar was found very agreeable, but that afterwards the +palate required some more pungent ingredient. + +The operation of the coca is similar to that of narcotics administered +in small doses. Its effects may be compared to those produced by the +thorn-apple rather than to those arising from opium. I have already +noticed the consequences resulting from drinking the decoction of the +datura.[98] In the inveterate coquero similar symptoms are observable, +but in a mitigated degree. I may mention one circumstance attending the +use of coca, which appears hitherto to have escaped notice: it is, +that after the mastication of a great quantity of coca the eye seems +unable to bear light, and there is a marked distension of the pupil. I +have also observed this peculiarity of the eye in one who had drunk a +strong extract of the infusion of coca leaves. In the effects +consequent on the use of opium and coca there is this distinction, +that coca, when taken even in the utmost excess, never causes a total +alienation of the mental powers or induces sleep; but, like opium, it +excites the sensibility of the brain, and the repeated excitement, +occasioned by its intemperate use after a series of years, wears out +mental vigor and activity. + +It is a well known fact, confirmed by long observation and experience, +that the Indians who regularly masticate coca require but little food, +and, nevertheless, go through excessive labor with apparent ease. They, +therefore, ascribe the most extraordinary qualities to the coca, and +even believe that it might be made entirely a substitute for food. +Setting aside all extravagant and visionary notions on the subject, I am +clearly of opinion that the moderate use of coca is not merely +innoxious, but that it may even be very conducive to health. In support +of this conclusion, I may refer to the numerous examples of longevity +among Indians who, almost from the age of boyhood, have been +in the habit of masticating coca three times a day, and who in the +course of their lives have consumed no less than two thousand seven +hundred pounds, yet, nevertheless, enjoy perfect health.[99] The food of +the Indians consists almost exclusively of vegetable substances, +especially roasted maize and barley converted into flour by crushing, +which they eat without the admixture of any other substance. The +continued use of this farinaceous food occasions severe obstructions, +which the well known aperient qualities of the coca counteract, and many +serious diseases are thereby prevented. That the coca is in the highest +degree nutritious, is a fact beyond dispute. The incredible fatigues +endured by the Peruvian infantry, with very spare diet, but with the +regular use of coca; the laborious toil of the Indian miner, kept up, +under similar circumstances, throughout a long series of years; +certainly afford sufficient ground for attributing to the coca leaves, +not a quality of mere temporary stimulus, but a powerful nutritive +principle. Of the great power of the Indians in enduring fatigue with no +other sustenance than coca, I may here mention an example. A Cholo of +Huari, named Hatun Huamang, was employed by me in very laborious +digging. During the whole time he was in my service, viz., five days and +nights, he never tasted any food, and took only two hours' sleep +nightly. But at intervals of two and a half or three hours, he regularly +masticated about half an ounce of coca leaves, and he kept an acullico +continually in his mouth. I was constantly beside him, and therefore I +had the opportunity of closely observing him. The work for which I +engaged him being finished, he accompanied me on a two days' journey of +twenty-three leagues across the level heights. Though on foot, he kept +up with the pace of my mule, and halted only for the _chacchar_. On +leaving me, he declared that he would willingly engage himself again for +the same amount of work, and that he would go through it without food if +I would but allow him a sufficient supply of coca. The village priest +assured me that this man was sixty-two years of age, and that he had +never known him to be ill in his life. + +The Indians maintain that coca is the best preventive of that difficulty +of respiration felt in the rapid ascents of the Cordillera and the Puna. +Of this fact I was fully convinced by my own personal experience. I +speak here, not of the mastication of the leaves, but of their decoction +taken as a beverage. When I was in the Puna, at the height of 14,000 +feet above the level of the sea, I drank, always before going out to +hunt, a strong infusion of coca leaves. I could then during the whole +day climb the heights and follow the swift-footed wild animals without +experiencing any greater difficulty of breathing than I should have felt +in similar rapid movement on the coast. Moreover, I did not suffer from +the symptoms of cerebral excitement or uneasiness which other travellers +have observed. The reason perhaps is, that I only drank this decoction +in the cold Puna, where the nervous system is far less susceptible than +in the climate of the forests. However, I always felt a sense of great +satiety after taking the coca infusion, and I did not feel a desire for +my next meal until after the time at which I usually took it. + +By the Peruvian Indians the coca plant is regarded as something sacred +and mysterious, and it sustained an important part in the religion of +the Incas. In all ceremonies, whether religious or warlike, it was +introduced, for producing smoke at the great offerings, or as the +sacrifice itself. During divine worship the priests chewed coca leaves, +and unless they were supplied with them, it was believed that the favor +of the gods could not be propitiated. It was also deemed necessary that +the supplicator for divine grace should approach the priests with an +_Acullico_ in his mouth. It was believed that any business undertaken +without the benediction of coca leaves could not prosper; and to the +shrub itself worship was rendered. During an interval of more than 300 +years Christianity has not been able to subdue the deep-rooted idolatry; +for everywhere we find traces of belief in the mysterious power of this +plant. The excavators in the mines of Cerro de Pasco throw masticated +coca on hard veins of metal, in the belief that it softens the ore, and +renders it more easy to work. The origin of this custom is easily +explained, when it is recollected, that in the time of the Incas it was +believed that the _Coyas_, or the deities of metals, rendered the +mountains impenetrable, if they were not propitiated by the odor of +coca. The Indians, even at the present time, put coca leaves into the +mouths of dead persons, to secure to them a favorable reception on their +entrance into another world, and when a Peruvian Indian on a journey +falls in with a mummy, he, with timid reverence, presents to it some +coca leaves as his pious offering. + +Soon after the conquest of Peru, when the Spaniards treated the Indians +and all their customs with contempt, coca became an object of aversion +to the whites. The reverence rendered by the natives to the coca plant +induced the Spaniards to believe that it possessed some demoniacal +influence. The officers of the government and the clergy, therefore, +endeavored, by all possible means, to extirpate its use, and this is one +cause, hitherto overlooked, of the hatred with which the Indians +regarded the Spaniards. In the second council held at Lima, in 1567, +coca was described "as a worthless object, fitted for the misuse and +superstition of the Indians;" and a royal decree of October 18, 1569, +expressly declares that the notions entertained by the natives that coca +gives them strength, is an "illusion of the devil" (_una elusion del +Demonio_). The Peruvian mine owners were the first to discover the +importance of the _chacchar_ in assisting the Indians to go through +their excessive labor, and they, together with the plantation owners, +became the most earnest defenders of coca. The consequence was, that, in +defiance of royal and ecclesiastical ordinances, its use increased +rather than diminished. One of the warmest advocates of the plant was +the Jesuit Don Antonio Julian, who, in a work entitled, "Perla de +America," laments that coca is not introduced into Europe instead of +tea and coffee. "It is," he observes, "melancholy to reflect that the +poor of Europe cannot obtain this preservative against hunger and +thirst; that our working people are not supported by this strengthening +plant in their long-continued labors."[100] In the year 1793, Dr. Don +Pedro Nolasco Crespo pointed out in a treatise the important advantages +that would be derived from the use of the coca plant, if introduced into +the European navies, and he expresses a wish that experiments of its +utility in that way could be tried. Though it is not probable that Dr. +Crespo's wish will ever be realized, yet there is little doubt that the +use of coca as a beverage on board ship would be attended with very +beneficial results. It would afford a nutritious refreshment to seamen +in the exercise of their laborious duties, and would greatly assist in +counteracting the unwholesome effects of salt provisions. As a stimulant +it would be far less injurious than ardent spirits, for which it might +be substituted without fear of any of the evil consequences experienced +by the _coqueros_. After a long and attentive observation of the effects +of coca, I am fully convinced that its use, in moderation, is no way +detrimental to health; and that without it the Peruvian Indian, with his +spare diet, would be incapable of going through the labor which he now +performs. The coca plant must be considered as a great blessing to Peru. +It is an essential means of preserving the nationality of the Indians, +and in some measure mitigating the melancholy fate of that once great +race which disease and excessive labor now threaten to destroy. + +In former times the cultivation of coca in the Montana de Vitoc was very +considerable. Upwards of 4,000 arobas used to be annually forwarded to +the market of Tarma. Now only fifty arobas are sent. Vitoc produces no +fodder for horses or mules; those animals, therefore, are very lean and +feeble in this district, and are usually unfit for work after two years. +Indeed, they suffer so much from the attacks of the blood-sucking bat +and the gad-fly (_tabano_), that after being only a few weeks in the +Montana de Vitoc, their strength is exhausted, and they are scarcely +able to reach the Puna. Black cattle, on the contrary, thrive +excellently; but it is not possible to keep up herds, for the young +calves are all devoured by the numerous animals of prey. The llamas, +which the Cholos bring from Tapo to Vitoc, are so enfeebled and overcome +by the journey, that on the second day after their arrival it is often +found necessary to send them to a colder district. + +In this Montana the large animals of prey seldom approach human +habitations, though sometimes the ounce pays them a visit, and the +Cuguar descends from the Ceja. Other animals of the feline genus are +very numerous, and their depredations render it impossible to breed +poultry. Even the fabulous animal, called the _carbunculo_, is said to +have been seen oftener than once in Vitoc. In almost every place I +visited on the coast, in the Sierra, and in the Montanas, extraordinary +stories concerning this animal were related; and many persons even +assured me they had seen him. The carbunculo is represented to be of the +size of a fox, with long black hair, and is only visible at night, when +it slinks slowly through the thickets. If followed, he opens a flap or +valve in the forehead, from under which an extraordinary, brilliant, and +dazzling light issues. The natives believe that this light proceeds from +a brilliant precious stone, and that any fool hardy person who may +venture to grasp at it rashly is blinded; then the flap is let down, and +the animal disappears in the darkness. Such are the stories related by +the Indians; and it appears that the belief of the existence of the +carbunculo has prevailed in Peru from the earliest times, and certainly +before the conquest, so that its introduction cannot be attributed to +the Spaniards. It is even prevalent among many of the wild Indian +tribes, by whom the early missionaries were told the stories which they +in their turn repeated about the animal. As yet nobody has been +fortunate enough to capture such an animal, though the Spaniards always +showed themselves very desirous to obtain possession of the precious +jewel; and the viceroys, in their official instructions to the +missionaries, placed the carbunculo in the first order of desiderata. +What animal may have served as a foundation for those fabulous stories, +it is certainly difficult to decide; probably a different one in each +particular district. On the coast it may have been the _anash_ (one of +the mephitic animals), which seeks for his food only at night. I have +often observed for a moment a singularly brilliant flashing in the eyes +of that animal when irritated. + +The worst enemies of the delightful Montana de Vitoc are the wild +Indians, who are only separated from the Christian Indians by the two +rivers Aynamayo and Tullumayo. They belong to the ferocious race of the +_Chunchos_, and in their savage manners they somewhat resemble the +Casibos and Campas. They have their chief residence in Chibatizo, nine +leagues from Pucara. Only three leagues from Pacchapata, at the +confluence of the Chanchamayo and Tullumayo, they have a pretty large +village; and Palmapata, which they temporarily took possession of, is +situated still nearer. They frequently extend their hunting excursions +to the banks of the great rivers, and make inroads upon the territory of +Vitoc, cruelly murdering all the Cholos they meet with. Any kind of +friendly intercourse with them is impracticable. I took some pains to +accomplish that object, but without success. While they were on their +hunting expeditions I have left in their huts knives, fish-hooks, +ear-rings, and other things. In return for these presents they left for +me some of their edible roots, among which were yuccas, but all were +poisoned, so that, had we not observed caution, I and my venturous +companion, Klee, might have fallen victims to the treachery of these +Indians. The Chunchos, when on their expeditions, are almost in a state +of nudity. Sometimes they wear a short whitish-brown shirt without +sleeves. This garment, when worn by the chiefs, is red. Most of them dye +their hair with achote (_Bixa Orellana_, L.), a deep vermilion, and +paint the face and breast of the same color. Their weapons consist of a +bow of chonta (_Guilielma speciosa_), with which they use two kinds of +arrows. One kind are very long, with round points and barbs of chonta; +the others are shorter, and have points made of reed, which inflict deep +wounds, very difficult to be healed. They also use the great wooden +sword, the _macana_. A cross having been put up in the forest, they +fastened to it a few days afterwards a macana and two arrows, as +symbols of irreconcilable enmity to Christians. Their warlike instrument +is a reed, two feet long and four inches broad, through which their +howlings resound in horrible discord. + +It is a custom with the inhabitants of Vitoc to undertake two +expeditions every year against the Chunchos. They are the most laughable +enterprises imaginable. All the Cholos of the valley, with the Alcalde +at their head, or rather in the midst of them, proceed, armed with +sticks, axes, forest knives, and _two_ muskets,[101] to explore the banks +of both rivers. The front ranks advance with drums beating, and a number +of Indians carry large calabashes filled with guarapo, to which they pay +their earnest devotions every half hour. When by accident some of the +Chunchos are seen, the Cholos fly with all the rapidity that terror can +inspire, and cannot be got together again till they reach their village; +then they raise a tremendous shout, and when safe in their dwellings +boast proudly of their heroic deeds. + +The Chunchos are in possession of a very rich bed of salt, some twelve +or fourteen leagues from Vitoc, from whence they permit the neighboring +tribes with whom they are at peace, to supply themselves with salt. +Hostile tribes, such as the Campas and the Callisecas, sometimes attempt +to carry away salt, and then a sanguinary contest ensues. This stratum +of salt comes from the top of a hill, called the Cerro de la Sal, and it +runs in the direction from south-west to north-east, to the length of +nearly three leagues, covering a breadth of about thirty ells. The salt +is mixed with red earth. It is probably a continuation of the great salt +bed of Maynas, stretching eastward along the left bank of the Perene. It +may be presumed that it does not extend as far as the immense Pajonal, +as the Campas go for their salt to the Cerro de la Sal. + +In former times various attempts were made to convert the Chunchos to +Christianity; and these attempts were partially successful. The first +missionary who ventured among them was the intrepid Fray Geronimo +Ximenes. In 1635 he penetrated from Huancabamba to the Cerro de la Sal, +and there preached the gospel in the language of the people. He built a +chapel, and then directed his course south-west to Vitoc, where he +founded the village San Buenaventura. Two years after he embarked on the +Chanchamayo, with the intention of extending his mission to the Campas +tribe, by whom he was killed, together with his companion, Fray +Christoval Larios, and twenty-eight other Spaniards. Several +missionaries subsequently proceeded to the Cerro de la Sal, and found +favor with the natives, so that in 1640 they had no less than seven +villages of converted Chunchos, Amagas, and Campas; but only a few years +afterwards all the missionaries and soldiers were killed and the chapels +were destroyed. The Franciscan monks, inspired by their indefatigable +zeal, ventured in 1671, on a new mission to the fatal Cerro de la Sal; +and they had the good fortune to found a village in which eight hundred +Neophytes were collected. A second and smaller village was founded in +the vicinity of the destroyed San Buenaventura, and named Santa Rosa de +Quimiri; but the avarice of some Spaniards who fancied there were gold +mines in the Cerro de la Sal, induced them to get the missions withdrawn +from the superintendence of the priests, and to turn the whole into a +political system. Then commenced the oppression of the Indians in those +parts. The consequence was a great insurrection in 1674, when all the +whites were massacred. Thus were the labors of the missionaries a second +time annihilated. Every attempt for the conversion of Indians was for a +long time fruitless, and the missionaries who ventured to approach them +were shot. After the lapse of about thirty years, during which interval +the Chunchos had fallen back to their original savage state, the founder +of the Convent of Ocopa, Fray Francisco de San Jose, with four priests +and two lay brothers, penetrated into the valley of Vitoc, and entered +upon the territory of the Chunchos. At this time (1709) Vitoc was first +peopled, and in the course of twenty years six large villages were +built. In the year 1739 these missions, again flourishing, counted ten +Christian villages and three thousand baptized Indians. Three years +afterwards the Indian insurrection, headed by the apostate Juan Santos, +destroyed all the missions of Central Peru. + +Juan Santos was an Indian born at Huamanga, and he claimed descent from +the last of the Incas. This claim was probably well founded, for before +the revolt he was called Atahuallpa, which was the name of the Inca put +to death by Pizarro. Juan Santos was haughty, high spirited, and clever. +In the year 1741 he killed, in a quarrel, a Spaniard of high rank, and +to elude the pursuit of justice, he fled to the forests. There he +brooded over plans for taking vengeance on the oppressors of his +country. He first addressed himself to the tribes of the Campas, and +having gained them over, he proceeded to Quisopongo in the Pajonal. From +thence, in the year 1742, he made his first attack on the mission of the +Cerro de la Sal. The Spaniards had already been warned of the intended +rising, but they considered it too unimportant to call for serious +measures of repression; and whilst lulling themselves in their imagined +security, they were surprised and massacred by the Indians. The +insurrection spread with incredible rapidity. Juan Santos himself led +all the principal attacks. In one night he took the fortress of Quimiri +with sixty-five men, all of whom were massacred in the most cruel +manner. The well-defended fort of Paucartambo was next taken by a small +number of Chunchos, commanded by Juan Santos. All the Christian churches +were destroyed by the insurgents. The sacred images and the priests were +tied together, and cast into the rivers; the villages were burned, and +the cultivated fields laid waste. The number of Spanish soldiers killed +in this insurrection was 245; the number of priests, 26. In the course +of a few weeks all the missions of central Peru were completely +destroyed, and terror spread even to the mountains. The Spanish +government found it necessary to adopt the most vigorous measures, for +there was reason to fear that the mountain Indians would revolt. Castles +and forts were built on the frontiers of all the Montanas and strongly +garrisoned; but the insurrection did not extend further. The ultimate +fate of Juan Santos Atahuallpa has never been satisfactorily +ascertained. Some assert that he became a powerful ruler, and that as +long as he lived the races of the Chunchos, Pacanes, Chichirrenes, +Campas, and Simirinches, were united. On an old manuscript in the +monastery of Ocopa I found a marginal note, in which it was said, "As to +the monster, the apostate Juan Santos Atahuallpa, after his diabolical +destruction of our missions, the wrath of God was directed against him +in the most fearful manner. He died the death of Herod, for his living +body was devoured by worms." + +Shortly after the tragical downfall of these missions, two priests, Fra +Francisco Otasua and Fray Salvador Pando, visited the ruins of Quimiri, +and endeavored to conciliate the rebels; but in vain. After three +months, during which they suffered dreadful ill treatment from the +Chunchos, they returned to the monastery of Ocopa. + +These missionaries were all monks of the order of San Francisco. Their +active zeal and heroic submission to any sacrifice in furtherance of the +cause in which they were embarked must excite at once astonishment and +admiration. Undaunted by incredible privations and laborious exertions +in the pathless forests, without food or shelter; undismayed by the +continual apprehension of a violent and cruel death, they courageously +obeyed the inward impulse which inspired them to preach the gospel to +the wild Indians. When intelligence was received of the violent death of +one of the brotherhood, others immediately offered to supply the place +of the victim, and the superiors of the order had much difficulty in +restraining the zealous monks. In the central and northern missions of +Peru, 129 Franciscan monks were murdered by the wild Indians. Those +who compose that number are recorded by name, but many others +disappeared without leaving a trace of what had become of them, and of +course they are not included in the list. The number of lay brethren +who perished is much greater. It is indeed melancholy to reflect how +little advantage has been obtained by the sacrifice of so many +valuable lives. The missions have nearly all disappeared, and the +Indians have now retrograded into the savage state in which they were +before the conquest of Peru. + +The Franciscan monks were mild and patient teachers. They proceeded on +the principle of leaving the Christian religion to act for itself, and +they scorned to promote it by any kind of compulsion. The Dominicans, on +the other hand, who came to Peru with the conquerors, preached +Christianity with fire and sword. The Jesuits, who headed the missions +of Southern Peru, adopted the one way or the other, as they found most +advantageous to the object they had in view. By this means they secured +the attachment of the neophytes, and retained most of their conversions. +Many of the Jesuit missionaries were highly intelligent and +well-informed men. We are indebted to them for important geographical +and statistical information, and in particular for some philological +works of great value, viz., a grammar and dictionary of the language of +every tribe they converted. The Dominican monks, who were mere ignorant +fanatics, sacrificed to their blind zeal for conversion all the +monuments of the early civilization of the Peruvians, and restrained, +rather than promoted, the intellectual development of the people. The +Franciscans, animated by pious inspiration, earnestly preached the +doctrines of Christ to the wild inhabitants of the distant forests; but +they communicated little information to the rest of world. A few +imperfect maps, and some scanty notices on the manners and customs of +the Indians, are the whole amount of their laical labors. + +In the year 1779 an attempt was again made to penetrate to the Cerro de +la Sal, and a road was opened leading from Palca to Chanchamayo, where a +fort was built; but at the expiration of five years the government +destroyed it, as continued irruptions of the Chunchos could not be +checked. In 1784, the governor of Tarma, Don Juan Maria de Galvas, +supported by the Superior of Ocopa, Fray Manuel Sobreviela, visited the +valley of Vitoc, which had been abandoned since the Indian insurrection. +The new village of San Teodoro de Pucara was founded, and the destroyed +fort, Santa Ana de Colla, was rebuilt. The Montana was soon peopled, and +in a short time it contained upwards of forty haciendas and large +chacras. The village of Sorriano, scarcely two leagues from Colla, was +then inhabited by Chunchos, who showed a willingness to maintain +friendly intercourse with the occupants of Vitoc, from whom they took +meat, tools, and other things, which they repaid by agricultural labor. +Unfortunately, the plantation owners soon began to take an undue +advantage of this friendly intercourse, and to charge exorbitant prices +for the articles required by the Indians. For a pin or a needle they +demanded two days' work, for a fishing-hook four, and for a wretched +knife, eight, ten, or more. A rupture was the consequence. The Chunchos +burned their own village, and returned again to Chanchamayo. Still, +however, they continued on a sort of amicable footing with the Cholos, +until one of the latter wantonly shot a Chuncho at a festival. The tribe +then mustered in thousands to avenge the murder. They destroyed the +Christian villages, and massacred all the inhabitants who were not able +to fly. Thus was Vitoc once more depopulated: Cardenas, the military +governor of Tarma, made a fresh endeavor to restore the cultivation of +this fine valley. He made the road again passable, laid out the large +plantation Chuntabamba, built and garrisoned the Colla fort. The site of +the former Chuncho village, Sorriano, was converted into a _cocal_ (or +coca field), and the Montana began once more to assume a flourishing +aspect. Still, however, the Chunchos continued to harass their +neighbors, particularly during the time of the coca harvest, which could +not be gathered without military protection. During one of the harvests +a laborer was shot by the wild Indians, which so terrified the Cholos, +that they all fled to Sorriano. Soon after, Cardenas died, and the coca +plantation being neglected, became a waste. A few years afterwards the +hacienda of Pacchapata was laid out. During the war of independence the +Spaniards destroyed Fort Colla, and the inhabitants of Vitoc were left +without any means of defence against their savage enemies. The last +attempt to reduce the Chunchos to subjection and order was made by a +military expedition under the command of General Don Francisco de Paula +de Otero, but owing to ill-arranged plans it totally failed. No more +than twenty-five years have elapsed since the valley of Vitoc, with its +rich plantations, was in the most flourishing prosperity. Now only faint +traces of its past cultivation are discernible. + +The history of the Montana of Vitoc is the history of all the Montanas +of Peru. In all, we perceive the alternate rise and decline of +cultivation and civilization, caused by the efforts of the missionaries, +and the incursions of the wild Indians. Throughout all these districts +the present condition exhibits a marked inferiority to the past, a +circumstance which may be accounted for by the long-continued civil war, +during the contest for independence. Nevertheless, the internal +tranquillity of the country, and the increasing population, suggest +favorable prognostics for the future. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 98: See page 189.] + +[Footnote 99: I allude here to individuals (and such cases are by no +means singular) who have attained the great age of 130. Supposing these +Indians to have begun to masticate coca at ten years old, and calculate +their daily consumption as a minimum at one ounce, the result is the +consumption of twenty-seven hundred weight, in 120 years.] + +[Footnote 100: The worthy Padre forgets the high price that would be +charged for coca in Europe. In Tarma and Huenuco the aroba (twenty-five +pounds) costs at an average six Spanish dollars; add to this the +carriage to Lima, the freight to Europe, custom-house duties, &c., and +this price would be nearly doubled.] + +[Footnote 101: The whole valley of Vitoc can furnish only two muskets, +and these are in as useless a state as possible. As for powder, there +is a constant want of it. During my residence in Vitoc I usually gave +the Alcalde some of my powder when he went out with his Cholos, or +when there was a firing on festival days. The want of a suitable +number of muskets, and sufficient powder in the dangerous vicinity of +the Chunchos, is characteristic of the improvidence of the +inhabitants of Vitoc.] + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +Oppressions exercised by the Spaniards upon the Peruvian Indians--The +Repartimiento and the Mita--Indian Insurrections--Tupac Amaru--His +Capture and Execution--War of Independence--Character of the Peruvian +Indians--Music--Dress--Superstitions--Longevity--Diminished +Population of Peru--Languages spoken by the Aboriginal +Inhabitants--Specimen of Quichua Poetry--The Yaravies--The +Quipu--Water Conduits--Ancient Buildings--Fortresses--Idols--Domestic +Utensils--Ancient Peruvian Graves--Mode of Burying the Dead--Mummies. + + +A glance at the history of Peru serves to show that prior to the Spanish +conquest the Indians were the subjects of a dynasty, to which they +rendered willing obedience. We find, indeed, an uninterrupted series of +revolutions and wars, arising out of the continued extension of the +empire, to which nations differing one from another in language, +religion, and manners, were gradually annexed. For some time after their +subjugation these nations struggled to recover their independence, but +the wise and mild government of the Incas gradually restored peace, and +established unity. In course of time, the magnitude of the empire led to +its downfall. Huayna Inca-Capac divided his dominions between his two +sons. To the elder, Huascar, he gave the southern portion of the empire, +and to the younger, Atahuallpa, he gave the northern division. Between +the two brothers there arose disputes, which led to a sanguinary war; +and in that fatal interval, Pizarro, with his invading forces, landed in +Peru. With a degree of speed, which internal union among the people +would have rendered impossible, the Spaniards made themselves masters of +the country, massacred alike sovereigns and subjects, destroyed the +sanctuaries, and established a new religion and new laws. The barbarous +cruelties by which that religion and those laws were upheld are too well +known to require repetition here. Of the many oppressive measures to +which the Spaniards enforced submission from the conquered people, I +will briefly notice two: the _Repartimiento_ and the _Mita_. The +Repartimiento was the distribution, among the natives, of articles of +European production. These distributions were under the superintendence +of the provincial authorities, the corregidores, and the sub-delegados. +The law was doubtless intended, in its origin, for the advantage and +convenience of the native Indians, by supplying them with necessaries at +a reasonable price. But, subsequently, the Repartimiento became a source +of oppression and fraud, in the hands of the provincial authorities. All +the corregidores and sub-delegados became traders. They purchased +consignments of manufactured goods from Europe, at a cheap rate, and +sold them to the Indians at exorbitant prices. To add to the grievance, +the articles thus forced upon the natives were, in many instances, not +necessaries, but objects of luxury utterly useless to them. Even more +oppressive and cruel than the Repartimiento, was the Mita, which +consisted of the forced labor of the Indians in the mines and +plantations. Every Spaniard who wished to work a mine, obtained from the +corregidor a certain number of Indians, to each of whom he gave daily +four reals as wages, with the agreement of paying to the government a +yearly tax of eight dollars. The condition of the Indians who were +distributed to the plantation owners was even worse than that of the +mine laborers; they received only two reals per day, and were required +to work in the fields from three in the morning until after sunset. The +Indians employed in this compulsory labor, whether in the mines or the +plantations, were called _Mitas_. But there was another sort of forced +labor, for which no wages were paid. It was indeed less toilsome than +working in the mines and plantations, yet the Indians employed in it +were frequently subject to much ill-treatment. I allude to domestic +service in the houses of the corregidores, sub-delegados, and priests. +The Indians thus employed were called _Pongos_, and they were required +to continue in their places for the space of a year, after which they +were discharged. A corregidor frequently had half a dozen of these +pongos, whom he provided with miserable food and wretched clothing.[102] + +In the mines and plantations countless numbers of Indians were annually +swept away by the excessive labor consequent on the mita. Some writers +estimate at nine millions the number of Indians sacrificed in the mines +in the course of three centuries. This estimate is certainly too high; +but three millions more may be added for the number of victims of the +mita in the plantations. + +That the government in Spain should have tolerated this barbarous +system, so obviously calculated to bring ruin on the nation, may +naturally be matter of surprise. But a glance at the Indian laws (_Leyes +de Indias_) suffices to show the distinction between the intentions of +the Spanish government and the corrupt legislation of the country. The +laws are, with some few exceptions, conceived in a mild spirit, and show +that their framers had in view the well-being of the colonies. The +execution of these laws was consigned to the superintendence of what was +termed the Indian council (_Consejo de Indias_). This council consisted +of a certain number of men who resided in Spain, and who either were +only in part acquainted with the real state of things in South America, +or were bribed by Indian gold to wink at the abuses committed there. +From this council were chosen the viceroys and high authorities of the +colonies, who, whilst in the exercise of their official functions, +amassed enormous wealth by unjust exactions from the Indians. One of the +latest viceroys of Peru was a man who arrived in Lima in a state of +utter poverty, and who, in the short space of three years, amassed the +immense sum of five millions of dollars. + +Could it be matter of surprise if at length the Indians rose against +their oppressors, and made an effort to shake off the heavy yoke of +their tyrants? For two hundred years they had borne it silently, without +a single attempt to emancipate themselves. Juan Santos Atahuallpa was +the first who stirred up revolt against the Spaniards. The insurrection +which he had headed, though deemed too insignificant to fix the +attention of the short-sighted government of Lima, nevertheless, +convinced the Indians that they were strong enough to make a stand +against their oppressors. Several partial risings in Southern Peru were +speedily put down; a leader was wanted to organize the disconnected +plans and movements of the insurgents. This want was at length supplied +in the person of the ill-fated Tupac Amaru, cacique of Tungasuca, a +descendant of the last Inca. + +The event which caused Tupac Amaru to attempt a movement against the +Spaniards occurred in 1780. In that year, the corregidor of Tinta, Don +Antonio Ariaga, made repartimientos to the amount of 340,000 dollars, +and with the most cruel rigor enforced payment of the useless articles +distributed. The cacique of Tungasuca assembled the irritated Indians, +who seized the corregidor and hanged him. This was the signal for a +general rising in all the neighboring districts. The forces of Tupac +Amaru augmented daily. He was invested with the title of Inca, and +treated with the honors due to sovereignty. For several months an active +war was maintained in the Puna, where several towns and villages were +taken by the insurgents. Tupac Amaru had made himself master of the +village of Chucuito, and was preparing to advance upon Cuzco, when, +about the end of April, 1781, he, and all his family, were made +prisoners by the Spaniards. He was tried and condemned to death, +together with his wife, two sons, his brother-in-law, and several other +individuals of note among the Indians. + +But the execution of Tupac Amaru, which was marked by circumstances of +monstrous barbarity, far from stemming the tide of revolution, served +only to stimulate the vengeance of the insurgents. They once more +mustered their warlike bands, under the command of Casimiro Tupac Amaru, +the brother of the late cacique, his son Andres, and an intrepid Indian +chief, named Nicacatari. The latter, assisted by Andres, burned several +villages of Upper Peru, and murdered all the whites. They next advanced +upon the strongly fortified town of Sorrata, whither the Spaniards of +the surrounding districts had fled for protection. The town was taken by +the insurgents, and the inhabitants, 22,000 in number, inhumanly put to +death, with the exception of eighty-seven priests and monks. The Indians +then advanced westwards, defeating several Spanish corps, and spreading +terror and dismay through the country. But, that which neither the arms +nor the executions of the Spaniards could accomplish, was effected by +their gold. A treacherous Indian, bribed by the promise of a large +reward, conducted a division of Spanish soldiers to the spot where the +chiefs were accustomed to meet, unattended by any guard, to hold their +council. They were surprised, captured, and condemned to death. Once +more deprived of leaders, the Indians disbanded and withdrew, some to +their homes, and others into the forests. Numberless victims paid the +debt of retribution to the Spanish government, which now adopted every +measure that could tend to annihilate the nationality of the native +Indians. Their dances, their music, their dress--all that could revive +the remembrance of their progenitors, was condemned to rigorous +prohibition; they were even forbidden the use of their mother tongue, +the Quichua language. The only beneficial result of these wars, in which +upwards of a hundred thousand lives were sacrificed, was the abolition +of the Repartimientos, which had been the cause of the insurrections. + +Peace was now, at least to appearance, restored; and if, occasionally, +symptoms of disturbance arose, they were immediately repressed. This +state of things continued until the Creoles themselves gave the signal +of revolt, and the War of Independence broke out in all the Spanish +colonies of South America. In this enterprise the Indians readily took +part. But it is a great mistake to suppose that the Indian natives made +common cause with the Creoles against the Spaniards for the purpose of +bringing about the present form of government. They wished to emancipate +themselves in order to establish their own dynasty and a government +modelled after that of their forefathers. They wanted not a republic, +but a monarchy, and a sovereign chosen from the sacred race of the +Incas. Having no clear comprehension of the real object of the War of +Independence, the Indians, when they saw whites fighting against whites, +directed their hostility against all _Pucacuncas_ (pale faces) without +distinction, killing loyalists or patriots, just as they happened to +fall in their way. This hatred was so bitterly manifested, that in some +provinces all the whites and mestizos were obliged to fly, even though +they were the most decided enemies of the Spanish loyalists. In Jauja +the Indians vowed not to leave even a white dog or a white fowl alive, +and they even scraped the whitewash from the walls of the houses. + +The provisional government ordered levies of troops to be made in the +provinces which had fallen into the hands of the patriots; and then, for +the first time, Indians were enrolled in the army as regular troops. But +it was only in a very few districts that they voluntarily took part in +the conflict for independence: they performed the forced service of +conscripts, and whenever an opportunity enabled them to retire from it, +they did so. The Spanish dominion being overthrown, the war terminated, +and a republican constitution was established. The Indians then clearly +perceived that they had been made the tools of the leaders of the +revolution. Upon the whole, their condition was but little improved; for +if they were relieved from some oppressive laws, other hardships weighed +heavily on them, and they found that they still were slaves in the land +of their fathers. The creoles, like the Spaniards, will draw the string +of despotism till it snaps. Then will arise another Indian insurrection +like that headed by Tupac Amaru, but with a more successful result. +After a fearful struggle, they may reconquer their fatherland, and +re-establish their ancient constitution; and can it be matter of +surprise if they wreak cruel vengeance on the enemies of their race? + +Since the War of Independence, the Indians have made immense progress. +During the civil war, which was kept up uninterruptedly for the space of +twenty years, they were taught military manoeuvres and the use of +fire-arms. After every lost battle the retreating Indians carried with +them in their flight their muskets, which they still keep carefully +concealed. They are also acquainted with the manufacture of gunpowder, +of which in all their festivals they use great quantities for squibs and +rockets. The materials for the preparation of gunpowder are found in +abundance in the valleys of the Sierra. + +In the year 1841, when I was passing through a miserable village on the +confines of one of the Montanas of Central Peru, I took up my abode for +some days in the hut of an Indian, and whilst there I accidentally saw +eighteen muskets which were deposited in a place of concealment. I, +quite unsuspectingly, inquired of the Indian, why he thought it +requisite to keep so many weapons of defence? He replied, with a +sinister frown, that the time would come when he should find them +useful. I could easily perceive that my accidental discovery was by no +means agreeable to him; and from the very marked change which I observed +in his manner. I deemed it prudent to withdraw from the village and its +vicinity. Whilst my horse was being saddled, I noticed my host and some +of his confidential friends engaged in very earnest conversation, and I +could easily perceive that I was the subject of it. On my departure the +Indian asked me, with apparent friendliness of manner, which way I was +going? When I was beyond the sphere of his observation, I deemed it +prudent to proceed quite in an opposite direction from the route which I +told him I intended to take. + +The character of the Peruvian Indian is essentially gloomy. It was not +always so, if we may give credit to the animated pictures drawn by early +travellers in Peru; but three hundred years of oppression and suffering +have impressed their melancholy stamp on the feelings and manners of the +people. This gloominess is strikingly manifested in their songs, their +dances, their dress, and their whole domestic economy. The favorite +musical instruments of the Indians are those called the _Pututo_ and the +_Jaina_. The former is a large conch, on which they perform mournful +music, as the accompaniment of their funeral dances. In early times this +conch was employed in the solemnities of royal interments; now its use +is exclusively reserved for the anniversaries held in commemoration of +certain events connected with the fallen Inca dynasty. The _Jaina_ +appears to be of more modern origin; it is a rude kind of clarionet, +made from a reed. Its tone is indescribably melancholy, and it produces +an extraordinary impression on the natives. If a group of Indians are +rioting and drinking, or engaged in furious conflict with each other, +and the sound of the _Jaina_ is suddenly heard, the tumult ceases, as if +by a stroke of magic. A dead stillness prevails, and all listen devoutly +to the magic tones of the simple reed; tones which frequently draw tears +from the eyes of the apathetic Indian. + +Their garments are all of dark and sombre hues. Dark blue is a favorite +color, and appears to be generally adopted for mourning; for whenever +the Indians follow a corpse to the grave, they always wear dark blue +ponchos. The dress of the men usually consists of short trowsers, of +coarse brown cloth, fastened round the waist by a girdle, and a woollen +or cotton shirt. They seldom wear a jacket, the ponchos of Alpaca wool +being always the outer garment. On their feet they wear sandals of +untanned leather, which merely cover the toes, and are fastened round +the ancle. + +The dress of the women consists of a loose under garment, without +sleeves, and made of coarse blue woollen cloth. It is confined round the +waist by a broad girdle, called the _huccau_. Over the arms are drawn +black sleeves, reaching from the wrist to about the middle of the upper +arm. A sort of robe or tunic, called the _anacu_, descends from the +shoulders to the knees. It is fastened, not in front, but on one side. +This garment is made of a thin sort of woollen stuff. It is always +black, being worn in token of mourning for the Incas. On the occasion of +certain festivals, the Indian women wear a particolored dress, called a +_faldillin_. This garment frequently exhibits the most glaring contrasts +of color, one half being bright red, and the other yellow, in addition +to which it is sometimes adorned with flowers of brilliant hues, and +tasteless, gold embroidery. A _mantilla_, consisting of a narrow piece +of woollen cloth, passed over the shoulders, and fastened under the +chin, either with a long silver pin, or a cactus-thorn, completes the +costume. In this mantilla, or in a poncho, mothers are accustomed to +wrap their infants, and fastening them to their backs, they carry them +about in this manner for a whole day, whilst engaged in their work. + +In their domestic relations, the Indians are unsocial and gloomy. +Husband, wife, and children live together with but little appearance of +affection. The children seem to approach their parents timidly, and +whole days sometimes elapse without the interchange of a word of +kindness between them. When the Indian is not engaged in out-door work, +he sits gloomily in his hut, chewing coca, and brooding silently over +his own thoughts. To his friend he is more communicative than to his +wife. With the former, he will often discourse, apparently on some +secret topic, for the space of half a night; nevertheless, he cannot be +accused of treating his wife with any degree of cruelty, or of +regarding her merely in the light of his slave, as is customary among +many uncivilized races of people. + +Besides the official authorities, to which the Government exacts +obedience, the Peruvian Indian acknowledges other authorities, whose +functions and power are similar to those which existed under the Inca +dynasty. In like manner, though they have embraced the Christian faith, +yet they obstinately adhere to certain religious ceremonies, which have +been transmitted to them by their idolatrous progenitors. Thus their +religion is a singular combination of Christian principles and +heathenish forms. Hitherto the most patient and intelligent of their +religious instructors have failed to outroot this attachment to old +forms. The Christian religion has been spread among the Indians by +force; and for centuries past, they have regarded the priests only in +the light of tyrants, who make religion a cloak for the most scandalous +pecuniary extortions, and whose conduct is in direct opposition to the +doctrines they profess. If they render to them unconditional obedience, +accompanied by a sort of timid reverence, it is to be attributed less to +the operation of the Christian principle, than to a lingering attachment +to the theocratic government of the Incas, which has impressed the +Peruvians with a sacred awe of religion. + +The superstition with which the Indians are so deeply imbued is adverse +to the inculcation of pure religious faith; it is the more difficult to +be eradicated, inasmuch as it has its origin in early tradition, and has +in later times been singularly blended with the Catholic form of +worship. Of this superstition I may here adduce some examples. As soon +as a dying person draws his last breath, the relatives, or persons in +attendance, put coca leaves into the mouth of the corpse, and light a +wax candle. They then collect together the household goods and clothes +of the deceased and wash them in the nearest river. They put on the dead +clothes, which are made after the pattern of a monk's habit, and they +hang round the neck of the corpse a little bag, containing seeds of +coca, maize, barley, quinua, &c., for his plantations in the next world. +In the evening ashes are strewed on the floor of the room, and the door +is securely fastened. Next morning the ashes are carefully examined to +ascertain whether they show any impression of footsteps; and imagination +readily traces marks, which are alleged to have been produced by the +feet of birds, dogs, cats, oxen, or llamas. The destiny of the dead +person is construed by the foot-marks which are supposed to be +discernible. The worst marks are those of hens' claws, which are +believed to denote that the soul of the deceased is doomed to +irrevocable perdition. The marks of the hoofs of llamas are considered +favorable, and are believed to indicate that the soul, after a short +purgatory, will be transferred to the joys of paradise. The funeral is +conducted according to Christian forms, and under the superintendence of +a priest. But as soon as the priest takes his departure food is put into +the grave along with the dead body, which is interred without a coffin. +I have sometimes seen one of the nearest relatives leap into the grave +and strike the body with his foot, but the meaning of this strange +proceeding I never could clearly understand. Some curious ceremonies are +observed on All Souls' Day. In every house in which a member of the +family has died in the course of the year, a table is laid out with +brandy, coca, tobacco, together with some of the favorite dishes of the +deceased person, and the chamber is kept closed the whole day. The +family firmly believe that the spirit of their departed relative on that +day revisits his earthly abode, and partakes of the repast that is +spread out on the table. A widow usually wears mourning for the space of +twelve months. In some provinces, on the anniversary of her husband's +death, the widow puts on a bridal dress, and over it her ordinary +garments. All her relatives visit her in her dwelling, where, to the +accompaniment of doleful music, she takes the lead in a funeral dance. +As the hour approaches at which the husband died in the previous year, +the dancing and the music become more and more mournful; but whenever +the hour is past one of the female friends approaches the widow and +removes her black mantilla. The other females then strip off the rest of +her mourning garments, and adorn her head with flowers. At length she +appears in a complete bridal dress. The musicians strike up a lively +strain, to which the whole party dance, and the evening is passed in +drinking and merry-making. + +Among the Peruvian Indians there are marked varieties of form and +complexion. These differences are most distinctly observable between +the inhabitants of the coast and those of the mountain and forest +regions. In general, the Peruvian Indian is of middle height, rather +slender, and not very robust. The coast Indians are more plump than the +inhabitants of other districts, because they lead a less laborious life, +and are less exposed to privations. It is scarcely possible to trace any +particular national physiognomy among the Indians. In each province a +distinct character is observable in the features of the inhabitants. The +varieties of feature are less distinctly marked than the differences of +complexion. The peculiar tints of the skin are decidedly defined, and +indicate respectively the inhabitants of the three principal regions. +The colder the climate, the fairer is the skin. For example, the color +of the Puna Indian is a dark red-brown; that of the native of the Sierra +is considerably lighter; it is a rusty red, but still darker than that +of the coast Indians; and the natives of the forests are yellow, nearly +approaching to maize color. These differences are singularly striking, +when one has an opportunity of seeing the inhabitants of the different +regions in juxtaposition. It is curious that the Cholos of the Puna, +when they settle in the forests, become only a very little clearer; and +that, on the other hand, the yellow Indians of the Montana, after being +several years in the Puna, still retain their characteristic tint. The +women are, on the whole, extremely ugly, with round, inexpressive faces. +Their hands and feet are very small. + +The Indians are, on the average, remarkable for longevity, though they +frequently shorten their lives by the intemperate use of strong drinks. +Instances are not rare of Indians living to be 120 or 130 years of age, +and retaining full possession of their bodily and mental powers. +Stevenson mentions that on examining the church registers of Barranca, +he found that within an interval of seven years, eleven Indians had been +interred, whose united ages amounted to 1207, being an average of 109 +years to each. In the year 1839 there was living in the valley of Jauja +an Indian who, according to the baptismal register shown to me by the +priest, was born in the year 1697. He himself declared that he had not +for the space of ninety years tasted a drop of water, having drunk +nothing but chicha. Since he was eleven years of age, he alleged that +he had masticated coca, at least three times every day, and that he had +eaten animal food only on Sundays; on all the other days of the week he +had lived on maize, quinua, and barley. The Indians retain their teeth +and hair in extreme old age; and it is remarkable that their hair never +becomes white, and very seldom even grey. Those individuals whose +advanced ages have been mentioned above, had all fine black hair. + +Since the Spanish conquest, the population of Peru has diminished in an +almost incredible degree. When we read the accounts given by the old +historiographers of the vast armies which the Incas had at their +command; when we behold the ruins of the gigantic buildings, and of the +numerous towns and villages scattered over Peru, it is difficult to +conceive how the land could have been so depopulated in the lapse of +three centuries. At the time of the conquest it was easy, in a short +space of time, to raise an army of 300,000 men, and, moreover, to form +an important reserved force; whilst now, the Government, even with the +utmost efforts, can scarcely assemble 10,000 or 12,000 men. According to +the census drawn up in 1836, Peru did not contain more than 1,400,000 +men, being not quite so many as were contained at an earlier period in +the department of Cuzco alone. Unfortunately there is no possibility of +obtaining anything approaching to accurate estimates of the population +of early periods; and even if such documents existed, it would be +difficult to deduce from them a comparison between Peru as it now is, +and Peru at the period when Bolivia, a part of Buenos Ayres, and +Columbia, belonged to the mighty empire. I will here quote only one +example of the immense diminution of the population. Father Melendez +mentions that shortly after the conquest, the parish of Ancallama, in +the province of Chancay, contained 30,000 Indians fit for service (that +is to say, between the ages of eighteen and fifty); now, the same parish +contains at most 140 individuals, of whom one-third are Mestizos. The +whole coast of Peru, now almost totally depopulated, was once so thickly +inhabited, that to subdue King Chimu, in North Peru alone, an army of +80,000 men was requisite. The causes of the diminished Indian population +of Peru have been so frequently and fully detailed by previous writers, +that I need not here do more than briefly advert to them. They are found +in the extensive and reckless massacres committed by the Spaniards +during the struggle of the conquest; in the suicides and voluntary +deaths resorted to by the natives to escape from the power of their +oppressors; in the mita, the small-pox, the scarlet fever, and the +introduction of brandy. The mita alone, especially the labor in the +mines, has swept away four times as many Indians as all the other causes +combined. Since the abolition of the mita, the Indian population has +been on the increase, though there has not yet been time for any marked +result to become manifest; the more especially, considering the numbers +of lives sacrificed during the frequent civil wars. Nevertheless, it is +easy to foresee that a decided augmentation of the Indian inhabitants of +the western parts of South America will, ere long, be apparent. + +Among the aboriginal inhabitants of Peru a variety of languages are in +use. In the southern parts of the country, particularly about Cuzco, the +_Quichua_ is spoken. It was the dialect of the court, and that which was +most generally diffused, and the Spaniards therefore called it _la +lengua general_. In the highlands of Central Peru, the Chinchaysuyo +language prevailed. The Indians of the coast, who belonged to the race +of the Chunchos, spoke the _Yunga_. The _Kauqui_ was the language of +that part of Central Peru which corresponds with the present province of +Yauyos. The inhabitants of the north-eastern parts of Peru, as far as +the Huallaga, spoke the _Lama_ language,[103] and the natives of the +highland regions of Quito spoke the _Quitena_.[104] These different +languages, which, with the exception of the Lama, proceed all from one +source, differ so considerably, that the inhabitants of the several +districts were reciprocally incapable of understanding each other, and +the Incas found it necessary to introduce the Quichua among all the +nations they subdued. The other dialects were thereby much corrupted, +and at the time of the Spanish invasion, they were seldom correctly +spoken. This corruption was naturally increased more and more after the +arrival of the Spaniards, by the introduction of a new language. Only +for a few of the new articles brought by the Spaniards to Peru did the +Indians form new names, taking the roots of the words from their own +language: for most things they adopted the Spanish names. By this means, +but still more by the future intercourse of the people with the +invaders, the purity of the natural language rapidly disappeared in +proportion to the influence which the Spaniards obtained by their +increase in numbers and moral superiority. At present the Quichua is a +compound of all the dialects and the Spanish; it is spoken in the +greatest purity in the southern provinces, though even there it is much +intermixed with Aymara words. In Central Peru the Chinchaysuyo prevails, +and on the coast the Spanish and the Yunga. The present Indians and +people of mixed blood, who of necessity must speak the ever-changing +Quichua, and also the Spanish, speak both in so corrupt a manner, that +it is frequently almost impossible to understand them. + +The family of the Incas had a secret language of their own, which was +not learned by subjects. This language is now almost totally lost, not +more than two dozen words of it being preserved. In early times, the +Quichua language was much cultivated. It was used officially in public +speaking, and professors were sent by the Inca family into the provinces +to teach it correctly. For poetry, the Quichua language was not very +well adapted, owing to the difficult conjugation of the verbs, and the +awkward blending of pronouns with substantives. Nevertheless, the poetic +art was zealously cultivated under the Incas. They paid certain poets +(called the _Haravicus_), for writing festival dramas in verse, and also +for composing love-songs and heroic poems. Few of these heroic poems +have been preserved, a circumstance the more to be regretted, as many of +them would doubtless have been important historical documents; but for +that very reason, the Spaniards spared no pains to obliterate every +trace of them. Some of the love-songs have, however, been preserved. In +Quichua poetry, the lines are short, and seldom thoroughly rhythmical. +Rhymes were only exceptional, and were never sought for. The poetry was, +therefore, merely a sort of broken prose. + +A specimen of one of the best of the Quichua love-songs is given by +_Garcilaso de la Vega_, in his "Commentaries and Poems." It is copied +from papers left by a monk named Blas Valera; and some lines of it are +here subjoined. The subject is an old Peruvian tradition:--A maiden of +royal blood (_nusta_) is appointed by the Creator of the world +(_Pacchacamac_) in heaven, to pour water and snow on the earth out of +a pitcher; her brother breaks the pitcher, whereupon thunder and +lightning arise. + + Cumac nusta Beautiful Princess, + Turallayquim Thy Pitcher + Puynuyquita Thy brother hath broken + Paquicayan Here in Pieces; + Hina mantara For that blow + Cunununun It thunders; and lightning + Yllapantac Flashes all around. + +There were, however, instances of versification which may properly be +called poetry. Of this the _Yaravies_, or elegies, afford some fair +examples. These poems have for their subjects unfortunate love, or +sorrow for the dead. They were recited or sung by one or more voices, +with an accompaniment of melancholy music, and made a great impression +on the hearers. A foreigner, who for the first time hears one of these +_Yaravies_ sung, even though he may not understand the Quichua words, is +nevertheless deeply moved by the melody. The strain is sad and sweet. No +other music is at once so dismal and so tender. What the _donina_ is as +an instrument, the _yaravie_ is in singing; both convey the expression +of a deeply troubled heart. The _yaravie_ has been imitated by the +Spaniards in their own language, and some of the imitations are very +beautiful; but they have not been able to reach the deep melancholy of +the Quichua elegy. The modern poetry of the Indians is inferior to the +old; the words are a mixture of Quichua and Spanish, and are scarcely +intelligible. The Spanish words have often Quichua terminations affixed +to them; on the other hand, sometimes the Quichua words are inflected +after the Spanish manner, making altogether a barbarous compound. + +The ancient Peruvians had no manuscript characters for single sounds; +but they had a method by which they composed words and incorporated +ideas. This method consisted in the dexterous intertwining of knots on +strings, so as to render them auxiliaries to the memory. The instrument +consisting of these strings and knots was called the QUIPU. It was +composed of one thick head or top string, to which, at certain +distances, thinner ones were fastened. The top string was much thicker +than these pendent strings, and consisted of two doubly twisted threads, +over which two single threads were wound. The branches, if I may apply +the term to these pendent strings, were fastened to the top ones by a +simple loop; the knots were made in the pendent strings, and were either +single or manifold. The lengths of the strings used in making the quipu +were various. The transverse or top string often measures several yards, +and sometimes only a foot long; the branches are seldom more than two +feet long, and in general they are much shorter. + +The strings were often of different colors; each having its own +particular signification. The color for soldiers was red; for gold, +yellow; for silver, white; for corn, green, &c. This writing by knots +was especially employed for numerical and statistical tables; each +single knot representing ten; each double knot stood for one hundred; +each triple knot for one thousand, &c.; two single knots standing +together made twenty; and two double knots, two hundred. + +This method of calculation is still practised by the shepherds of the +Puna. They explained it to me, and I could, with very little trouble, +construe their quipus. On the first branch or string they usually placed +the numbers of the bulls; on the second, that of the cows; the latter +being classed into those which were milked, and those which were not +milked; on the next string were numbered the calves, according to their +ages and sizes. Then came the sheep, in several subdivisions. Next +followed the number of foxes killed, the quantity of salt consumed, +and, finally, the cattle that had been slaughtered. Other quipus showed +the produce of the herds in milk, cheese, wool, &c. Each list was +distinguished by a particular color, or by some peculiarity in the +twisting of the string. + +In this manner the ancient Peruvians kept the accounts of their army. On +one string were numbered the soldiers armed with slings; on another, the +spearmen; on a third, those who carried clubs, &c. In the same manner +the military reports were prepared. In every town some expert men were +appointed to tie the knots of the quipu, and to explain them. These men +were called _quipucamayocuna_ (literally, officers of the knots). +Imperfect as was this method, yet in the flourishing period of the Inca +government the appointed officers had acquired great dexterity in +unriddling the meaning of the knots. It, however, seldom happened that +they had to read a quipu without some verbal commentary. Something was +always required to be added if the quipu came from a distant province, +to explain whether it related to the numbering of the population, to +tributes, or to war, &c. Through long-continued practice, the officers +who had charge of the quipus became so perfect in their duties, that +they could with facility communicate the laws and ordinances, and all +the most important events of the kingdom, by their knots. + +All attempts made in modern times to decipher Peruvian quipus have +been unsatisfactory in their results. The principal obstacle to +deciphering those found in graves, consists in the want of the oral +communication requisite for pointing out the subjects to which they +refer. Such communication was necessary, even in former times, to the +most learned quipucamayocuna. Most of the quipus here alluded to seem +to be accounts of the population of particular towns or provinces, +tax-lists, and information relating to the property of the deceased. +Some Indians in the southern provinces of Peru are understood to +possess a perfect knowledge of some of the ancient quipus, from +information transmitted to them from their ancestors. But they keep +that knowledge profoundly secret, particularly from the whites. The +ancient Peruvians also used a certain kind of hieroglyphics, which +they engraved in stone, and preserved in their temples. Notices of +these hieroglyphics are given by some of the early writers. There +appears to be a great similarity between these Peruvian hieroglyphics +and those found in Mexico and Brazil. + +I have already mentioned one of the largest and most wonderful works of +Peruvian antiquity, namely, the great military road which passes through +the whole empire leading from Cuzco to Quitu, and which has many highly +important lateral branches. The magnificent water-conduits, by which +barren sand wastes and sterile hills were converted into fruitful +plantations, are monuments of equivalent greatness. Traces of these +water-conduits are to be seen throughout the whole of Peru, and even +where the canals themselves no longer exist, the divisional boundaries +of the fields they watered are still discernible. In many districts +where the valleys of the Sierra run into the Puna--(I allude here only +to the declivities above Tarmatambo, on the road towards Jauja)--there +may be seen many square fields of uniform size, each of which is +surrounded by a low stone wall; these fields are at present overgrown +with Puna grass, and are not fit for cultivation. They are what were +called _Tapu_ lands, which were distributed to every subject of the Inca +empire, so that each family enjoyed the produce arising from the +cultivation of a certain portion of ground. These Tapu lands were +watered by skilfully constructed aqueducts, whereby they were rendered +suitable for agriculture. The Spaniards having destroyed the conduits, +the reservoirs dried up, and the soil became barren. Many of these +conduits were subterraneous, and it is now no longer possible to find +them; in some parts they were constructed with pipes of gold, which the +Spaniards eagerly seized as valuable booty. + +There still exist vast remains of well-constructed colossal buildings, +as palaces, fortresses, and temples. The walls of these edifices were +built of square stones, so finely cut, and joined so closely together, +that between any two there is not space sufficient to insert the edge of +the thinnest paper. In the royal palace of Cuzco, and in the Temple of +the Sun, a fusion of gold or silver was used for cement between the +stones. This was, however, only employed as a luxury; for in other great +edifices, for example, in the baths of Huamalies in the province of +Jauja, stones are kept together by their own weight and the precision of +the workmanship. These stones are of very considerable magnitude; some +being from twelve to sixteen feet long, from eight to ten feet high, and +equally broad. They are not all square; some are polygonal, and some +spherical, but they were all joined one to another with the same +exactness: of this a remarkable example is presented in the highly +interesting ruins of the palace of Limatambo. A question which naturally +suggests itself is,--how did the ancient Peruvians, without iron tools, +hew these vast stones, and afterwards work the different fragments so +skilfully? The first point is to me quite inexplicable; the second may +possibly be accounted for by friction; the softest of two stones which +was to be brought into a particular shape being rubbed by a harder, and +afterwards polished by pyritous plants. The removal of the block from +the quarry where it was excavated to the place of its destination, and +the raising of fragments of stone to considerable heights, could only +have been effected by the co-operation of thousands of men, for no kind +of elevating machinery or lever was then known. + +The fortresses give a high idea of the progress made by the ancient +Peruvians in architectural art. These structures were surrounded by +ramparts and trenches. The larger ones were protected by the solidity of +the walls, and the smaller ones by difficulty of access. The approaches +to them were chiefly subterraneous; and thereby, they were enabled to +maintain secret communication with the palaces and temples in their +neighborhood. The subterraneous communications were carefully +constructed; they were of the height of a man, and in general from three +to four feet broad. In some parts they contract suddenly in width, and +the walls on each side are built with sharp pointed stones, so that +there is no getting between them, except by a lateral movement. In other +parts they occasionally become so low, that it is impossible to advance, +except by creeping on all fours. Every circumstance had been made a +subject of strict calculation; it had been well considered how treasures +might be removed from the palaces and temples to the fortresses, and +placed securely beyond the reach of an enemy, for in the rear of every +narrow pass there were ample spaces for soldiers, who might dispute the +advance of a whole army. Besides the remains of the fortress of Cuzco, +which are gradually disappearing every year, the most important are +those of Calcahilares and Huillcahuaman. Less interesting, though still +very curious, are the ruins of Chimu-canchu in Manische, near Truxillo, +which are not of stone but of brick. The architecture of the small +fortress of _Huichay_, two leagues from Tarma, which defended the +entrance to that valley, is very remarkable. The front is built of small +but firmly united stones, and covers a large cavity, in which there are +numerous divisions, intended for the preservation of warlike stores, and +for quartering soldiers. On the steep declivity of the hill there had +been a deep trench, between which there was a wall fourteen feet higher, +flanked by three bastions. Around this fortress nitre is found in great +abundance. It is now collected by the Huancas (the inhabitants of the +valley of Jauja), for making gunpowder. The diggings for nitre have +almost obliterated the entrance to the cavity, and the fortress is +already so much injured that possibly in another century scarcely a +trace of the edifice will remain. Notwithstanding a search of several +days, I did not succeed in discovering the mouth of the cavity, though +an old Indian, who, years ago, had often visited it, pointed out to me +what he supposed to be its precise situation. The walls of +perpendicular rock in the neighborhood of Huichay are often 60 to 80 +feet high, and the clefts or fissures in them are filled up with small +stones. It would be incomprehensible how the Indians ascended to +perform this labor, were it not perceived that they have hollowed +passages in the mountain. It would appear they must have had +dwellings, or stores for provisions, on the higher part of the hill, +for small windows are often perceptible in walls of masonry. + +The old Indian villages of the Sierra are for the most part situated on +heights, or sharp ridges, which are now completely barren, as they no +longer receive the artificial watering with which they were formerly +supplied. All lie open to the east, so that the inhabitants could behold +their Deity the moment he appeared on the horizon. All large towns had a +square in their centre, where the religious dances were performed. From +the square a certain number of regular roads or streets always ran in +the direction of the four quarters of the firmament. There are great +varieties in the construction of the houses. Small insignificant huts +often stand close to a palace having twenty or twenty-five windows in +one front. Private dwellings in the mountainous parts are built of +unhewn stone, cemented with a very strong calcareous mortar. On the +coast the walls are of brick. In the departments of Junin and Ayacucho, +I met with the ruins of great villages, consisting of dwellings of a +peculiar construction, in the form of a tower. Each house is +quadrangular, with a diameter of about six feet, and seventeen or +eighteen feet high. The walls are from one to one and a half feet thick. +The doors, which open to the east or south, are only a foot and a half +high, and two feet wide. After creeping in (which is a work of some +difficulty) the explorer finds himself in an apartment about five and a +half feet in height, and of equal breadth, without any windows. In the +walls there are closets or cupboards, which served to contain domestic +utensils, food, &c. Earthen pots with maize, coca, and other things, are +still often found in these closets. The ceiling of the room is +overlaid with flat plates of stone, and in the centre an aperture, two +feet wide, is left, forming a communication with the second floor, +which is precisely like the first, but has two small windows. The roof +of this apartment has also an aperture, affording access to the third +floor, the ceiling of which forms the roof of the house, and consists +of rather thick plates of stone. The upper room is usually less lofty +than the two rooms below it, and seems to have been used as a +provision store-room. I found in one of these upper rooms the mummy of +a child very well embalmed. The family appear to have lived chiefly on +the ground-floors. The place for cooking is often plainly perceptible. +The second floor was probably the sleeping apartment. In the course of +my travels, when overtaken by storms, I often retreated for shelter +into one of these ruined dwellings. + +The ancient Peruvians frequently buried their dead in their own houses, +and then removed from them. This custom appears to have been very +general about the time of the Spanish conquest, when a great number of +Indians committed suicide in despair. Household utensils were placed in +the graves, when the dead were buried in the houses, as well as when +they were interred in other places. In many houses in which I made +diggings I regularly found the following arrangement. Under a stratum of +earth two feet deep lay the body, in a state of good preservation, and +generally, but not always, in a sitting posture. On clearing away +another stratum of earth equally deep there is found a variety of +household vessels for cooking, together with water-pots of clay, gourds, +hunting and fishing implements, &c. There is frequently a third layer of +earth, beneath which the gold and silver vessels and the household +deities are deposited. The idols are of clay, stone, and copper, or of +the precious metals. Those of clay are hollow, flat, compressed, and in +most instances the faces are painted. Those of stone are of granite, +porphyry, or sand-stone. These stone images are solid, and often several +feet high. The golden idols are always hollow; but they exhibit no +distinct trace of the soldering. They are of various sizes; some of them +weigh three quarters of a pound. Those of silver are always solid. All +these images of deities have the same physiognomy, and +disproportionately large head. In most instances the head is covered by +a peculiar kind of cap. + +The vessels used for holding water or other liquids are very various in +color and form. Most of them exhibit ludicrous caricatures of human +figures; others are unrecognisable representations of animals or fancy +figures. These vessels have in general two apertures, one by which they +were filled, and the other by which the liquid was poured out. On +filling them a feeble flute-like sound is heard. It is occasioned by the +air escaping through the other aperture. Most of these vessels are made +of red or black clay, well glazed. Those for holding chicha were very +capacious. Some of them, which have been found hermetically closed, have +contained chicha upwards of three hundred years old, and remarkable for +a very smoky flavor. On the vessels made of gourds fanciful figures are +generally carved. Gold drinking cups have been found, adorned with well +executed embossed ornaments, and like the images, showing no trace of +soldering. Among the warlike weapons, the stone battle-axes are very +remarkable; they have at both ends a tube, in which the handle was fixed +by ligatures. Articles for personal adornment, such as nose and lip +rings, neck chains, pins, bracelets, and ancle bands, are usually of +gold, and set with small colored shells. The sceptres of the Incas are +of gold, and exquisitely wrought; those of the Curacas of silver; and +those of the Caciques of copper, sometimes gilt. + +Idols and utensils made of wood are very rarely found. It would appear +that the ancient Peruvians found more difficulty in the working of wood +than that of metal and stone. The Peruvians give to all objects dug up +from the old graves, the name of _Huaqueros_, from Huaca, the word for +grave in the Quichua language. + +The huacas or graves vary in form or magnitude. When destined for single +individuals they were made small; but when for families, they were of +considerable extent. On the sandy soil of the coast, no elevation marks +the spot where the bodies are interred; but further inland (though still +in the coast region), the graves are for the most part elevated and +arched, and are built of bricks. In the Sierra the tombs are of stone, +quadrangular, oval, or of an obelisk form. + +In the huacas, the bodies are found in a sitting position, and supported +by stones or reeds: the face turned towards the east. In front of the +body it was customary to place two rows of pots containing quinua, +maize, potatoes, dried llama flesh, and other kinds of provisions, and +these pots were all covered with small lids. On each side of the body +were ranged cooking utensils, and vessels containing water and chicha. +The body and all the objects deposited in the grave were covered with a +layer of sand, above which were spread various articles of clothing. +Over these was placed another layer of sand, and then the tomb was built +above the whole. + +The bodies are found wrapped in several coverings; and when first taken +out of the graves, they have the appearance of unfinished statues; the +position of the head, knees, and feet being alone recognisable. A strong +net-work, composed of twisted straw or bast incloses a thick rush mat, +in which the body is wrapped. These coverings being removed, there is +found a broad, woollen bandage, passing round the body, and fastening +the rushes or sticks which support it in a sitting position. Under this +bandage is a red or party-colored covering which goes over the whole +body; and beneath this are one or two yellowish-white coverings, +strongly sewed up. On removing these coverings, there are found some +pots or drinking cups, a few ornaments, the _Huallqui_ with coca, and in +most instances a silver or gold idol suspended from the neck of the +body. The undermost wrapper consists of a cloth of rather fine texture. +Probably it was originally white, but time has changed it to a +reddish-yellow. This covering being unsewed, the naked corpse appears; +the head alone being encircled with two or three bandages, called +_Huinchas_. The body is always in a sitting posture; the knees being +drawn up towards the face, and the arms crossed over the breast, in +such a manner that the chin rests between the two clenched hands. The +wrists are tied together, and the ligature with which they are +fastened is passed round the neck. This, which was evidently done only +to keep the hands fixed in the required position, has led some +commentators on Peruvian antiquities to suppose that the bodies found +with strings round the necks were those of hanged persons. In the +mouth there is a thin piece of gold, silver or copper; most of the +bodies are in a good state of preservation, though the features are +not discernible. The hair is always found perfectly free from decay; +and that of the females is beautifully plaited. + +The question has arisen, whether these bodies were embalmed, or whether +their preservation is merely the result of the mummifying nature of the +climate. Both conjectures have found zealous supporters. Don Francisco +Barrero, keeper of the Museum of Natural History in Lima, mentions, in +the _Memorial de Ciencias Naturales_,[105] that among the ancient +Peruvians certain men were appointed as embalmers, and he describes the +process they adopted as follows:--They first extracted the brain through +the nose, then took out the eyes, and stopped up the sockets with +cotton. The bowels, lungs, and even the tongue, were removed, after +which the body and skull were filled with a kind of powder, which +immediately after it is taken out of the mummies, diffuses a slight +odor of turpentine; this odor, however, it soon loses on being +exposed to the action of the air. The face, hands, and feet, were +rubbed over with an oily substance, after which the body was incased +in the envelopes above described. I am disposed to believe that this +process never had any existence, save in the imagination of Barrera: +it indeed resembles the manner in which the Egyptians prepared their +mummies; but no such method was practised among the Indians. The +mummies collected in the museum of Lima present not the slightest +trace of this powder, or indeed of any kind of preservative +material--a fact which is mentioned by the director of that +establishment, Don E. Mariano de Rivero, in his _Antiguedades +Peruanas_.[106] + +On those parts of the coast where it never rains, the combined heat of +the sun and the sand has dried up the bodies; in the mountain districts, +the pure atmosphere and the peculiarly drying nature of the wind have +produced the same effect. Similar appearances may be traced to different +circumstances. Of this fact the burial ground of Huacho, and the +mummified animals seen on the level heights, furnish the most convincing +proofs. In districts exposed to frequent rain, mummies are found in very +bad preservation, most of them being mere skeletons. All are in sitting +postures. In those parts of the Sierra where the soil is impregnated +with nitre, bodies, which must have lain in the ground for several +centuries, are found in a very fresh condition, notwithstanding the +humidity. + +Garcilaso de la Vega and the Padre Acosta state that the ancient +Peruvians were acquainted with the art of embalming, but that they +employed it only for the bodies of their kings. In the Temple of the Sun +at Cuzco, there were found excellently preserved mummies of the Incas, +each seated on a throne. Several years after the Spanish conquest, these +mummies were conveyed to Lima, and were buried in the court of the +hospital of San Andres. It is deeply to be deplored that the fanaticism +of the Spanish conquerors should have destroyed these interesting +remains of the ancient sovereigns of Peru. + +The facts adduced in the course of this volume, relative to the +barbarous colonization system of the Spaniards, must sufficiently prove +how adverse was Spanish dominion to the improvement of the natives, and +to the prosperity of the country. For Peru, Nature's bounteously favored +land, let us hope that there is reserved a future, happier than either +the past or the present! + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 102: Even to this day the custom of forced domestic service is +kept up in some parts of the Sierra, where the priest is allowed the +services of a female cook, who is called a _Mita_, and a man servant, +for whom the name of _Pongo_ is reserved. These servants are kept for +the space of a week.] + +[Footnote 103: Adelung, in his "Review of all Languages," considers the +Calchaqui (still spoken in Tucuman) to be a dialect of the Quichua. It +is, however, a dialect of the Aymara. Adelung makes another mistake +when he observes, that the Lama language is spoken in the neighborhood +of Truxillo.] + +[Footnote 104: Of the _Quichua_, _Quitena_, and _Lama_ languages +several grammars and dictionaries exist. Of the _Kauqui_ only single +words have been preserved. There is a very imperfect dictionary of the +_Chinchaysuyo_ by Figueredo. Of the _Yunga_ there is a grammar with a +_Confesionario_ and Prayers by Fernando de Carrera--a very scarce work.] + +[Footnote 105: Vol. II., p. 106.] + +[Footnote 106: Published in 1846.] + + +THE END. + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + + +Inconsistencies in hyphenation retained. (brush-wood, brushwood; +court-yard, courtyard; day-break, daybreak; goat-skin, goat-skin; +hair-dressers, hairdressers; horse-shoes, horseshoes; +house-tops, housetops; light-house, lighthouse; +mayor-domos, mayordomos; mid-day, midday; needle-woman, needlewoman; +net-work; network; nick-name, nickname; north-west, northwest; +run-away, runaway; sea-ports, seaports; shop-keeper/s, shopkeeper/s; +south-east, southeast; south-west, southwest; two-fold, twofold) + +Inconsistency in abbreviation "P. M." Sometimes it is "P.M." without a +space. Original text retained in all cases. + +Page 22, inserted opening quote mark. ("_Las diez han) + +Page 25, species of fox "_Canis Azarae_" is attributed to "Wild." Not +consistent with Page 174 "_Canis azarae_" attributed to "Pr. Max." and +to Page 221 "_Canis Azarae_" also attributed to "Pr. Max." Mismatch in +captialization and also in name of discoverer. Original text retained +in all cases. + +Page 25, "III." changed to "Ill." (_Scolopax frenata_, Ill.) + +Page 59, "heterogegeous" changed to "heterogeneous". (heterogeneous +objects are jumbled) + +Page 67, "Limena" retained. Elsewhere in the text it is "Limena". +(Limena is a noble specimen) + +Page 75, "grostesque" changed to "grotesque". (painted with grotesque +figures) + +Page 85, inserted missing comma. (Alsop & Co., Templeman) + +Page 108, unusual word "recal" retained. Possibly "recall". (The +ladies of Lima recal) + +Page 112, missing degree sign added. (December 28, at 6 in the morning, +26.0 deg. C.;) + +Page 117, "vavors" changed to "vapors". (there were seen fiery vapors) + +Page 135, "litttle" changed to "little". (full of little egg-shaped) + +Footnote 42, unusual phrase "no thing" retained. (He who created the +world out of no thing) + +Page 154, unusual spelling of placename "Cozco" retained. Elsewhere in +text it is "Cuzco". (erected in Cozco, the capital) + +Page 168, inserted missing period. (_Pelecanus thayus_, Mol.;) + +Page 172, compass directions "SS.E" changed to "S.S.E"; "NN.W." +changed to "N.N.W." (Andes, namely from S.S.E.) (N.N.W., the western +declivity) + +Page 177, "Eschidna" changed to "Echidna". See other occurrence at +Footnote 93. (_Echidna ocellata_, Tsch.) + +Page 178, "melancholv" changed to "melancholy". (melancholy howl) + +Page 180, inconsistent spelling of placename "Periachi", later on +"Pariachi". Original text retained for both. (At Periachi, four +leagues from) (Two leagues beyond Pariachi) + +Page 182, inserted hyphen. (river of Chillon flowed north-westward) + +Page 198, unusual spelling "befel" retained. Possibly "befell". (an +accident which befel me) + +Page 209, "swenllig" changed to "swelling". (inflammation, swelling +of) + +Page 218, "jus" changed to "just". (than any of those just) + +Page 222, "sent" changed to "scent". (scent for the pishacas) + +Page 278, ungrammatical construction "The men takes" retained. (The +men takes their bows) + +Page 284, period changed to comma. (Quichua, the idioms spoken) + +Page 288, period added. (festively celebrated.) + +Page 299, inserted missing opening round bracket. (... fly-catchers and +shrikes (_Muscicapidae_ and....) + +Page 301, unusual bird name "shrites" retained. Possibly "shrikes". +(shrites, and even sea-swallows) + +Page 301, "tsch." changed to "Tsch." (_Odontophorus speciosus_, Tsch.) + +Page 325, "Fra" retained. Fra is acceptable as a title for friars but +elsewhere in this text "Fray" is used. (two priests, Fra Francisco +Otasua and Fray Salvador) + +Page 327, "coco" changed to "coca", coco is possible but coca more +likely from context. (the coca plantation being neglected) + +Footnotes frequently have missing end of paragraph/sentence +punctuation. Periods added. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Travels in Peru, on the Coast, in the +Sierra, Across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the Primeval Forests, by J. 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