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diff --git a/26935.txt b/26935.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2add134 --- /dev/null +++ b/26935.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6073 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Conservation Reader, by Harold W. Fairbanks + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Conservation Reader + +Author: Harold W. Fairbanks + +Release Date: October 16, 2008 [EBook #26935] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CONSERVATION READER *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Verity White, Joseph Cooper and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + [Illustration: _Nat'l Ass'n Audubon Societies_ + The passenger pigeon, an extinct species.] + + + + +CONSERVATION SERIES + + +CONSERVATION READER + +BY + +HAROLD W. FAIRBANKS + + AUTHOR OF "HOME GEOGRAPHY, STORIES OF OUR + MOTHER EARTH," "ROCKS AND MINERALS," + "THE WESTERN UNITED STATES," + "PRACTICAL PHYSIOGRAPHY," + "GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA," + ETC. + + ILLUSTRATED WITH PHOTOGRAPHS AND + WITH REPRODUCTIONS OF PAINTINGS + IN COLOR + +YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK + +WORLD BOOK COMPANY + +1920 + + + + +WORLD BOOK COMPANY + +THE HOUSE OF APPLIED KNOWLEDGE + +Established, 1905, by Caspar W. Hodgson + +YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK + +2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO + + +The need for education in the principles of conservation is imperative. +As Henry Fairfield Osborn states the matter, "We are yet far from the +point where the momentum of conservation is strong enough to arrest and +roll back the tide of destruction." The movement for the preservation of +natural resources can succeed only with the establishment of an +enlightened public sentiment on the subject. To create and maintain such +a sentiment is the proper work of the schools. In making this +_Conservation Reader_ available for school use, author and publishers +have had in mind the great and lasting service that such a text might +render. The publishers believe that this little volume and others +forthcoming in the Conservation Series will rank high among "Books That +Apply the World's Knowledge to the World's Needs" + + + Copyright, 1920, by World Book Company + Copyright in Great Britain + _All rights reserved_ + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +The wave of enthusiasm for the conservation of our national resources +must reach the children or it will expend much of its force uselessly. + +It is from the education of the children in right ways of looking at +Nature that everything is to be expected in the years to come. If they +learn to understand the value of the things about them, as well as to +appreciate their beauties, the carrying on and enlarging of the +conservation program which is now so well under way can be safely left +to their care. + +The West, although it has already been ruthlessly exploited, has lost +less of its natural wealth than have the longer-settled Eastern states. + +In the newer parts of our country we can reasonably hope to save most of +the forests and most of the wild life, and pass them on down to our +children and grandchildren in something of their primeval beauty and +richness. + +In the East we can hope to arouse a stronger sentiment for preserving +what remains of the forests as well as for extending their areas, for +proper forestation will lessen the danger of erosion of the soil and of +floods, and will encourage the return of the wild creatures that are of +so much economic importance and add so much to the joy of life. + +A book bringing out in a simple and interesting manner the principles of +conservation has long been needed, for there has been little that could +be placed in the hands of pupils. It is with the earnest hope of +furnishing something which will answer in part the present need that +this _Conservation Reader_ has been prepared. + +Acknowledgments are due the publishers of _American Forestry_ and the +_Century Magazine_ for courteous permission to reprint poems taken from +those publications. For their help in supplying photographic subjects to +illustrate the book, thanks are extended to the persons to whom the +various illustrations are accredited in immediate connection with their +use in the text. The reproductions in color of two bird subjects have +been secured through the friendly cooeperation of Mr. T. Gilbert Pearson, +Secretary of the National Association of Audubon Societies. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER PAGE + 1. HOW OUR FIRST ANCESTORS LIVED 1 + 2. HOW OUR NEEDS DIFFER FROM THOSE OF THE FIRST MEN 9 + 3. THE EARTH AS IT WAS BEFORE THE COMING OF CIVILIZED MEN 18 + 4. NATURE'S UNEQUAL DISTRIBUTION OF HER GIFTS 25 + 5. THE LAND OF THE POOR PEOPLE 32 + 6. WHAT THE MUDDY RIVULET HAS TO SAY 39 + 7. HOW FAR WILL NATURE RESTORE HER WASTED GIFTS? 44 + 8. THE SOIL--THE MOST IMPORTANT GIFT OF NATURE 51 + 9. THINGS OF WHICH SOIL IS MADE 57 + 10. HOW THE SOIL IS MADE 61 + 11. HOW VEGETATION HOLDS THE SOIL 67 + 12. WHAT HAPPENS WHERE THERE IS NO PROTECTING CARPET OF VEGETATION 73 + 13. THE USE AND CARE OF WATER 81 + 14. COULD WE GET ALONG WITHOUT THE TREES? 89 + 15. WHERE HAS NATURE SPREAD THE FOREST? 96 + 16. WHAT ARE THE ENEMIES OF THE TREES? 104 + 17. HOW THE FORESTS ARE WASTED 112 + 18. HOW THE FORESTS SUFFER FROM FIRES 119 + 19. EVILS THAT FOLLOW THE DESTRUCTION OF THE FORESTS 125 + 20. HOW OUR GOVERNMENT IS HELPING TO SAVE THE FORESTS 130 + 21. OUR FOREST PLAYGROUNDS 139 + 22. WHAT IS HAPPENING TO THE WILD FLOWERS 144 + 23. NATURE'S PENALTY FOR INTERFERING WITH HER ARRANGEMENTS 150 + 24. WHAT SHALL WE DO WHEN THE COAL, OIL, AND GAS ARE GONE? 155 + 25. NEED FOR PROTECTION OF CREATURES THAT LIVE IN THE WATER 162 + 26. MAN MORE DESTRUCTIVE THAN THE OTHER ANIMALS 171 + 27. WHAT IS HAPPENING TO THE ANIMALS AND BIRDS 176 + 28. THE TRAGEDIES OF MILADY'S HAT AND CAPE 183 + 29. THE COURT OF THE ANIMALS AND BIRDS 188 + 30. THE BIRDS OUR GOOD FRIENDS AND PLEASANT COMPANIONS 195 + 31. HOW TO BRING THE WILD CREATURES BACK AGAIN 203 + INDEX 213 + + + + +CONSERVATION READER + + + + +CHAPTER ONE + +HOW OUR FIRST ANCESTORS LIVED + + Before these fields were shorn and tilled + Full to the brim our rivers flowed; + The melody of waters filled + The fresh and boundless woods; + And torrents dashed, and rivulets play'd, + The fountains spouted in the shade. + +WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT, quoted in _American Forestry_, XIV. 520 + + +The earth is our home. It is a great treasure house filled with the most +wonderful things. Although people have lived on the earth for many +thousands of years, they have been very slow in learning the secrets of +their treasure house. This is because early men were much like the lower +animals. During all these years their minds have been slowly growing. +Now we can learn and understand many things which our ancestors of long +ago could not. + +In habits and appearance the first men that roamed the earth were little +different from the other animals except that they walked upright. When +they had enough to eat and a home safe from enemies, they seemed +perfectly happy and contented. + +These early men lived in the same wonderful treasure house as we do, but +they did not know how to make use of its riches. In truth, their wants +were so few that they would have had no use for the things that now seem +so necessary to us. The rich fields about them lay untilled. The gold, +silver, copper, and iron in the earth remained undiscovered; and the +animals and birds that we now use in so many ways then served them +mainly for food. + +Since they had no furry coats to keep them warm as do the animals of the +cold regions, and had not learned to make clothing, their homes must +have been in the warm parts of the earth. While they were without +weapons to defend themselves against the lion and tiger, yet they were +sharp witted and very quick in their movements and thus were usually +able to escape their more powerful enemies. + +Although these early ancestors of ours seemed so much like the other +animals, they were in reality very different. They had the same keen +senses of sight, hearing, and smell, but they were more intelligent. + +When the dog and cat have had enough to eat, they lie down perfectly +happy and contented. But when early men had had enough to eat, they were +often not satisfied. They had other longings which finally led them to +make discoveries about the uses of things around them and how to make +their lives more comfortable. + +The little bear cub, for example, as it grows up learns from its mother +just what it should do on all occasions. It learns what its mother knows +and that is all. But among the early people of whom we are speaking the +children not only learned all that their parents knew, but a little +more. In this way each generation of children came to know more about +the world. + +Thus after many years had passed people came to understand something of +the wonderful world in which they lived. They were no longer at the +mercy of wild animals, storms, heat, cold, hunger, and disease. + +The first people, like the other animals, used only their hands and +teeth in hunting and in fighting their enemies. Finally some of the +brighter ones discovered that a stick or club served better than the +bare hands. + +The use of flint knives may have been brought about through some one +cutting himself accidentally upon a piece of flint sticking out of the +ground. If he happened to be very bright, he would at once see the value +of such a piece of stone tied on the end of an arrow or club. By such +means, perhaps, implements of wood, bone, and stone came into use. + +We have discovered the sites of many of the villages as well as the +caves in which the ancient inhabitants of the earth lived. The +implements of bone and stone which we have dug up in such places enable +us to learn a great deal about their lives. + +There was a time when people did not know the use of fire. What a +fearful thing fire must have seemed to them, at first. Their knowledge +of it probably came from lightning or from hot lava flowing from a +volcano. After they had learned to control fire, and to make it by +rubbing two sticks together, they must have felt rich indeed. The +discovery of fire was one of their greatest triumphs. It kept the cold, +damp cave warm and dry, even though it filled their eyes with smoke. It +was a means of keeping them safe from the dangerous wild beasts when +they had to sleep out in the open. It was useful in cooking their food, +and by and by it was to prove valuable in still other ways, when they +began to _make_ things as well as to _find_ things. + +They began, by and by, to build rude shelters,--huts and wigwams, low +houses of dried mud, and dugouts in the hillside. They learned to weave +simple coverings out of the fibers of certain plants, or hair or wool, +to protect their bodies against the cold and the wet. They learned, +somehow, to tan the skins of animals, so that they would not first +stretch and grow slippery. They learned to hold things together by +sewing, using sharp bones for needles and the sinews of animals or +fibers of plants for thread. + + [Illustration: _American Forestry Association_ + The Laplander of the far North uses the reindeer to pull his sled, its + flesh for food, its skin for clothing, and its horns for various + purposes.] + +How did men discover that they could travel on the water? Some one may +at first have made use of a log to cross a river and, afterwards, have +tied several logs together, making a raft. When they had learned how to +make a canoe out of a log, by burning or hewing it out with rude axes, +they could then take long journeys on the water to new lands. Since +paddling was very tiresome, some one, brighter than the rest, probably +thought of making a sail of bark or skins and so letting the wind push +the canoe along. + +We do not know how the metals were discovered. Perhaps fire melted some +of the copper in a vein of ore. Perhaps pure copper was found, for +Nature sometimes leaves it in this form. Copper could be easily hammered +into various useful articles, but it was too soft for many needs. After +tin was discovered, it was learned that by melting it and copper +together a new and very hard metal, known as _bronze_, was formed. Next, +we think, came the discovery of iron, which has become so important that +we could not get along without it. Think what this must have meant for +them! To get firewood, to make rude boats and simple houses, to fight +wild animals, now became easier. After iron they discovered gold and +silver, and began to take an interest in making beautiful as well as +useful things. + +It is easy to see how, once these new ways of using the earth were +found, men could move into other regions than the belt where it was +always warm. They could store up food for the winter, they could build +warm shelters and get warm clothing, and they could sit by a fire. + +Sometimes when the first people were out hunting, instead of killing the +young animals that they caught, they took them home and cared for them. +So the little creatures became quite tame and grew up about the camps. +The wild jungle fowls were the ancestors of the domestic hens which we +find so useful. The wild cow was tamed in like manner, and made to +supply milk in addition to food and clothing. The colts of wild horses +and donkeys were captured and used for carrying loads. Sheep and goats +were tamed in the same manner, and became the most valued possessions of +some of the ancient peoples as they are of some peoples today. When they +had learned to weave the wool of these animals into clothing and +blankets, they had taken another step upon the long road which leads +from ancient times down to us. + +Did these early people live entirely upon meat? If they had done so, we +should never have had the wonderful variety of fruits and vegetables +that we now enjoy so much. We must not suppose that Nature grew these +things wild just as they are found in our gardens today. Our ancestors +grew them for many generations, gradually improving their size and +flavor. By selecting the best and carefully cultivating them, we are +still continuing to make them better. + +The horse, donkey, cow, and camel proved valuable in another way to the +people who were learning to cultivate the ground. When harnessed to a +crooked and sharpened stick they aided in breaking up the ground in +which the young plants were growing. + +And so the long years passed while the early people were discovering and +making use of the things around them. They came to building better and +more permanent homes, because they did not have to move from place to +place in search of food. Where there were forests, wood served for their +buildings. Where there were few trees, stone or mud bricks were used. + +The brighter people learned to understand Nature more quickly than those +who were dull. Each discovery of some new way of doing things aided them +in making others, and in this way people finally came to have all the +comforts of today. Those people less quick to learn the secrets of +Nature, or those who lived in countries to which Nature had given +little, gained few comforts and even now remain savage. + +After our ancestors had learned to cultivate the soil, to use the +minerals and the forests, and had tamed the animals and birds, they were +still unsatisfied. They attempted to make the forces of Nature work for +them. For a long time people made flour by crushing grain in a mortar. +Next, two flat stones were used, one being made to turn upon the other +by a handle. After that some animal, such as an ox or a horse, was +harnessed to larger stones which, as they slowly turned, ground the +grain. This was a great deal of work, and so some one thought of making +the water tumbling over a ledge of rock grind the grain for them. The +water was made to go over a water wheel. This wheel then made the +millstones go around. It was a great deal easier. + + [Illustration: The wild home of early men. + _H. W. Fairbanks_] + +Where there was no water power, wind was made to do the same work. A +crude windmill gathered the power of the rapidly moving air. After wind +and water had been forced to serve them, some one who had seen the lid +of a tea kettle dancing up and down, thought of using steam. Then +electricity, which in the form of jagged lightning had seemed so fearful +a thing to the early people, was harnessed and made the greatest servant +of all the forces of Nature. + +The discovery of powder led to the making of guns so destructive that +dozens of birds could be killed at one shot. + +Some people became greedy and used all these wonderful discoveries to +rob Nature. It seemed as if in some places all the wild life would be +destroyed. Fires were allowed to burn the forest unhindered. The soil +was made to produce crops until it grew poor. + +If we become selfish and indifferent and neglect to care for the +treasures which Nature has placed in our hands, very serious things will +happen to us, as they have happened to other people. How to use the +storehouse of Nature without wasting or destroying these treasures is +what we mean by _conservation_. + + + + +CHAPTER TWO + +HOW OUR NEEDS DIFFER FROM THOSE OF THE FIRST MEN + + +We have seen that the first men, like the other animals, depended upon +the food that Nature supplied them, and when this was lacking they went +hungry. When men had learned the use of fire they took the first step in +making Nature serve them better than she did the lower animals. Today +she works for us in so many ways that we can hardly name them all. + +After the use of fire the next thing that men learned was to make better +homes, to tame some of the wild animals, and to raise a part of their +food supplies, instead of depending entirely upon what they could pick +up here and there. + +As the number of people increased, the question of securing food became +more and more important. Would it not seem pretty hard to have to go out +and hunt for your breakfast in the woods, or fields, or along the water? +If you were alone you might find enough to eat, but if there were +thousands of other people doing the same thing, you would probably go +hungry. For this reason people began to cultivate berries, fruits, +roots, and grains, and to take better care of their herds. + +Living as they did, in those parts of the world where the climate was +warm, they usually found an abundance of food. But when these places +became too crowded, and some of them had to move to new regions, they +often found less food and a climate not always comfortable. + +In this way people spread into the colder and drier parts of the earth. +The need for things which they did not have there sharpened the wits of +these people. It led to one discovery after another. New needs were felt +and new ways of satisfying them were sought. They kept finding out more +about Nature and how she works. After many years they knew much more and +were also far more comfortable than those people who continued to live +where Nature supplied everything. + +There are now so many more people on the earth than there were long ago +that to furnish them all with food is a very great task. Besides, there +are now many people engaged in work other than farming, hunting, and +fishing. All such people have to be provided for by those whose business +it is to get food. People of the great cities are dependent upon those +in the country for all that they eat! We can picture to ourselves the +suffering that would follow if for only one week every one had to get +his own food. + +We need many things that the first people thought nothing about, because +their manner of life was so much simpler than ours. Let us see now what +they are. + +We live in tightly closed houses, and so have less trouble in keeping +warm and dry. But we do not always get the supply of fresh air that we +need. Many of us are sickly and weak because of this. Our ancestors +lived in the open air, which is always pure and fresh. A supply of pure +air, then, is one of the things that we must now provide for. + +People once gave no thought to the purity of the water that they drank. +When there were few people, water did not easily become impure. One +could drink water wherever one found it and there was small risk of +harm. Now in many places there are so many thousands of people gathered +together that they have to take the greatest care about drinking water, +in order to keep in good health. To get pure water it is often necessary +to bring it many miles from mountainous regions where no one lives. + +Clothing is another thing that concerns us very much. Our ancestors were +not troubled about their clothing. In the warm countries they went +almost naked. Where it was cold the skins of animals served very well. +Changes of fashion did not disturb them and cause them to throw away +warm covering. To supply ourselves now with clothing we call upon Nature +for many things. As she cannot, without our help, furnish what we need, +we have to keep a great number of flocks, for their wool and skins, and +cultivate vast fields of cotton and flax. + +When Nature raised in her own way the berries, grains, and roots that +the first men ate, no thought was given to the soil in which these +things grew. In truth, it was not necessary to pay any attention to the +soil. Nature is very careful in her way and never makes the soil poor by +growing more plants than it can support. In her own gardens she always +renews the foods in the soil which the plants require as fast as they +take them away. + +The needs of men have increased so fast that the soil has often been +forced to grow more than it ought. Men have been a long time in learning +that they cannot keep on growing the same crops on the same soil year +after year without supplying to the soil extra foods, or _fertilizers_, +as we call them. The care of the soil is another thing to which we have +to give attention, but which did not worry our ancestors. + +Nature clothes the earth with a carpet of grasses, bushes, or trees. +When the rain falls on the ground, their roots hold the soil so firmly +that it usually washes away only very slowly. When men first began to +cultivate the soil, they paid no attention to the fact that water washes +away the loose earth very easily. In this loose earth at the top of the +ground is stored most of the food which the plants require. Care of the +surface of the ground is, then, another thing which we have to keep in +mind. + +Men at first made shelters for themselves from anything that was at +hand, such as bark, skins, rock, or earth. When they learned to make +sharp-edged tools, they began to use trees. Where it is cold, much wood +is required to build warm houses. As the numbers of men increased, they +used greater and greater quantities of wood. Wood also proved to be most +useful for many other purposes than house building. In order to plant +larger fields the trees were cut down or burned off, without thought of +doing any harm. In time trees became scarce in many parts of the world +and men began to realize that care must be used or the supply of wood +might fail them. + +Coal was finally discovered and men said, "Now we have something that +will last always, for there must be an inexhaustible amount in the earth +beneath our feet. All that we shall have to do is to dig it out." When +men grew wiser they learned that coal must not be used carelessly any +more than the other gifts of Nature; otherwise the supply may give out +and leave them with nothing to take its place. + +Hunting and fishing continued to be the business of many. They invented +destructive weapons with which they were able to kill such large numbers +of wild creatures that some kinds disappeared entirely. Fish, also, of +which people thought the sea and the rivers contained a never failing +supply, became scarcer. They did not know that fish live mostly in the +shallow waters along shores, and that the great ocean depths contain +very few. + + [Illustration: _George J. Young_ + Sierra junipers above Tuolumne Meadows, near the Yosemite Valley, + showing how roots will force their way in apparently most unfavorable + places.] + +Thus, as the earth became thickly settled with men and their wants +increased, they discovered that they had to treat Nature in a very +different way from that of their early ancestors. + +Because of our great numbers we have to be careful not to use the earth +in such a way as to lessen its fertility and productiveness. Where +people have been careless, famine has often resulted. Poverty and +suffering have come to many parts of the earth, as we shall learn +farther along in this little book. + +THE CITY ON THE PLAIN + + Strange indeed were the sounds I heard + One day, on the side of the mountain: + Hushed was the stream and silent the bird, + The restless wind seemed to hold its breath, + And all things there were as still as death, + Save the hoarse-voiced god of the mountain. + + Through the tangled growth, with a hurried stride, + I saw him pass on the mountain, + Thrusting the briers and bushes aside, + Crackling the sticks and spurning the stones, + And talking in loud and angry tones + On the side of the ancient mountain. + + The tips of his goatlike ears were red, + Though the day was cool on the mountain, + And they lay close-drawn to his horned head; + His bushy brows o'er his small eyes curled, + And he stamped his hoofs,--for all the world + Like Pan in a rage on the mountain. + + "Where are my beautiful trees," he cried, + "That grew on the side of the mountain? + The stately pines that were once my pride, + My shadowy, droop-limbed junipers: + And my dewy, softly whispering firs, + 'Mid their emerald glooms on the mountain? + + "They are all ravished away," he said, + "And torn from the arms of the mountain, + Away from the haunts of cooling shade, + From the cloisters green which flourished here-- + My lodging for many a joyous year + On the side of the pleasant mountain. + + "The songbird is bereft of its nest, + And voiceless now is the mountain. + My murmurous bees once took their rest, + At shut of day, and knew no fear, + In the trees whose trunks lie rotting here + On the side of the ruined mountain. + + "Man has let in the passionate sun + To suck the life-blood of the mountain, + And drink up its fountains one by one: + And out of the immortal freshness made + A thing of barter, and sold in trade + The sons of the mother mountain. + + "Down in the valley I see a town, + Built of his spoils from my mountain-- + A jewel torn from a monarch's crown, + A grave for the lordly groves of Pan: + And for this, on the head of vandal man, + I hurl a curse from the mountain. + + "His palpitant streams shall all go dry + Henceforth on the side of the mountain, + And his verdant plains as a desert lie + Until he plants again the forest fold + And restores to me my kingdom old, + As in former days on the mountain. + + "Long shall the spirit of silence brood + On the side of the wasted mountain, + E'er out of the sylvan solitude + To lift the curse from off the plain, + The crystal streams pour forth again + From the gladdened heart of the mountain." + +MILLARD F. HUDSON, in _American Forestry_, XIV. 42 + + [Illustration: _Pillsbury's Pictures, Inc._ + "'Where are my beautiful trees,' he cried, + 'That grew on the side of the mountain?'"] + + + + +CHAPTER THREE + +THE EARTH AS IT WAS BEFORE THE COMING OF CIVILIZED MEN + + For ages, on the silent forest here, + Thy beams did fall before the red man came + To dwell beneath them; in their shade the deer + Fed, and feared not the arrow's deadly aim. + Nor tree was felled, in all that world of woods, + Save by the beaver's tooth, or winds, or rush of floods. + +WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT, _A Walk at Sunset_ + + +The earth has not always been as it is now. Those parts now possessed by +the more civilized peoples have been very greatly changed. If we could +look back and see some of the countries as they were long ago, we should +hardly know them. In certain lands the forests have been cut down, the +wild creatures driven away, and the soil so carelessly cultivated that +it has become poor. In other lands Nature's gifts have been carefully +used; even the barren deserts have been turned into green fields and +blooming gardens for hundreds of miles. + +Let us try to picture to ourselves how our own country looked when white +men first found and explored it. A few hundred years ago it was the home +of wild animals and Indians only. We have been given our freedom in one +of the richest of Nature's gardens, and, like so many children, have +tried to see who could gather the most treasures from it. We have given +little attention to keeping up the garden. + +If you have been in some part of the country that is still wild and +unsettled, it will help you to form a picture of how the entire land +once looked. If you have been in one of our great natural parks, this +will be a better help. In these parks everything remains just as Nature +made it. There the animals, birds, and plants are free to live their +lives unmolested. Is it not a good thing that our government has been +wise enough to have large tracts of land left in just the condition in +which the whole country was when our ancestors first came? + +We will think of our whole land, then, as a great wild park, rich in all +kinds of animal and plant life. It was not an altogether happy family +that lived in this park, for all were struggling for food, drink, and +sunshine. But as none were possessed of such deadly weapons as those of +civilized man, no one kind of animal was able to kill off all of any +other kind. + +Neither the Indians in their wigwams, nor the wild animals in their +lairs, nor the birds singing in the trees, nor the ducks quacking in the +marshes dreamed of the change that was coming to their homes. They did +not dream of civilized man with his terrible weapons and his many needs, +who was to change the whole appearance of the country and nearly or +quite exterminate many of them. + +The life of the Indians was almost as simple as that of the lower +animals. Their clothing required little care. Their homes were easily +made. Some of them had learned to cultivate the soil, but they depended +mainly upon food obtained by hunting, and such roots, berries, and nuts +as the women could collect. If we could have looked down on our land as +the bird does, we should have seen little sign of human inhabitants. +There were no roads or bridges, and only indistinct trails led from one +village to another. + +In the far Southwest there were people quite different from those of +whom we have been speaking. They were called the Pueblo Indians. In +Mexico there were similar people called the Aztecs. All these Indians +still live in permanent stone villages, as they did a thousand years +ago. They learned more about Nature than the wandering Indians, but we +do not believe they would ever become civilized if left to themselves. + +The only animal that the Indians had tamed was the wolf. They made +little use of the wolf-dog except in the far North, where it drew their +sleds over the snow. + +Some of the Indians of our country once knew of the use of copper, but +it had been forgotten when white men first came. + +All about the Indians was the same world that surrounds us. In truth, it +was a richer world in some ways, for since then many of its treasures +have been lost through greed and waste. + +The rich soil of the valleys was almost undisturbed. The forests were +uncut save for an occasional tree used in making a canoe or a rude +cabin. The forests suffered only at the hands of the insects, storms, +and fires. The flowers that covered the ground in spring went +ungathered. The vast grassy prairies were disturbed only by the feeding +of such animals as the buffalo, elk, deer, and antelope. + +A single great forest spread over all the mountains and valleys of the +eastern part of our country. Now you can travel for many miles in the +more thickly settled portions of this region and see not a single tree +of the original forest. + +To the west of the forest came the prairies and plains. Still farther +west came lofty mountains and desert valleys. On these Western mountains +were other forests with trees of wonderful size. + + [Illustration: _American Forestry Association_ + The elk once roamed the valleys.] + +This great natural park, with its long seacoasts, rivers, lakes, +marshes, dense woods, and open plains, was a paradise for wild creatures +of every description, and the Indian was contented to leave it so. + +Grizzly and black bears roamed the thickets. Elk wandered through the +mountains and valleys. Deer were abundant everywhere. The antelope raced +over the plains, mountain goats and sheep lived among the rocks, and +moose filled the Northern woods. Great herds of buffalo darkened the +surface of the plains. When the first railroad was built across the +plains, less than fifty years ago, the trains were sometimes stopped by +herds of buffalo crossing the track. + +Most of the songbirds that filled the country then are still with us, +for they were of little commercial value to the hunter. No other land +has richer bird music than ours. Many of the birds that are valuable +for food are, however, nearly extinct. Now we have laws for their +protection, but these laws went into effect too late to save some +species. The passenger pigeon is one of our greatest losses. + +The cutting down of the vast forests that once covered the Eastern +states, and the cultivation of fields, has helped to drive many of the +wild creatures away. We are just beginning to learn how poor our country +would be if we lost them all. Refuges are being established in many +places, where those birds and animals most in danger of extinction may +live safe from the hunter. + +The coast waters, lakes, and streams of our country were once alive with +fish. The Indians made use of them, but their rude traps did not catch +enough to affect the number seriously. We have fished with every kind of +trap that the brightest fisherman could think of. Many important food +fishes are now very much reduced in numbers. The fur seal and sea otter +are so nearly gone that only the most watchful protection will save them +from extinction. + +The land, as the Indian knew it, was beautiful, and was filled with +everything that one could wish. But the Indian did not know how to use +it. He lived a poor life, suffering from cold and hunger. + +We came into the possession of a land unspoiled by its primitive +inhabitants. It was just as Nature made it. In a few short years we have +almost exterminated the Indian. We have swept away a large part of the +forests. We have almost destroyed many of the species of animals and +birds. We have robbed the soil and injured the flow of the rivers. Some +of this loss we could not help, for when many millions of people occupy +a land there must be many changes. But for the losses that we have +needlessly and carelessly caused we shall sometime be sorry. + + [Illustration: _Pillsbury's Pictures, Inc._ + "Such beautiful things in the heart of the woods! Flowers and ferns and + the soft green moss."] + +Do you not think we are wise in seeking how to take better care of this +land of ours? + +IN THE HEART OF THE WOODS + + Such beautiful things in the heart of the woods! + Flowers and ferns and the soft green moss; + Such love of the birds in the solitudes, + Where the swift winds glance and the treetops toss; + Spaces of silence swept with song, + Which nobody hears but the God above; + Spaces where myriad creatures throng, + Sunning themselves in his guarding love. + + Such safety and peace in the heart of the woods! + Far from the city's dust and din, + Where passion nor hate nor man intrudes, + Nor fashion nor folly has entered in. + Deeper than hunter's trail hath gone + Glimmers the tarn where the wild deer drink; + And fearless and free comes the gentle fawn, + To peep at herself o'er the grassy brink. + + Such pledges of love in the heart of the woods! + For the Maker of all things keeps the feast, + And over the tiny flowers broods + With care that for ages has never ceased. + If he cares for this, will he not for thee-- + Thee, wherever thou art today? + Child of an infinite Father, see; + And safe in such gentlest keeping stay. + +MARGARET E. SANGSTER, in _American Forestry_, XIV + + + + +CHAPTER FOUR + +NATURE'S UNEQUAL DISTRIBUTION OF HER GIFTS + + +Pure, fresh air is free to all of us, for, like an ocean, it surrounds +the whole earth. We need pure water just as much as we do pure air, but +it is not always easy to get. A large part of the earth is buried +beneath water so salt that we cannot use it. Other parts of the earth +are so dry that if we venture into them we may die of thirst. The solid +land on which we make our homes is not all of the same value. Thousands +of square miles are so rocky or so cold or so dry that they support no +living thing. Other thousands of miles of the earth have been so favored +by Nature that they are fairly alive with every sort of creature. + +We say that a country is rich in natural resources when it has an +abundance of those things that men need or can make use of for their +pleasure and comfort. A country is poor when it has few of these things. + +The first men were poor, although they lived in a rich part of the +earth. They did not know how to make use of what lay around them. If +civilized men are poor now, it is because they have wasted Nature's +gifts or because they live in a country upon which she has bestowed +little. + +When we say that the far North where the Eskimos live is a dreary, +desolate region, we mean that it lacks most of those things necessary to +make men comfortable and happy. When we read of the life of the +wandering Arabs in the desert of Arabia, we think of a country to which +Nature has not given its share. + +When we speak of Spain as poor, we have in mind a country once favored +by Nature, but no longer prosperous because its resources have been +wasted. Our own land is now rich and prosperous because of the abundance +of its natural resources. We should guard these well lest we meet a fate +similar to that of the people of Spain. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + Where Nature has supplied little rain; desert sand dunes.] + +If we journey over our own land, we shall discover that Nature has been +very partial to certain parts, giving them more than they need. Other +parts have been left with little. We shall also discover what wonderful +things men are doing to make up for the failures of Nature, and to make +habitable many of those places which she left uninhabitable. + +The forests of the eastern half of the country have been thinned out. +West of the Mississippi River there are thousands of square miles of +prairies where there are almost no trees. In such places the first +settlers had difficulty in getting firewood, and had to build their +houses of earth or stone. + +Upon the northwest coast there is fog and rain and little sunshine. +There the forests grow so dense that it is difficult to travel through +them. In the deserts of the Southwest the sun shines out of a cloudless +sky almost every day in the year. The ground becomes very dry and the +living things found there have strange and curious habits. + +In the Central and Eastern states there is much coal; and because of +this, millions of people have gathered there to engage in manufacturing. +In California coal is scarce and has to be brought from other parts of +the earth. + +The vast prairies of the Mississippi Valley are covered with fields of +waving grain, much of which is shipped to distant regions. In New +England much of the soil is rocky and not enough grain is raised there +to supply the needs of the population. + + [Illustration: _U. S. Office of Farm Management (J. S. Cotton)_ + A farming scene in the fertile valley of the Missouri River.] + +The work that people do in different places is determined by the way in +which Nature has distributed her resources. The farmers are mostly found +in the valleys where the soil is best. Cattle are pastured on those +lands not suited to farming. The miners go to the mountains, where they +can more easily find the minerals they are after. The lumberman finds +his work where the climate favors the growth of forest trees. The +manufacturer seeks the waterfalls, where there is power to turn his +mills. + +Now let us try to discover in how far we can change Nature's plan and +make habitable those places which she left uninhabitable. There are some +things which we cannot do. We cannot make the air warmer or colder. We +cannot cause rain to fall even though the fields are parched with +drought. We cannot stop the rain falling, and we cannot stop the winds +blowing. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + The prickly pear in its desert home.] + +While we cannot stop the water falling from the clouds, we can drain the +lowlands and marshes and so make them fit for the farmer. We can raise +great dikes or embankments along the rivers and so shut out the flood +waters. The people of Holland have saved thousands of acres from the sea +by building dikes and pumping out the water from the inclosed fields. + +While we cannot make it rain where not enough rain falls, we can do that +which is just as good or better: we can carry water by ditches and pipes +to the land that needs it. Much of the soil of the great deserts in the +southwestern part of our country is rich in plant food. All that it +lacks is water. + +The Indian roamed over the rich lands of the great delta of the Colorado +River. He often went hungry and thirsty. He did not think of taking the +water out of the river in a ditch and allowing it to flow over and wet +the rich soil. The white man came and turned the river out of its +channel and spread the water over hundreds of square miles of the +richest land on the earth. Now, where once you would have died of thirst +and hunger, there are green fields and growing crops as far as you can +see. + + [Illustration: The Owens River aqueduct, through which water is carried + to Los Angeles from a source more than two hundred miles distant.] + +The city of Los Angeles is situated in a dry region where there is not +water enough for the needs of a great city. There has now been completed +a great aqueduct which brings a river of water through deserts and +mountains from the Sierra Nevada Mountains, over two hundred miles away. +There is now sufficient water for hundreds of thousands of people. + +When it rains too much, many rivers rise and overflow their banks. The +farmer's crops are destroyed, his cattle drowned, and his buildings +washed away. We can lessen the danger from these floods, which are very +bad in such river basins as those of the Ohio and Mississippi, by +building reservoirs in the highlands where the rivers take their start. +If when summer comes these rivers are too shallow for safe navigation, +the reservoirs can be opened and the streams supplied with this stored +water. + +The lack of trees upon the prairies was once a serious matter for the +settler. We must not think, however, that because Nature placed no trees +on the prairies that trees will not grow there. She may not have had +handy the seed of the kind suitable for such dry lands. Our government +has found in the dry regions of other countries trees that will grow +upon our prairies. In their own home these trees had become used to a +dry climate like that of our prairies. + +Steep canons and cliffs of rock once kept people, living on the opposite +sides of mountain ranges, from becoming acquainted with one another. Our +ancestors were afraid to venture out on the boundless oceans with their +small, frail boats. Because of this the continent that we live on long +remained unknown. Those who first found it, the ancestors of the present +Indians, came here by accident. Storms probably blew their boats across +the North Pacific Ocean, and thus they found a new home. Now railroads +enable us to cross the deserts in perfect comfort. Tunnels have been +made through the mountains, so that we can go easily from one valley to +another. Boats of giant size carry us safely and quickly across the +stormy oceans. Nature did not intend us to fly through the air or swim +beneath the water, but we are learning so much about her laws that we +shall soon be almost as much at home in the air and the sea as the birds +and fish are. + + + + +CHAPTER FIVE + +THE LAND OF THE POOR PEOPLE + + My squandered forests, hacked and hewed, + Are gone; my rivers fail; + My stricken hillsides, stark and nude, + Stand shivering in the gale. + Down to the sea my teeming soil + In yellow torrents goes; + The guerdon of the farmer's toil + With each year lesser grows. + +ROBERT M. REESE, _The Spendthrift_; quoted in _American Forestry_, +XIV. 269 + + +This is the story of a land of plenty that became almost a desert. Long +ago there dwelt in this land a people wise in all the things that +concerned their home. Through many hard years of toil and struggle they +had learned to take the very best care of what Nature had given them. +Although Nature seemed to them to be wasteful, she punished waste in her +children. As long as they obeyed, they had comfortable homes, fertile +fields, and sleek herds. + +The country of which we are speaking was very beautiful. There were +lofty mountains and broad, fertile valleys. Many streams, fed by clear, +cool springs, flowed through the land. There were also green meadows and +deep, dark forests. + +The forests contained many wild animals, for in the forests the animals +found both food and protection. Birds of every sort abounded, and their +music filled the air. Trees overhung the streams, shading them from the +hot sun, so that they did not dry up in the summer. The springs never +failed, for the carpet of leaves and decaying vegetation underneath the +trees of the forests held much of the rainwater from running away, so +that it sank into the ground. Instead of making floods in the rivers, it +fed the springs gradually and steadily through the long, dry summers. + +The people of this land had learned the secrets of the growing plants +and how these plants could be made better by cultivation. They had also +learned to tame the wild animals and make them useful. The farms were +managed with great care so that they never grew poor. The soil never +refused to grow their crops. The people had learned during their earlier +years of struggle that they must not clear the forests from the +hillsides, for, if they did, the soil would begin to wash away. They had +learned that they must leave the forests on the mountains in order to +save the springs. + +Rain did not always come when it was needed for the crops, and at other +times it rained too much. Reservoirs were built to hold the surplus +water for use in time of drought. Canals were dug to carry it to the +fields. + +The wild animals and birds bothered the crops, and the first thought of +the people was to kill them. But it was soon discovered that this was +not wise. Those who destroyed the wild creatures about their farms began +to suffer from rats, mice, rabbits, and a multitude of little insects +that all but devoured the crops. + +It did not take these people long to learn that Nature was not to be +trifled with. If they took too much from the earth one year, she made +them pay for it the next. They not only became wise enough to take care +of every good thing that Nature had given them, but improved upon many +things that she had left unsuited to their use. + +Thus the land was kept beautiful and fertile. The inhabitants became +rich, and, instead of fearing Nature as they once did, they came to love +the rocks, the woods, the streams, and the wild creatures. + +Let us now leave this rich and fertile land and come back to it after +hundreds of years have passed. We find a new people living there and the +country so changed that we can hardly believe it is the same land. + +Yet it must be the same, for there are the very mountains that were +there long ago. To be sure, they do not look just as they did. When we +last saw them they were covered with forests, but now they are barren +and scarred with many gulches. Here is the same river, but it also looks +different. While it was once overhung with trees and its waters were so +clear that we could see the fish in the bottom, it now has a broad, +sandy bed; the trees are gone, and the water is shallow and muddy. + +The new inhabitants of this land have a tired and discouraged +appearance. They have a hard struggle to get enough to eat. The soil is +rocky, and it takes much labor to raise the scanty crops. They never +seem able to gather all the rocks from the fields, for the soil washes +away and new ones are constantly uncovered. + +Where are the forests that once grew here? We find in their stead only a +few stunted trees and bushes. There is little grass and almost no +flowers, even in spring. Sheep and cattle wander far for their forage +and do not have the sleek appearance they once did. + +There are few wild creatures of any sort, for since there are no woods +there are few hiding places. Neither do we see any birds, and we listen +in vain for a song or note of any kind. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + The women carry home the fuel.] + +The houses are made of mud or stone and look cold and cheerless. The +people must suffer from cold in winter. The only wood they have is small +brush which the women and children gather upon the far hills and bring +home in huge bundles upon their backs. + +In the towns of this country the only fuel now to be had is charcoal. +This is brought upon the backs of burros from the distant mountains, +where the few remaining trees give work to charcoal burners. The +charcoal is peddled through the streets and sold in tiny quantities at +each door. The people are too poor to buy much at a time and are very +careful in its use. It is burned in a metal or earthen dish called a +brazier, and a double handful may last a family a whole day. + +Rains still fall in this country of the Poor People, as they did long +ago. But the waters gather quickly upon the unprotected slopes and run +off in muddy torrents, taking along some of the soil. Thus each +succeeding year there is less plant food for the crops. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + The rocky land of the poor people.] + +How did this country, once rich and fruitful, become so barren? We are +sure from what we know of Nature's ways that she is not the cause of the +trouble. Through greed and ignorance of how to take care of their land +the present inhabitants have wasted and squandered its wealth until it +has become almost a desert. + +We can do things with Nature, and direct many of her forces so that they +will work for our good. We cannot, however, as we have learned, change +the amount of rain that falls, nor can we make it warmer or colder. + +How, then, are these poor people to blame for the condition of their +country? The troubles which overtook them came from two things. In the +first place they did not know how to take care of their rich land, and +in the second place they were greedy and wanted to become wealthy faster +than they ought. + +Why does the rain, which once made this country fruitful, now wash away +the soil and make it barren? It is because in those earlier times much +of the land was covered with cool forests. The rain then fell more +gently because of the forests. More of it soaked into the ground and the +springs were larger. Now the rains are delayed by the hot air of the +thirsty land until, when they finally do come, the water falls in +torrents. Such rains or cloudbursts, as we often call them, carry away +the unprotected soil faster than Nature can renew it. + + [Illustration: _Bailey Willis_ + The shallow, rock-filled river along whose banks the trees have been + destroyed.] + +The strangers in the land, under whose rule it became poor, thought they +knew better than Nature. They did not look upon her as the great wise +mother of them all. Soon after these people came into possession of the +land, they found that in other places there was a demand for their +grain, cattle, and wool. They began to increase their fields and herds. +To do this it was necessary to cut down the forests which had stood so +long. It seemed to them too bad to leave valuable land covered only with +trees. + +The people began to look askance at the birds, for they thought they +were eating too much grain. Because they did not know what good the +little creatures were doing, they killed them. Since most of the birds +nested in trees, they got rid of them faster by cutting down the trees. + +The steep hillsides were finally cleared of trees and the soil began to +wash, and the rocks soon appeared. No plant food was given to the soil +to replace that taken by the growing plants, and the crops soon began to +show the effect of starvation. The cattle began to suffer for lack of +food. They ate the grass down so closely that much of it was killed. + +The rainwater, instead of feeding the springs, now ran swiftly away. The +clear, steady rivers turned to muddy floods during the rainy season. +They swept through the valleys, washing away houses and crops. In the +summer they dried up so that the fish died. + +When these people at last discovered their mistake, they strove by hard +labor to repair the damage which they had done through years of +ignorance and greed. This was such slow, difficult work that the land +still remains a dreary place in which to live. It is known as the Land +of the Poor People. + + + + +CHAPTER SIX + +WHAT THE MUDDY RIVULET HAS TO SAY + + +Would you like to know something about what I am doing? Would you like +to know why my waters are yellow with mud? I am accused of being a +noisy, roistering fellow, of robbing people of their wealth and of doing +all sorts of wicked deeds. But, worst of all, I am accused of carrying +away the tiny particles of soil in which the plants find their food and +of dropping them in the depths of the sea. + +Perhaps, when you really understand my work, you will say that I have no +evil intentions at all. I am only one of Nature's servants. Each one of +us has a work to do. Sometimes we have to do things that seem to be bad, +but that is because some one on the earth has broken Nature's laws. + +Nature has many servants. To each one of us is given a different kind of +work. I am the great leveler of the land. No mountain is too great or +too high for me to tear down. I can carry it all away grain by grain and +leave it in the lowlands or in the sea. Many mountains I have destroyed +so completely that you would hardly believe they ever existed. Long +before there were any animals and men on the earth I was busy, and I +shall be busy when they are all gone. + +The farmer believes me his enemy, but if I do injure his fields it is +because I cannot help it. The work that has been given me to do is the +carrying away of the loose earth wherever I can find it. If the farmer +does not want his hillsides made poor, he should take care of them. + +The farmer does not know that he has me to thank for the richest of his +lands, those lands where the soil is deep and dark, and filled with +plant food. I and my brother rivulets have been thousands of years in +collecting the soil which forms the fertile lowlands in the valleys +through which we flow. We all unite to form the mighty river which +finally ends in the sea. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + Because some farmer was careless, a rivulet has nearly destroyed this + rich valley.] + +Upon all the slopes which drain toward the river we rivulets are at +work. Other servants of Nature are working here. Some of them are making +the rocks soften and fall apart. Others are bringing seeds of the +grasses and trees that they may take root in the crumbling rock. It is +their business to make a carpet of plants over the earth and thus stop +my work. But wherever the slopes are steep we rivulets have our way. We +pick up and carry away the particles of sand and clay so that only the +bare, hard rocks remain. + +When the steep slopes become gentle, and we can no longer carry away all +the particles of crumbled rock, then the carpet of plants spreads over +the surface. Now our waters become clear. We seem like different +beings. Once in a while, when the rains fall very heavily, some of us +break through the protecting carpet and dig great hollows and gullies +into the earth. + +Would you like to know how we rivulets get rid of the load we carry from +the mountain slopes? When we are muddy and swollen with the heavy rains, +we turn the river into a flood. The river then breaks its banks and +spreads out over all the lowlands along its course. Now the river flows +more slowly and drops a part of the sand and mud which we rivulets +brought to it. Finally, when the storm is over and the river goes back +into its channel, there is left on the surface of the valleys a layer of +earth rich in plant food. We brought the river the finest of the rock +particles, together with the leaves and stems of plants that lay in our +way. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + The rivulets have united to form the broad, shallow river loaded with + the soil from the farms along its upper course.] + +As year after year we made the river overflow, the soil of the lowlands +grew deeper and deeper until it became as you see it today. Now the +slopes about the head of the river are not so steep as they were once. +Our waters do not run away so rapidly and the river seldom overflows. +Thus the farmer can use the land for his crops, which grow so +luxuriantly that he is envied by his less fortunate neighbors who live +upon the hills. + + [Illustration: _U. S. Office of Farm Management_ + The soil of this valley has been washed to its present location by flood + waters.] + +Upon the slopes about the valleys we rivulets did not leave so much +soil. The farther one goes up the slopes the thinner one finds the soil, +until at the top the bare rock may appear. + +But our work, says the muddy rivulet, was not finished with the making +of the fertile valley lands. We carried a part of our load of sand and +mud on to the mouth of the river. Here in the bay into which the river +empties we began another great task. It seemed hopeless at first to try +to turn the bay into dry land, but year after year we kept at work, +through a time so long that I have forgotten when we began. At last we +succeeded in bringing so much material to the bay that the waters +became shallow. Then the soft mud began to show itself when the water +was low. At last the water was replaced by dry land, which appeared much +like the lowlands which we had made along the river. + +Now you who think we muddy rivulets do only harm see what we have +accomplished. We have built a great delta of the richest land that +extends away on every hand as level as a floor and almost as far as you +can see. The soil of the delta is hundreds of feet deep and the richest +to be found on the whole earth. It is on such river deltas that the +first civilized men made their homes, and became rich and powerful. + +Now I have told you what Nature has appointed the muddy rivulets to do. +Is not the good that we do far greater than the harm? When we do harm it +is because people have not learned how, or have not tried, to obey +Nature's laws. If we make people poor, it is their own fault. + +We still find much to do upon the earth. Nature is still making +mountains which we have to tear down. We are still building deltas which +will sometime be inhabited by rich and prosperous people. We do not +willingly spoil the lands of the farmers on the hills and make them +labor hard for a living. + +In those happy lands where people understand Nature we rivulets have a +different kind of work to do. We become pure and clear. We furnish a +home for the fish, drink for the thirsty flocks, and a never-failing +power to turn the mill wheels. Our waters are of service to every living +thing. + + + + +CHAPTER SEVEN + +HOW FAR WILL NATURE RESTORE HER WASTED GIFTS? + + +The natural wealth of our country is its soil, water, forests, minerals, +animal and bird life, and, finally, its climate and scenery. + +Of all these, _climate_ and _scenery_ are the only ones which we can use +and enjoy as much as we like without any danger of their ever failing +us. The sun will shine through the blue sky, the winds will blow, and +the storms will come just the same, no matter what we may do. + +Did you ever think how long a time it has taken to make the wonderful +world in which we live, and place upon it the mountains and valleys, +lakes and oceans? Did you ever think how long a time it has taken to +make the rocks and store away in them gold, silver, copper, and iron? +Did you ever think how long a time it has taken to cover the rocks with +soil, and spread over the surface the flowers and trees and to stock it +with uncounted numbers of animals and birds? + +Nature usually works very slowly, but she never rests. The earth and all +things on its surface, have always been changing, but changing so slowly +that we do not ordinarily notice what is going on. When there is an +earthquake, or a slide of rock on a mountain side, or an eruption of a +volcano, we are astonished and often terrified. + +Stories that have come down to us from the distant past tell us that the +earth looked then much the same as it does now. If we could look away +back to a time long before the first men lived, when even the animals +and plants were different from those around us, we should discover that +the surface of the earth was quite different from that of today. We +should then see mountains and hills where now we find valleys, and dry +land where now lies the blue ocean. + +Nature has been such a long time making the beautiful world in which we +live, that we ought to treat it with great consideration. It is also a +wise thing for us to be heedful of her requests, for, if we will work +with her, the earth with all its treasures will be at our command. + +Shall we not now seek to learn which of the natural resources of our +land will never be replaced if we squander them? Let us also learn which +may be made good again by Nature, if we are willing to wait long enough, +as well as to assist her in her slow work. + +Each year the growing plants take certain substances from the soil. It +is necessary for us to put back like substances if we would keep up the +fertility of the soil. If we are neglectful of this law, or allow water +to wash the soil away until only the bare rocks remain, poverty will be +our lot for many years. + +Nature will, however, if we give her a chance, renew the soil. The rocks +will crumble and, by and by, seeds will sprout and tiny plants obtain a +foothold. But it may take a whole lifetime, or hundreds of years, even, +for a new and fertile soil to come again. + +During the early years of placer mining in California thousands of acres +of rich lands in the foothills were destroyed. Only boulders were left. +Now fifty years have passed and a new soil is being formed, but it will +be a long time yet before it will be as good as it was in the first +place. + +Upon the Western prairies only grain has been raised for so many years +that in many places the soil will scarcely grow a crop worth gathering. +Many farmers have never thought of this, but the wise ones understand +that they must frequently add plant food to the soil to replace that +taken by crops. They understand also that it is a good thing to change +the crops grown upon any particular field from year to year, since +different plants take different substances from the soil. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + The miner in his search for gold ruins the beautiful valley, leaving it + a mass of boulders.] + +Water goes through a ceaseless round. It rises from the sea and lakes to +form the clouds, falls as rain or snow, and then flows back down the +slopes to the sea. Although we have learned that we cannot change the +quantity of rain that falls in any place, we can influence the way in +which it runs back to the sea. This in turn affects the lives of people. +We can store water in reservoirs, and by building canals have it to use +on the land during the summer. We can also keep it from flowing back to +the sea as rapidly as it otherwise would, by leaving uninjured the +covering of vegetation which has been spread over the mountain slopes. +The water will run from bare rocks and bare soil much more quickly than +it will from soil that is covered with leaf mold and held by plant +roots. Do you not see, then, that we have almost as much control over +water and its distribution as though we could increase or decrease the +rainfall? + +What about the forests? If we cut them down, will they ever come back? +All through the eastern part of our country and in the mountains of the +West are lands once forested which have been cleared and turned into +farms. Many of these farms, when abandoned, have in a few years been +covered with a growth of young trees. The scattering trees that had been +left in the vicinity of the clearings furnished the seed. The winds and +the birds carried the seed to the open fields and so the forests began +again. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + But Nature, after a lapse of fifty years, has spread a new carpet of + soil over the valley.] + +It will be hundreds of years before the trees are as large and +valuable as those of the first forest. The "big trees" of the Sierra +Nevada Mountains are found nowhere else in the world, for they are the +last of their race. Some of these trees are more than 4000 years old. +They stood here when our forefathers were still savages and lived in +trees or caves. Much of the region where these trees are found has now +been reserved as a park. If the lumberman had been allowed to get at +them, they would have soon been gone forever. + + [Illustration: _George J. Young_ + Uncle Sam has preserved both forests and water power.] + +It is far more difficult to destroy completely most of the species of +forest trees than it is to destroy the species of animals and birds. We +can cut down the trees and in some cases they will grow again from +sprouts. Many will hide away in remote places and furnish seed for new +forests. + +The animals as well as the plants have had a long history. They have had +a harder struggle than the plants, because many of them prey upon one +another. We often dig up the skeletons of strange animals unlike any now +living. These must have all been killed long ago. Each species or kind +of animal now living must have come off victorious in the struggle with +its enemies. + +Does it not seem a heartless thing for us, who call ourselves civilized, +to destroy so completely any species of animal or plant that not one of +its kind remains alive? No species which we destroy will ever come back +again, and its place will always remain empty. There are a few predatory +animals and birds that destroy vast numbers of useful ones. We should +keep these in check by every means in our power, but for our thoughtless +destruction of the valuable ones the world will always be poorer. + +What of the mineral treasures hidden away in the earth? Will these be +replaced when once they have all been used up? It took Nature a very +long time to make coal out of the vegetation which had gathered in some +ancient swamp. It took her fully as long to make the oil and gas from +the bodies of the little organisms that once lived in the sea. + +The bodies of the little creatures from which oil is made are still +gathering upon the bottom of the sea, and there are many swamps where we +find vegetation and peat accumulating. But it is a long story from these +substances to oil and coal. I am afraid we should get tired of waiting +for Nature to make a new supply. + +Gold, silver, copper, and other minerals, so useful to us, are found in +very small quantities scattered throughout most of the solid rocks of +the earth. It would be impossible for us to obtain these from rocks, +because there is so little in any one place. But Nature has collected a +part of them in veins in the rocks. We sink shafts upon these veins and +mine the ores. It will be a long time before we shall have mined all +there is of these minerals. Because they are so hard to get we are not +likely to waste them. But it is quite certain that there is a limit to +the supply of mineral treasures, and equally certain that they can be +renewed either very, very slowly, or not at all. Shall we cause our +remote descendants to suffer for our carelessness? + + + + +CHAPTER EIGHT + +THE SOIL--THE MOST IMPORTANT GIFT OF NATURE + + +An ancient story tells us that men were made from the dust of the earth. +This dust under our feet, which soils our shoes, this dust which the +wind sometimes sweeps along in blinding clouds, is indeed precious. The +delicate tissues of our bodies are made from the food we eat. If it be +plant food, it comes directly from the soil. If it be meat or eggs or +milk, it comes from animals which live upon the plants, that in turn got +their nourishment from the soil. + +This soft, dark substance which covers the rocky skeleton of the earth +we call the _soil_. How common and cheap it looks when it is placed by +the side of a piece of gold! But how much more wonderful it would seem +if we could know all about it. The soil is far more necessary to our +comfort and prosperity than gold. Gold, silver, or precious stones +cannot keep us alive. They are of little worth to us compared with food +and clothing. The soil, then, is the real wealth of the world. The +farmer, who tills the soil, is the one worker we could not possibly do +without. All the wealth of the world, all the comforts which we have, +all the luxuries brought from far corners of the earth, come in the +first place from the soil. + +We do not have to journey far over the earth to learn that there are +many lands where the fields are not fruitful, and yet such lands are +often rich and prosperous. How can this be if the soil is so necessary? +Let us go to New England and ask the people living there if they can +tell us why rich people sometimes inhabit lands which do not raise +enough for them to eat. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + These jagged rocks are formed of once molten lava. By and by they will + crumble and be covered with a layer of soil.] + +Much of New England is hilly and has a poor, rocky soil. The farmers who +first settled there toiled hard, working early and late, and yet got few +of the comforts of life. Most of the farmers did not know how to improve +the soil or even to keep it in as good condition as it was when they +first cleared away the forests and began cultivating it; so many left +their farms to seek a living elsewhere. There are now many abandoned +farms that are growing up to forests again. + +In spite of this poor land, the New England states form one of the most +wealthy and prosperous parts of our country. There are many great cities +containing hundreds of thousands of people in this territory. The +inhabitants enjoy luxuries of every kind sent from all parts of the +world. The farmers of New England certainly do not produce this wealth +from their rocky soil. Where, then, does it come from? + +Industries of almost every sort except farming are carried on in the +cities of New England. All these people have to be fed and the farms of +this region would hardly support them even if the soil were very +productive. So much food is needed every day that if the supply were cut +off for only a short time, there would be great suffering. + +Somewhere there must be farmers at work raising food supplies for the +people of the great cities. The many beautiful and wonderful things made +by the workers in the cities must be exchanged with the farmers for the +real necessities of life. + +Somewhere there must be vast fertile fields which produce much more than +their owners require. We will journey westward to the prairies of the +Mississippi Valley. Here for hundreds of miles we can see hardly +anything but fields of waving wheat and corn. Here are hundreds of +granaries and flour mills. Upon the rivers and lakes there are many +boats, and upon the land railroads, all carrying flour and other farm +products to feed the people of New England. Here are great stock ranches +with thousands of cattle and hogs, which, when fattened upon the grain, +are also shipped to New England to help feed the people there. + + [Illustration: A field of wheat on one of the Western prairies.] + +We must conclude, then, that if it were not for the vast fields with +their deep, rich soil, where the farmers are able to grow much more than +they need for themselves, it would not be possible for the people of New +England to become wealthy by working at other things than farming. The +articles which they are making add to their own comfort and pleasure as +well as to that of the farmers, but they have to have the products of +the soil to keep alive. + +If the farmers of the Mississippi Valley and of all the other valleys +that help support the city people are careful of their soil and keep up +its fertility, our country will remain prosperous. But we are sorry to +say that the farmers have not always been careful. Many have wanted to +make more than they should from their lands. The plant food with which +Nature has filled the soil has been taken away year after year faster +than she has been able to renew it. Many fields do not produce the crops +they once did. The smaller the yield becomes, the higher the prices the +produce brings. This makes it more difficult for the workers in the +cities to live comfortably. The less abundant the supply of food +becomes, the less prosperous is the country. + +There are countries, such as England, that have neglected agriculture +but have, in spite of this, become rich and powerful through devoting +their time to manufacturing articles to sell to other people. But those +who work in the factories of England have to be fed, and so they must +depend upon other countries to supply much of their food. If, for any +reason, they were cut off from trade with these countries, not only +would their manufacturing be ruined, but they would be in danger of +starvation. + +To the first men, who lived entirely upon hunting and fishing, the soil +was of little consequence. Now things are different. The wild game has +mostly gone and we have to depend upon the products of the soil. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + At the top of the bank we see a layer of dark, rich soil.] + +The people of those lands where the climate is unfavorable and the soil +poor and rocky lack most of the comforts of life, unless they are able +to obtain them through trade. It does not follow, however, that people +living in lands favored by Nature are always happy and prosperous. + +You must remember that when the first men increased in numbers over the +earth, the soil was fresh from the hand of Nature. Although they had +everything about them that could be asked for, yet they were poor. There +are men living today on the rich deltas that we have learned about who +have few of the comforts that we have. This is because they are lazy and +ignorant, and do not make proper use of this valuable gift, the rich +soil. + +We conclude, then, that the soil forms the real wealth of the world. All +our comforts and luxuries come in the first place, as we have seen, from +the soil. The more crowded people become upon the earth, and the greater +the number that engage in manufacturing and trade, the more important +becomes the care and cultivation of the soil. If we do not take the best +of care of the soil, there may come a time when there will not be food +enough for us all. + + + + +CHAPTER NINE + +THINGS OF WHICH SOIL IS MADE + + +Let us take a spadeful of soft, dark earth from the garden and see if we +can find of what it is made. + +We will first put the earth in a dish of water and stir it thoroughly. +We notice that the water at once becomes muddy and that little particles +of a dark substance rise to the surface. These particles appear to be +pieces of stems and leaves. + +This crumbling vegetation is _peat_, a substance which fills many swamps +and, when cut into blocks and dried, is used for fuel. When scattered +through the earth peat has a very different use. As the leaves and stems +of plants die and slowly mingle with the earth, they give it the dark +color, which usually extends down for two or three feet. As this +vegetation changes, or decays, as we usually say, it furnishes a number +of substances which supply food to the roots of growing plants. One of +the most important of these is _nitrogen_, an invisible gas. + +The decaying vegetation which we find mixed with the soil has other +uses. It holds water and so helps to keep the soil moist. It makes the +soil loose and more easy to cultivate. It absorbs heat from the sun and +so helps to warm the soil. This vegetable matter, when it is completely +decayed, we call _humus_. Soils that are rich in humus are usually very +fertile. + +We will now turn the muddy water into another dish, pour more clear +water upon the material that remains in the bottom of the dish, and wash +it again, repeating the work until the water is no longer muddied. We +will set aside the dish containing the muddy water and examine what +remains in the bottom of the dish that once contained the earth or soil. +This is mostly sand, but with it are rough fragments of rock which can +be crumbled in the hand. The greater number of the little sand grains +are _quartz_. Some of them are clear like glass, others are reddish. In +this quartz sand are a few grains of _iron_ which the magnet picks out, +and a number of scales of yellow _mica_. + +After standing a few hours the muddy water has become clear, and a +deposit of a yellowish substance has collected in the bottom of the +dish. We will carefully pour off the water and examine what remains. +This fine soft mud we call _clay_. As it dries and becomes hard it +shrinks and cracks, and thus breaks up into little pieces. Clay forms a +greater or lesser part of all soil. Clay soil is very sticky when it is +wet, as you will be sure to remember if you have tried to walk over it. +When soil is formed largely of clay we speak of it as a _heavy soil_. In +the West it is called _adobe_ and is sometimes used in making houses. +When adobe soil dries, great cracks form in it. These cracks are +sometimes large enough for small animals to fall into. When there is a +large amount of sand, we speak of the soil as _light_ or _sandy_. A soil +composed of sand and clay is sometimes called _loam_. If it is nearly +all clay it is a _clay loam_; if there is much sand it is a _sandy +loam_. + +Soils found in low, swampy places are sometimes formed almost wholly of +decaying vegetable matter. Such soils are known as _peat soils_. They +are usually very fertile. + +We have now learned about three things that the soil contains that are +bulky and easy to discover: decaying vegetation, sand, and clay. These +are, however, far from being all that compose the soil. There are still +many other things, some of which are invisible to the unaided eye and +difficult to find. + +We will next take the clear water that remained after the mud settled. +We will pour it into a dish, place the dish over a fire, and let the +water boil slowly until it has all evaporated. There will remain in the +bottom of the dish a thin white coating. Moisten this with a drop of +vinegar or other weak acid and it will disappear in a mass of little +bubbles. Such behavior teaches us that the white substance is probably a +mixture of _lime_ and _soda_. Besides these there are tiny particles of +_potash_ and _phosphorus_, which we cannot distinguish by the means we +have used. + +Some soils contain a great deal of lime, and because they have been +formed from limestone, are called _limestone soils_. Plants need a +little soda, but when there is much in the soil it will kill them. Soils +rich in soda are known as _alkali soils_. They were formed in the bottom +of lakes the waters of which contained soda. Salt is another harmful +thing found in the soil. You can sometimes see faint whitish deposits of +soda and other salts on the soil in flower pots. + +There is one more thing that the soil contains that we must not forget, +for it is one of the most important of them all. This is a living +organism so small that we cannot see it with the unaided eye. Many +thousands of these organisms are contained in a bit of earth such as you +could take up on the point of a small knife blade. We have named them +_bacteria_. + +Plants cannot make use of most of the substances in the soil without the +aid of these organisms. The bacteria live upon the materials of the +soil and change them into such form that plants can digest them. + +Soil may be supplied with all kinds of plant food in just the right +amount and yet, if it is packed hard and is not watered, no living thing +can take root in it and grow. Plants drink their food and so we must +supply water. They also require oxygen, as do other living things. For +this reason we must leave the soil loose, so that the air can enter it +and the roots get the oxygen which it contains. + +Thus we learn how wonderfully the soil is made. We learn that it +contains many things required by plants. In order that the plants may be +thrifty, there must be enough but not too much of these different +things. + + + + +CHAPTER TEN + +HOW THE SOIL IS MADE + + +The substances which we found in the soil teach us that it was formed +from the rocks. If we could take the sand, clay, potash, soda, lime, and +iron that we found in the soil and put them together as Nature knows how +to do, we should have rock again. + +But if we should take a piece of rock and crush it to a fine sand, that +would not be soil, because soil cannot be made in that way. It takes +Nature many, many years, as the rocks slowly crumble and decay, to +change the materials of which they are composed into true soil with its +swarms of bacteria and its plant food. + +If we should dig down through the soft earth under our feet, we would at +last come to solid rock. This is the rough and jagged crust of the earth +on which rests the carpet of soil. In the mountains where the slopes are +steep the rocks stick up through the soil. The outer parts of this solid +rock are, however, always crumbling. Little particles, as soon as they +become loosened, either fall by their own weight or are washed away. +Some of the rock fragments collect upon the gentler slopes and finally +turn to soil. This soil is not rich and it dries out quickly, because it +is shallow. The soil in the valleys, as we have already learned from the +muddy rivulet, is deep and rich. + +Nature is slowly spreading her mantle of soil over the earth. In some +parts of the earth one can travel for hundreds of miles and see no +rocks. One might think that in time Nature's work would be finished. But +before the mountains in one place have crumbled and been washed away, +she raises up new ones somewhere else so that the tearing-down work +begins again. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + Little by little the great rocks break in pieces and crumble finally to + form soil.] + +Let us, in imagination, sit down by the side of a rock, prepared to stay +there many years, that we may learn just how Nature makes the soil. It +will be a long, long time before we can see any change in the rock. Each +bright day the sun warms the cold rock and makes it expand a very +little. At night the rock grows cold and shrinks. In this way minute +crevices are finally formed between the grains of the different minerals +that make up the rock. + +When it rains, water creeps into the tiny crevices. The water carries +with it a little carbonic acid which the raindrops took from the air. +This substance aids in dissolving some of the rock materials. If the +nights are very cold, the water in the crevices freezes and opens them a +little wider, for ice, as you know, takes up a little more room than it +did when it was water. + +Plants also aid in breaking the rock. Often seeds are dropped by the +wind, and the rootlets of some of these seeds, when they sprout, may +find a crevice large enough and deep enough for them to push their way +into the rock. In these crevices they find a little food and slowly grow +larger and stronger. By and by some of the roots are strong enough to +push apart large pieces of rock. + +If the rock which we are studying is granite, we shall after a time be +able to pick out the different minerals of which it is composed. We can +tell the grains of quartz, because they look glassy and remain very +hard. Other grains, which we call _feldspar_, soften and change into +clay, which makes the water muddy as it runs over the rocks. We see also +little scales of yellow mica, sometimes called "fool's gold," and a few +grains of iron. There are tiny quantities of other things which we shall +not be able to see, for the rainwater dissolves them and carries them +away. + +As the rock slowly crumbles to sand and clay, the bacteria begin to make +their home in it. Hardy plants, that are not particular about what they +grow in, get a foothold, and when they die their stems and leaves decay +and mix with the rock particles until at last this material begins to +look like soil. It has become dark in color and rich in plant food. +Then, many other plants that require a good soil take root there. The +rock has at last completely disappeared under the layer of soil and its +carpet of vegetation. + +Suppose, now, that we dig down and find how deep the soil is and what +lies below it. When we have gone down two feet the soil is harder and of +a lighter color, for there are fewer plant remains in it. This poorer, +lighter-colored soil we call _subsoil_. If we dig a little deeper, we +shall find pieces of rock in the subsoil. Below these we come to soft, +crumbling rock and last of all the solid rock. + +The soil that is found resting on the rocks from which it was formed is +known as _residual soil_. This name is given to such soil, because it is +what remains after long years of rock decay during which the rains have +washed away a part of the finer material. + +What has become of the soft earth that the water washed away? The muddy +rivulet has already told us its interesting story. We have learned that +a part of this earth (or soil) is borne to the distant ocean. There it +is forever lost unless the sea bottom should some day become dry land. +Stranger things than that have happened on this ancient earth of ours. +The part of the soil which the water carried away to form the rich +valley lands and deltas is known as _alluvial soil_. + + [Illustration: _U. S. Department of Agriculture_ + A flood plain, where alluvial soil has been deposited by the river.] + +Long ago the northern part of our country was covered with a sheet of +ice. This ice crept slowly southward, and as it moved along it tore off +all the soil and loose rocks on the surface of the earth over which it +passed. When it melted it left them spread roughly over the country. +Such material forms _glacial soil_. It is often deep but not very rich. + + [Illustration: _U. S. Geological Survey_ + Soil brought by a glacier and deposited as the ice melted.] + +There is another kind of soil, formed by the wind. If you have ever been +in a dust storm you have seen the fine, powdery substance that settles +over everything and creeps into the smallest cracks. In some countries +where there are strong winds and not much rain there is little +vegetation on the surface to hold the soil. Year after year the winds +pick up particles of the dusty soil, whirl them high in the air, and do +not let them down again until they have been carried many miles. In some +far-off land where the winds go down the dust particles settle again to +the earth. After a long, long time, enough dust collects to form a +thick layer of the richest soil. This is called aeolian soil, from the +word _AEolus_, meaning the "wind." + +There is one more kind of soil which we ought to know about; that is +_peat soil_. It is found in marshy or swampy lowlands and is formed +largely of plant remains. When lands with such soil are drained, they +prove very rich. + + + + +CHAPTER ELEVEN + +HOW VEGETATION HOLDS THE SOIL + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + What the rivulets did to the hillside pastures where the grass was + destroyed.] + + +A walk up the mountains on a rainy day is not a pleasant one. There are +mud and water under our feet, and overhead are the dripping branches +which, if touched, send down a shower of drops. But if we keep our eyes +open we shall learn something which will be of great value to us. We +shall learn how it is that Nature holds the soil on the slopes--the +wonderful soil which it takes her so long a time to make and which is +the source of all our wealth. + +Our way up the mountains is by a winding road. We first pass the +foothills upon which there are scattered oaks. The rain is steadily +pouring down and rivulets loaded with mud are eating little gullies all +over the slopes. Along the roadside, where they have united, the +rivulets form a torrent which is making a deep ditch that threatens to +render the road impassable. + +These slopes were once covered with grass and the rivulets ran down them +without doing any harm. But so many sheep were pastured here that the +grass was killed. The roots, which once formed a thick protecting sod, +are now decaying. How quickly the rivulets have taken advantage of the +unprotected slopes! + +The road leads still upward until it brings us to where there were once +pine forests. The lumbermen cut off all the trees, and then fire came +and burned the decaying vegetation which once lay spread over the +ground. Now all that remains is bare earth and blackened stumps. + +What are the raindrops doing here? They gather in rivulets just as they +do on the once grassy hillside; but because there are so many roots +still remaining in the ground they have not done much work. They are not +loitering, however, and by and by, when the roots have rotted, they will +seize their chance and begin tearing away the soil from the mountain +side. + +But this is not the end of the road. Farther up we come to the primeval +forests, where the giant trees stand just as they did before men came. +Here we can see how the slopes are protected, for in making the road the +workmen cut deep into the hillside. They first removed a layer of pine +needles and decaying branches. Then they cut through a layer of soil +about two feet thick which was completely filled with little roots of +trees and bushes. Below this they came to the soft subsoil, which +contained only a few roots, and at the bottom they reached the solid +rock. + +The layer of roots and soil at the top of the bank, you can see from the +picture, now overhangs the road, because the raindrops which beat +against the bank have washed away all that they could reach of the +unprotected earth at the bottom. How plainly we can see the network of +roots. What a hard task it must be for the water to get at the soil in +which these roots are growing. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + The layer of roots holds the soil on the mountain side.] + +We will now leave the road and, although it is still raining hard, we +will walk a distance through the forest and see if there is anything +more that we can learn. We are soon in the deep woods where, perhaps, no +one has ever been before. Around us are trees of all ages and sizes, +from little seedlings to great giants six feet through. Among them are +the crumbling stumps of trees long dead. Their trunks lie on the ground, +and many are so soft and rotten that we can kick them to pieces with our +feet. + +As we walk our feet never touch the real earth. It is always on the +soft, yielding leaves and crumbling branches that we step. These leaves +and branches form a thick layer completely hiding the soil. But the +strangest thing is that, although the rain is still falling, we can +discover no rivulets. What, then, becomes of the water? The soft, +decaying vegetation on which we are walking and the rotting stumps and +logs act like a great sponge. As long as this sponge can take up the +falling drops, none have a chance to run away. If it rains a very long +time and the sponge becomes saturated, the drops that creep away and +finally unite in rivulets in the hollows do no harm to the soil, for +they cannot get at it. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + The roots of the tree grip the soil like the fingers of a great hand.] + +Long after the storm has passed, the earth underneath the trees remains +wet, while the ground out in the open has become dry. A part of the +water held by the decaying vegetation evaporates. Another part creeps +down through the earth to the crevices in the rocks and feeds the +springs. + +Let us now put aside our storm clothes and journey, in imagination, far +away to where it seldom rains--to that land which we call the desert. +Here the bare rocks of the mountain slopes are burned brown by the hot +sun. Here there is little soil and only a few little bushes that somehow +manage to live. Why does not the soil gather over the rocks as it does +in other places? The rocks are surely crumbling, for we can crush some +of the pieces in our hands. + +Once in a long time it rains in this desert. Then the drops descend +furiously. The water gathers in rivulets and these turn to torrents +which sweep down the slopes. They carry away the particles of sand and +clay which would in time, if there were plant roots to hold them, turn +to soil. + +The winds also help keep the desert rocks bare and free of soil. Have +you ever been in a dust storm or have you read of caravans caught in +such storms in the Sahara Desert? The fierce wind picks up the particles +of sand and clay from the bare earth and sweeps them along as it does +the snow in winter, or it whirls them in clouds high in the air. The +dust clouds are often so dense that they hide the sun and all landmarks +by which the traveler can guide his way. But have any of us ever seen +the winds pick up much dust from the green fields where the vegetation +protects the surface? + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + The vegetation prevents the wind from blowing the sand away, so that + wherever the roots obtain a hold there a little mound is formed.] + +If we turn now to a very wet country, such as that upon our northwest +coast, where often nearly eight feet of rain falls in a year, we shall +find the vegetation so dense that it hides both soil and rocks. Here +water can do little in wearing away the soil, even upon the steepest +slopes, while the wind cannot get a peep at the earth. + +Does it not seem strange that where little rain falls the earth washes a +great deal faster than where it rains very heavily? The reason is that +the more it rains the more dense becomes the carpet of vegetation. If we +wish to preserve the soil, we must preserve the natural growth on the +hillsides. + + + + +CHAPTER TWELVE + +WHAT HAPPENS WHERE THERE IS NO PROTECTING CARPET OF VEGETATION + + +Not all of the muddy streams are due to the carelessness of men. It is +the business of some of the servants of Nature, as we have already +learned, to tear down the mountains and fill up the hollows in the +earth. It is the business of others to spread a carpet of vegetation +over the surface, and wherever they have already succeeded in their work +the waters run clear most of the time. + +Where it is dry so much of the time that few plants can live, the +destructive servants have their own way when the occasional rains come. +Where there is a warm sun and frequent rains, a green carpet is spread +over all the slopes. But when men destroy the carpet and take no care of +the soil underneath, the raindrops are able to do as much damage as they +do during the cloudbursts in the deserts. + +The Colorado is one of those rivers in the basin of which few people +live. Much of its journey is through a land in which there is little +vegetation. Here, the waters from the melting snows upon the lofty +mountains about the basin and those of the occasional heavy rains have +things their own way. They are always yellow with mud. The amount of mud +which this river carries has been measured. You will hardly believe me +when I tell you that it amounts to sixty-one million tons every year. +This is enough to cover 164 square miles one foot deep. We might call +this the cream of the soil from all the slopes of the great basin of the +Colorado River. + +In other parts of our land, where abundant rains fall, the streams tell +a different story. Before men came the water of these streams was clear +throughout the greater part of the year. It was only when the rains were +very heavy that the soil washed away, for the vegetation held it well. +Now the gullies on the hillsides and along the roads tell us as plainly +as though they could speak that our country is losing wealth here. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + The roots of the tree form a wonderful network underground from which + the water cannot tear the soil.] + +The soil is our most valuable possession. The people of many lands are +suffering from poverty today because their forefathers did not take care +of the soil as they should. In such lands the people who live on the +mountain sides are poor, because the best of their soil has been washed +away. Those who live in the valleys are often poor because of the sands +and gravels which floods have spread over their fertile fields. + +While it is raining, let us fill a bottle from some muddy stream and +allow it to stand until the water settles. In the bottom will then +appear a layer of fine mud, or _silt_ as it is usually called. How much +soil do you suppose the rivulets washed from my garden and from yours +during the last severe storm? How much do you suppose all the rivulets +which make up the rivers of your state washed from all the gardens and +fields during the same storm? Make a guess and then multiply your answer +by the number of storms in one year and that by fifty years, and you +will get a quantity greater than you would believe possible. + +This is the way Nature takes her toll for our carelessness. So quietly +does she do it that often the farmer does not have any idea of what is +happening. She is like a thief that comes and steals his goods while he +is sleeping. + + [Illustration: _Bailey Willis_ + The soil on the hillsides of China is being washed away because of the + thoughtlessness of the people.] + +When the farmer finally awakes and begins to wonder why his crops grow +smaller each year, he has already lost the cream of his soil. He must +at once stop plowing the steep hillsides and leaving the ground bare for +the winter rains to wash it away. To save the slopes he can either +terrace them or he can sow grass or clover, which will form a sod and +hold the soil. If the farmer can get peas, beans, alfalfa, or clover to +grow upon his wasted lands, they will make it fertile again, for these +plants have the wonderful power of taking nitrogen from the air and +storing it in the soil. + + [Illustration: _American Forestry Association_ + The farmer who owns this land will soon be made poor because of his + carelessness in destroying the covering of the soil.] + +More earth has been washed from the hillsides of our country during the +last fifty years than during thousands of years before white people +came. The farm lands have been injured, the bays have been made +shallower, and many river channels have been so filled up that it is +more difficult to navigate them now than it was in the early days. + +The farmer, the stockman, the lumberman, and the miner has each been +selfishly doing his share in the destruction of the soil. Each one has +thought only of how he could make the most money in the shortest time. +It has not occurred to them that they are making it difficult for their +children and grandchildren to live. + +In the Southern states thousands of acres are being gullied by the +rains, and the soil destroyed. The floods of spring have become worse in +late years, because of the destruction of the forest cover in the +Appalachian Mountains. Buildings and bridges are frequently carried +away, and gravel and boulders are washed over the rich bottom lands. + +In the mountains of far-away Italy the soil is poor, and so are the +people. They have cut down nearly all the trees and for hundreds of +years the brush and grass have been eaten so closely by the sheep and +goats that few roots remain to hold the soil. It does not need to rain +heavily there to cause the rivers to become muddy and swollen. The soil +which once covered the slopes has been carried to the bays, and now +there is land where ships floated two thousand years ago. + + [Illustration: _U. S. Forest Service_ + Terraces of rock built by natives of China to aid in holding the soil.] + +In Spain so much of the best soil has been lost that the people now do +not raise enough food to support themselves, and much has to be imported +from other lands. + +France is a rich country still, in spite of the cutting of so much of +the forest and the careless pasturing of the mountain slopes. The people +are industrious and hard working and thus make a living in spite of the +loss which they are suffering. + +The Montenegrins are among the bravest people of Europe, but their land +is barren and they enjoy few luxuries. Their country consists largely of +limestone mountains, from which they have been cutting the trees for +hundreds of years. There is but little soil and that is to be found in +the hollows of the rocks. This soil is so precious that every bit, be it +ever so small, is carefully cultivated. + +In the mountains of Palestine and Syria the people have so completely +destroyed the trees and grasses which Nature once planted there that it +is difficult for them to raise enough to live upon. The rivers are muddy +after every rain, and even the water from the melting snows picks up +some of the soil and flows away with a dirty, yellow color. + +When we reach China and Korea, we find that there the people have been +most severely punished for their carelessness. The mountain sides have +been torn by the rains and deeply gullied. The once smooth slopes upon +which grew trees and grasses are now a mass of sharp ridges and deep +hollows of bare earth. The water falling upon these mountains runs off +in torrents, carrying even large boulders as it does in our Western +deserts. Here and there the natives have built terraces of rock to aid +in holding the soil, but many parts of the country are almost wholly +deserted. The waters run off the mountains so quickly that they often +form vast floods which spread over the lower valleys and plains. The +floods destroy the crops and drown the people. + +Eastward of China there is an arm of the Pacific Ocean known as the +Yellow Sea. Why do you suppose this name was given to the sea? One of +the great rivers of China, the Yangste-kiang, empties into it. The river +rises in the barren mountains of which we have just been speaking, and +it is continually bringing so much mud and sand that a whole sea is +being filled. Long before a ship comes within sight of the land the +waters are seen to be of a muddy, yellow color. + +In the smaller valleys of Korea the natives build dikes along the rivers +to keep the mountain floods from spreading sand and gravel over their +rice fields. Every year they have to make the dikes higher as the river +beds fill up. + +Thus we see that all over the world people are suffering because they +have not obeyed the laws which Nature has made for the protection of the +soil. + + + + +CHAPTER THIRTEEN + +THE USE AND CARE OF WATER + + +The ocean is the home of the water. The water would always remain in the +ocean if it could, but the sun and air are continually at work stealing +little particles away and sending them on long journeys. + +The water particles are so small as they rise from the ocean that we +cannot see them. By and by they crowd together and make the clouds that +float across the sky. As soon as the clouds meet colder air, the little +water particles rush together and thus become larger and larger until +they grow so heavy that they can no longer float in the air, but must +fall. Some of them fall into the ocean again, but others drop upon the +land. + +The raindrops that reach the land have many sorts of stories to tell +before they again get back to the ocean. Some of them are at once +snatched up again and are started upon another journey. The thirsty air, +whether over the ocean or over the land, is ever in search of water +particles. + +If the air is very cold, the clouds turn to snow instead of rain. The +feathery flakes fall slowly through the air and form a soft white mantle +over the earth. Those that fall on lofty mountains form great banks +which may not entirely melt and turn to water until late in the summer. + +The raindrops that fall where the slopes are steep, where Nature has +grown little vegetation, or where men have destroyed the earth cover, +have little to detain them and are soon on their way back to their home. +In their hasty journey they do much damage to the unprotected soil. + +If the drops fall upon gentle slopes, or where there are marshes and +lakes, or upon the forest with its decaying vegetation, or upon deep +beds of gravel and sand, they are a long time getting back to the ocean. + + [Illustration: _George J. Young_ + The cool and shady stream before men came and cut the trees away so that + the hot sun could get at it.] + +We can in no way change the amount of rain that falls upon any part of +the earth. We cannot call up a storm when we wish it, nor can we send it +away when there has been rain enough. But there are many ways in which +we can hasten or delay the return of the water to the ocean. Nature +shows us some of these. The spongelike carpet underneath the forest +holds the water until it has had time to soak into the earth from which +it later emerges as springs. Nature forms basins on the heads of the +rivers where a part of the water, instead of immediately flowing away, +collects in the form of lakes. From these lakes the water runs away +slowly instead of in torrential floods. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + The rotting tree trunks take up the rainwater like a sponge.] + +Only a few places in our country have more rain than is really needed. +One of these is the region about the mouth of the Mississippi River +upon the Gulf of Mexico. Another is upon the Northwest coast. Throughout +the central part of the country the summer rains are sometimes too light +to afford a full harvest. The rainfall upon the plains and valleys of +the Southwest is so small that the only plants that can live there are +those strange and curious forms that have become used to desert +conditions. The only way in which these lands can be made useful to the +farmer is by means of irrigation. To obtain water for irrigation we have +either to go to the distant mountains and build reservoirs to collect +the rains which fall there and then dig canals to carry the water to the +desert valleys, or to make use of some river flowing through them, if +they are fortunate enough to have such a river. Can you think of any +rivers that are used in this way? + + [Illustration: _Brown Brothers_ + The great Roosevelt Dam, in the Salt River irrigation project, + Arizona.] + +Although water sometimes seems the greatest blessing that we have, yet +it may prove a curse if it is not looked after. If you give the water a +chance to make gullies in your fields, you lose not only the water but +the best of the soil also. If you cultivate your fields with care, most +of the water will soak into the ground. If you are a wise farmer you +know also that cultivation of the soil helps to hold the water, for it +cannot escape through loose soil as it can through compact soil. Thus if +you know how to handle both the water and the soil, you can, with only a +little rain, accomplish a great deal. + + [Illustration: Scene below an irrigation reservoir near Richfield, + Idaho, showing a field irrigated by means of canals and ditches.] + +We can, then, hold or _conserve_ the water, first, by leaving the +steeper slopes covered with vegetation; second, by keeping the soil +loose; and, third, by building reservoirs to hold the floods. We can +make use of the conserved water by carrying it in pipes or ditches to +those regions where it is needed. We can get rid of too much water by +draining the swamps, and building dikes to protect lowlands from river +floods. + +Let us now learn something of the different uses of water. Every one of +our homes has its water supply. In the city the water comes through +pipes from some distant reservoir. In the country the homes are so far +apart that it is difficult to supply them in this way. The water in the +streams is often not suitable for drinking, and if there are no springs +near by it has to be obtained by some other means. Nearly everywhere in +the earth under our feet water can be found by digging or boring a well. +Sometimes we have to go only a few feet, at other times many hundreds of +feet. This water in the earth, or _ground water_, is of very great +importance. It enables us to build our homes where we wish. Spring water +is that which finds its way to the surface through some tiny crack or +fissure in the rocks. How delicious is the pure, cold water that comes +out of the shady hollow in the hills! You can form in your minds a +picture of the rain falling on some distant mountain, of its soaking +into the ground and finally reaching the little crevices in the rocks. +Along these crevices it may have crept for days and perhaps years until +at last it found an outlet in some spring. + +The great river flows by so quietly that we often forget in how many +ways it is serving us. It serves not only those upon its banks but those +who live hundreds of miles away and who, perhaps, have never seen it. It +was the first and easiest means of travel used by our forefathers before +there were any roads or railroads through the wilderness. It now aids +in carrying on trade between different regions. If large and deep +enough, it permits boats from all parts of the world to reach the very +heart of our country. + +Canals might be called artificial rivers. They serve an important +purpose in nearly level countries where Nature has placed no navigable +river. Although canal boats usually move slowly, yet they can carry +goods cheaper than railroads can. The Erie Canal, in connection with the +Great Lakes and the Hudson River, makes it possible for us to go all the +way by water from the heart of the continent to New York City. The Erie +Canal has helped make New York City the greatest city in our country. +The canal across the Isthmus of Panama saves ships a journey of many +thousand miles around South America. + +Rivers serve us in yet another way by affording water for irrigation. A +great river like the Colorado flows through regions of many different +climates. Some rivers become so small in the summer that it is necessary +to build great reservoirs at their headwaters in order to insure a +supply when the crops need it. But in the case of the Colorado this is +not necessary. The headwaters of this river are among lofty mountains, +where the melting snows and summer showers make the waters of the river +higher in the early summer than at any other season of the year. Thus +its great delta, the Colorado Desert, has become the home of many +thousands of people. + +Another use which we make of rivers is by putting the water to turning +mill wheels. If you will turn to your geographies, you will find that +nearly all the great manufacturing cities of our country have grown up +around rapids or waterfalls, where some river tumbles over a ledge of +rocks. + +Once we had to build our mills close to the rivers to use the water +power, but this is no longer necessary. Now we build electric-power +plants by the rivers and carry electric energy more than a hundred miles +to any place where we wish to use it. Electricity made from the distant +mountain waterfall will do any kind of work for us wherever we carry it. +Thus we see that the river works for us in more than one way. After it +has created power for our factories, it can be turned on to the thirsty +fields, where it will serve us equally well. + + [Illustration: _Great Western Power Company of California_ + Electric-power plant on north fork of the Feather River, California, for + generating electricity which is carried to distant places.] + + + + +CHAPTER FOURTEEN + +COULD WE GET ALONG WITHOUT THE TREES? + + +We have come to depend upon trees to supply so many of our wants that we +could not possibly do without them. We can no more spare the trees than +Nature can. She needs them in her work of protecting the soil on the +steep slopes and of holding back the raindrops that they may keep the +springs alive. She needs them to form nesting places for the birds, and +she needs the dark forest so that the wild creatures may find shelter +and a home. + +It would be strange if we did not love the trees; for they are not only +useful, but add so much to the beauty of our homes. Our early ancestors +may at times have made their homes in the trees, as some of the wild +people do now. They certainly lived among the trees, for the myth +stories that they have given us speak of the deep, dark forests and of +the mysterious people supposed to inhabit them. + +We feel pity for the people who live in treeless deserts. The few +articles of wood which they possess have to be brought a long distance +at great cost. The Eskimos of the frozen North are more helpless than +the desert people, for before the coming of explorers they had no +communication with forested regions. They were not wholly without wood, +however, for the ocean waves occasionally washed pieces upon their +shores. + +From the time when the earliest man found a club a better weapon than +his bare fists, wood has been used for an ever-increasing number of +purposes. Wood fires kept the early people warm. Wood was used in making +their bows and spears; bark and pieces of branches served to make their +rude homes. + +The inner bark of the cedar and birch was used by the Indians in weaving +baskets and mats. From the inner bark of the birch tree they made canoes +that were so light that they could be carried from one stream to +another. Where there were no birch trees, great cedars were cut or +burned down and made into canoes, for traveling by water was much easier +than over rocky ground or through dense forests. Some tribes of Indians +learned to split the cedar logs into rude boards which they used in +making their houses. The Indians also learned to boil down the sweet sap +of the maple until it turned to sugar. + +The eating of nuts and fruits furnished by certain kinds of trees came +as natural to early men as it does to the other animals. They shared +with the birds the wild fruits, and divided with the squirrels the many +kinds of nuts. So highly do the Italians still value the wild chestnut +that this tree, almost alone of all the forest trees that once covered +their country, has been saved. + +The most important uses of trees in our country are for lumber, for +fuel, and for the edible fruits and nuts which they bear. There are +several purposes to which logs are put without being sawed into lumber, +such as for telegraph poles and for piling for the support of great +buildings and for wharves. Long ago nearly all our houses were made of +logs. There was then an abundance of clear, straight trees but very few +sawmills. It was easy to cut the logs, peel and notch them at the ends, +and then lay them up in a house of just the size that was wanted. From +the logs that split easily rough boards and shingles were made, as well +as chairs and tables. Blocks of wood were set in the openings cut for +windows, because of the scarcity of glass. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + A giant sugar pine in a National Forest in the Sierra Nevada + Mountains.] + +Our forefathers had all the wood they wanted just for the cutting, and +so they warmed their houses by means of fireplaces large enough to hold +great logs. They made of wood every tool and household convenience for +which this substance could be used. Indeed, they had more wood than they +wanted. Trees covered so much of the land that the ground could not be +cultivated until they had been cut away. Now we wish that we had the +oak, hickory, black walnut, and other kinds of trees, that the pioneers +of our country burned in order to get them out of the way, for they have +become very valuable. + +Now, partly because wood is becoming scarce, and partly because our +large buildings must be made very strong and safe from fire, we are +using other materials for them. Stone, brick, and concrete, when tied +together with iron beams, are more suitable material for great +buildings. Our land now contains so many people, and so many new homes +are needed every year, that the lumber required for houses alone is +almost more than we can believe. + +The forests are now disappearing so fast that unless we use wood more +carefully we may have to give up our attractive wooden homes and cheery +fireplaces and live in houses of stone or concrete. In many parts of the +world people have so completely destroyed the forests that they have not +only to make their homes of mud bricks or stone, but have little wood +left for fuel and other purposes. + +We cannot mention all the purposes to which wood is put in our homes and +in our industries. It would take a whole page in this book merely to +make a list of them. What we ought to remember, however, is that it is +not so much the amount of wood that we actually _use_ as it is the wood +that is _wasted_ that is likely to bring us to want. Two thirds of the +wood of the trees cut throughout our country is wasted in its +manufacture into lumber and other objects. Besides this, as much wood is +burned every year in needless forest fires as is cut by the lumberman. +The waste of trees that are cut merely for their bark which is used in +tanning leather is a wrong for which Nature will sometime call us to +account. + +In Switzerland, where the forests are given the care that we bestow upon +a garden, not a particle of wood is allowed to go to waste. The branches +are all picked up and saved. Even the sawdust is made use of in the +manufacture of wood alcohol, which has an important use as fuel. + +There are many kinds of trees the sap of which has great value. If care +is used in tapping the trees, they are not greatly injured and will live +for years. Sap of the maple affords delicious maple sugar. The sticky +sap of the coniferous trees is obtained by making a cut in the bark. +Canada balsam, thus obtained, is a clear liquid from a fir tree of the +same name. It is the finest of all the turpentines and is used for many +purposes in the arts. Enormous quantities of turpentine are obtained +from the yellow pines. The pine forests of the Southern states supply +nearly all our turpentine. From this by a process of distillation is +obtained resin and spirits of turpentine. + +The rubber tree found in the tropical forests has become one of the most +necessary of trees. Rubber made from the sap of this tree is now used +for many purposes for which we have been able to find no other material. + +We sometimes forget how valuable trees are for various substances used +in medicine. Our lives may depend on having such medicines within +reach. Quinine made from the bark of the cinchona tree is perhaps the +most important. Camphor gum is furnished by another tropical tree. The +acacia supplies gum arabic. The poison, strychna, comes from a nut tree. +The eucalyptus, birch, and other trees too numerous to name, supply +various other medicinal products. + + [Illustration: _Arthur D. Little, Inc., "The Little Journal"_ + When this beautiful long-leaf pine tree is cut we manage to save only + about one third of it. From the wasted two thirds of this and other pine + trees we could obtain many thousand tons of paper, great quantities of + resin, and other products.] + +While we are trying to find other substances to replace wood as far as +is possible, so as to keep the forests from being used up, we are +requiring more and more for the manufacture of paper. The spruce forests +are fast disappearing in pulp mills, from which the blocks of wood +emerge as sheets of paper. Perhaps after a time we shall find something +to take the place of wood in the manufacture of paper. + +The one use to which we put the trees, which does not destroy or injure +them in the slightest, is growing them for their fruit and nuts. We take +great care of such trees, selecting the best varieties and cultivating, +trimming, and spraying them in order to keep them healthy and strong. +The better the care that we give them, the finer and larger become their +fruits. + +Trees are valuable to us in so many ways and appeal so deeply to our +love of the beautiful things in Nature that we should all be interested +in them. If we give the trees a chance, they will do their share toward +making our lives comfortable and happy. + + + + +CHAPTER FIFTEEN + +WHERE HAS NATURE SPREAD THE FOREST? + + +Our forefathers who came across the water to America found forests +stretching away from the water's edge into an unknown wilderness. The +settlements spread very slowly into the pathless woods, for there lurked +danger from the Indians and wild animals. The Allegheny Mountains also +held the settlers back for a long time. + +The pioneers found the country, as far as the Ohio River and beyond, +still forest covered; but by and by openings or _prairies_ began to +appear. By the time they had crossed the Great River the forests had +been left behind, except for fringes of trees upon the lowlands along +the streams. + +From this point westward the open prairies stretched away to the +horizon. Antelope, deer, and buffalo were often seen feeding on the rich +grasses. The adventurous pioneers pushed on across the fertile prairies, +coming at last to a drier and higher region which we have called the +_Great Plains_. On these plains the Rocky Mountains came in sight. These +mountains gradually became higher as the travelers approached, until +they rose before them like a mighty wall. Here they again met vast +forests, which covered all the higher slopes. + +Beyond the Rocky Mountains they crossed a broad land of deserts where +little rain fell. The vegetation was so scanty and springs so far apart +that many of their horses and cattle died. The dreary and barren deserts +were followed by another lofty range of mountains. Entering these +mountains, the pioneers came upon the most magnificent forest that had +yet been seen upon our continent. After traveling for some days over +rugged mountains, they at last emerged from the forests upon the Great +Valley of California. + + [Illustration: A forest of great trees in the Sierras, near the Yosemite + Valley.] + +Scattered over portions of the valley were oak trees, giving it the +appearance of a park. When the valley had been passed the pioneers +climbed the last mountain range, and from this range looked down upon +the waters of the Pacific Ocean. Here they found forests again, some of +the trees being of enormous size. Thus we see that the eastern part of +the continent was nearly all forested, but that in the West the forests +grew chiefly on the mountains, because there is not enough rainfall upon +the plains and in the valleys. + +The trees that make up most of the forests of our country are of two +very different kinds. There is one kind that has narrow or needle-like +leaves which they keep through the winter. These we commonly call +_narrow-leaved_ trees or _conifers_. The most important of the +narrow-leaved trees are the pines, firs, spruces, and hemlock. Such +trees form the forests of the greater part of the highlands of the +northern and northeastern parts of our country. The pines also find a +congenial home upon the lowlands of the Southern states. Trees of the +second kind have broad leaves, and usually their wood is rather hard. +Hence we call them _broad-leaved_ or _hardwood_ trees. Since most of +these trees drop their leaves in winter, we often speak of them as +_deciduous_ trees. By far the larger part of the lands of the Eastern +states that are now cultivated were found by the first settlers to be +covered with hardwood trees. We are familiar with many of the hardwoods +through their use in furniture and various household utensils and farm +implements. The most important varieties are the walnut, hickory, +chestnut, beech, maple, ash, oak, elm, locust, and linden. + +There are not many broad-leaved trees in the forests of the West. The +children of the West miss all the nut trees that the boys and girls of +the East enjoy. But to make up for this lack there are some in the West +that are not found in the East. The sugar pine, the pinon pine, and the +digger pine afford delicious nuts which once formed an important article +of food for the Indians. In the West the broad-leaved trees do not form +dense forests. They are scattered among the pines on the lower mountain +slopes, in the valleys, and along the streams. The most important of +these trees are oaks of many kinds, soft maple, alder, cottonwood, +sycamore, and laurel. + +The dense forests of the Western mountains consist almost wholly of +narrow-leaved trees. Among them are the pines and firs of different +kinds, spruce, cedar, redwood, and "big trees." The redwoods and "big +trees" are both known as sequoias; they grow to an immense size upon the +mountains of California. The coniferous forests of which these trees +form a part are among the most wonderful and interesting ones on the +earth. + +If you will take a forest map of our country and place it beside a +rainfall map, you will quickly discover why the forests are found where +they are. You will see that the forests are found where there is more +than thirty inches of rain each year, except in the far North, where it +is very cold. You can say, then, that the climate is the chief thing +that determines where the forests shall grow. + +If the climate is warm and the rainfall heavy, the forest vegetation +is so dense and rank that you can hardly travel through it. Such forests +are found in the tropical parts of the country. Where little rain falls +there is scanty vegetation, as upon the deserts of the Southwest. But +where it is very cold, even if there is much snow or rain, you will find +no trees. + + [Illustration: _George J. Young_ + Mountain hemlocks, which John Muir considered the most beautiful of all + conifers.] + +We must not forget that there is another thing that affects the growth +of trees, and that is the soil. Pines like a sandy soil, while most +other trees do not. Certain cedars and cypresses like swampy places +where no other trees will grow. Many beautiful meadows and prairies have +no trees, because the soil is not well drained. + +It is very easy to understand why trees cannot grow where it is dry, but +how shall we learn of the effect of cold upon them? Shall we have to +take a journey of thousands of miles into the far North, until we +finally come to the land called the _Barren Lands_ or _tundras_, where +the trees become stunted and at last disappear--a land where they cannot +longer fight against the cold and live? + +Fortunately such a long journey is not necessary. All we have to do is +to climb a great mountain range, like the Sierra Nevadas, to pass +through all the different climates which we would experience on a long +journey to the arctic regions. + +It is only a few miles from the hot San Joaquin Valley, at the base of +the Sierras, where it is so dry that irrigation is necessary, to the +summit of the range, where the winter climate is as cold as it is in the +arctic regions. + +In going up the mountains we first come to the foothills, where there is +a little more rain than in the valley. Here we find oak trees growing. +Farther up there is still more rain and we come to the pines. Soon we +reach the most wonderful coniferous forest in all the world. Here not +only is there a great variety of trees, but because of the favorable +climate they grow to a great size. As we approach the summit of the +mountains the trees become smaller, and at an elevation of about two +miles they shrink to the size of little bushes and finally disappear. +They can no longer stand the fierce winds and cold storms of this arctic +region. + + [Illustration: _George J. Young_ + East Vidette, King's River Country, California, showing how, as we + approach the summit of the mountains, the trees become smaller.] + +We have learned now that the trees do not grow haphazard over our +country, but that the rain, the temperature, and the soil determine +where they can live. + +Within the heart of the forest the trees will come again if we cut them +down, but upon its borders, where the air is drier, it is more difficult +for them to spring up anew. If we cut them down carelessly and allow +fires to burn over the surface, and the water to wash away the soil, +they may never come back. + +It is important, then, that we understand why trees grow in some places +and not in others, in order that we may know how to take care of them. + + + + +CHAPTER SIXTEEN + +WHAT ARE THE ENEMIES OF THE TREES? + + +Every living thing is engaged in a struggle for air to breathe and for +something to eat. Those that make their homes on the land also have to +struggle for water. The stronger rob the weaker; for, among all of them +except man, might always makes right. Men are learning that +unselfishness is the better way, although they do not always practice +it. + +In this struggle the animals have an advantage over the plants, for if +food fails in one place they can move to another. Among the animals also +the mother tries to protect her children; and, in the case of some,--the +wolf, for example,--a number will hunt together for the common good. + +It is quite different with the plants. They must grow where the seeds +take root. If there is little sunlight or water or the soil is poor, +they must make the best of what they have. + +The plants have to struggle not only with such enemies as insects, +winds, fire, and browsing animals, but with each other, for every tree +is the real or possible enemy of every other tree. Brother seeds +sprouting under the same parent maple struggle with each other for the +food and moisture in the soil and for the best place in the sunlight. +The one that gets the most of these will grow the faster and choke some +of its weaker brothers. + + [Illustration: _Edward S. Curtis_ + Trees that struggle with cold and storm.] + +In yonder grove of pines there are trees of all ages and sizes. The +older ones have much the advantage and take a part of the food and +sunlight that the smaller ones require. How the little ones stretch +up and grow tall and slender in their attempt to get the sunlight! +But in spite of all their efforts some of them must die. + +Some kinds of trees grow faster than others. Where a number are +springing up together, the slow-growing ones will stand less chance of +ever becoming great trees. In this way the yellow pine sometimes chokes +out the cedar, and the fir gets the advantage of the sugar pine. + +The bright, warm sun is the enemy of the tree that loves the shady +hillsides. The swamp is the enemy of the tree that must have loose, dry +soil. The cold is the enemy of the tree that is used to a hot climate. +Is it not strange that what is good for one tree is an enemy of another? + +Many kinds of trees have their own particular insect enemies which +attack them and no others. Some of these insects live upon the leaves, +others eat the sapwood under the bark, while a few attack the roots. +Certain insects burrow in and eat the heartwood. Although this does not +always kill the tree, it weakens it and makes the wood unfit for use. +The cedar and the hickory are among the trees injured in this manner. + +The foliage of the broad-leaved trees is the delight of many insects. +They sometimes eat the leaves so closely that the tree is killed; for +the trees breathe through their leaves and can no more do without them +than they can without their roots. + +The gypsy moth, which did no great harm in its European home, was +brought to this country and accidentally set free. It at once began to +attack the leaves of the elm, that beautiful tree of the old New England +villages. Now it is destroying other trees and, notwithstanding the +fight which we have made against it, we have not yet been able to +exterminate it. + + [Illustration: _American Forestry Association_ + Insects are destroying the trees of this forest.] + +The chestnut tree, which every Eastern child loves for its nuts, is now +being destroyed by a fungus which may kill every one of these trees in +the country. + +The white-pine blister, also brought over from Europe, is now +threatening all the white pines and the related trees of our country. +This disease has already such a start in the East that we may not be +able to stop it. + +The dainty mistletoe, about which there are so many pretty Christmas +legends, is a deadly enemy of many trees. The seed of this fungus is +carried, by the birds or by the wind, from one tree to another. When it +sprouts, tiny roots go down through the bark to the sap, on which it +feeds until the tree is killed. + +All our fruit trees have their deadly enemies which cause a loss of +many millions of dollars every year. Among the worst of these is the San +Jose scale, which was carelessly brought into the country from China. + + [Illustration: _Pillsbury's Pictures, Inc._ + A dwarf white pine which has found a foothold in the rocks on a + mountain top.] + +The pear blight has destroyed whole orchards of pear trees in the +Western states. The citrus canker is now threatening the orange orchards +of the Southern states. + +For years we have been searching over the world for new and better +varieties of fruit trees. With the shipments of such trees we have +brought some of the worst of the diseases that we have just mentioned. +We should have all foreign trees most carefully inspected before +admitting them to the country. We should also be very careful about +shipping fruit or other trees from one part of our country to another. +Diseases are often carried in this way into places which otherwise they +could not reach. + +Field mice, gophers, and rabbits eat the bark of young fruit trees and +kill those which are not carefully protected. In some parts of our +country the apple and peach tree borers are a serious menace to young +orchards. Grasshoppers occasionally come in dense swarms and eat the +leaves from every tree or plant in their path. + +The valuable sugar pine of the Western mountains is not seeding itself +as rapidly as it should, and we fear it will become extinct. The +beautiful silver-gray squirrel loves the nuts of this pine, and it is +said that he eats so many that few are left to sprout and make new +trees. For this reason some people would like to make it lawful to kill +all the gray squirrels that one wished. This would be too bad, for we do +not believe the gray squirrel is the cause of the trouble. It is more +likely that the lack of young sugar pines is due partly to its struggle +in the forest with more rapidly growing trees and partly to the less +frequent occurrence of forest fires to burn off the humus on the ground. +We know that the seeds of certain trees find difficulty in sending their +roots down through the humus to the soil beneath. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + An avalanche has passed through this forest.] + +The narrow-leaved or cone-bearing trees, which are the main source of +our lumber, also have other enemies. The most destructive of these are +the little pine beetles which lay their eggs in the bark of the yellow +pine, sugar pine, and tamarack pine. From these eggs there hatch worms +which burrow under the bark until they cut off the flow of the sap. This +kills the trees. The trees that are young and strong are sometimes able +to pour out enough sap into the wounds to drown the insects, but many +thousands of trees in the Western mountains are destroyed every year by +these insects. + +Wind and lightning are both enemies of the forests. Hundreds of forest +fires are set every summer by thunder storms, but the rangers usually +discover such fires soon enough to put them out before they have done +much harm. + +The pasturing of forests by stock does great injury, because of the +browsing and trampling underfoot of the young trees. Sheep and goats are +the worst of all the animals and should be kept out of those forests +where the surface particularly needs protection and where the young +trees require all the encouragement that Nature can give them in order +to make a successful start in life. + +We have learned something about the many enemies of the trees, but the +worst one has not yet been mentioned. Can you guess what it is? This +terrible enemy is man,--not savage man or Indian, but civilized man. +Although man has more need for forest trees than has any other animal, +he is at the same time more ruthless in his treatment of them. Man +destroys more trees every year, as a result of fires which he sets and +of his wasteful methods of lumbering, than all the other enemies of the +trees put together. + +The forest area of the world is constantly growing smaller, and we must +soon learn to treat the trees with more care or they may, like many of +the wild creatures, nearly disappear from parts of the earth where they +are most needed. + + + + +CHAPTER SEVENTEEN + +HOW THE FORESTS ARE WASTED + + O forest home in which the songbirds dwell! + The squirrel and the stag shall miss the spell + Of thy cool depths when summer's sun assails, + Nor more find shelter in thy shadowed vales. + + * * * * * + + All will be silent; echo will be dead; + A field will lie where shifting shadows fled + Across the ground. The mattock and the plow + Will take the place of Pan and Satyr now. + The timid deer, the spotted fawns at play, + From thy retreats will all be driven away. + + Farewell, old forest; sacred crowns, farewell! + Revered in letters and in art as well; + Thy place becomes the scorn of every one, + Doomed now to burn beneath the summer sun. + All cry out insults as they pass thee by, + Upon the men who caused thee thus to die! + + Farewell, old oaks that once were wont to crown + Our deeds of valor and of great renown! + O trees of Jupiter, Dordona's grove, + How ingrate man repays thy treasure trove + That first gave food that humankind might eat, + And furnished shelter from the storm and heat. + +PIERRE DE RONSARD, translated by BRISTOW ADAMS; _American Forestry_, +XVI. 244 + + +When our grandfathers came to America they found the country so covered +with forests that they had to cut and burn the trees in order to obtain +the ground on which to raise their crops. The Eastern states could not +have been settled without clearing the land, and we cannot blame the +pioneers for doing under those circumstances that which today would be +very wrong. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + The farmer wastes the trees by girdling them and then allowing them to + rot.] + +There is now enough land so that it is no longer necessary to destroy +the trees in order to raise our food supplies. The forests constitute +one of the great natural resources of our country and men should not be +allowed to waste them for private gain. + +Although the need for more land has long passed, the habit of reckless +tree cutting still continues. There are now parts of the East where none +of the primeval forest remains and very little of the second growth. +Firewood is expensive and many a farmer has to buy coal, who, if he and +his ancestors had been careful, might have a woodlot to supply not only +fuel, but lumber for his buildings. + +Many of the lands once cleared were found not suited to farming and have +been left to grow up to brush. If the farmer were wise he would replant +some of these lands with such trees as spruce, hickory, walnut, or +maple. Although his ancestors toiled early and late to get these trees +out of the way, a few acres of them now would be a fortune. + +There are parts of our country, particularly in the South and West, +where the settlers are still cutting the trees to get them out of their +way. In distant mountain valleys where there is no market for lumber, +men are chopping down the great pines. They would make fine lumber, for +they are tall and straight, but instead of being put to some useful end +their fate is the bonfire. It makes no difference to these men that they +are wasting what it has taken Nature hundreds of years to produce nor +that in other parts of the country timber is scarce and expensive. + +In Germany and Switzerland the forest resources are carefully looked +after. As fast as the grown trees are cut from a field, young trees are +planted in their places. The keeping of a certain part of the land in +forest is held to be of advantage to all the people. For this reason men +are not allowed to cut trees upon their own land without permission from +the forest officer. + +Many years ago, when lumbering became an important industry and the +mills began to turn out immense quantities of boards and beams of every +sort needed by the growing population of our new country, it was +believed that the supply would never be used up. Only the best and +clearest logs were sawed into lumber, and a large part of each tree was +left on the ground to rot or to feed the first fire that occurred. Now +lumber is scarce and expensive; and the poorer grades also are in much +demand. + +Have you ever seen the giant sugar pines on the slopes of the Western +mountains? Next to the sequoias they are the largest of our American +trees. A single tree has furnished lumber enough for a house. Sugar +pine has now become so valuable that it is used only for such purposes +as window sash, doors, and similar articles. We have taken no care of +these wonderful trees until recently, but have allowed them to be cut +and wasted in the most reckless fashion. + +If you could go through the sugar-pine forests, you would find hundreds +and even thousands of these mighty trees lying on the ground rotting. +This is the work of the shake or shingle maker. He has been as +thoughtless in his cutting of these giants which have been hundreds of +years growing as is the farmer of the stalks of grain that springs up +and ripens its seed in one season. The shingle maker must have material +which splits well. He hunts for the straightest and cleanest trees. At +most he does not use over fifty feet of the trunk, and if the tree does +not split to suit him, then all, or nearly all, of the tree is left to +rot. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + In turning this giant sequoia into lumber more than half the tree is + wasted.] + +The waste of the lumberman is not so great, but it is enough to open our +eyes to one of the reasons for the rapid disappearance of our forests. +On the average only about one third of the wood of every tree cut is +actually used. The rest is lost in the logging operations and during the +various processes through which it passes before it reaches our hands. + +In addition to the waste of the trees actually cut, there is the loss of +the young trees due to careless logging. Too often the lumbermen do not +care in what condition the logs leave the forest. They want only the +trees now fit for lumber, and they want to get them in the easiest way +possible. + +Instead of going through the forest and picking out only the ripe or +mature trees and leaving the rest for a later cutting, the lumbermen +usually take everything that has any present worth. Trees that are less +valuable for lumber, such as the firs, are used for skidways and +bridges, and when no longer needed for these purposes are left on the +ground. No care is taken to see that the great trees fall with the least +possible damage to the young growth. Upon the preservation of the young +trees, which almost everywhere occupy the open spaces between the large +ones, rests our hope of a future forest. + +When the work of lumbering in any particular region is finished, the +sight is such as must make Nature weep, for it almost brings tears to +our eyes. The young trees are broken and crushed to the ground, branches +and fragments of the trunks lie scattered about, while above the ruin +rise those trees not considered worth cutting. The once beautiful and +majestic forest is now ready for fire. Some passer-by may drop a +lighted match or cigarette, and you can easily form a picture in your +mind of what happens. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + The shake maker wastes the larger part of a great sugar pine that has + been a thousand years in growing.] + +In the countries of Europe lumbermen are very careful; not a particle of +the cut tree goes to waste. The logs are sawed without removing what we +call "slabs." The sawdust is saved and used in the manufacture of wood +alcohol. If we saved all the present waste in the logging and milling of +our pines, we could make all the turpentine needed in our country. If we +saved what is now wasted of the poplar and spruce, we should have +material enough to make all the paper we use. + +There are still large and valuable forests in the Southern Appalachian +Mountains, in the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada-Cascade Range, and +the Coast Ranges. These regions were settled later than the Eastern +states, and parts of them are yet remote from markets. + +Our wise lumbermen are beginning to understand that it is better to cut +over the forest carefully, so that by and by there will be another crop. +Nature is doing all she can to keep up the supply of trees, and, if we +give her half a chance, there will be timber enough both for us and for +those that come after us. The forest crop is like any other crop, except +that it cannot be cut every year. + +Every one should understand that he has an interest in the forest. +Although he may not own a foot of land, yet his prosperity depends in +part on how the forests are managed. + +If the forests are not taken care of, there will sometime be a wood +famine. If the mountain slopes are stripped of their trees, the streams +will no longer run clear and the low streams in summer will lead to a +water famine, which in turn might easily cause a bread famine. + + + + +CHAPTER EIGHTEEN + +HOW THE FORESTS SUFFER FROM FIRES + + He who wantonly kills a tree, + All in a night of God-sent dream, + He shall travel a desert waste + Of pitiless glare, and never a stream, + Nor a blade of grass, nor an inch of shade-- + All in a wilderness he has made. + O, forlorn without trees! + + He who tenderly saves a tree, + All in a night of God-sent dream, + He shall list to a hermit thrush + Deep in the forest by mountain stream, + With friendly branches that lead and shade, + All in a woodland that he has made. + O, the peace of the trees! + + He who passionately loves a tree, + Growth and power shall understand; + Everywhere he shall find a friend. + Listen! They greet him from every land, + English Oak and the Ash and Thorn, + Silvery Olive, and Cypress tall, + Spreading Willow, and gnarled old Pine, + Flowering branches by orchard wall-- + Sunshine, shadow, and sweetness of glade-- + All in a Paradise he has made. + O, the joy of the trees! + +_The Dryad's Message_ + + +Have you ever seen a forest fire? It is a terrible sight to see the +flames sweep up a mountain side. They run along the ground licking up +the leaves and dead branches. They leap from tree to tree, and then with +a roar the sheet of flame goes to the top of a tall pine. The air is +like the breath from an oven and is filled with sparks and with +suffocating smoke. The birds and animals flee away in every direction. + + [Illustration: _American Forestry Association_ + The forest fire sweeps everything in its path.] + +It is no wonder that those whose homes are in the forest gather quickly +to fight the fire, for if they cannot control it, they may lose +everything that they possess. If there is a wind blowing, the fire will +probably sweep over many miles of country. At night, though, when the +air becomes cooler and more quiet, the men can get the advantage of it. + +You can understand, of course, that it is impossible to use water +against such a fire, for water is not to be had throughout most parts of +the forests. Instead of using water, the men fight fire with fire. +Taking shovels, hoes, and rakes to a suitable place some distance ahead +of the fire, they rake away the dead litter on the ground, making a +broad, clean path through the forest. Then they set "back-fires" along +that side of this clean path which lies toward the coming fire. These +back-fires burn slowly toward the main fire, and when they meet both +must die out for lack of fuel. + +For many years forest fires have caused as much damage as the lumbermen; +but now most of the forests are patrolled by rangers during the summer, +and there are fewer serious fires. + +How do the fires start in the forest? It is supposed that long ago the +Indians set many fires to keep the woods open for their hunting. +Lightning has always been a frequent cause of forest fires. As many as a +dozen fires are known to have started during a single thunderstorm. But +such fires are not as serious as they once were, because the rangers are +on the watch for them and put them out before they get well started. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + Fires destroyed the forest that once covered this region and its place + is now mostly occupied by small bushes.] + +Aside from those due to lightning, most forest fires are now either set +purposely or come from engine sparks or from somebody's carelessness. +Many fires are set purposely by stockmen who think by this means to +clear away the brush and thus obtain better feed for their cattle and +sheep. These men often care nothing for the forests or for the +preservation of the summer water flow. They would, indeed, be pleased to +see all the forests burned away if by that means they could increase +their feed. If you could travel through some of the mountainous portions +of the Southwest, you would see how much harm has been done in this way +to the trees, the streams, and the soil. + +It is a hot summer day and two men are riding along a mountain road. One +of them thoughtlessly throws away a lighted cigarette, which falls upon +some dry pine needles. In a few moments the pine needles are ablaze. The +fire spreads with incredible rapidity and a great column of smoke rises +above the treetops. Before any one can reach it, the fire is sweeping up +the mountain side, and it may not be stopped before it has destroyed +thousands of acres of valuable timber. All this terrible loss is due to +one careless man who, in the first place, should not have been smoking +cigarettes, and in the second place should have known better than to +throw a spark into the forest powder magazine. + +Some campers, enjoying the summer in the mountains, go away leaving +their fire burning. By and by a stick burns outward until the fire +reaches the leaves, or a gust of wind comes along and carries a spark to +them. In the hot sun the leaves and needles are almost as easy to ignite +as powder, and in a few moments another fire is making headway into the +surrounding forest. + +A farmer clearing land thinks he can get rid of the brush and young +trees more easily by burning. But the undergrowth is drier than he +thought, and, the wind coming up unexpectedly, the fire is soon beyond +his control. It may destroy his own fences and buildings and, sweeping +on, ruin those of his neighbors also. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + The dead stubs of a once beautiful forest.] + +Few people have perished from fires in the West, for there the forest +regions are generally thinly inhabited, but in some of the Eastern and +Northern states there have been terrible fires that have destroyed whole +villages together with their inhabitants. + +In many mountain regions of our country there are large areas now +covered with useless brush where there were once valuable forests. In +regions where the lumbermen have not utterly destroyed the forests, but +have left some seed trees, the forests will come back again, but in +these large burned areas conditions are not favorable. The destruction +of the humus as well as the trees has been so complete that the seeding +of a new forest is slow work. It may be hundreds of years before the +trees will spread over and again take possession of the waste land. + +A single fire often destroys more timber than would be destroyed by a +whole camp of loggers working for years. In the Northwest there are many +sad and desolate pictures of the destruction caused by forest fires. We +may travel for miles through forests of tall, dead stubs, the remains of +once noble trees. Where they have fallen the trunks lie piled many feet +high and trails had to be cut through an almost solid mass of timber. + +Here is wood enough to supply thousands of people with pleasant winter +fires. But there are, alas, no people living near these vast woodpiles +and often no road to them. The logs must lie there and rot. + +Now let us see if we can state the chief reasons why we should be +exceedingly careful about setting fires in the woods: + +1. Fires destroy an enormous amount of valuable timber every year. + +2. Between fires and lumbermen our forests are disappearing faster than +they are growing. + +3. Fires destroy the young trees, and if they happen often enough will +keep them from growing up to replace the mature trees. + +4. Fires do not permanently help the cattle ranges, but injure them by +burning the humus and grass seeds. + +5. Fires leave the ground bare, so that it will dry out quickly. + +6. Fires leave the soil unprotected, so that it will wash away quickly. + +7. Fires destroy property and endanger lives. + + + + +CHAPTER NINETEEN + +EVILS THAT FOLLOW THE DESTRUCTION OF THE FORESTS + + +We have already learned something about the poverty of the people in +those lands where the forests have been destroyed. This poverty is due +not so much to lack of wood for fuel and other purposes, but to a whole +series of troubles which the removal of the forests has brought upon +them. + +The burning of the humus, when a fire sweeps the forest, is the next +greatest loss to that of the timber itself. Where there has been no +fire, the ground under the trees is covered with decaying leaves and +stems which are slowly mixing with the soil and becoming a part of it. +The more there is of this humus in the soil, the more thriftily plants +will grow. + +Many people purposely burn over their pasture lands in the fall, +believing that this will make the grass better the following year. They +should know that every time this is done the soil is made poorer, and +that it kills the seeds lying on the ground ready to sprout when the +warm spring days come. Instead of a better pasture there is more likely +to be a crop of almost worthless weeds. The ground is full of worthless +seeds which are always ready to take the place of the grasses when they +have a chance. + +Before the fire came, the roots of trees, bushes, and grasses kept the +earth from washing; and the humus helped to hold the rainwater from +running away rapidly, so that more of it had time to soak into the +ground. How well this is shown on yonder hills which were once covered +with brush. A fire swept over these hills and burned every living thing. +What a barren appearance they presented after the heavy winter storms! +The slopes were completely covered with little furrows and gullies where +the rainwater had done its work. It will be a long time before +vegetation will again gain a foothold there and stop the washing of the +earth. + +When a fire occurs in the dense forests of the Cascade Range, all the +trees are killed and the thick layer of decaying vegetation underneath +is burned. The spruce, which is one of the most important lumber trees +of this region, does not at once spring up again. Its seeds may be +scattered there, but the soil is not now in a condition to nourish them. +In its place springs up the tamarack pine, which, because it can grow in +poor soil, has the whole burned area to itself. + +If we should return to the same place perhaps one hundred years after +the fire, we should find that the tamarack pines had formed a thick +forest. The lumbermen have little use for the tamarack and so have +passed it by. In looking carefully through the tamarack forest, we find +that other trees are now springing up. They are already struggling for +the food, the moisture, and the sunlight which the tamaracks are making +use of. + +During the many years that have passed since the fire swept this region, +decaying vegetation has been slowly accumulating and forming humus +again. Now at last the seeds of the spruce find the soil rich enough +again to sprout and grow. Here and there are thrifty young trees which +will in a few years grow up and choke out the tamarack. Thus the +tamarack, though of so little value itself, has done a great work in +preparing the soil for a new growth of the valuable spruce. + +Upon the drier slopes of the Western mountains shrubs, such as the +manzanita and chaparral, spring up and cover the surface after a forest +fire. Nature does not seem to want the surface left bare and usually has +something at hand, even though it be nothing better than brush, with +which to clothe it again. As the years pass humus begins to collect upon +the ground and finally restores it to much the same condition it had +before the fire. Now, if by any means seeds can reach such places, +scattering trees will first spring up in favored spots and, after a +time, the trees will become thick enough and large enough to shade the +ground and the brush will be killed out. + + [Illustration: _American Forestry_ + The work of the water where the forest has been cut away.] + +The cutting of the forests, especially from the steeper mountain slopes, +has in many parts of the world changed water, one of Nature's most +valuable gifts, into an agent of destruction. Throughout the Eastern and +Southern states the floods are higher in spring and lower in summer than +they used to be, because of the removal of so large a part of the +forests that once covered this whole region. + +In the West it is even more necessary that the forest cover be disturbed +as little as possible. One reason is that the greater part of the +forests are found upon the lofty mountains in which the streams rise. If +we deforest these steep slopes, water is going to injure them much more +than it would the gentler slopes of the lower lands, if they had been +deforested. Another reason is that since little rain falls in the summer +in this region, we must do nothing to lessen the summer flow of the +streams, which is so much needed for irrigation. + + [Illustration: _American Forestry Association_ + This beautiful valley in the Southern Appalachian Mountains has been + ruined by the floods due to cutting off of the forests upon the + headwaters of the river.] + +The more water that can be held back in the mountains of the West for +summer use, the more prosperous the farmers are. There is nothing that +helps to hold the water better than the forests. They help to equalize +the flow of the streams so that the floods are not so high in the spring +nor the water so low in the summer as they would be if there were no +forests. + +One of the first questions asked by a man who is thinking of buying a +farm is about the water supply. He wants to know whether there are +wells, springs, or living streams on the place. Almost everything +depends upon the water supply. If there is an abundance, the farmer is +likely to be prosperous. When he is prosperous all the rest of us are +prosperous, no matter what our business is. + +Are you not ready now to say that the Swiss are right in not permitting +tree cutting upon any land except under the supervision of a forester? +The careless removal of the forests from the mountain slopes may affect +the farmer in the valley fifty miles away. Do you not think that this +farmer is very much interested in the management of the forest, although +he does not own a foot of it? + +Trouble always follows the destruction of the forests on the headwaters +of the streams. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY + +HOW OUR GOVERNMENT IS HELPING TO SAVE THE FORESTS + + As long as the forest shall live, + The streams shall flow onward, still singing + Sweet songs of the woodland, and bringing + The bright, living waters that give + New life to all mortals who thirst. + But the races of men shall be cursed. + + Yea, the hour of destruction shall come + To the children of men in that day + When the forest shall pass away; + When the low woodland voices are dumb; + And death's devastation and dearth + Shall be spread o'er the face of the earth. + + Avenging the death of the wood, + The turbulent streams shall outpour + Their vials of wrath, and no more + Shall their banks hold back the high flood, + Which shall rush o'er the harvests of men; + As swiftly receding again. + + Lo! after the flood shall be dearth, + And the rain no longer shall fall + On the parching fields; and a pall, + As of ashes, shall cover the earth; + And dust-clouds shall darken the sky; + And the deep water wells shall be dry. + + And the rivers shall sink in the ground, + And every man cover his mouth + From the thickening dust, in that drouth; + Fierce famine shall come; and no sound + Shall be borne on the desolate air. + But a murmur of death and despair. + +ALEXANDER BLAIR THAW, _The Passing of the Forest_; in _Century +Magazine_, June, 1907 + + +For many years it was thought the forests were inexhaustible and needed +no special care. The national government encouraged people to acquire +forest land and practically gave away 160 acres to every one who would +build a cabin upon the land and live there for a short time. + +Suddenly some of the wise people among us awoke to a realization of what +was going on. They discovered that the forests were going very fast and +that soon we should have none if something were not done. Between the +fires that swept them every year and the wasteful lumbering, the forests +were in a fair way to leave us as they had the wasteful and careless +peoples of other parts of the world. + +How fortunate it is that some of us did look ahead before it was too +late; for, although the Eastern forests have largely disappeared, there +still remain millions of acres of government-owned forests in the West. +These forests have now been withdrawn from sale and are to be held for +the use and benefit of all. They are not to be permitted to pass into +the hands of a few, to be cut and sold for private gain. + +Our government is acting like a wise father who is interested in the +welfare of his children, and who understands the need of taking care of +their treasures until they are wise enough to manage them for +themselves. + +We are all concerned in many ways in the welfare of the forests. Whether +we own any forest land or not, we are affected by the way in which the +trees are managed. Because we are all dependent more or less upon the +forests, they should be regarded as the property of us all, just as the +air and water are. But because some of us do not yet know how, or do not +care, to protect them, it is best that the government should do so for +us. + + [Illustration: _American Forestry Association_ + These men are replanting a mountain slope from which fire once swept the + forest.] + +It may be that you live in a brick, or stone house and burn coal in your +stoves. You think that it makes no difference to you whether or not +there are any forests. But stop and think a moment. Are you sure that +you are really independent of them? How many things do you use every day +that are made of wood? The list is surely a long one. If wood is rare +and expensive, the articles which are made of it add to your cost of +living and allow you less money for other things. + +Let us suppose for a moment that you have no use for wood in any form. +Will this take away all interest that you may have in the forests? In +any event you are dependent upon the fertility of your fields for the +food that you require. Now, if there is a lumber company stripping the +mountains at the head of the river upon which your home is situated, and +as a result of clearing the timber from the slopes the floods become +worse, your garden is buried beneath gravel and sand, and your orchard +washed away, will you not think it _does_ make a difference to you in +what way the forests are treated? + +The timbered lands which the government is holding and caring for are +known as National Forests. About two thirds of the forests yet remaining +in the West are included in them. These lands are mostly mountainous and +not suited to agriculture. + +In the East the government has no lands except those which it buys. +Because of the great damage which is being done to the streams and +valleys of the Appalachian Mountains by careless lumbering, a great +tract of land is being acquired by purchase. This is called the +Appalachian Forest. The timber in this region will be carefully cut and +those areas from which it has been stripped will be replanted. + +In the White Mountains of New Hampshire, with Mt. Washington as the +center, is a remnant of a once beautiful forest, which has been acquired +by the government. This is known as the White Mountain Forest. It will +be enlarged as the years pass and carefully guarded. It will serve for +all time as a beautiful pleasure and camping ground. + +It is not the government's plan that the National Forests shall remain +unused, but they are to be used wisely, so as to be of the greatest +permanent good to the greatest number of people. The men who have been +placed in charge of these lands are called "forest rangers," and their +duties are of many kinds. + +The rangers supervise the sale and cutting of the mature or ripe trees +as they are needed for lumber, mining timbers, or posts. They see that +the waste parts of the cut trees are piled so as to lessen the danger +from chance fires. + +During the long summers the forests become as dry as tinder and the loss +from fire amounts to millions of dollars every year. It is the chief +duty of the rangers at this time to patrol the roads and trails leading +through the forests and keep a sharp lookout for fires. + +Stations have been established upon high points from which there is a +view over a wide extent of country. In each of these stations there is a +man constantly on watch for columns of smoke which indicate the +beginning of a forest fire. When smoke is seen a message is telephoned +to the ranger station nearest the fire, and from this station men are +sent as quickly as possible with the object of putting out the fire +before it spreads beyond the power of control. The forests are now +watched so carefully that hundreds of fires are thus stopped before +there has been any serious loss of timber. + + +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | STOP | + | Forest Fires | + | | + | They are a Curse to the People | + | of Pennsylvania | + | | + | FOREST Existing Forests | + | FIRES Possibility of Future Forests | + | DESTROY Possibility of Labor | + | Beauty of a Region | + | Comfort | + | Homes | + | Lives | + | Prosperity | + | | + | Protected Forests Increase in Value | + | | + | They Furnish Labor, Promote Industry, Afford Recreation and | + | Sport, Make a Region Beautiful, Make Home Safe and Comfortable, | + | Make Life Worth Living, and a Prosperous State | + | Inhabited by a Contented and Industrious People. | + | | + | Which Would You Rather Have | + | | + | FOREST FIRES } { GREEN FORESTS | + | FLOODS } { PURE WATER | + | DISEASE } OR { HEALTH | + | DESTRUCTION } { THRIVING INDUSTRIES | + | DEVASTATION } { PROSPERITY | + | | + | For Information Respecting Pennsylvania Forests and | + | Tree Planting, write to | + | | + | COMMISSIONER OF FORESTRY, | + | | + | Harrisburg, Pennsylvania | + +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ + + [Illustration: This large poster, printed on sheets 14 by 22 inches, + has been of excellent service in Pennsylvania.] + + [Illustration: _American Forestry_ + The seed trees left by the lumberman are giving rise to a new forest.] + +In convenient places the rangers store boxes of tools, which include +axes, picks, shovels, and rakes to be used in fighting any near-by fire. +They also have at hand provisions and camp outfits, so as to be able to +live anywhere in the woods. + +In some parts where there is a great deal of small timber and brush, +"fire lines" are cut along the ridges where it is easiest to stop a +fire, should one occur. Our forests are so vast that it is not possible +to remove the dead wood as is done in Europe and thus lessen the danger +of fire. + +The forest rangers also wage a warfare against insect pests. In regions +where the bark beetles carry on their destructive work among the pines, +the rangers sometimes cut down and burn thousands of trees. Another duty +of the rangers is that of replanting burned or logged-off areas. In this +way many thousands of acres which would otherwise remain waste land for +years, not being suitable for agriculture, are made in a short time to +produce a new forest. + +A limited number of cattle and sheep are allowed in those forests which +can be pastured without doing injury to the young trees or affecting the +flow of the streams. The rangers have charge of this work and collect +the rent. A part of the money derived from the sale of timber and for +pasturage rights is expended in the improvement of the roads and trails +in the forests and in making the forests more safe from fire. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + A beautiful grassy meadow in the Sierra Nevada Mountains.] + +The National Forests are open to all for pleasure and recreation, but +under strict regulations about the cutting of trees and the care of camp +fires. Violators of these rules are severely punished. Visitors to the +forests are expected to take care in the selection of places for their +camp fires so that there will be no danger of the fire spreading. When +the camp is left, the fire must be put out with water or covered with +earth. + +Many states have forest services of their own, and some have +conservation commissions. It is the business of these organizations to +look after various natural resources, including the forests, water, +soil, minerals, and wild game. All forest rangers as well as state fire +wardens are authorized to aid in the enforcement of the game laws. + +We should assist the foresters and wardens in every way possible. Most +of these men love the woods, the birds, and the animals. They are doing +their best to protect the forest and its wild life for the good and +happiness of us all. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE + +OUR FOREST PLAYGROUNDS + + What does he plant who plants a tree? + He plants the friend of sun and sky; + He plants the flag of breezes free; + The shaft of beauty, towering high; + He plants a home to heaven anigh + For song and mother-croon of bird + In hushed and happy twilight heard-- + The treble of heaven's harmony-- + These things he plants who plants a tree. + + What does he plant who plants a tree? + He plants cool shade and tender rain, + And seed and bud of days to be, + And years that fade and flush again; + He plants the glory of the plain; + He plants the forest's heritage; + The harvest of a coming age; + The joy that unborn eyes shall see-- + These things he plants who plants a tree. + + What does he plant who plants a tree? + He plants, in sap and leaf and wood, + In love of home and loyalty + And far-cast thought of civic good-- + His blessing on the neighborhood + Who in the hollow of His hand + Holds all the growth of all our land-- + A nation's growth from sea to sea + Stirs in his heart who plants a tree. + +H. C. BUNNER, _The Heart of the Tree_; in _Century Magazine_, April, 1893 + + +Our National Parks and Forests form the grandest summer playgrounds that +any people have ever had. The National Forests, we have learned, were +set aside for the direct purpose of preserving the timber supply and +regulating the flow of the mountain streams. The National Parks were +created for the purpose of preserving for all time the most beautiful +and attractive scenic features of our country. Among the most important +of these are the Yellowstone, Grand Canon, Yosemite, Rainier, and Crater +Lake parks. They include many thousands of square miles of forested +mountains, cliffs, lakes, waterfalls, and rivers, which are open to all +of us with no restrictions except that we do not injure them. + +How delightful it is to have these wild and picturesque parts of our +country left unspoiled and just as Nature made them, and to be able to +wander through them at will! In the parks we can become acquainted with +the flowers, trees, birds, and animals as they were before the country +was discovered and settled by white men. Here the wild creatures are +protected from the hunters. The deer no longer fear the sight of men, +and the mother grouse can raise her brood in safety from them. + +When summer comes we feel a strange and mysterious longing to get out of +doors and live in the forests with the wild creatures. The parks offer +just the opportunity to satisfy this longing, for in them we can get +away from the worries and perplexities of our everyday life. + +We feel the "call of the wild," perhaps, because long ago our savage +ancestors dwelt in the forests among the hills. They were a part of +Nature and lived much as the animals do in caves in the hillsides, or in +homes of the rudest sort made of the bark of trees or the skins of +animals. + +Our ancestors spent nearly all of their time out of doors in the pure, +fresh air. Their eyes and ears were trained to every sign of the forest, +for upon the sharpness of their senses their very lives depended. + + [Illustration: _George J. Young_ + A forest playground on Virginia Creek in the Yosemite country, + California, in one of Uncle Sam's forest reserves.] + +We have lived in houses so long, where the air is often close and impure +and where we have no need of sharp senses for protection, that we have +lost some of the strength and sturdy self-reliance of our wild +ancestors. + +We have become partly dulled to the beauty out of doors, because we have +been so constantly employed by the business of making a living. But the +forest playgrounds are calling us to return for a little time each year +to the wilds that were once our home, and to renew our acquaintance with +the trees, the streams and the rocks, and with the wild creatures that +live among them. To be able to make our beds on the leaves under the +trees, and to build a fire of sticks and cook our own food, seems quite +natural and like old and familiar times. + +The stories and legends that have come down to us about the forests and +the imaginary people who lived in them were believed to be true by the +people of long ago. The deep, dark woods once covered nearly all Europe +where our ancestors lived. To be lost in the woods was to be in danger +of meeting the strange and mysterious people who were thought to live in +their depths. Among these beings, some of whom were good and others bad, +were fairies, nymphs, gnomes, and ogres. When people ceased to believe +so much in these stories, they began to lose their fear of the woods. +Among some of these people there grew up a love and fascination for the +trees which they believed were the dwelling places of spirits or +divinities. + +If in our great forest playgrounds we can lead this out-of-door life for +a few weeks each year, it will make us healthier, stronger, and happier. +We no longer fear any mysterious creatures in the woods or the forces of +Nature as shown in the lightning, the winds, and the waterfalls; but +year by year we are finding more to love and admire in the wild scenery +of the woods and mountains and in their animal and plant inhabitants. + +The wild woods call many of us on jaunts and picnics when, if it were +not for them, we should stay at home shut up in stuffy rooms. In time +may not the love of the forest wilds come back to us all? May not the +time come when each one of us shall be able to look at a beautiful tree +and not think only of how much lumber it would make? May not the time +come when we may hear the grouse drumming its call and not feel the +desire to kill and eat it? + +If the time does come in which we think as much of our beautiful +mountains as the people of Europe do of the Alps, we shall then guard +them with far more jealous care than we do today. In spite of the fact +that the Alps are wet and cold and that no one thinks of sleeping out of +doors there, yet the people of Europe love their mountains almost +passionately. + +Our mountains are much more attractive summer playgrounds than the Alps. +We can wander at will over a far greater number of untrodden ways than +Europeans can in the Alps. We can make our beds under the trees with +rarely a thought of the weather. The air is always balmy and the skies +are almost always blue. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO + +WHAT IS HAPPENING TO THE WILD FLOWERS + + +How eagerly we have looked forward to the coming of spring, and now it +is here! The sun is shining brighter and warmer each day. The birds are +returning from their winter home in the South. The buds on the trees are +swelling and, in the warm nooks, some of the wild flowers have already +opened their delicate petals. Who will find the first _spring beauty_ in +the Eastern woods? Who will find the first of the _purple trilliums_ +that open their dark flowers in the shady groves, or the _golden +poppies_ on the warm hillsides of the West? + +The spring air affects us as it does the plants and wild creatures. We +long to get away from school, and taking our lunches, to spend the +delightful days wandering through the fields and woods. There is no +place like the open country when all Nature is waking. We feel like +running and frisking as the young lambs do. + +Can it be wrong to gather all that we wish of the beautiful flowers with +which the earth is carpeted? Has not Nature grown them in her great +garden in such abundance that all we pick will make no difference to +her? Let us go with the children on their rambles after flowers and +learn if Nature does take any account of their innocent raids on her +treasures. + +Here is a party of children chasing across the fields. Each one is +searching for the flowers that have bloomed since last they were out, +and each is trying to get more than his companions. The children have +learned that some kinds of flowers grow in the woods, others in the +marshy places, and still others on the dry hillsides. They know where +to go for each kind, and not a spot escapes their sharp search. + +Here they find a patch of violets, and all are quickly picked. There are +some baby-blue-eyes, and yonder dry field is brilliant with the colors +of many others. In the gathering of the flowers some of them are pulled +up by the roots, but the children do not think of the harm this does. +They wander on and on until many have more in their hands than they can +carry. Some of those picked first are already wilted, and, to make their +burdens lighter, the children throw these away. At last a tired but +happy band turns toward home. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + The wild oxalis loves the moist, shady places.] + +What will be done with all the flowers that have been picked? In each +home the vases are filled and the tables decorated. There is no room for +all of them and some are thrown out. These flowers, once so fresh and +bright as they nodded in the breeze, now lie crushed and wilted on the +ground. + +Another spring returns and the children are out again looking in the +familiar places for the flowers they know so well. But there seems to be +something wrong, for there are not so many as there used to be. The +children have to go farther and search more carefully to get their arms +full. + +Still a third spring comes and the children are just as ready for the +happy excursions and just as anxious to get the flowers. They hunt the +fields over, but in the places where the flowers used to be so thick +there are only a few scattering ones. They cannot understand what is +wrong, but Nature could tell them if they would ask her. The year before +she was short of seed, but this year it is much worse, for she had +hardly any to plant in her garden. She is short of bulbs also, and of +many other plants that grow from year to year, for the children +carelessly pulled these up. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + Wild asters cover the mountain meadows.] + +The children do not want to go home with only a few flowers, and so they +wander farther into the country than they have ever been before. Here +they find them as abundant as they used to be near home. + +The children do not stop to think that at the base of the bright, +fragrant blossoms grow the seed that will make the flowers of the next +year. Nature can spare the seed of a part of the blossoms, for she grows +many more than she needs; but if we pick them all, what can she do for +the coming year? + +The wild flowers are living things struggling for a place in the world, +just as are the animals and birds. We cannot abuse and destroy too many +of them if we would have them stay and add to the beauty of our homes. +Should we not take just as much pleasure in gathering the flowers if we +did not bring home more than we needed? Would it not be better to be +satisfied with smaller bouquets and leave enough in the fields to go to +seed and gladden us next year? + +The reckless gathering of wild flowers has gone on so long and they have +been picked so closely about many of our towns and cities, that they are +disappearing. When there are no longer wild flowers within reach of the +children who live in the cities, they will have lost a great joy out of +their lives. + +There are besides the flowers of which we have been speaking other low +plants of beautiful foliage with which we love to decorate our homes. We +must take care that these are not gathered too closely or they also will +become scarce. We cannot go out into the woods and pull up ferns by the +roots year after year and expect Nature to keep up the supply. + +The huckleberry is one of the many beautiful shrubs which we admire +for its delicate leaves and colors. It is cut and brought in from the +country in huge bundles to supply the florists. The time will come when +these decorations can no longer be had if the men are allowed to cut all +they can find. Just as in the case of the flowers, seekers for them will +be obliged to go farther each year and by and by the shrubs will be so +scarce and high priced that we shall be obliged to do without them. + + [Illustration: _Pillsbury's Pictures, Inc._ + Nature has grown flowers in abundance, but we should not pick or destroy + too many of them.] + +We hunt far and wide for the beautiful "holly berries" with which to +decorate our homes at Christmas. When we have found a berry-laden bush, +we eagerly break off the branches and bear them home in triumph. The +bush, once so gay with berries, is a sad-looking thing when we are +through with it. The branches are broken so far back that next year it +will bear few berries and we shall have to seek another. + +We treat the beautiful earth on which we have been placed in a most +thoughtless manner. We think only of what we want _now_, and forget that +another year is coming in which also we shall want some of the earth's +treasures. If we take only the surplus which each year produces, there +will always be enough for us and for the people who live after us. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE + +NATURE'S PENALTY FOR INTERFERING WITH HER ARRANGEMENTS + + +Nature seems very prodigal in her ways. She is continually creating on +the earth a great multitude of living things, far more than there is +room for. Each one of these, if it would live, must have a certain +amount of air, sunshine, and food. As there is not enough of these +things to supply every one, there arises a struggle. Those that are +weakest die, because they are not able to get what they need. To us this +seems hard, but it is Nature's way. + +And further, since many of the animals feed on the flesh of other +animals, the latter have, in addition to the struggle for their food, to +watch constantly for their lives. Every organism is in one sense the +enemy of every other one. We do not mean that they often try to kill +each other because of hate, as men do, but that they are after food to +satisfy their hunger. Some of the higher animals as well as men fight +for mastery, in addition to struggling for food. We hope that among men +the unnecessary fighting will sometime cease, and that kindness and +unselfishness will rule. + +The struggle for life is ceaselessly going on around us, but so quiet is +it that we are not often aware of the countless tragedies that take +place. This struggle extends from the plants and animals in the pond, so +small that we cannot see them with the unaided eye, upward through all +the larger animals. + +The struggle among all living things helps us to understand the +necessity for Nature's prodigality. If the plants and animals that serve +as food for others were not produced in great numbers, they would soon +become extinct. It is seldom that any one kind of plant or animal, +because of its many enemies, has an opportunity to spread and obtain +more than its share of food and sunshine. According to Nature's +arrangements, each organism does its share in keeping down the numbers +of the others. This we call the "balance of Nature." + +Sometimes the balance of Nature is disturbed and one particular kind of +animal gets the start of its enemies and increases until it becomes a +_plague_. This may be caused by a favorable season or by the decrease of +its enemies on account of disease among them. We have read of the +plagues of grasshoppers which have sometimes visited the Western states +and eaten up every green thing. Plagues of rats and field mice have been +known to do a great deal of damage. In such cases their natural enemies, +the hawks, owls, and coyotes, may be attracted to the region from far +around, because of the extra food supply. After a time they may succeed +in reducing the numbers of these pests. + +This balance among the animals, which comes from one living upon +another, is a strange and wonderful thing. No one kind can long overrun +its fellows. If one does get a start and increases until it becomes a +pest or plague, some enemy is sure sooner or later to spring up to +destroy it. We use this method in fighting some of the insect pests +which are injuring our trees. Men have searched in various parts of the +world from which such pests as the gypsy moth and the San Jose scale +have come to find some of their enemies and bring them to this country +to feed on these insects. + +When men came upon the earth, they soon began to upset Nature's +arrangements, and from that time until now matters of this kind have +been growing worse. We have killed large numbers of the beneficial +animals and birds that kept the harmful ones in check. We have carried +others from the homes given them by Nature, where they were doing little +harm, to new homes where they have become terrible plagues. + +The killing of large numbers of hawks and owls, all the species of which +many people have wrongfully thought to be harmful, has been followed by +a great increase in the numbers of rats and mice. We have killed off +most of the coyotes, the chief food of which was rabbits and ground +squirrels. The two latter animals have now become a serious pest. They +do enormous damage to the crops, and we spend thousands of dollars +fighting them. + +The common rabbit has in most parts of its native country so many +enemies which are always on the lookout for a good meal, that it cannot +increase enough to do much harm. Years ago a number of rabbits were +taken to Australia, where there were none. Here they found a favorable +climate and few enemies. They have now increased so that they overrun +much of the continent and are a terrible pest which the farmers are +unable to control. + +Some years ago the gypsy moth and the browntail moth were introduced by +accident into the New England states. Finding there a congenial climate +and few enemies, they increased rapidly. They soon began to strip the +leaves from the beautiful elms which make the streets and parks of this +region so attractive. Now these moths have turned their attention to the +white pine and are doing an ever-increasing amount of damage; and +although they are being fought by every means in our power, we are not +certain that we can ever control them. + +The codling moth, whose larva is the little apple worm, causes an +immense loss in our fruit orchards. The cotton-boll weevil, which +destroys so much of the cotton, is, like the codling moth, an insect +imported from another country. The San Jose scale reached California +from China and has now spread throughout our country. It has a special +fondness for the sap of fruit trees, and, being so small, was not +noticed until it had got beyond control. This scale causes more loss +than any other of the tree insects. + +The Hessian fly, introduced from Europe more than one hundred years ago, +causes during certain seasons a very great loss to the wheat crop. The +Argentine ant has been brought to us from South America and is proving a +most destructive pest. The Norway rat was brought to our country on +sailing vessels and causes more loss than most of us realize. The +English sparrow has spread over much of the country and is driving many +of the native birds from their homes, because of its quarrelsome +disposition. It makes itself a nuisance on all our city streets. + +The mongoose, in its home in India, is a great rat killer, but does not +there increase so as to do much harm. Wherever it has been carried for +the purpose of using it as a rat killer, this little four-footed animal +has become a terrible scourge. After it destroys the rats it goes after +the snakes. Then it attacks the other small animals and birds. Finally +it begins upon the chickens, and even the vegetables in the garden are +not safe from its voracious appetite. + +Men are now watching at every port to see that no more dangerous insects +and animals are brought into the country. They are particularly on the +watch for the Mediterranean fruit fly and for the mongoose. + +When we upset the balance of Nature, we start a whole chain of troubles. +What can we do to escape the consequences of our ignorance and +carelessness? In the first place we can protect the birds, for they eat +enormous quantities of the harmful insects. In the second place we can +see that no more of these dangerous pests are allowed to land on our +shores. In the third place we shall have to fight, by every means that +we can discover, those that are already here. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR + +WHAT SHALL WE DO WHEN THE COAL, OIL, AND GAS ARE GONE? + + +If coal, oil, and gas were suddenly taken away, all the nations would +become poor and many of their industries would cease. Just think for a +moment of the amount of work these things do for us and what an effort +there would be made to find something to take their place! + +Wood once formed the chief fuel. It was used only to cook our food or to +keep us warm. Now fuel is required for so many different purposes that +with the decrease of the forests wood has been found insufficient. + +Peat is one of those substances that has been used in parts of Europe to +take the place of wood, but it is used so little in our own country that +many have never seen it. + +Peat is dug from bogs or marshes. We might say that a peat marsh is the +beginning of a coal bed. Peat is the partly decayed vegetation which has +slowly accumulated in wet places. In the colder countries it is formed +largely of moss and similar water-loving plants, but where the climate +is warm other kinds of marsh vegetation, and even trees, aid in forming +peat. Sometimes floods bring earth and deposit it in the marshes, in +which case the peat is less suitable for fuel, but forms a rich and +productive soil instead. + +In many of the vast swamps of long ago, when there were no men nor even +the higher animals upon the earth, vegetation grew very rank. It is +believed that at that remote time the air contained more carbonic acid, +a substance which promotes the growth of plants. Thus the plants in the +warm, moist parts of the earth grew more densely and luxuriantly than +they usually do today. + +In the decay of this vegetation deposits similar to the peat marshes +were formed, but they differed in being much thicker and more extensive. +If the story of these ancient peat marshes had stopped here, we should +never have had any coal. Fortunately it did not, for some of the swamps +sank beneath the water of a lake or ocean and thick beds of gravel, +sand, or clay were deposited over them. While buried deep in the earth, +the decaying vegetation was heated and pressed together by the great +weight of the earth above, and was finally changed to shining, black +coal. + +After the coal was made, but before men came to the earth, parts of the +sea bottom with its buried treasures were raised to form hills and +mountains. Then the rainwater began its work upon the slopes, and after +a time washed away so much of the overlying material that the coal was +exposed at the surface. At last through some accident, such as lightning +perhaps, men learned that this black substance would burn. Coal was +little used, however, as long as there was an abundance of wood and the +needs of people were few. + +As manufacturing and the use of the steam engine increased, coal grew in +value. The business of mining coal finally became one of the great +industries. The mining operations were carried on as carelessly as +though the supply in the interior of the earth were inexhaustible. In +the underground working it is customary to leave about one quarter of +the coal in the form of pillars for the purpose of supporting the roof. +At a little more expense other materials could be substituted for these +pillars and all the coal could be taken out. + +In using the coal we waste about another quarter. Stoves and furnaces +are usually built so poorly that a large part of the value of the coal +escapes as gas and smoke. In large cities and manufacturing districts +the smoke becomes a great nuisance. In the making of coke from coal, +enormous quantities of coal tar and gas have been lost. Most engines +consume a far greater amount of coal than they should in doing a given +amount of work. Most of us do not know how to use coal economically in +our homes, and thus aid not only in wasting the coal supplies but in +making the cost of living higher than it should be. All together, in the +handling of coal we lose fully half of it. The coal supply of the earth +is disappearing very fast, and at the rate at which its use is now +increasing it may not last more than one hundred years. + +If we cannot use coal without wasting so much, would it not be wiser for +us to turn our attention more fully to the sources of power in the +streams which are flowing down all our mountain sides? The use of this +power when turned into electricity would enable us to save a large part +of the coal, oil, and gas that are now used, and so make them last +longer. + +It is far easier to waste oil and gas than coal, for, when we have +drilled holes in the earth, unless we are very careful the gas will +escape into the air and the oil will become mixed with water, so that it +will be difficult for us to get it. + +Oil and gas are confined under great pressure hundreds and often +thousands of feet below the surface. To make clear how easy it is to +waste them, we might compare them to the compressed air in an +automobile tire. If the tire is punctured by a nail, the air issues +suddenly with a sharp, whistling sound until the pressure inside is gone +and no more will come out. + +For many years we have been puncturing the crust of the earth, where oil +has been discovered, and letting the oil and gas escape. We have saved +most of the oil, but nearly all the gas has been wasted. The gas will +finally stop coming out when the pressure is gone, just as the air did +in the automobile tire. + +On the opposite page is a picture of a "gusher" in the Sunset oil field, +California, which tells the story of how we are permitting the valuable +substances within the earth to be wasted. In drilling this well the oil +men suddenly struck a deposit of oil and gas under great pressure. The +drilling tools were blown out of the well and a column of oil and gas +shot up 150 feet. For a time the well flowed forty thousand barrels of +oil each day, and an unknown quantity of gas. Much of the oil was +scattered around the surrounding country, and all the gas was lost. Men +worked for weeks making reservoirs of earth in an attempt to save the +river of oil. + +Another well a few miles distant struck an enormous quantity of gas. It +blew off for days with a roar like that of the steam from a giant +engine. Then it took fire, and the column of flame at night was a +fearful sight. There was gas enough lost from this one well to light a +city for months. + +Gas has been escaping during many years from hundreds of wells in the +Pennsylvania, Ohio Valley, Oklahoma, Texas, and California oil fields. +The gas from all these wells together has been estimated to be equal +in value to a river of oil flowing several hundred thousand barrels each +day. In many districts the gas was nearly gone before people discovered +its great value. It is impossible for us to realize the waste which this +represents. + + [Illustration: _Myrl's Studio, Bakersfield, California_ + A "gusher" in a California oil field wasting great quantities of oil and + gas.] + +It has taken Nature a long time to make the oil and gas which we are +losing. When she began this work, the oil regions which have been +mentioned were beneath the sea. In its waters lived countless numbers of +minute organisms, as well as fish of many kinds. As they died, their +bodies accumulated in beds which finally became thousands of feet thick. +Then the currents of the water changed and sand and mud were washed over +these beds, burying them deeply. + +Finally the bottom of the sea was lifted and became dry land. The +movement squeezed and folded the rocky layers made of the skeletons of +the animals and plants. The soft parts of their bodies held in these +rocky layers produced a greenish or brownish oil and gas. The gas tried +to escape from the rocks, for they were hot and it wanted more room. In +some places it found openings through the rocks and escaped to the +surface, usually bringing some of the oil with it. The gas was lost, but +a part of the oil remained, forming deposits of tar. In other places the +oil and gas could not reach the surface, but found porous, sandy rocks +into which they went and remained until the oil driller found them. + +The tar springs, or "seepages," indicate to the oil prospector where +deposits of oil may possibly be found. He examines the country about +and, selecting a favorable place, drills a well. If he is successful, he +will strike oil-bearing rocks. The oil may be a few hundred feet below +the surface, or it may be a mile below. In the latter case it takes +months to drill the well. + +If a robber came and attempted to take by force the coal, oil, and gas +which we are daily losing through our carelessness and indifference, +even though he might put it to better use than we put it, there would at +once go up a great cry. We would raise an army and fight for our +property, and perhaps suffer great loss in defending it. But, day by +day, without making any serious objection, we are letting these natural +resources go to waste. + +Perhaps in some far distant future, after we have used up the stores of +fuel in the earth, we may discover something to take its place; but wise +and thoughtful people should make the most of what they have. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE + +NEED FOR PROTECTION OF CREATURES THAT LIVE IN THE WATER + + +Perhaps you think it is absurd to talk about caring for the creatures +that live in the water, since they can so easily hide away in its depths +where we cannot follow. Perhaps you think that because the ocean is so +great it would be impossible ever to catch all the fish that live in it. +It is easy to understand how all the fish might be caught out of the +creeks, rivers, and shallow lakes, since fish are hungry and we put +before them such attractive bait; but with the ocean it seems different. +It stretches so many thousands of miles and is so very deep that there +does not appear to be any danger of exterminating the animals of the +ocean as we have some of those of the land. + +Is it true, however, that all the vast waters of the ocean are full of +fish, or are they found only in certain parts? The fishermen can tell us +about this matter. They know where to set the hooks and nets, and where +they are most likely to get a good catch. They do not go far out where +the water is deep but seek, instead, the shallow waters near the shore +or about the reefs and islands. They know that the deep water of the +ocean contains very few fish and none that are of any value as food. + +Each kind of fish has become adapted to certain parts of the ocean, for +both the food supply and the pressure of the water differ with different +depths. Fish caught in deep water are often dead before reaching the +surface, because of the decrease in the water pressure. + +One reason why fish are not numerous far out in the ocean is because +there is little food to be had there. The reason no fish are found in +the very deep parts of the ocean is because the water there contains no +air particles. Strange as it may seem, although fish breathe water, they +cannot live unless it contains oxygen from the air. + +The fish, then, that interest us because of their value for food, are +found only in the shallow waters usually near the shore and in the lakes +and rivers. Because of this fact it is possible, as we have learned from +experience, to set so many traps and use so many nets and hooks as +entirely to destroy certain species. + +The fish have their natural enemies, and there is warfare among them +just as there is among the land animals. The larger and more powerful +live upon the smaller ones, but, seemingly to make up for this, Nature +has given the small fish quickness of movement--which the large fish do +not possess--to aid them in escaping. They have also the power of +increasing very rapidly. The little herring, which is the chief food of +many of the large fish, maintains its countless numbers against all its +enemies except the fishermen. + +The Indians, with their crude traps, hooks, and spears, could obtain but +few fish at a time and did not reduce their numbers. But civilized man, +with his cunningly contrived hooks and nets, has the same advantage over +the fish that the hunter, with his repeating gun, has over the land +animals. Nature, not foreseeing how destructive man would be, has armed +neither the creatures of the land nor the creatures of the water against +him. + +The fisherman does his work just as thoughtlessly as the hunter whose +business it is to supply the market. He seems to think no more about +the effect upon next season's supply, of his stretching a net across a +river and catching all the fish going up to spawn, than does the market +hunter who would, if he could, shoot the last duck. Is it not strange +that many fishermen will do anything in their power to evade the laws +governing the catching of fish when by doing so they injure their own +business? + + [Illustration: _Edward S. Curtis_ + A rocky island in the Pacific Ocean, used by seals as a sunning place.] + +We have already nearly destroyed the mammals that live in the ocean. +Among them are the whales, which were once numerous in the arctic +regions. Few whaling ships now arrive with profitable cargoes of oil or +whalebone. The sea otter, the fur of which is more highly prized than +that of any other animal, and the walrus, valuable for its oil, are also +nearly extinct. + +No more cruel hunting was ever carried on than was that of the seal +mothers in the open ocean where they go in search of food. When the +mothers are killed the young ones, left in the rookeries upon the +Pribilof Islands, soon die of starvation. The fur seal has thus been so +reduced in numbers that it was threatened with extinction. Now Russia, +Japan, England, and the United States have agreed to stop all killing of +the fur seal for a number of years. + +As a result of the great demand for fish, and the careless methods used +by the thousands of men engaged in catching them, Nature unaided cannot +keep up the supply. For the purpose of assisting her, strict laws have +been passed in many states. These laws prohibit fishermen from +stretching their nets or weirs across the streams so as to block the +passage of the fish when going to their spawning grounds. They also +prohibit the taking of undersized fish and in some cases allow none at +all of some kinds to be taken for a given time. Our government is now +doing a great deal to save the food fishes of the country, but some +varieties are still decreasing. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + An Indian fish trap.] + +The little herring is the most valuable of all the sea fish. Enormous +numbers are captured in nets, and still greater numbers form the food of +other fish. The herring has so many enemies that it must increase +rapidly in order to hold its place in the sea. Nature has arranged that +this fish should produce twenty thousand or more eggs at each spawning +season. It is thought that if only two eggs out of this great number +hatch and grow up, the supply of herring will be maintained. This +estimate does not, however, take into account the present terrible waste +of herring in the Chesapeake and other bays on the Atlantic coast, +where it is taken in nets and used for making land fertilizer. Is it any +wonder that the herring is now decreasing in numbers? + +The oyster was once hunted so closely that it would have disappeared +from our coast waters if the young had not been taken and raised +artificially. Is it not interesting to know that we plant young oysters +on oyster farms, and raise oyster crops, all below the level of high +tide? The greatest oyster farms in the world are upon Chesapeake Bay. +There are also oyster farms in other bays upon the Atlantic seaboard, +and lately the oyster has been transplanted to the bays upon the Pacific +Coast. + +The lobster was trapped so industriously that it also began to grow +scarce. Finally the government took up the matter of protecting it. The +eggs and the young were guarded, and now it is increasing in numbers. + +Once the sturgeon was very plentiful in the lakes and rivers of our +country. For a long time it was thought to be of no value and was thrown +away when caught in nets set for other fish. Then it was discovered that +its flesh was delicious, and its eggs, known as _caviar_, became a very +fashionable dish. After this there followed a period of most destructive +fishing, and now sturgeon are quite scarce and high priced. + +Herring, shad, and salmon are migratory fish. By this we mean that they +spend a part of their lives in the ocean but enter the bays and streams +at the spawning season. You can readily understand that if the bays are +blocked with nets the fish cannot reach the spawning grounds and their +numbers must decrease. Chesapeake Bay contains such a maze of nets, many +of them extending out ten miles from the shore, that it is a wonder +that any fish get past them. + + [Illustration: _H. W. Fairbanks_ + A fish wheel on the Columbia River, in which salmon are caught on their + way to the spawning grounds.] + +The waters of New England were once filled with striped bass, smelt, +salmon, and shad, but now these fish are almost gone. The shad are +rapidly decreasing all along the Atlantic Coast. The nets in Lake Erie +extend out sometimes ten miles from shore, and the whitefish as well as +the sturgeon have been greatly reduced in numbers there. + +When the Pacific Coast was first settled, the "salmon run" in the +Sacramento, Columbia, and other rivers was a wonderful sight. The waters +were fairly alive with these huge fish. Hydraulic mining so muddied the +waters of the Sacramento that their numbers greatly decreased. Then came +the fishermen and stretched their nets across the rivers, so nearly +blocking the channels that the salmon were rarely seen on their old +spawning grounds. Now salmon fishing is carefully regulated and salmon +are increasing. + +The shallow waters of San Francisco Bay, the ocean for some miles out +from shore, and the waters about the islands of Southern California form +very valuable fishing grounds, which, if they are taken care of, will +furnish much larger supplies of fish than are now obtained. + +The interesting discovery has been made that the waters around the +islands of Santa Catalina and San Clemente form important spawning +grounds for many food fish, including the great tuna. These waters were +fished so destructively that many of the fish were found to be +decreasing. This has led to the establishment of a fish preserve for +three miles about Santa Catalina Island. Within this area no fish are +allowed to be taken except with a hook and line. Some of the most +valuable fish, which were almost gone, are now becoming more numerous. +The fact that the fish stay close about the island where the water is +shallow makes the establishment of the preserve possible. + +The salmon and halibut fisheries of the Alaskan waters have long been +the source of much profit. This region, owing to the many bays and +islands, fairly swarms with fish of many kinds. Protection will soon be +needed here if this great storehouse of fish is to be kept filled. + +The cod fisheries of the Newfoundland banks are among the most valuable +in the world, and are almost the only ones where fishing has long been +carried on and where the supply is not decreasing. The "banks" are +formed by a great flat reef four hundred miles long, over which the +water is shallow enough to offer a fine home for cod. + +Hatcheries have been established in many parts of our country for the +purpose of collecting and hatching fish eggs. These are used for +restocking those waters that have been fished out. After the eggs have +hatched and the young fish have reached a certain stage, they are +shipped to the streams where they are needed. The United States fishery +on the McCloud River, California, has distributed rainbow trout all over +the United States. Shad and striped bass have been brought from Eastern +fisheries and planted in Pacific Coast waters, where they are now +rapidly increasing. + +Thus we learn that valuable food fish live within certain narrow bounds +instead of being distributed all through the waters of the globe. It is +as easy, with our many ingenious devices of net and weir, to destroy the +inhabitants of the water as it is to destroy those of the land with +guns. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX + +MAN MORE DESTRUCTIVE THAN THE OTHER ANIMALS + + +We have learned something about the struggle among the plants and +animals for food and for room on the earth. We must not think, however, +that this struggle is at all like the war that is carried on between +different nations. Wars are usually unnecessary and do more harm than +good, for they result in the loss of the strongest and best men. But the +struggle among the animals and plants has resulted in good, for it has +crowded out the weakest and those less fitted to live. + +The struggle among all living things for food and a share of the +sunshine has covered the earth with a far greater variety than there +would otherwise be. Because so many more are born than there is room +for, they crowd and elbow each other. Many are forced to make their +homes in regions which they would not have chosen if they had been free +to do as they pleased. It is partly because of this crowding that some +of the animals which once lived on the ground became changed into birds +and made their homes in the trees. A number of the mammals found more +freedom in the water and finally became whales, seals, and walruses. +Many moved into deserts and, in learning to live with very little water, +developed curious bodies and habits. Some have found a home in the cold +North, where they have become suited to a climate which would quickly +kill those which had held their ground in the warm and moist tropical +regions. + +Nature has thus filled the earth with an infinite variety of living +things, each of which is doing its part in making the world beautiful +and attractive. Man is Nature's last and most wonderful creation. He has +learned to fly like the birds, to swim under the sea like the fish, and +to harness Nature's forces and make them work for him. But man, with all +his wisdom, has too often forgotten that he is really a brother to the +lower creatures. The inhabitants of the air, the land, and the water +could, if they were able to talk, tell the most pitiful tales of man's +cruel treatment of them. + +Of course we have to eat, as do all other living creatures, but for +thousands of years people have supplied their wants largely from +agriculture and from the domestic herds. Although very few of us now +have to hunt for our food, and these few are those who live far out on +the borders of newly settled regions, yet we have not forgotten the +hunting instincts of our ancestors. + +Our ancestors of long ago, like the savages on the earth today, seldom +killed game unless they needed it for food. We, who think ourselves far +better than they, now kill wild life for the pleasure of the chase. The +professional hunter who seeks the glossy coats of the fur-bearing +animals or the beautiful plumage of certain birds gives no thought to +the wasted bodies that he leaves behind. + +Since men have become civilized and their needs have become so many, +Nature's arrangements have been seriously disturbed. She has not armed +the wild creatures against men, who, with all kinds of marvelous +weapons, are able to take advantage of them. The wild creatures discover +very quickly that they can find little protection against this new +enemy, no matter how quick and sharp their senses are. + +The blue jay has only his sharp eyes to help him when he seeks the +cunningly hidden nest of another bird with the hope of being able to +dine upon eggs. The breakfast of the wolf depends alone upon his +quickness in catching a rabbit. The mountain lion depends upon his +stealthiness when stalking a deer. The Indian relies upon his skill in +imitating the call or the appearance of an animal when he tries to +approach near enough to use his bow and arrow. Civilized men have lost +much of the keenness of sight and hearing they once had, but they have +far more than made up for this through their ingenuity in making deadly +weapons. + +We depend no longer upon the hunt for each day's supply of food. But the +instinct to hunt which still remains we use to amuse ourselves while +upon our camping trips. Some people even made a living by hunting for +the market, although, fortunately for the wild creatures, little of this +kind of hunting is now permitted. + +The desire to get out of doors and live for a time each year among the +wild mountains is another instinct which comes to us from our savage +forefathers. This is a beneficial instinct, for life in the fresh air +gives us new strength. The hunting instinct is not wrong in itself. It +is the manner in which we hunt that is wrong. But how much finer it +would be if, instead of using an outing as an excuse to destroy the wild +creatures, we should use it to learn about them and their curious ways. +How much more real pleasure there is in studying the habits of the +denizens of the woods and fields than there is in killing them! + +Many a boy wants to carry a gun, because he has read lurid stories of +Indians and robbers, or of hunting in the jungles where lions and tigers +abound. This often leads to the killing of harmless birds for the lack +of bigger game. Boys should be taught either at home or in school the +sacredness of life, and a feeling of pity and love for the wild +creatures that are surrounded by enemies on every side. They should be +taught that animals have feelings and that they want to live. They +should be taught how wrong it is to destroy life uselessly. The nest of +eggs or helpless young left to their fate through the thoughtless +killing of a mother bird is a sight which must arouse the sympathy of +every boy who has been taught what it means. + + [Illustration: _Eastman Kodak Company_ + The only right way to hunt birds' nests--with a camera.] + +The killing of the mothers is the surest way to destroy a species. The +laws in most of our states now regulate hunting during the breeding +season and limit the number of wild animals or birds that may be taken +in a given time. Whenever the numbers of any species become so reduced +that it is in danger of extinction, all hunting of that species should +be prohibited for a number of years. + +We should feel sorry for those men who live in a civilized land and get +the benefit of its advantages and yet are worse than savages at heart. +If these men who are so wasteful of wild life could be stripped of their +destructive weapons and sent into the wilds to make their living as +savages do, they would soon learn to be more careful. + +The animals prey upon each other because it is their nature to do so and +because their lives depend upon it. Savages hunt because they must have +food. We do not need to hunt, but, because of our higher intelligence, +our hunting methods are far more destructive than are those of either +animals or savages. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN + +WHAT IS HAPPENING TO THE ANIMALS AND BIRDS + + +Nature has done more for our land than for almost any other. She has +given it vast forests, fertile soil, favorable climate, enormous water +power, many minerals, and a wonderful variety of animal life. + +During all the centuries that the Indians lived here before the coming +of white men, wild game furnished them their chief food, but in spite of +this, the amount of game was not decreased. When our forefathers landed +upon this continent, it fairly swarmed with animals and birds. With the +clearing away of the forests and the settling of the prairies men could +not help depriving many wild creatures of both their shelter and their +food, but this was not the chief cause for their rapid decrease in +numbers. Hunters followed them persistently into the wilder hills and +mountains, and many, not needed for food, were killed for their furs. + + [Illustration: "There is no recovery of an extinct species. Conservation + or devastation--which shall it be? Common sense demands the regulation + of hunting in such a way that our wild life will persist as a permanent + asset." _Western Wild Life Call_, published by the California Associated + Charities for the Conservation of Wild Life.] + +Now we may travel for days through the remote and still unsettled parts +of our country and see very little life of any kind except birds and +the smaller animals, such as squirrels. Occasionally we may start up a +deer that flees away from us like the wind. Still more rarely we come +upon a bear and are fortunate if we get even the merest sight of him +before he is gone. + +The fear of man has spread among all the wild creatures. There is good +reason for this fear, because man has completely exterminated some +species and so reduced the numbers of others that careful protection +will be needed to save them. Travelers tell us that in those lands where +man rarely goes the wild creatures have little fear of him. + + [Illustration: _L. A. Huffman, Miles City, Mont._ + Why the buffalo have nearly disappeared from the land.] + +The story of the slaughter of the buffalo is known to us all. Once this +noble animal roamed from the Alleghenies to the Rocky Mountains. +Countless thousands were killed merely for their hides, and other +thousands were killed for sport. Finally, when they were almost gone, +people awoke to the importance of saving them. Several small herds, not +more than a few hundred in number, that had escaped the hunters were +placed under protection and now they are slowly increasing. + + [Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History_ + A group of Roosevelt elk.] + +The grizzly, king of bears, was once abundant in parts of the Rocky +Mountains and upon the Pacific slope, but now he is found only in the +Yellowstone Park region. The man who killed the last specimen in +California is proud of his great achievement. + +Of all the elk which once spread over the western part of our country, +only a few remain outside of the Yellowstone region. A protected herd +exists in the San Joaquin Valley, California, and another small herd +roams through the wilder parts of the northern Coast Ranges. The +antelope, so common on the plains only a few years ago, are all gone +except for small, scattered herds in the more remote parts of the West. + +Of the many fur-bearing animals which once inhabited the Northwest, +beavers were the most widespread and abundant. Their pelts were so +valuable that they were used as money. For many years the trapping of +these little animals was an important industry, until at last they were +practically exterminated in every stream throughout the western half of +the country. A few beaver are known to remain in the Yellowstone Park, +where they are of course carefully protected. In Oregon a few escaped +and have been carefully protected for some years. In certain places they +are now quite abundant. In parts of New England and Canada they are now +increasing under the protection of the game laws. + +The sea otter, now extremely rare, is so highly valued for its fur that +it soon may become extinct, although completely protected by law. + + [Illustration: _New York Zooelogical Society_ + A beaver and its lodge.] + +The passenger pigeon, whose flights almost covered the sky at times not +more than forty years ago, and whose numbers seemed so great that no one +believed it possible of extermination, is now gone forever. The +extinction of these birds was due chiefly to their being slaughtered at +their roosting places. + +The California condor, one of the largest of birds, is almost extinct. +The prairie chicken has disappeared from the prairies and plains. +Certain species of grouse, and especially the sage grouse, mountain +quail, and others, which inhabit sparsely settled regions, are thought +to be still holding their ground, but should be more carefully +protected. The valley quail is, however, much reduced in numbers; while +ducks, geese, and smaller shore birds are decreasing with each +succeeding year. + +Even in the jungles of far-away Africa, where we would think the animals +are exposed to little danger of extinction, some of them, such as the +elephant, are in urgent need of protection. In the far North the great +polar bear will not long survive unless rigidly protected. + +What terrible scourge has so suddenly come upon the birds and animals +that once adorned our country? How is it that in the short space of +fifty years many of them have almost disappeared from their ancient +haunts? We feel like hiding our faces in shame, for it is the same man +scourge that for many hundreds of years has been destroying the forests, +the animals, and the birds of many other countries. + + [Illustration: _Finley & Bohlman_ + A California condor.] + +The helplessness of all the wild creatures before man's destructive +weapons should arouse our sympathy, if nothing else does. Leaving out of +account a few predatory animals that destroy large numbers of other +animals, we should most earnestly try to protect those that remain. + +The beauty of the birds, their sweet music, the companionship which they +afford, and, last but not least, their great value to the farmer and +fruit grower, should arouse our earnest efforts in their behalf. + +In our country alone an army of five million men and boys go out to hunt +wild creatures every year. The animals are so defenseless against man's +weapons that it is not a fair fight, in which the quicker or sharper +escape, but a slaughter. + +If these hunters were savages armed only with bows and arrows, then the +wild creatures would have a chance for their lives. Besides, savages do +not kill for sport, nor do they purposely destroy Nature's most valuable +gifts to them. + +The forest that has been cut down will grow again. The soil that has +been made poor will, if let alone, sometime become fertile again. But +those species of birds, animals, and fish which we have completely +destroyed will never be restored to us. + + [Illustration: _Nat'l Ass'n Audubon Societies_ + The sage grouse, which is in danger of extinction.] + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT + +THE TRAGEDIES OF MILADY'S HAT AND CAPE + + +Our savage ancestors depended largely for food upon animals, birds, and +fish which they obtained. They used the skins and furs for clothing and +the plumes for decorating themselves. They allowed no part of the bodies +of the animals they killed to go to waste. + +We do not now have to depend upon the wild creatures for food, because +our flocks and herds supply all that we require. But Dame Fashion has +decreed that furs and feathers are still the proper thing to wear. Thus +it has come about that those animals that have soft, furry coats and +those birds that have bright plumage are hunted more eagerly now than +they were long ago when food was the most important thing. + +The demand for furs has always been great and the trapping industry has +employed thousands of men ever since our land was discovered, but in +recent years feathers have become almost as important. No region where +fur-bearing animals have their lairs, or birds of beautiful plumage have +their nests, is too far away or too difficult for the hunters and +trappers to go and hunt. + +The business of killing wild creatures for money makes beasts out of men +and has led to most heartless cruelties. The savage, hunting for food, +kills his prey at once; but the fur trapper with a circuit which takes +sometimes a week to cover often has to leave his prey, tortured in the +traps, until it starves to death. + +If the wearer of that handsome warm fur coat could know what was, +perhaps, the story of the wild creature to which it once belonged, +would she enjoy it so much? Could the wearer of that gay hat, for the +making of which not only a mother bird, but perhaps a whole family of +little ones, gave up their lives, take so much pleasure in it if she +knew the history of its plumes? + +It is not the desire for warm furs about our necks or for beautiful +feathers in our hats that is wrong. It is the needless suffering that +those who hunt and trap cause the wild creatures that we should be +ashamed of and insist upon having stopped. + +The work of the trapper and hunter is nearly done. These men have +despoiled for money the life of a whole continent in a few short years. +The fur-bearing animals, if hunted in moderation, would have continued +to people the wilds for all time to come. But neither the wearer of furs +nor the hunter has given one thought to their preservation. + +In the getting of bird plumage for millinery purposes we find cruelties +practiced which are almost beyond our belief. The lowest savage that +ever lived on the earth could be no worse than many of our bird hunters. + +Birds have habits which make them easier to kill than fur-bearing +animals. Although the modern fashion for feathers began less than fifty +years ago, the birds that afford bright and graceful plumage have +already been nearly exterminated. Now most of them are protected in our +country, and the sale of feathers from other countries is prohibited in +our markets. But there are some places where the law is not enforced, as +well as many other countries where there are no laws, and thoughtless +women still wear plumes. To supply the demands of fashion all the remote +lands as well as islands of the sea are being searched. + + [Illustration: _Finley & Bohlman_ + Young great blue herons in their nest.] + +The slaughter began with the bright-colored songbirds, terns, gulls, +herons, egrets, and flamingos. Then it extended to other sea birds, +including the albatross, to bright-colored tropical birds, and to the +wonderful birds of paradise. How true is the following statement made in +a millinery store: + +"You had better take the feather for twelve dollars," said the clerk, +"for it is very cheap at that price. These feathers are becoming scarce +and very soon we shall not be able to secure them." + +Here is milady's beautiful cape glistening with all the colors of the +rainbow. Of what is this gorgeous thing made? Would you believe it +possible that it is formed entirely of humming birds' skins, with the +heads and long, slender bills? Perhaps a thousand of the tiny birds were +sacrificed that some woman might have a beautiful cape. Does it seem +possible that any gentlewoman could wear this cape, who had any +realization of the tragedies that had to take place in humming-bird life +in order that it might be made? Could she wear this cape if she knew of +the forsaken nests and the hundreds of dying young ones waiting for the +mothers that never returned? + + [Illustration: _Finley & Bohlman_ + Forster's tern or sea swallow on its nest. The wings and tail of this + bird are used for millinery purposes.] + +But more terrible, if anything, than the story of the humming-bird cape +is the story of the delicate egret plumes on yonder hat. They once +adorned the mother bird at nesting time in some far marsh. The feathers +are almost perfect at this time, and to get them the bird must be +killed. Each bunch of egret feathers represents a family tragedy,--a +nest of little birds left to die, because the mother has been sacrificed +to satisfy the demands of fashion. + +The plume hunters invade the nesting places of the egrets, herons, and +flamingos, often leaving not a single bird in what were once happy +colonies, except the starving little ones. Millions of these plumes have +been obtained along our seacoasts and about the interior lakes and +marshes. Is it any wonder that the egrets are nearly extinct as a result +of this merciless slaughter? + +Now, when it is almost too late, protection has been given these +beautiful birds. Bird refuges have been established at different +favorable points along the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts and in the +Klamath and Malheur Lake regions of Oregon. These refuges are watched +over by wardens, and we hope that the birds inhabiting them will thus be +enabled to increase and again fill the almost forsaken marshes. + +In our plea for the protection of the birds of attractive plumage, we +must not forget those of the tropical jungles. Remote as many of these +jungles are, the plumage hunter is devastating them already. The bird of +paradise, found in the East India islands, will soon be extinct unless +protected. + + + + +CHAPTER TWENTY-NINE + +THE COURT OF THE ANIMALS AND BIRDS + + +Once upon a time, not very long ago, the birds and animals were brought +into court to be tried on the charge of committing all sorts of +misdeeds. Some of their accusers wanted to shoot them for food. Others +said they did much harm and should be destroyed, while still others +envied their beautiful coats of fur or feathers. To settle the matter +fairly, the judge decided that each prisoner should be tried by itself. + +The first case called was that of the English sparrow, who made such a +noisy disturbance that the bailiff had to call for silence. All +witnesses asserted that the bird was a foreigner and did not belong in +this country. They further testified that the sparrow was a meddlesome, +gossiping neighbor, always fighting the other birds and driving them +away. The sparrow looked around, but not a single friend could he find. +The court decided that he should be driven out and made the lawful prey +of every one. He cautioned all present, however, always to be very +careful to distinguish between the English sparrow and the other +sparrows. The latter birds must on no account be molested, for they were +without any exceptions most useful citizens. + +In regard to the linnet the judge hardly knew what to say. The bird was +shown to be a sweet singer, but very destructive of fruit. It was +finally decided that a census of the linnets must be taken occasionally. +Whenever their number was found to be so great as to endanger the fruit +crop in any particular place, the farmers were to be allowed to dispose +of a certain number. + +The bobolink had many friends as well as enemies present. Every one that +knew the bobolink in its summer home in the North insisted that this +beautiful singer must be protected. But the people from the South, where +it spends the winter, wished the privilege of shooting it. They said +that its flesh formed a delicious morsel and also that in the rice +fields, where it was known as the "rice bird," it did a great deal of +harm. The judge refused to listen to the plea of the hunters and said +that this attractive bird must be protected in both its winter and +summer homes. + +The turn of the blue jay came next. Every one wondered what the charge +against this bird with the beautiful blue plumage could be. Some thought +that he was on trial for his discordant screeching, which alarmed all +the inhabitants of the woods. The charge against the jay was, however, +far more serious. He had been caught while making his breakfast of some +baby birds which a mother robin had just hatched. The quail and every +other small bird present called for vengeance on this ruthless destroyer +of their homes. The gardener also added that the bird ate his cherries +and apples. + +The jay now presented a strong defense, saying that most of his food was +made up of harmful insects and worms. He proved that he did almost as +much good as harm. The judge, knowing what a wise bird the jay was, told +him to go but that he must thereafter look out for himself. + +The family of hawks was next examined. There were many witnesses who +declared that they were the most destructive of neighbors and lived +entirely upon small birds and chickens. The songbirds all raised their +voices against hawks, saying that when they left their nests to hunt +for food for their children, they were never sure of finding them alive +upon their return. The judge inquired carefully as to the truth of these +complaints, but found that only a few of the hawks were guilty as +claimed. These included the peregrine falcon, sharp-shinned hawk, and +Cooper's hawk. The other hawks proved that they were the farmers' best +friends, for they waged endless war upon mice, rats, ground squirrels, +gophers, and rabbits, and only occasionally caught other birds. They had +evidence also that in those places where their numbers had been much +reduced by the hunters, the small rodents increased enormously. + + [Illustration: _Finley & Bohlman_ + Full-grown young red-tailed hawks.] + +The court had to be held at night to accommodate the owls and give them +justice. The judge decided from the evidence that, in this family as in +the last, there were good members as well as bad and he could not +condemn them all to death. The owls proved that they were of even more +benefit to the farmers than were the hawks, because of the large number +of rats which they ate. The great horned owl and the barred owl only +were singled out for punishment. + + [Illustration: _Finley & Bohlman_ + The screech owl at home. This is a well-known bird, of great economic + value because it catches so many mice.] + +The case of the meadow lark was called next. An old farmer complained +that this bird had destroyed his young grain. Then the hunters made the +plea that the meadow lark was really a game bird and that they ought to +be allowed to shoot it. In defense of these birds the stomachs of many +of them that had been killed were shown in court. It was proved that +two thirds of all their food was made up of harmful insects and that the +farmers ought to be glad to have them about. It was further shown that +if the insects killed by the meadow larks in one day in the San Joaquin +Valley, California, were loaded on the cars and hauled away, it would +take a train of twenty cars of ten tons each. The meadow lark, upon this +showing, was allowed to go unmolested and at once began a happy carol. + + [Illustration: _Finley & Bohlman_ + A coyote, one of the keenest-witted animals of the Western plains.] + +The grizzly bear had been summoned, but could not be found, for all of +his species had been killed except a few in the Yellowstone Park. But +the black bear was brought in and accused of eating young calves and +colts. The stockmen asked that all the black bears be killed. The judge +decided, however, that as there are so few left, and they are so timid +and rarely do any harm, and are, besides, among the most interesting of +the citizens of the woods, they should go free and be protected from the +hunter. + +The coyote was next dragged in and accused of all manner of evil deeds. +He pleaded in defense that he helped to keep down the numbers of the +rabbits and ground squirrels, and that if it were not for his tribe, +these little animals would eat up everything. The judge decided that the +coyote was on the whole a rather unpleasant neighbor and refused to +afford him any protection. Every one knew, however, that the coyote was +so sharp and keen that he was a match for most of the enemies about him +and would get along very well. + + [Illustration: _Finley & Bohlman_ + A weasel in its summer coat.] + +Those sly little animals, the skunk, weasel, coon, and mink, destroyed a +great many birds, especially those that nested on or near the ground, +according to the report of most of those present in court. But the skunk +had some good friends who showed that his chief food was insects and +worms, and that he did more good than harm. It was further proved that +the fur of all these animals was so valuable that, while trapping them +would be permitted, they must not be exterminated. In regard to the +weasel, the testimony showed that he was a badly slandered animal. Most +of his food appeared to be rats and mice, and only rarely did he kill +chickens. The judge added that these poor animals had too often been +condemned offhand. Although they occasionally ate chickens, no one had +tried to find out the good which they did. + +To hear the complaints against the great California sea lion, the court +adjourned to the seashore. The fishermen declared that the sea lion ate +the fish upon which their livelihood depended, and also broke their +nets. They demanded that all the sea lions be killed. Careful search in +the stomachs of some of them that had been taken for that purpose made +it very clear that the fishermen were wrong. The sea lions ate almost no +fish, but lived upon squid and other sea animals not valuable to the +fishermen. As a result, these interesting animals were given full +protection. + +The oyster farmers complained most indignantly to the court about the +conduct of the wild ducks. They said that the ducks ate a large part of +the young oysters on their oyster farms. They wanted the ducks shot +without delay, for their business was almost ruined. This matter was +carefully looked into, and it was proved that the ducks really ate very +few oysters. + +The judge remarked as he adjourned court that if all the accusations +were true, hardly a wild creature would be left. He said further that +each one was entitled to fair treatment at the hands of men unless it +was wholly bad. + + + + +CHAPTER THIRTY + +THE BIRDS OUR GOOD FRIENDS AND PLEASANT COMPANIONS + + +As we lie partly awake on some bright spring morning, we hear through +the open window such a chorus of music that it seems almost as though we +must be in some enchanted land. This music, however, is the songs of the +birds that nest about our homes. + +We can distinguish in the chorus the notes of many different birds. From +the treetop come the sweet songs of the oriole and robin. Upon a low +bush sits a black-headed grosbeak that never seems to weary of his +refrain. From various hidden places in the dense foliage come the notes +of the song sparrow and the lazuli bunting. From its perch upon some +fence post the meadow lark adds to the cheerfulness of the morning. If +your home is far enough south, you may hear the mocking bird pouring +forth its melody in endless variation. + +Rising above all other sounds, as the morning advances, are the cheery +calls of the quail who seems to say: "Where are you? Where are you? Stay +right there; stay right there." Both in the morning and in the evening +the almost heavenly music of the thrush echoes through the deep woods. +In the quiet night the hoot of the owls is most entertaining. + +Would you for anything have the birds leave us? Would you for anything +lose these airy creatures whose music, bright plumage, and graceful +movements not only add so much to the pleasure of our daily lives but +also serve us in so many ways? The woods, fields, and waters would be +lonely without them. + +Did you ever think that it is possible, that it is indeed likely, that +many of these beautiful creatures will leave us for all time if we do +not treat them kindly and give them every protection in our power? Did +you ever think of all the enemies that are constantly on the watch for +the birds,--the thoughtless boy who robs their nests, the angry farmer +who mistakenly believes they injure him, the hunter who thinks only of +how good they taste, the sleek cat lying so innocently by your fireside, +which loves a bird above everything else, and last of all, the blue jay, +butcher bird, and some of the hawks and owls? + +To realize how our home would seem without birds, let us take an +imaginary journey far across the water to "sunny Italy." Here you will +rarely hear bird music upon spring mornings, unless it be that of some +poor caged creature. If you will walk through the country, you will see +few birds where once they must have been abundant. But upon every +holiday you will see the fields filled with hunters, who with keen eyes +are watching for any stray birds that have happened to stop on their +journey across the country to rest and to hunt worms or taste a bit of +fruit. The Italian does not know the good the birds do his garden and +that it would be the part of wisdom for him to let them have a little of +his corn and fruit. + +We will now journey to Spain and learn something about the treatment of +our bird friends there. This country was once rich and prosperous. From +it came many of the early explorers of our own land. The people of the +central highlands of Spain never loved to hear the birds sing, because +they were always thinking of the grain which the birds took. Thinking to +save their crops, they not only killed and scared away all the birds +they could, but they also cut down the trees so that the birds would +have no places to nest. + +Thus the people freed themselves from the birds, but what was the +harvest that they reaped? When the trees were gone they had no fuel, the +soil dried out more quickly, and the insects increased until they +destroyed far more of the grain and fruit than the birds could possibly +have done. The people are now very poor and just manage to live from one +harvest to another. + +Now let us learn a little about our own birds and what they are doing +for us. We ought to know the habits of all the common birds that +frequent our gardens and be able to tell each by its note. This would +add greatly to our pleasure when out of doors and make us appreciate the +services they are rendering. + +Go where you will through the open fields or among the trees and bushes, +you will find different kinds of birds and all of them busily engaged. +They are searching over every bit of ground as well as over the trunks, +branches, and leaves of the trees. Some are after the seeds of different +kinds of weeds. Others are getting the worms and insects that infest the +trees. Watch a flock of the little titmice going carefully over all the +leaves and branches of an oak tree. When they have finished, there are +few insects or their eggs left upon it. + +How anxious are some of our farmers as well as the sportsmen to have the +meadow lark classed as a pest or as a game bird. Would that the farmers +knew how much good this bird does them! The stomachs of many of these +larks have been carefully examined in order to find out what they +really do eat. The contents show that more than half of the food of the +meadow lark is made up of harmful insects, including beetles, +grasshoppers, crickets, Jerusalem crickets, cutworms, caterpillars, +wireworms, bugs, bees, ants, wasps, flies, spiders, and many others. +These birds also eat large quantities of the seeds of weeds and at times +damage the grain fields. The good that they do, however, far outweighs +the evil. + + [Illustration: _Finley & Bohlman_ + A young meadow lark.] + +Woodpeckers belong to another class of birds that are very useful to us. +How often have we heard them hammering upon a dead tree as they drill +holes in search of the worms and beetles that are hidden under the bark +or in the heart of the wood. It has long been the habit of hunters to +shoot woodpeckers just for sport, although no one eats them nor are they +known to do any harm. With a decrease in their numbers there has been an +increase in insect pests which are now destroying so many trees in all +parts of our country. The woodpeckers in the Sierra Nevada Mountains are +worth almost their weight in gold, for they destroy millions of beetles +that are killing the great sugar pines and yellow pines. Here and there +you will find a tree, attacked by the beetles, from which the +woodpeckers have almost stripped the bark in their search for these +insects. + +The food of the martins and swallows is wholly made up of insects. We +have all seen them in their graceful flight and have noticed how they +seize their insect prey while on the wing. The martins are of little +value for food, and yet, in some parts of our country they have become +almost extinct because of the pursuit of them by pot hunters. + + [Illustration: _Finley & Bohlman_ + A barn swallow.] + + [Illustration: _Finley & Bohlman_ + A least sandpiper or snipe, one of the shore birds.] + +The shore birds form a group of very great value. They include those +long-legged birds with slender bills which are found, usually along the +shores of the ocean and of lakes and small bodies of water, but +sometimes in the interior away from the water. The food of these birds +is almost wholly insects, which are harmful in various ways. Among these +insects are grasshoppers, army worms, cutworms, cabbage worms, grubs, +horseflies, and mosquitoes. + +So cruelly and relentlessly have the shore birds been pursued by men who +call themselves "sportsmen;" that many species are nearly extinct. We +hope that the Migratory Bird Law will be enforced and that with the +protection this gives them they will again increase and fill their old +haunts. But we must ever be on the watch, for there will still be greedy +hunters trying to evade the law until all our boys grow up with love and +appreciation for the birds. The killdeer, snipe, and other plovers, +whose habits make them the most interesting of the shore birds, +especially need our protection. We have all seen these birds in our +walks along the shore. Small and delicate their bodies are; each one +would make scarcely a mouthful, and yet the pot hunters have seemed +determined to kill them all. + +How many people ever think of the quail in any other light than as a +delicious morsel to be served up on toast for dinner? The quail is not +only useful because of the insects which it destroys, but is a most +wonderfully interesting and attractive bird. If you have ever disturbed +a mountain quail with a brood of young, you will never forget what an +interesting sight the mother presented as she strutted back and forth on +a log, warning her little ones to keep out of sight. + + [Illustration: _Finley & Bohlman_ + A white heron.] + +Quail eat over a hundred kinds of insects, and happy should be that +farmer who can get them to come about his home. Can you find it in your +heart to shoot the father bird, as, perched upon some sightly point, he +watches for danger while the mother just off the nest with her little +brood feeds trustfully under his care? + +The hunting of quail for market is now prohibited by law. But before +protection came market hunters were known to carry out the most cruel +methods in order to bag the quail in large numbers. In the drier parts +of our country, the springs where quail came to drink were covered until +the thirsty birds gathered in large numbers. In this way the hunters +were able to obtain all they wanted. + + [Illustration: _Finley & Bohlman_ + Gulls and terns on their resting ground.] + +Let us henceforth show by our kindness and good will to the living +things around us that we are not merciless savages, thinking only of +something to eat, but rather that we appreciate their presence and the +great good that they do. + + + + +CHAPTER THIRTY-ONE + +HOW TO BRING THE WILD CREATURES BACK AGAIN + + +In the preceding chapters we have learned something of the destructive +warfare that men have carried on against wild creatures. We have learned +that some species are already extinct and that many others have been so +reduced in numbers that they are threatened with the same fate. + +Nothing that we can do will bring back those that are gone, but we can +save those that are left. Throughout our own country as well as many +foreign countries, people are waking up to the necessity of protecting +wild life. Thousands of men and women are spending their time and money +trying to save birds and other animals. Among the things they are doing +is the establishing of refuges and game preserves, working for better +laws, and teaching boys and girls to be careful of life and not wantonly +to destroy it. + +The most important thing that we can do to bring wild creatures back +again is to let them alone. Man is their worst enemy, and, if he can be +kept from hunting, nearly all will be able to take care of themselves +and increase in numbers. We can help Nature by supplying them with food +when it is scarce and by protecting them from a few predatory animals +and birds. The worst of these are the cougar or mountain lion, wild cat, +lynx, wolves, and coyotes; the blue jay, butcher bird, and several of +the hawks and owls. The cougar is the worst of all, for it has been +estimated that one of these animals kills on the average fifty deer a +year. Many of the states offer bounties for the killing of the mountain +lion and coyote. + +Ordinarily birds are able to secure their own food; but sometimes +during long, snowy winters those that do not fly away South need food. +There are also many trees which bear fruit that is not much used by us +but which is very attractive to the birds. The planting of such trees +aids in bringing birds to our homes and encourages their increase. + + [Illustration: We can help to conserve bird life by providing safe + nesting places for our feathered friends.] + +The settlement of the lands suitable to farming has deprived some of the +hoofed animals, such as the elk, of their natural feeding grounds. The +elk that are found in the summer in the meadows of the Yellowstone Park +migrate in winter to the lower valleys outside of the park. These +valleys are mostly fenced up, and to keep the elk from getting into +trouble with the farmers it is often necessary for the government to buy +hay and feed them. + +In order to make sure that the wild animals shall be free to live and +increase safe from the hunter, we have established great game preserves +in different parts of the country. These are usually regions that are +wild and unsettled and not useful for other purposes. All the great +National Parks which we are trying to keep in their natural condition +with their animals, birds, and plants are now game preserves. Among them +are the Yellowstone, Yosemite, Rainier, and Crater Lake parks. Visitors +to these preserves are not allowed to carry any guns, and wardens +constantly patrol them. + +The life of the Yellowstone Park is wonderfully interesting. Here we +find droves of many of the animals that were in danger of becoming +extinct. Among them are the buffalo, elk, and antelope. Here the grizzly +and all the lesser bears are safe from the hunter. They have almost lost +their fear of man and come about the camps and hotels for food, as the +domestic animals do. In the park are some colonies of beaver, too, which +will never again be disturbed by the fur hunter. On the higher peaks are +a few Rocky Mountain sheep. + +Another way in which we are protecting the wild animals is by making it +legal to hunt them during only a short time each year. This is called +the "open season." In the case of some of the animals that are nearly +extinct we have made a "closed season" extending through a number of +years. With this protection we are hoping that they will be saved and +sometime become numerous again. All our states have made game laws which +give more or less protection to the deer, elk, moose, antelope, +squirrel, and other animals. In the case of some of these animals the +females are absolutely protected, and the number of the males--as of the +deer, for example--that may be killed in a season is often as small as +two, and in two states it is only one. A heavy fine is imposed upon any +one killing the protected animals or having their meat in his +possession. + +We are trying to protect the birds in much the same manner as the wild +animals. But because of their migrations this is much more difficult. +Many kinds of birds travel with the changing seasons from north to +south across different countries. If the people of one country protect +them and those of another do not, they may easily become exterminated. +Some species have become extinct in the last fifty years, and others +have been reduced to a few pairs in regions where they were once seen in +thousands. + +There are three things that have brought about this slaughter of the +birds. The first is hunting them for food. This was not so serious until +the market hunters began their work. Then the small game birds that were +salable quickly began to disappear. In most of our states the sale of +game birds in the market is now prohibited. + +Another cause for the decrease in the birds is the wanton shooting of +some just for sport, and the hunting of others that are mistakenly +supposed to be harmful. We cannot wholly stop this until we teach people +to respect the birds, to love them for their music, and to appreciate +the great good which many of them do by their destruction of insects and +small animal pests. + +Many of the birds which we have too often tried to kill or drive away +are among the best friends we have. When we have learned all about their +habits and their food, we shall find that only a very few are really +harmful, and that the others abundantly repay the toll that they take of +our produce. The farmer and the fruit grower should be particularly +interested in protecting and encouraging the birds. If the birds pull up +the sprouting seeds in your garden, do not kill them but protect the +plants with wire screens. It is likely that these very birds feed +largely upon the insects that are so harmful to your crops. + +If the children in our schools could spend a little of their time in +the interesting study of bird life, we are sure that when they grow up +the wanton destruction of birds will almost cease. The Boy Scouts and +the Camp Fire Girls are learning to love and respect life in the wilds +and would not for anything injure its inhabitants. The children of the +Agassiz Associations and the Junior Audubon Societies can also be proud +of the work they are doing. They are not only saving the birds about our +homes but are attracting others by putting out food, planting trees that +bear attractive fruit, and making nesting places for the birds. + + [Illustration: _American Forestry Association_ + The boys who are going to see that our wild life is protected.] + +The third important thing which has been bringing about the decrease of +the birds is hunting them for their plumes. For fifty years the demand +for plumes for millinery purposes has been growing. The trade has spread +until it now reaches the most remote islands of the sea. No bird, be +its home in the most remote and inaccessible jungles, has until recently +been safe from the plume hunter. + +Now some of the foremost nations have passed laws for the protection of +many of the water and jungle birds, which, unfortunately for themselves, +are so beautiful that milady longs to have them for her bonnet. Nearly +all the states of our own land offer more or less protection to birds of +beautiful plumage. There is, however, much yet to be done, for in parts +of our country birds that should be protected are still at the mercy of +the plume hunter. + +The Migratory Bird Law recently passed by Congress is one of the most +important things which we have ever done for the birds. This law +protects the multitude of water birds as well as land birds, that +migrate with the changing seasons. It is especially important that all +such birds be protected in the regions where they nest. + +In the case of the water birds the nests are often grouped in colonies +in certain places and not scattered singly here and there as with most +land birds. Thus when a colony, say of the heron, tern, or flamingo, is +found it is very easy for the hunter to break it up and destroy all the +birds. Among the water birds the gulls, terns, grebes, herons, egrets, +osprey, flamingos, and pelicans have been so hunted for their plumes +that some of them are almost extinct. Several of these species love the +rocky coasts, where their nests are found upon the almost bare ledges of +the cliffs. Others establish colonies about the marshy lagoons of the +Gulf and South Atlantic coasts and about the marshy shore of the lakes +of the interior. + +During recent years many bird refuges have been established in various +parts of the country. Such refuges are now scattered all along the +Atlantic and Gulf coasts, as well as at various other localities +throughout the country which are favorite nesting places for the birds. +Some of these refuges have been established and are guarded by the +government; others have been donated by wealthy persons who love birds +and want to see them preserved. + + [Illustration: _E. R. Sanborn, N. Y. Zooelogical Society_ + A flock of wild duck.] + +The most beautiful of the water birds have been so relentlessly hunted +by the plume gatherers that at the time of the establishment of the +refuges some of them were almost extinct and it was feared the birds +would not be able to survive. But in most cases the effect of protection +was magical. The bird refuges in the Southern coast islands and marshes +which were almost deserted are now alive again with birds. Here we can +get some idea of the wonderful richness of life before the bird hunters +began their work. Even now, in spite of the watchful patrols, the +hunters sometimes succeed in getting at the colonies. In order to +insure full protection the refuges must be extended and more patrols +employed, for such is the value of the plumes that desperate men will +undergo great risks for the sake of obtaining them. + +In order fully to stop this work, all those countries where plumes are +in demand must forbid their sale. Only when there is no more demand can +we get rid of the hunters. + +In our efforts to protect bird life, we must not forget to take into +account the instincts of our friend Pussy. It hardly seems as though the +quiet house cat could do much harm, but if you will watch one out of +doors when the birds are around you will be convinced that Pussy is one +of the worst enemies that small birds have. Cats destroy many thousands +of birds throughout the country. It is believed that they each average +at least fifty birds killed every year. If you will multiply this number +by the number of cats in your neighborhood, you will get some idea of +the great losses among the birds due to the cats. We must choose between +Pussy and the birds. + +Arbor Day and Bird Day in our schools help call to mind the claims +Nature has upon us. We might celebrate them by planting trees which +furnish food that the birds like, for the trees and birds go together. + +How pleasant it will be when that happy time comes in which the wild +creatures will cease to regard man as their worst enemy! How pleasant it +will be to go out through the fields and woods and along the shores and +find that they look upon us as friends! + +THE PRECEPTOR'S PLEA FOR THE BIRDS + + Plato, anticipating the Reviewers, + From his Republic banished without pity + The Poets; in this little town of yours, + You put to death, by means of a Committee, + The ballad-singers and the Troubadours, + The street musicians of the heavenly city, + The birds, who make sweet music for us all + In our dark hours, as David did for Saul. + + The thrush that carols at the dawn of day + From the green steeples of the piny wood; + The oriole in the elm; the noisy jay, + Jargoning like a foreigner at his food; + The bluebird balanced on some topmost spray, + Flooding with melody the neighborhood; + Linnet and meadow lark, and all the throng + That dwell in nests, and have the gift of song. + + You slay them all! and wherefore? for the gain + Of a scant handful more or less of wheat, + Or rye, or barley, or some other grain, + Scratched up at random by industrious feet, + Searching for worm or weevil after rain! + Or a few cherries, that are not so sweet + As are the songs these uninvited guests + Sing at their feast with comfortable breasts. + + Do you ne'er think what wondrous beings these? + Do you ne'er think who made them, and who taught + The dialect they speak, where melodies + Alone are the interpreters of thought? + Whose household words are songs in many keys, + Sweeter than instrument of man e'er caught! + Whose habitations in the treetops even + Are halfway houses on the road to heaven! + + Think, every morning when the sun peeps through + The dim, leaf-latticed windows of the grove, + How jubilant the happy birds renew + Their old, melodious madrigals of love! + And when you think of this, remember too + 'Tis always morning somewhere, and above + The awakening continents, from shore to shore, + Somewhere the birds are singing evermore. + + Think of your woods and orchards without birds! + Of empty nests that cling to boughs and beams + As in an idiot's brain remembered words + Hang empty 'mid the cobwebs of his dreams! + Will bleat of flocks or bellowing of herds + Make up for the lost music, when your teams + Drag home the stingy harvest, and no more + The feathered gleaners follow to your door? + + What! would you rather see the incessant stir + Of insects in the windrows of the hay, + And hear the locust and the grasshopper + Their melancholy hurdy-gurdies play? + Is this more pleasant to you than the whir + Of meadow lark, and its sweet roundelay, + Or twitter of little fieldfares, as you take + Your nooning in the shade of bush and brake? + + You call them thieves and pillagers; but know + They are the winged wardens of your farms, + Who from the cornfields drive the insidious foe, + And from your harvests keep a hundred harms; + Even the blackest of them all, the crow, + Renders good service as your man-at-arms, + Crushing the beetle in his coat of mail, + And crying havoc on the slug and snail. + +HENRY W. LONGFELLOW, _The Birds of Killingworth_ + + + + +INDEX + + + Abandoned farms, 52. + Acacia tree, gum arabic made from, 95. + Adobe soil, 58. + AEolian soil, 66. + Africa, need for protection of animals in, 180. + Agassiz Associations, work of, 207. + Air, importance of pure, 10. + Alaska, protection of fish in waters about, 170. + Alkali soil, 59. + Alluvial soil, 64. + Animals, the first domestic, 5; + careless destruction of, 12, 49; + court of birds and, 188-194; + predatory, 203. + Antelope, disappearance of, 179; + in Yellowstone Park, 205. + Appalachian Forest, the, 133-134. + Arabs, life of the, 25. + Arbor Day, celebration of, 210; + Argentine ant, a plague, 153. + Australia, rabbits as pests in, 152. + Aztec Indians, 20. + + Bacteria in soil, 59-60. + Balance of nature, 151; + effects of upsetting, 151-154. + Barren Lands, 101. + Bears, in early times, 21; + in Yellowstone Park, 205. + Beaver, trapping of, 179; + protection of, 205. + Big trees of California, 49, 99. + Bird Day, observance of, 210. + Bird of paradise, nearly extinct, 187. + Bird refuges, 187, 208-209; + patrols for, 209-210. + Birds, 21; + extinct species of, 22; + destruction of, 49, 176-182; + hunting of, for millinery purposes, 183-187; + court of the, 188-194; + our good friends and pleasant companions, 195-202; + predatory, 203; + national protection of, 205-206. + Black bears, case of the, 192-193. + Blue jays, 189. + Bobolink, friends and enemies of, 189. + Bone, implements of, 3. + Boy Scouts, love of, for wild creatures, 207. + Broad-leaved and narrow-leaved trees, 98. + Bronze, making of, 5. + Browntail moth, 152. + Buffaloes, 21; + slaughter of, 177; + in Yellowstone Park, 205. + + California, forests of, 49, 98; + "big trees" of, 99. + California condor, disappearance of, 180. + Camp Fire Girls, love of, for wild creatures, 207. + Camping parties, forest fires started by, 122. + Canada, beaver in, 179. + Canada balsam, 93. + Canals, use of water for, 87. + Cats, killing of birds by, 210. + Chesapeake Bay, fisheries of, 167. + Chestnut-tree blight, 107. + China, results of destruction of vegetation in, 79-80. + Christmas decorations, 149. + Cigarettes, forest fires caused by, 122. + Citrus canker, 109. + "City on the Plain, The," 14. + Clay, a part of soil, 58. + Clay loam, 58. + Closed season for hunting, 205. + Coal, care necessary in use of, 12; + unequal distribution of, 27; + deposits and mining of, 155-156; + waste connected with, 156-157. + Cod fisheries, 170. + Codling moth, 153. + Colorado River, mud carried by, 73; + use of water of, for irrigation, 87. + Cone-bearing trees, 98; + enemies of, 110. + Conservation, meaning of, 8. + Conservation commissions, 138. + Coon, arguments for and against the, 193. + Cotton-boll weevil, 153. + Cougar, a predatory beast, 203. + Coyotes, killing of, 152; + defense of, 193. + Crater Lake National Park, 140. + + Deer, killed by cougars, 203. + Deltas of rivers, 43, 55; + alluvial soil in, 64. + Desert, results of lack of vegetation in the, 70-71. + Digger pines, 99. + Ducks, complaints of oyster farmers against, disproved, 194. + + Egrets, killing of, 185, 187. + Electricity, harnessing of, 8; + use of water for making, 88. + Elephant, urgent need of protection of, 181. + Elk, 21; + hunting of, 179; + feeding grounds of, 204. + English sparrow, 153; + should be driven out, 188. + Erie Canal, 87. + Eskimos, the, 25; + wood lacking among, 89. + + Farmers, great value of work of, 51. + Feldspar, rock grains called, 63. + Fertilizers, 11; + use of herring for, 167. + Field mice, plagues of, 151. + Fire, ignorance of early people concerning, 3; + discovery of, 3. + _See_ Forest fires. + Fish, caring for, 14; + protection needed by, 162-165. + Fish preserves, 169-170. + Fish traps, 22, 165-169. + Flamingos, killing of, 187. + Flowers, destruction of, 144-149. + Fool's gold, 63. + Forest fires, 110-111, 119-124; + steps taken by national government to prevent, 131-138. + Forest rangers, work of, 134-137. + Forests, effect of cutting down of, on birds, 22; + unequal distribution of, 26-27; + destruction of, 34; + effect of destruction of, on soil, 37-38, 40-42; + possible restoration of, 47-49; + importance of, to man, 89-95; + location of, 96-103; + special sources of damage to, 104-111; + various methods by which wasted, 112-118; + government protection of, 131-138; + National Parks and Forests as playgrounds, 139-143. + France, cutting of forests and careless pasturing in, 79. + Fruit trees, enemies of, 107, 109. + Fuel, use of wood for, 90; + use of peat for, 155. + Fur seals, destruction of, 165. + + Game preserves, 204-205. + Gas, waste connected with, 157-161. + Glacial soil, 65. + Goats, forests injured by, 111. + Grand Canon National Park, 140. + Grasshoppers, plagues of, 109, 151. + Great plains, 96. + Grizzly bears, destruction of, 179, 192; + in Yellowstone Park, 205. + Gusher in California oil field, 158, 159. + Gypsy moth, 106-107, 151. + + Hardwood trees, 98. + Hawks, arguments for and against, 189-190. + "Heart of the Tree, The," 139. + Hens, early ancestors of, 5. + Herons, hunting of, for their plumage, 185. + Herring, waste in capture of, 166-167. + Hessian fly, 153. + Houses, the first, 3. + Huckleberry shrub, cutting of, 147, 149. + Humming birds, use of skins of, for capes, 186. + Humus, in soil, 57; + destruction of, by forest fires, 123, 125. + + Indians, life of, 19-23; + uses found by, for wood, 90; + fishing methods of, 163. + Insect enemies of trees, 106, 109, 110, 152-154; + warfare waged against, by forest rangers, 136-137; + eaten by birds, 197-202. + "In the Heart of the Woods," 24. + Iron, found in quartz sand, 58. + Irrigation, storage of water for, 84, 85, 87. + Italy, results of destruction of forests in, 77, 79; + wild chestnuts valued in, 90; + scarcity of birds in, 196. + + Jays, arguments for and against, 189. + Jungle fowls, wild, 5. + Junior Audubon Societies, work of, 207. + + Klamath Lake, bird refuge about, 187. + Korea, results of destruction of vegetation in, 79-80; + dikes built along rivers in, 80. + + Lightning, an enemy of the forest, 110-111; + fires started by, 121. + Limestone soils, 59. + Loam, clay and sandy, 58. + Lobsters, protection of, 167. + Los Angeles, water supply of, 29-30. + Lumber, an important use of trees, 90. + Lumbering, waste of trees in, 114-118. + + Malheur Lake, bird refuge about, 187. + Maple sugar, 93. + Martins, insects eaten by, 199. + Meadow larks, 191-192. + Medicinal products from trees, 93, 95. + Metals, discovery of, 4-5. + Mica, in quartz sand, 58. + Migrations of birds, 205-206. + Migratory Bird Law, 200, 208. + Mills, the first, 7. + Mineral resources, destruction and new supply of, 49-50. + Mink, points against and in favor of, 193. + Mississippi Valley, rich prairies of, 53-54. + Mistletoe, an enemy of trees, 107. + Mocking bird, song of, 195. + Mongoose, as a pest, 153, 154. + Montenegro, results of destruction of soil in, 79. + + National Forests, 133-139. + National Parks, 19, 139-143; + are game preserves, 204-205. + Nets, catching of fish in, 167, 169. + New England, soil of, 51-53; + gypsy and browntail moths in, 152; + beaver in, 179. + Newfoundland banks, fisheries of, 170. + Nitrogen, in soil, 57; + stored in soil by plants, 77. + Norway rat, 153. + + Oil, waste connected with, 157-161. + Open season for hunting, 205. + Orange orchards, citrus canker in, 109. + Oregon, protection of beaver in, 179; + bird refuges in, 187. + Owens River aqueduct, 29. + Owls, good and bad points of, 190-191. + Oysters, raised on oyster farms, 167. + + Palestine, destruction of vegetation in, 79. + Panama Canal, 87. + Passenger pigeon, extermination of, 22, 180. + "Passing of the Forest, The," 130. + Pear blight, 109. + Peat, crumbling vegetation called, 57; + use of, for fuel, 155. + Peat soils, 58, 59, 66. + Phosphorus in soil, 59. + Pine beetles, 110. + Pinon pines, 99. + Plant food, 45, 60. + Plants, enemies of, 104-111. + Plumage, hunting of birds for, 183-187, 207-208. + Polar bear, protection needed by, 181. + Potash in soil, 59. + Powder, discovery of, 8. + Prairie chicken, disappearance of, 180. + "Preceptor's Plea for the Birds, The," 211-212. + Pueblo Indians, 19-20. + + Quail, need for protection of, to preserve from extinction, 180; + cheery call of, 195; + value and attractiveness of, 201; + insects eaten by, 202. + Quartz, in sand grains, 58. + Quinine, made from cinchona tree, 95. + + Rabbits, as pests, 152. + Rainier National Park, 140. + Rats, plagues of, 151. + Redwood trees, 99. + Refuges for birds, 22. + Residual soil, 64. + Rocks, soil made from, 58, 61-66. + Rocky Mountain sheep, in Yellowstone Park, 205. + Rubber trees, 93. + + Sage grouse, need for protection of, 180. + Salmon fisheries, 169-170. + San Joaquin Valley, 101. + San Jose scale, 109, 151, 153. + Santa Catalina Island, fish preserve about, 169. + Sea lions, 194. + Sea otter, destruction of, 22, 165; + protection of, by law, 179. + Seals, fur, 22; + hunting of, 165. + Sequoias, 99, 115. + Shad, decrease in numbers of, 169. + Sheep, damage done to forests by, 111. + Shingle makers, waste of trees by, 115. + Shore birds, value of, 200. + Sierra Nevadas, "big trees" on, 49; + changes in climate in ascent of, 101, 103; + usefulness of woodpeckers in, 199. + Silt, 75. + Skunks, friends and enemies of, 193. + Soda in soil, 59. + Soil, care of the, 11-12; + effect of destruction of forests upon, 37-38, 40-42; + renewal of, by nature, 45; + story of formation of, 51-56; + real wealth of world formed by, 56; + things of which made, 57-60; + plant food in, 60; + how made, 61-66; + how vegetation holds, 67-72; + our most valuable possession, 74; + evil effects upon, of no protecting carpet of vegetation, 74-80; + effect of, on growth of trees, 101. + Songbirds, hunting of, for their plumage, 185. + Southern states, destruction of soil in, 77; + turpentine from pine forests of, 93. + Spain, waste of resources of, 25-26; + results in, of loss of soil, 79; + treatment of birds in, 196. + Spruce forest, destruction of, by forest fires, 126. + Squirrels, nuts of trees eaten by, 109; + ground, as pests, 152. + Stone, implements of, 3. + Sturgeon, destructive fishing of, 167. + Subsoil, 64. + Sugar pines, 99; + nuts of, eaten by squirrels, 109; + careless cutting of, 115. + Swallows, insects eaten by, 199. + Switzerland, care of wood in, 93, 114. + Syria, destruction of vegetation in, 79. + + Tamarack forests, use of, 126. + Trees, destruction of, 12; + importance of, to man, 89-95; + distribution of, in United States, 96-103; + enemies of, 104-111; + the careless wasting of, 111-118. + Tundras of far North, 101. + Turpentine obtained from yellow pines, 93. + + Valley lands, 40, 42; + fertility of, 53; + alluvial soil in, 64. + Vegetation, holding of soil by, 67-72; + results of lack of, 73-80. + + Walrus, nearly extinct, 165. + Water, obtaining of pure, 10-11; + home of, the ocean, 81; + use and care of, 81-88. + Water creatures, need for protection of, 162-170. + Water power, use of, 157. + Water supply, effect upon, of cutting of forests, 127-129. + Weasels, defense of, 193. + White Mountain Forest, the, 134. + White-pine blister, 107. + Wild flowers, necessity for care of, 144-149. + Wind, effect of, on soil, 65-66; + an enemy of the forests, 110. + Wood alcohol, 117. + Woodpeckers, usefulness of, 198. + + Yangtse-kiang, soil carried away by, 80. + Yellow Sea, reason for name, 80. + Yellowstone National Park, 140; + a game preserve, 204-205; + animal life in, 205. + Yosemite National Park, 140. + + + + +_NEW-WORLD SCIENCE SERIES_ + +_Edited by John W. Ritchie_ + +TREES, STARS _and_ BIRDS + +A BOOK OF OUTDOOR SCIENCE + +By EDWIN LINCOLN MOSELEY + +_Head of the Science Department, State Normal College of Northwestern +Ohio_ + +The usefulness of nature study in the schools has been seriously limited +by the lack of a suitable textbook. It is to meet this need that _Trees, +Stars, and Birds_ is issued. The author is one of the most successful +teachers of outdoor science in this country. He believes in field +excursions, and his text is designed to help teachers and pupils in the +inquiries that they will make for themselves. + +The text deals with three phases of outdoor science that have a +perennial interest, and it will make the benefit of the author's long +and successful experience available to younger teachers. + +The first section deals with trees, and the discussion of maples is +typical: the student is reminded that he has eaten maple sugar; there is +an interesting account of its production; the fact is brought out that +the sugar is really made in the leaves. The stars and planets that all +should know are told about simply and clearly. The birds commonly met +with are considered, and their habits of feeding and nesting are +described. Pertinent questions are scattered throughout each section. + +The book is illustrated with 167 photographs, 69 drawings, 9 star maps, +and with 16 color plates of 58 birds, from paintings by Louis Agassiz +Fuertes. + +It is well adapted for use in junior high schools, yet the presentation +is simple enough for pupils in the sixth grade. + +_Cloth, viii + 404 + xvi pages. Price $1.60_ + + WORLD BOOK COMPANY + YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK + 2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO + + + + +[Illustration] + +ELIZABETH V. BROWN'S + +NATURE AND INDUSTRY READERS + +These books draw upon the world's best literature, and present +well-selected nature material and stories of industry. They are adapted +for use either as readers, or to supplement nature, geography, and +history lessons. + + +STORIES OF WOODS AND FIELDS + +Alluring stories of animals, with chapters on our national holidays For +fourth and fifth grades. + +Cloth. 192 pages. Illustrated in _colors_. Price 72 cents. + + +WHEN THE WORLD WAS YOUNG + +A fascinating story of the development of modern means of communication, +transportation, agriculture, etc. Affords material for supplementary +history lessons. For fifth or higher grades. + +Cloth. 160 pages. Illustrated. Price 64 cents. + + +STORIES OF CHILDHOOD AND NATURE + +Stories of unusual interest, by some of the greatest and most gifted +authors. Much of the material is of pronounced geographic value. For +fifth and sixth grades. + +Cloth. 222 pages. Illustrated. Price 68 cents. + +WORLD BOOK COMPANY +YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK +2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Conservation Reader, by Harold W. 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