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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Student's History of England, v. 1 (of 3),
+by  Samuel Rawson Gardiner
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Student's History of England, v. 1 (of 3)
+       From the earliest times to the Death of King Edward VII
+
+Author: Samuel Rawson Gardiner
+
+Release Date: February 23, 2009 [EBook #28157]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ENGLAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Darren Izzard, Christine P. Travers and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected, all
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling
+has been maintained.
+
+Each page of the original book had a side note stating the time span
+treated on that page. Those side notes have been deleted.
+
+Bold text has been marked with =.]
+
+
+
+
+STUDENT'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND
+
+
+_FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE DEATH OF KING EDWARD VII_
+
+
+BY
+
+
+SAMUEL R. GARDINER, D.C.L., LL.D.
+
+LATE FELLOW OF MERTON COLLEGE, OXFORD ETC.
+
+
+
+
+VOL. I.
+
+B.C. 55--A.D. 1509
+
+
+
+
+_NEW IMPRESSION (1915)_
+
+REISSUE
+
+  LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
+  39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
+  FOURTH AVENUE & 30th STREET, NEW YORK
+  BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, AND MADRAS
+  1916
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+WORKS BY SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER.
+
+
+HISTORY OF ENGLAND, from the Accession of James I. to the Outbreak of
+the Civil War, 1603-1642. With Maps. 10 vols. crown 8vo. 5_s._ net
+each.
+
+A HISTORY OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR, 1642-1649. With Maps. 4 vols. crown
+8vo. 5_s._ net each.
+
+A HISTORY OF THE COMMONWEALTH AND THE PROTECTORATE, 1649-1656. With
+Maps. 4 vols. crown 8vo. 5_s._ net each.
+
+THE LAST YEARS OF THE PROTECTORATE, 1656-1658. By CHARLES HARDING
+FIRTH, M.A., Regius Professor of Modern History in the University of
+Oxford. With 3 Plans. 2 vols. 8vo. 24_s._ net.
+
+A STUDENT'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. From the Earliest Times to the Death
+of King Edward VII.
+
+  Vol. I. B.C. 55-A.D. 1509. With 173 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 4_s._
+
+  Vol. II. 1509-1689. With 96 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 4_s._
+
+  Vol. III. 1689-1910. With 112 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 4_s._
+
+  _Complete in One Volume, with 381 Illustrations, crown 8vo. 12s._
+
+PREPARATORY QUESTIONS ON S. R. GARDINER'S STUDENT'S HISTORY OF
+ENGLAND. By R. SOMERVELL, M.A. Crown 8vo. 1_s._
+
+SUMMARY OF ENGLISH HISTORY, based on S. R. Gardiner's 'Outline of
+English History.' Brought down to the Accession of Edward VII. By W.
+REEP. Fcp. 8vo. 6_d._
+
+A SCHOOL ATLAS OF ENGLISH HISTORY. Edited by SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER,
+D.C.L., LL.D. With 66 Coloured Maps and 22 Plans of Battles and
+Sieges. Fcp. 4to. 5_s._
+
+LONGMANS' ELEMENTARY HISTORICAL ATLAS, abridged from S. R. Gardiner's
+'School Atlas of English History.' Post 4to. 1_s._
+
+CROMWELL'S PLACE IN HISTORY. Founded on Six Lectures delivered at
+Oxford. Crown 8vo. 3_s._ 6_d._
+
+OLIVER CROMWELL. With Portrait. Crown 8vo. 5_s._ net.
+
+THE FIRST TWO STUARTS AND THE PURITAN REVOLUTION, 1603-1660. 4 Maps.
+Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR, 1618-1648. With a Map. Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+OUTLINE OF ENGLISH HISTORY, B.C. 55-A.D. 1910. With 67 Woodcuts and 17
+Maps. Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, 1789-1795. By Mrs. S. R. GARDINER. With 7 Maps.
+Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO., 39 Paternoster Row, London, New York, Bombay,
+Calcutta, and Madras.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION
+
+
+The present work is intended for such students as have already an
+elementary knowledge of the main facts of English history, and aims at
+meeting their needs by the use of plain language on the one hand, and
+by the avoidance, on the other hand, of that multiplicity of details
+which is apt to overburden the memory.
+
+At the close of the book I have treated the last eleven years, 1874 to
+1885, in a manner which precludes all expression of my own views,
+either on the characters of the actors or on the value of the work
+performed by them; and something of the same reticence will be
+observed in the pages dealing with the years immediately preceding
+1874. We have not the material before us for the formation of a final
+judgment on many points arising in the course of the narrative, and it
+is therefore better to abstain from the expression of decided opinion,
+except on matters so completely before the public as to leave no room
+for hesitation. Especially is this rule to be observed in a book
+addressed to those who are not yet at an age when independent
+investigation is possible.
+
+I hope it will be understood that in my mention of various authors I
+have had no intention of writing a history of literature, however
+brief. My object has been throughout to exhibit that side of
+literature which connects itself with the general political or
+intellectual movement of the country, and to leave unnoticed the
+purely literary or scientific qualities of the writers mentioned. This
+will explain, for instance, the total omission of the name of Roger
+Bacon, and the brief and, if regarded from a different point of view,
+the very unsatisfactory treatment of writers like Dickens and
+Thackeray.
+
+Those of my readers who have complained that no maps were to be found
+in the book may now be referred to a 'School Atlas of English
+History,' recently edited by me for Messrs. Longmans & Co. To include
+an adequate number of maps in this volume would have increased its
+size beyond all fitting limits.
+
+In the spelling of Indian names I have not adopted the modern and
+improved system of transliteration. Admirable as it is when used by
+those who are able to give the right sound to each letter, it only
+leads to mispronunciation in the mouths of those who are, as most of
+the readers of this volume will be, entirely in the dark on this
+point. The old rough method of our fathers at least ensures a fair
+approximation to the true pronunciation.
+
+My warmest thanks are due to Mr. GEORGE NUTT, of Rugby, and to the
+Rev. W. HUNT. Mr. NUTT not only looked over the proof-sheets up to the
+death of Edward I. with excellent results, but gave me most valuable
+advice as to the general arrangement of the book, founded on his own
+long experience of scholastic teaching. The Rev. W. HUNT looked over a
+considerable portion of the remaining proof-sheets, and called my
+attention to several errors and omissions which had escaped my eye.
+
+The illustrations have been selected by Mr. W. H. ST. JOHN HOPE,
+Assistant-Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries. He wishes to
+acknowledge much valuable assistance given to him in the choice of
+portraits by GEORGE SCHARF, Esq., C.B., F.S.A., who is recognised as
+the highest authority on the subject.
+
+I am indebted to Her Majesty the QUEEN for permission to engrave two
+of the portraits appearing in the following pages--viz., those of
+Bishop Fisher, on p. 393, and the Duke of Norfolk, on p. 410--the
+originals in both cases being at Windsor Castle.
+
+I have to thank Earl SPENCER for permission to engrave the portrait on
+p. 362; the Earl of ESSEX for that on p. 476; the Earl of WARWICK for
+that on p. 403; the Earl of CARLISLE for that on p. 459; the Viscount
+DILLON, F.S.A., for that on p. 376; the Hon Sir SPENCER PONSONBY-FANE,
+K.C.B., for that on p. 365; Sir JOHN FARNABY LENNARD, Bart., for that
+on p. 463; Dr. EVANS for those on pp. 2, 4, 6; EDWARD HUTH, Esq., for
+that on p. 387; Mrs. DENT, of Sudeley, for that on p. 395; H. HUCKS
+GIBBS, Esq., for that on p. 419; T. A. HOPE, Esq., for that on p. 487;
+E. B. NICHOLSON, Esq., for the portrait of Lord Burghley in the
+Bodleian Library, Oxford, engraved at p. 479; the authorities of the
+University of Cambridge for that on p. 477; of Jesus College,
+Cambridge, for that on p. 414; and of Sidney Sussex College,
+Cambridge, for that on p. 567; and the Treasurer of Christ's Hospital,
+London, for the portrait of Charles II. on p. 579. I have also to
+thank Mr. JOHN MURRAY for permission to engrave the figures on pp.
+130, 150, 160, 166, 177, 188, 260; Messrs. PARKER & Co., Oxford, for
+those on pp. 19, 51, 75, 91, 107, 128, 170, 192, 197, 230, 245, 246,
+247, 253, 409, 451; Mr. W. NIVES for those at pp. 381, 409, 451; Mr.
+J. G. WALLER for those on pp. 219, 229, 292, 298, 515; Mr. BRUCE for
+those on pp. 17, 18, 21; Messrs. POULTON & SONS, Lee, for those on pp.
+7, 132; Mr. G. A. NICHOLS, Stamford, for those on pp. 311, 316, Mr.
+G. T. CLARKE, for that on p. 74; Messrs. CARL NORMAN & Co., Tunbridge
+Wells, for that on p. 171; Mr. R. KEENE, Derby, for that on p. 318;
+the Rev. H. H. HENSON, Vicar of Barking, Essex, for the photograph of
+the monument of Sir Charles Montague on p. 507; the Science and Art
+Department for those on pp. 371, 440, 518, 612; Mr. W. H. WHEELER, of
+Oxford, for those on pp. 319, 384; Messrs. VALENTINE & SONS, Dundee,
+for those on pp. 109, 206, 213, 238, 244, 276, 355, 378, 485, 662,
+666, 668, 683, 907, 919, 937, 942; and Mr. R. KEENE, Derby, for those
+on pp. 466, 467, 469, 471.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME
+
+
+PART I.
+
+_ENGLAND BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST._
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+PREHISTORIC AND ROMAN BRITAIN.
+                                                             PAGE
+
+   1. Palæolithic Man of the River-Drift                        1
+
+   2. Cave-dwelling Palæolithic Man                             2
+
+   3. Neolithic Man                                             3
+
+   4. Celts and Iberians                                        5
+
+   5. The Celts in Britain                                      6
+
+   6. Goidels and Britons                                       6
+
+   7. Phoenicians and Greeks                                    7
+
+   8. Gauls and Belgians in Britain                             8
+
+   9. Culture and War                                           9
+
+  10. Religion of the Britons                                  10
+
+  11. The Romans in Gaul B.C. 55                               10
+
+  12. Cæsar's First Invasion. B.C. 55                          11
+
+  13. Cæsar's Second Invasion. B.C. 54                         11
+
+  14. South-eastern Britain after Cæsar's Departure.
+      B.C. 54--A.D. 43                                         12
+
+  15. The Roman Empire                                         12
+
+  16. The Invasion of Aulus Plautius. A.D. 43                  12
+
+  17. The Colony of Camulodunum                                13
+
+  18. The Conquests of Ostorius Scapula                        14
+
+  19. Government of Suetonius Paullinus. 58                    14
+
+  20. Boadicea's Insurrection. 61                              15
+
+  21. The Vengeance of Suetonius                               15
+
+  22. Agricola in Britain. 78--84                              16
+
+  23. Agricola's Conquests in the North                        16
+
+  24. The Roman Walls                                          17
+
+  25. The Roman Province of Britain                            19
+
+  26. Extinction of Tribal Antagonism                          21
+
+  27. Want of National Feeling                                 22
+
+  28. Carausius and Allectus. 288--296                         22
+
+  29. Constantius and Constantine. 296--337                    22
+
+  30. Christianity in Britain                                  23
+
+  31. Weakness of the Empire                                   23
+
+  32. The Picts and Scots                                      23
+
+  33. The Saxons                                               24
+
+  34. Origin of the Saxons                                     24
+
+  35. The Roman Defence                                        24
+
+  36. End of the Roman Government. 383--410                    25
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS.
+
+   1. Britain after the Departure of the Romans.
+      410--449?                                                26
+
+   2. The Groans of the Britons                                26
+
+   3. The Conquest of Kent. 449?                               27
+
+   4. The South Saxons. 477                                    27
+
+   5. The West Saxons and the East Saxons                      28
+
+   6. The Anglian Settlements                                  28
+
+   7. Nature of the Conquest                                   28
+
+   8. The Cultivators of the Soil                              29
+
+   9. Eorls, Ceorls, Gesiths                                   29
+
+  10. The Gesiths and the Villagers                            30
+
+  11. English and Welsh                                        31
+
+  12. The Township and the Hundred                             31
+
+  13. Weregild                                                 32
+
+  14. Compurgation and Ordeal                                  32
+
+  15. Punishments                                              32
+
+  16. The Folk-moot                                            33
+
+  17. The Kingship                                             33
+
+  18. The Legend of Arthur                                     33
+
+  19. The West Saxon Advance                                   34
+
+  20. Repulse of the West Saxons                               35
+
+  21. The Advance of the Angles                                36
+
+  22. The Kymry                                                36
+
+  23. Britain at the End of the Sixth Century                  37
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE STRIFE OF THE ENGLISH KINGDOMS.
+
+   1. England and the Continent                                37
+
+   2. Æthelberht's Supremacy                                   38
+
+   3. Gregory and the English                                  38
+
+   4. Augustine's Mission. 597                                 39
+
+   5. Monastic Christianity                                    39
+
+   6. The Archbishopric of Canterbury                          40
+
+   7. Death of Æthelberht. 616                                 41
+
+   8. The Three Kingdoms opposed to the Welsh                  41
+
+   9. Æthelfrith and the Kymry                                 41
+
+  10. Æthelfrith's Victories                                   42
+
+  11. The Greatness of Eadwine                                 43
+
+  12. Eadwine's Supremacy                                      44
+
+  13. Character of the later Conquests                         44
+
+  14. Political Changes                                        45
+
+  15. Eadwine's Conversion and Fall                            46
+
+  16. Oswald's Victory at Heavenfield                          47
+
+  17. Oswald and Aidan                                         47
+
+  18. Oswald's Greatness and Overthrow                         47
+
+  19. Penda's Overthrow                                        48
+
+  20. The Three Kingdoms and the Welsh                         48
+
+  21. The English Missionaries                                 49
+
+  22. Dispute between Wilfrid and Colman. 664                  49
+
+  23. Archbishop Theodore and the Penitential System           50
+
+  24. Ealdhelm and Cædmon                                      51
+
+  25. Bede. 673--735                                           52
+
+  26. Church Councils                                          52
+
+  27. Struggle between Mercia and Wessex                       52
+
+  28. Mohammedanism and the Carolingian Empire                 54
+
+  29. Ecgberht's Rule. 802--839                                54
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP AND THE STRUGGLE WITH THE DANES.
+
+   1. The West Saxon Supremacy                                 55
+
+   2. The Coming of the Northmen                               56
+
+   3. The English Coast Plundered                              57
+
+   4. The Danes in the North                                   57
+
+   5. Ælfred's Struggle in Wessex. 871--878                    58
+
+   6. The Treaty of Chippenham, and its Results. 878           59
+
+   7. Ælfred's Military Work                                   60
+
+   8. His Laws and Scholarship                                 60
+
+   9. Eadward the Elder. 899--925                              62
+
+  10. Eadward's Conquests                                      62
+
+  11. Eadward and the Scots                                    63
+
+  12. Æthelstan. 925--940                                      63
+
+  13. Eadmund (940--946) and Eadred (946--955)                 63
+
+  14. Danes and English                                        64
+
+  15. Eadwig. 955--959                                         64
+
+  16. Dunstan                                                  65
+
+  17. Archbishop Oda                                           65
+
+  18. Eadwig's Marriage                                        67
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+EADGAR'S ENGLAND.
+
+   1. Eadgar and Dunstan. 959--975                             67
+
+   2. The Cession of Lothian                                   68
+
+   3. Changes in English Institutions                          69
+
+   4. Growth of the King's Power                               69
+
+   5. Conversion of the Freemen into Serfs                     69
+
+   6. The Hundred-moot and the Lord's Court                    72
+
+   7. The Towns                                                72
+
+   8. The Origin of the Shires                                 73
+
+   9. The Shire-moot                                           73
+
+  10. The Ealdormen and the Witenagemot                        73
+
+  11. The Land                                                 75
+
+  12. Domestic Life                                            75
+
+  13. Food and Drink                                           75
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ENGLAND AND NORMANDY.
+
+   1. Eadward the Martyr. 975--979                             78
+
+   2. Æthelred's Early Years. 979--988                         79
+
+   3. The Return of the Danes. 984                             79
+
+   4. The Norman Dukes. 912--1002                              80
+
+   5. Political Contrast between Normandy and England          81
+
+   6. Svend's Conquest. 1002--1013                             81
+
+   7. Æthelred Restored. 1014--1016                            82
+
+   8. Eadmund Ironside. 1016                                   83
+
+   9. Cnut and the Earldoms. 1016--1035                        83
+
+  10. Cnut's Empire                                            84
+
+  11. Cnut's Government                                        84
+
+  12. The Sons of Cnut. 1035--1042                             85
+
+  13. Eadward the Confessor and Earl Godwine.
+      1042--1051                                               86
+
+  14. The Banishment of Godwine. 1051                          87
+
+  15. Visit of Duke William. 1051                              88
+
+  16. William and the Norman Church                            88
+
+  17. The Return and Death of Godwine. 1052--1053              89
+
+  18. Harold's Greatness. 1053--1066                           89
+
+  19. Harold and Eadward. 1057--1065                           90
+
+  20. Death of Eadward. 1066                                   90
+
+  21. Harold and William. 1066                                 91
+
+  22. Stamford Bridge. 1066                                    93
+
+  23. The Landing of William. 1066                             96
+
+  24. The Battle of Senlac. 1066                               96
+
+  25. William's Coronation. 1066                               98
+
+
+PART II.
+
+_THE NORMAN AND ANGEVIN KINGS._
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+WILLIAM I. 1066--1087.
+
+   1. The First Months of the Conquest. 1066--1067            101
+
+   2. The Conquest of the West and North. 1067--1069          102
+
+   3. The Completion of the Conquest. 1070                    103
+
+   4. Hereward's Revolt and the Homage of Malcolm.
+      1070--1072                                              103
+
+   5. How William kept down the English                       104
+
+   6. How William kept down the Normans                       105
+
+   7. Ecclesiastical Organisation.                            106
+
+   8. Pope Gregory VII.                                       107
+
+   9. William and Gregory VII.                                108
+
+  10. The Rising of the Earls. 1075                           110
+
+  11. The New Forest                                          110
+
+  12. Domesday Book. 1085--1086                               111
+
+  13. William's Great Councils                                112
+
+  14. The Gemot at Salisbury. 1086                            113
+
+  15. William's Death. 1087                                   114
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+WILLIAM II. 1087--1100.
+
+   1. The Accession of the Red King. 1087                     114
+
+   2. The Wickedness of the Red King                          115
+
+   3. Ranulf Flambard                                         116
+
+   4. Feudal Dues                                             116
+
+   5. Archbishop Anselm                                       117
+
+   6. The Council of Rockingham. 1095                         118
+
+   7. William II. and his Brothers                            118
+
+   8. William and Scotland. 1093--1094                        119
+
+   9. Mowbray's Rebellion. 1095                               120
+
+  10. The First Crusade. 1095--1099                           120
+
+  11. Normandy in Pledge. 1096                                121
+
+  12. The Last Years of the Red King                          121
+
+  13. The Death of the Red King. 1100                         122
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+HENRY I. AND STEPHEN.
+
+HENRY I., 1100--1135. STEPHEN, 1135--1154.
+
+   1. The Accession of Henry I. 1100                          122
+
+   2. Invasion of Robert. 1101                                124
+
+   3. Revolt of Robert of Bellême. 1102                       124
+
+   4. The Battle of Tinchebrai. 1106                          124
+
+   5. Henry and Anselm. 1100--1107                            125
+
+   6. Roger of Salisbury                                      126
+
+   7. Growth of Trade                                         127
+
+   8. The Benedictines                                        128
+
+   9. The Cistercians                                         129
+
+  10. The White Ship                                          129
+
+  11. The Last Years of Henry I.                              131
+
+  12. Stephen's Accession. 1135                               131
+
+  13. Civil War                                               133
+
+  14. Stephen's Quarrel with the Clergy. 1139                 134
+
+  15. Anarchy. 1139                                           134
+
+  16. The End of the War. 1141--1148                          135
+
+  17. Henry, Duke of the Normans. 1149                        136
+
+  18. The Last Days of Stephen. 1153--1154                    137
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+HENRY II. 1154--1189.
+
+   1. Henry's Accession. 1154                                 138
+
+   2. Pacification of England                                 138
+
+   3. Henry and Feudality                                     140
+
+   4. The Great Council and the Curia Regis                   141
+
+   5. Scutage                                                 141
+
+   6. Archbishop Thomas. 1162                                 142
+
+   7. Breach between Henry and Thomas                         143
+
+   8. The Constitutions of Clarendon. 1164                    143
+
+   9. The Persecution of Archbishop Thomas. 1164              145
+
+  10. The Assize of Clarendon. 1166                           146
+
+  11. Recognitions                                            147
+
+  12. The Germ of the Jury                                    147
+
+  13. The Itinerant Justices Revived                          148
+
+  14. The Inquisition of the Sheriffs. 1170                   148
+
+  15. The Nobles and the Church                               149
+
+  16. The Coronation of Young Henry. 1170                     149
+
+  17. The Return of Archbishop Thomas. 1170                   149
+
+  18. Murder of Archbishop Thomas. 1170                       149
+
+  19. Popular Indignation. 1171                               151
+
+  20. State of Ireland                                        151
+
+  21. Partial Conquest of Ireland. 1166--1172                 152
+
+  22. Young Henry's Coronation and the Revolt of
+      the Barons. 1172--1174                                  153
+
+  23. The Assize of Arms. 1181                                154
+
+  24. Henry II. and his Sons                                  155
+
+  25. The Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. 1187              156
+
+  26. The Last Years of Henry II. 1188--1189                  157
+
+  27. The Work of Henry II.                                   157
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+RICHARD I. 1189--1199.
+
+   1. Richard in England. 1189                                159
+
+   2. William of Longchamps. 1189--1191                       159
+
+   3. The Third Crusade. 1189--1192                           161
+
+   4. The Return of Richard. 1192--1194                       161
+
+   5. Heavy Taxation                                          162
+
+   6. The Administration of Hubert Walter. 1194--1198         163
+
+   7. Death of Richard. 1199                                  165
+
+   8. Church and State under the Angevin Kings                165
+
+   9. Growth of Learning                                      167
+
+  10. The University of Oxford                                167
+
+  11. Country and Town                                        168
+
+  12. Condition of London                                     169
+
+  13. Architectural Changes                                   170
+
+
+PART III.
+
+_THE GROWTH OF THE PARLIAMENTARY CONSTITUTION._ 1199-1399.
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+JOHN. 1199-1216.
+
+   1. The Accession of John. 1199                             173
+
+   2. John's First War with Philip II. 1199-1200              173
+
+   3. John's Misconduct in Poitou 1200-1201                   174
+
+   4. The Loss of Normandy and Anjou. 1202-1204               174
+
+   5. Causes of Philip's Success                              176
+
+   6. The Election of Stephen Langton to the
+      Archbishopric of Canterbury. 1205                       176
+
+   7. Innocent III. and Stephen Langton. 1206                 177
+
+   8. John's Quarrel with the Church. 1206-1208               178
+
+   9. England under an Interdict. 1208                        178
+
+  10. John Excommunicated. 1209                               178
+
+  11. The Pope threatens John with Deposition.
+      1212-1213                                               179
+
+  12. John's Submission. 1213                                 180
+
+  13. The Resistance of the Barons and Clergy. 1213           180
+
+  14. The Battle of Bouvines. 1214                            181
+
+  15. The Struggle between John and the Barons.
+      1214-1215                                               181
+
+  16. Magna Carta. 1215                                       182
+
+  17. War between John and the Barons. 1215-1216              184
+
+  18. Conflict between Louis and John. 1216                   184
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+HENRY III. 1216-1272.
+
+   1. Henry III. and Louis. 1216-1217                         185
+
+   2. The Renewal of the Great Charter. 1216-1217             185
+
+   3. Administration of Hubert de Burgh. 1219-1232            186
+
+   4. Administration of Peter des Roches. 1232-1234           188
+
+   5. Francis of Assisi                                       190
+
+   6. St. Dominic                                             190
+
+   7. The Coming of the Friars. 1220-1224                     191
+
+   8. Monks and Friars                                        191
+
+   9. The King's Marriage. 1236                               192
+
+  10. The Early Career of Simon de Montfort.
+      1231-1243                                               193
+
+  11. Papal Exactions. 1237-1243                              194
+
+  12. A Weak Parliamentary Opposition. 1244                   194
+
+  13. Growing Discontent. 1244-1254                           195
+
+  14. The Knights of the Shire in Parliament. 1254            196
+
+  15. Fresh Exactions. 1254-1257                              196
+
+  16. The Provisions of Oxford. 1258                          198
+
+  17. The Expulsion of the Foreigners. 1258                   199
+
+  18. Edward and the Barons. 1259                             199
+
+  19. The Breach amongst the Barons. 1259--1261               199
+
+  20. Royalist Reaction and Civil War. 1261                   200
+
+  21. The Mise of Amiens. 1264                                200
+
+  22. The Battle of Lewes. 1264                               201
+
+  23. Earl Simon's Government. 1264--1265                     201
+
+  24. The Battle of Evesham. 1265                             203
+
+  25. The Last Years of Henry III. 1265--1272                 204
+
+  26. General Progress of the Country                         206
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+EDWARD I. AND EDWARD II.
+
+EDWARD I., 1272--1307. EDWARD II., 1307--1327.
+
+   1. The First Years of Edward I. 1272--1279                 208
+
+   2. Edward I. and Wales. 1276--1284                         210
+
+   3. Customs Duties. 1275                                    210
+
+   4. Edward's Judicial Reforms. 1274--1290                   212
+
+   5. Edward's Legislation. 1279--1290                        212
+
+   6. Edward as a National and as a Feudal Ruler              212
+
+   7. The Scottish Succession. 1285--1290                     214
+
+   8. Death of Eleanor of Castile. 1290                       214
+
+   9. The Award of Norham. 1291--1292                         215
+
+  10. Disputes with Scotland and France. 1293--1295           216
+
+  11. The Model Parliament. 1295                              218
+
+  12. The First Conquest of Scotland. 1296                    219
+
+  13. The Resistance of Archbishop Winchelsey.
+      1296--1297                                              220
+
+  14. The 'Confirmatio Cartarum.' 1297                        220
+
+  15. Wallace's Rising. 1297--1304                            221
+
+  16. The Second Conquest of Scotland. 1298--1304             221
+
+  17. The Incorporation of Scotland with England. 1305        222
+
+  18. Character of Edward's Dealings with Scotland            222
+
+  19. Robert Bruce. 1306                                      223
+
+  20. Edward's Third Conquest of Scotland and Death.
+      1306--1307                                              224
+
+  21. Edward II. and Piers Gaveston. 1307--1312               224
+
+  22. Success of Robert Bruce. 1307--1314                     226
+
+  23. Lancaster's Government. 1314--1322                      228
+
+  24. A Constitutional Settlement. 1322                       228
+
+  25. The Rule of the Despensers. 1322--1326                  228
+
+  26. The Deposition and Murder of Edward II. 1327            229
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD III. TO THE TREATY OF BRETIGNI.
+
+1327--1360.
+
+   1. Mortimer's Government. 1327--1330                       231
+
+   2. The French Succession. 1328--1331                       232
+
+   3. Troubles in Scotland. 1331--1336                        232
+
+   4. Dispute with France. 1336--1337                         234
+
+   5. Edward's Allies. 1337--1338                             235
+
+   6. Chivalry and War                                        235
+
+   7. Commerce and War                                        236
+
+   8. Attacks on the North of France. 1338--1340              237
+
+   9. Battle of Sluys. 1340                                   239
+
+  10. Attacks on the West of France. 1341--1345               240
+
+  11. The Campaign of Creçy. 1346                             240
+
+  12. The Tactics of Creçy. 1346                              241
+
+  13. The Battle of Creçy. August 26, 1346                    242
+
+  14. Battle of Nevill's Cross, and the Siege of
+      Calais. 1346--1347                                      242
+
+  15. Constitutional Progress. 1337--1347                     243
+
+  16. Edward's Triumph. 1347                                  246
+
+  17. The Black Death. 1348                                   248
+
+  18. The Statute of Labourers. 1351                          248
+
+  19. The Statute of Treasons. 1352                           250
+
+  20. The Black Prince in the South of France. 1355           251
+
+  21. The Battle of Poitiers. 1356                            251
+
+  22. The Courtesy of the Black Prince                        252
+
+  23. Misery of France. 1356--1359                            252
+
+  24. Edward's Last Invasion. 1359--1360                      252
+
+  25. The Treaty of Bretigni. 1360                            253
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+REIGN OF EDWARD III. AFTER THE TREATY OF BRETIGNI.
+
+1360--1377.
+
+   1. The First Years of Peace. 1360--1364                    254
+
+   2. The Spanish Troubles. 1364--1368                        254
+
+   3. The Taxation of Aquitaine. 1368--1369                   256
+
+   4. The Renewed War. 1369--1375                             256
+
+   5. Anti-Papal Legislation. 1351--1366                      257
+
+   6. Predominance of the English Language                    258
+
+   7. Piers the Plowman. 1362                                 258
+
+   8. The Anti-Clerical Party. 1371                           259
+
+   9. The Duke of Lancaster. 1374--1376                       260
+
+  10. John Wycliffe. 1366--1376                               261
+
+  11. Lancaster and the Black Prince. 1376                    261
+
+  12. The Good Parliament. 1376                               262
+
+  13. The Last Year of Edward III. 1376--1377                 262
+
+  14. Ireland from the Reign of John to that of
+      Edward II.                                              264
+
+  15. The Statute of Kilkenny. 1367                           265
+
+  16. Weakness of the English Colony. 1367--1377              265
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+RICHARD II. AND THE SOCIAL REVOLUTION.
+
+1377--1381.
+
+   1. The First Years of Richard II. 1377--1378               266
+
+   2. Wycliffe and the Great Schism. 1378--1381               266
+
+   3. The Poll Taxes. 1379--1381                              267
+
+   4. The Peasants' Grievances                                268
+
+   5. The Peasants' Revolt. 1381                              268
+
+   6. The Suppression of the Revolt                           269
+
+   7. Results of the Peasants' Revolt                         269
+
+   8. Chaucer's 'Canterbury Tales'                            270
+
+   9. The Prologue of the 'Canterbury Tales'                  270
+
+  10. Chaucer and the Clergy                                  271
+
+  11. Roads and Bridges                                       272
+
+  12. Modes of Conveyance                                     273
+
+  13. Hospitality and Inns                                    274
+
+  14. Alehouses                                               274
+
+  15. Wanderers                                               274
+
+  16. Robbers and Criminals                                   275
+
+  17. Justices of the Peace                                   277
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+RICHARD II. AND THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION.
+
+1382--1399.
+
+   1. Progress of the War with France. 1382--1386             278
+
+   2. Richard's Growing Unpopularity. 1385--1386              278
+
+   3. The Impeachment of Suffolk and the Commission
+      of Regency. 1386                                        279
+
+   4. The Lords Appellant and the Merciless Parliament.
+      1387--1388                                              279
+
+   5. Richard's Restoration to Power. 1389                    280
+
+   6. Richard's Constitutional Government. 1389--1396         280
+
+   7. Livery and Maintenance. 1390                            281
+
+   8. Richard's Domestic Policy. 1390--1391                   281
+
+   9. Richard's Foreign Policy. 1389--1396                    282
+
+  10. Richard's Coup d'État. 1397                             282
+
+  11. The Parliament of Shrewsbury. 1398                      283
+
+  12. The Banishment of Hereford and Norfolk. 1398            283
+
+  13. Richard's Despotism. 1398--1399                         283
+
+  14. Henry of Lancaster in England. 1399                     284
+
+  15. The Deposition of Richard and the Enthronement
+      of Henry IV. 1399                                       285
+
+  16. Nature of the Claim of Henry IV.                        286
+
+
+PART IV.
+
+_LANCASTER, YORK, AND TUDOR._ 1399--1509.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+HENRY IV. AND HENRY V.
+
+HENRY IV., 1399--1413. HENRY V., 1413--1422.
+
+   1. Henry's First Difficulties. 1399--1400                  289
+
+   2. Death of Richard II. 1400                               291
+
+   3. Henry IV. and the Church                                291
+
+   4. The Statute for the Burning of Heretics. 1401           292
+
+   5. Henry IV. and Owen Glendower. 1400--1402                292
+
+   6. The Rebellion of the Percies. 1402--1404                293
+
+   7. The Commons and the Church. 1404                        294
+
+   8. The Capture of the Scottish Prince. 1405                295
+
+   9. The Execution of Archbishop Scrope. 1405                296
+
+  10. France, Wales, and the North. 1405--1408                296
+
+  11. Henry, Prince of Wales. 1409--1410                      297
+
+  12. The Last Years of Henry IV. 1411-1413                   298
+
+  13. Henry V. and the Lollards. 1413-1414                    299
+
+  14. Henry's Claim to the Throne of France. 1414             300
+
+  15. The Invasion of France. 1415                            301
+
+  16. The March to Agincourt. 1415                            302
+
+  17. The Battle of Agincourt, October 25, 1415               302
+
+  18. Henry's Diplomacy. 1416-1417                            303
+
+  19. Henry's Conquest of Normandy. 1417-1419                 303
+
+  20. The Murder of the Duke of Burgundy and the
+      Treaty of Troyes. 1419-1420                             304
+
+  21. The Close of the Reign of Henry V. 1420-1422            306
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+HENRY VI. AND THE LOSS OF FRANCE. 1422-1451.
+
+   1. Bedford and Gloucester. 1422                            307
+
+   2. Bedford's Success in France. 1423-1424                  307
+
+   3. Gloucester's Invasion of Hainault. 1424                 308
+
+   4. Gloucester and Beaufort. 1425-1428                      308
+
+   5. The Siege of Orleans. 1428-1429                         309
+
+   6. Jeanne Darc and the Relief of Orleans. 1429             310
+
+   7. The Coronation of Charles VII. and the Capture
+      of the Maid. 1429-1430                                  311
+
+   8. The Martyrdom at Rouen. 1431                            312
+
+   9. The Last Years of the Duke of Bedford. 1431-1435        312
+
+  10. The Defection of Burgundy. 1435                         313
+
+  11. The Duke of York in France. 1436-1437                   313
+
+  12. The English Lose Ground. 1437-1443                      313
+
+  13. Continued Rivalry of Beaufort and Gloucester.
+      1439-1441                                               314
+
+  14. Beaufort and Somerset. 1442-1443                        317
+
+  15. The Angevin Marriage Treaty. 1444-1445                  317
+
+  16. Deaths of Gloucester and Beaufort. 1447                 318
+
+  17. The Loss of the French Provinces. 1448-1449             318
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+THE LATER YEARS OF HENRY VI. 1450-1461.
+
+   1. The Growth of Inclosures                                320
+
+   2. Increasing Power of the Nobility                        321
+
+   3. Case of Lord Molynes and John Paston                    321
+
+   4. Suffolk's Impeachment and Murder. 1450                  322
+
+   5. Jack Cade's Rebellion. 1450                             322
+
+   6. Rivalry of York and Somerset. 1450-1453                 323
+
+   7. The First Protectorate of the Duke of York.
+      1453-1454                                               323
+
+   8. The First Battle of St. Albans and the Duke
+      of York's Second Protectorate                           324
+
+   9. Discomfiture of the Yorkists. 1456-1459                 325
+
+  10. The Battle of Northampton and the Duke of
+      York's Claim to the Throne. 1460                        326
+
+  11. The Battle of Wakefield. 1460                           327
+
+  12. The Battle of Mortimer's Cross and the Second
+      Battle of St. Albans. 1461                              328
+
+  13. The Battle of Towton and the Coronation of
+      Edward IV. 1461                                         328
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+THE YORKIST KINGS.
+
+1461--1485.
+
+   1. Edward IV. and the House of Commons. 1461               329
+
+   2. Loss of the Mediæval Ideals                             330
+
+   3. Fresh Efforts of the Lancastrians. 1462--1465           331
+
+   4. Edward's Marriage. 1464                                 331
+
+   5. Estrangement of Warwick. 1465--1468                     332
+
+   6. Warwick's Alliance with Clarence. 1469--1470            332
+
+   7. The Restoration of Henry VI. 1470                       333
+
+   8. Edward IV. recovers the Throne. 1471                    334
+
+   9. Edward IV. prepares for War with France.
+      1471--1474                                              334
+
+  10. The Invasion of France. 1475                            336
+
+  11. Fall and Death of Clarence. 1476--1478                  336
+
+  12. The Last Years of Edward IV. 1478--1483                 336
+
+  13. Edward V. and the Duke of Gloucester. 1483              337
+
+  14. Fall of the Queen's Relations. 1483                     338
+
+  15. Execution of Lord Hastings                              338
+
+  16. Deposition of Edward V. 1483                            340
+
+  17. Buckingham's Rebellion. 1483                            341
+
+  18. Murder of the Princes. 1483                             342
+
+  19. Richard's Government. 1484--1485                        342
+
+  20. Richard Defeated and Slain at Bosworth. 1485            343
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+HENRY VII. 1485--1509.
+
+   1. The First Measures of Henry VII. 1485--1486             343
+
+   2. Maintenance and Livery                                  345
+
+   3. Lovel's Rising. 1486                                    346
+
+   4. Lancaster and York in Ireland. 1399--1485               346
+
+   5. Insurrection of Lambert Simnel. 1487                    347
+
+   6. The Court of Star Chamber. 1487                         348
+
+   7. Henry VII. and Brittany. 1488--1492                     348
+
+   8. Cardinal Morton's Fork. 1491                            349
+
+   9. The Invasion of France. 1492                            349
+
+  10. Perkin Warbeck. 1491--1494                              350
+
+  11. Poynings' Acts. 1494                                    350
+
+  12. Perkin's First Attempt on England. 1495                 351
+
+  13. The Intercursus Magnus. 1496                            351
+
+  14. Kildare Restored to the Deputyship. 1496                352
+
+  15. Perkin's Overthrow. 1496--1497                          352
+
+  16. European Changes. 1494--1499                            352
+
+  17. Execution of the Earl of Warwick. 1499                  354
+
+  18. Prince Arthur's Marriage and Death. 1501--1502          354
+
+  19. The Scottish Marriage. 1503                             356
+
+  20. Maritime Enterprise                                     356
+
+  21. Growth of the Royal Power                               356
+
+  22. Empson and Dudley                                       357
+
+  23. Henry and his Daughter-in-law. 1502--1505               357
+
+  24. The Last Years of Henry VII. 1505--1509                 357
+
+  25. Architectural Changes and the Printing Press            358
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+  FIG.                                                       PAGE
+
+    1. Palæolithic flint scraper from Icklingham, Suffolk       2
+
+    2. Palæolithic flint implement from Hoxne, Suffolk          2
+       (_From Evans's_ 'Ancient Stone Implements')
+
+    3. Engraved bone from Cresswell Crags, Derbyshire           3
+       (_From the original in the British Museum_)
+
+    4. Neolithic flint arrow-head from Rudstone, Yorks          3
+
+    5. Neolithic celt or cutting instrument from Guernsey       3
+
+    6. Neolithic axe from Winterbourn Steepleton, Dorset        4
+       (_From Evans's_ 'Ancient Stone Implements')
+
+    7. Example of early British pottery                         4
+
+    8. 9. Examples of early British pottery                     5
+       (_From Greenwell's_ 'British Barrows')
+
+   10. Bronze celt from the Isle of Harty, Kent                 6
+
+   11. Bronze lance-head found in Ireland                       6
+
+   12. Bronze caldron found in Ireland                          6
+       (_From Evans's_ 'Ancient Bronze Implements')
+
+   13. View of Stonehenge                                       7
+       (_From a photograph_)
+
+   14. Part of a British gold corselet found at Mold, now
+       in the British Museum                                    9
+       (_From the_ 'Archæologia')
+
+   15. Bust of Julius Cæsar                                    10
+       (_From the original in the British Museum_)
+
+   16. Commemorative tablet of the Second Legion found at
+       Halton Chesters on the Roman Wall                       17
+
+   17. View of part of the Roman Wall                          18
+
+   18. Ruins of a mile-castle on the Roman Wall                18
+       (_From Bruce's_ 'Handbook to the Roman Wall,' 2nd
+       edition)
+
+   19. Part of the Roman Wall at Leicester                     19
+       (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 6th edition,
+       by J. H. Parker)
+
+   20. Pediment of a Roman temple found at Bath                20
+       (_Reduced from the_ 'Archæologia')
+
+   21. Roman altar from Rutchester                             21
+       (_From Bruce's_ 'Handbook to the Roman Wall', 2nd
+       edition)
+
+   22. Plan of the city of Old Sarum                           34
+       (_From the Ordnance Survey Plan_)
+
+   23. View of Old Sarum                                       35
+       (_Reduced from Sir R. C. Hoare's_ 'History of
+       Modern Wiltshire. Old and New Sarum')
+
+   24. Saxon church at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts                 51
+       (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 6th edition,
+       by J. H. Parker)
+
+   25. Saxon horsemen                                          53
+
+   26. Group of Saxon warriors                                 53
+       (_From_ Harl. MS. 603)
+
+   27. Remains of a viking ship from Gokstad                   56
+       (_From a photograph of the original at Christiania_)
+
+   28. Gold ring of Æthelwulf                                  57
+
+   29. Gold jewel of Ælfred found at Athelney                  59
+       (_From_ 'Archæological Journal')
+
+   30. An English vessel                                       60
+
+   31. A Saxon house                                           61
+       (_From_ Harl. MS. 603)
+
+   32. A monk driven out of the King's presence                66
+       (_From a drawing belonging to the Society of
+       Antiquaries_)
+
+   33. Rural life in the eleventh century. January to June     70
+
+   34. Rural life in the eleventh century. July to December    71
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Julius A. vi.)
+
+   35. Plan and section of a burh of the eleventh century
+       at Laughton-en-le-Morthen, Yorks                        74
+       (_From G. T. Clark's_ 'Mediæval Military Architecture')
+
+   37. Glass tumbler                                           76
+
+   38. Drinking-glass                                          76
+
+   39. Comb and case of Scandinavian type found at York        77
+       (_From the originals in the British Museum_)
+
+   40. Martyrdom of St. Edmund by the Danes                    82
+       (_From a drawing belonging to the Society of
+       Antiquaries_)
+
+   41. First Great Seal of Eadward the Confessor (obverse)     86
+       (_From an original impression_)
+
+   42. Hunting. (From the Bayeux Tapestry)                     87
+       (_Reduced from_ 'Vetusta Monumenta,' vol. vi.)
+
+   43. Tower in the earlier style, church at Earl's Barton     91
+
+   44. Tower in the earlier style, St. Benet's church,
+       Cambridge                                               91
+       (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 6th edition,
+       by J. H. Parker)
+
+   45. Building a church in the later style                    92
+       (_From a drawing belonging to the Society of
+       Antiquaries_)
+
+   46. Normans feasting; with Odo, bishop of Bayeux,
+       saying grace.                                           93
+      (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+   47. Harold swearing upon the Relics.                        94
+       (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+   48. A Norman ship.                                          95
+       (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+   49. Norman soldiers mounted.                                95
+       (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+   50. Group of archers on foot.                               96
+       (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+   51. Men fighting with axes.                                 97
+       (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+   52. Death of Harold. (From the Bayeux Tapestry)             98
+       (_Reduced from_ 'Vetusta Monumenta,' vol. vi.)
+
+   53. Coronation of a king, _temp._ William the Conqueror     99
+       (_From a drawing belonging to the Society of
+       Antiquaries_)
+
+   54. Silver penny of William the Conqueror, struck at
+       Romney                                                 101
+       (_From an original specimen_)
+
+   54. Silver penny of William the Conqueror, struck at
+       Romney                                                 101
+       (_From an original specimen_)
+
+   55. East end of Darenth church, Kent                       107
+       (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 6th edition,
+       by J. H. Parker)
+
+   56. Part of the nave of St. Alban's abbey church           109
+       (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+   57. Facsimile of a part of Domesday Book relating to
+       Berkshire                                              112
+       (_From the original MS. in the Public Record Office_)
+
+   58. Henry I. and his queen Matilda                         123
+       (_From Hollis's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   59. Seal of Milo of Gloucester, showing mounted armed
+       figure in the reign of Henry I.                        125
+       (_From an original impression_)
+
+   60. Monument of Roger, bishop of Salisbury, died 1139      127
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   61. Porchester church, Hampshire, built about 1135         128
+       (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 7th edition,
+        by J. H. Parker)
+
+   62. Part of the nave of Durham cathedral, built about
+       1130                                                   130
+       (_From Scott's_ 'Mediæval Architecture,' London, J.
+       Murray)
+
+   63. Keep of Rochester castle, built between 1126 and
+       1139                                                   132
+       (_From a photograph by Poulton & Sons, Lee_)
+
+   64. Keep of Castle Rising, built about 1140-50             133
+       (_From a photograph_)
+
+   65. Tower of Castor church, Northamptonshire, built about
+       1145                                                   136
+       (_From Britton's_ 'Architectural Antiquities')
+
+   66. Effigies of Henry II. and queen Eleanor                139
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   67. Ecclesiastical costume in the twelfth century          142
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero C. iv. f. 37)
+
+   68. A bishop ordaining a priest                            144
+
+   69. Small ship of the latter part of the twelfth century   146
+       (_From_ 'Harley Roll,' Y. 6)
+
+   70. Part of the choir of Canterbury cathedral, in building
+       1175-1184                                              150
+       (_From Scott's_ 'Mediæval Architecture,' London, J.
+       Murray)
+
+   71. Mitre of archbishop Thomas of Canterbury, preserved
+       at Sens                                                153
+       (_From Shaw's_ 'Dresses and Decorations')
+
+   72. Military and civil costume of the latter part of the
+       twelfth century                                        154
+       (_From_ 'Harley Roll,' Y. 6)
+
+   73. Royal Arms of England from Richard I. to Edward III.   159
+       (_From the wall arcade, south aisle of nave,
+       Westminster Abbey_)
+
+   74. The Galilee or Lady chapel, Durham cathedral,
+       built by bishop Hugh of Puiset, between 1180 and
+       1197                                                   160
+       (_From Scott's_ 'Mediæval Architecture,' London, J.
+       Murray)
+
+   75. Effigy of a knight in the Temple church, London,
+       showing armour of the end of the twelfth century       162
+       (_From Hollis's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   76. Effigies of Richard I. and queen Berengaria            164
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   77. Part of the choir of Ripon cathedral, built during
+       the last quarter of the twelfth century                166
+       (_From Scott's_ 'Mediæval Architecture,' London, J.
+       Murray)
+
+   78. Lay costumes in the twelfth century                    168
+
+   79. Costume of shepherds in the twelfth century            168
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero C. iv. ff. 11 and 16)
+
+   80. Hall of Oakham castle, Rutland, built about 1185       170
+       (_From Hudson Turner's_ 'Domestic Architecture')
+
+   81. Norman house at Lincoln, called the Jews' House        171
+       (_From a photograph by Carl Norman, Tunbridge Wells_)
+
+   82. Effigies of king John and queen Isabella               175
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   83. Effigy of bishop Marshall of Exeter, died 1206         177
+       (_From Murray's_ 'Handbook to the Southern Cathedrals')
+
+   84. Parsonage house of early thirteenth-century date at
+       West Dean, Sussex                                      179
+       (_From Hudson Turner's_ 'Domestic Architecture')
+
+   85. Effigy of a knight in the Temple church, London,
+       showing armour worn between 1190 and 1225              182
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   86. Silver penny of John, struck at Dublin                 184
+       (_From an original example_)
+
+   87. Effigy of Henry III. (From his tomb at Westminster)    186
+
+   88. Effigy of William Longespée, earl of Salisbury,
+       died 1227, from his tomb at Salisbury, showing armour
+       worn from about 1225 to 1250                           187
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   89. Effigy of Simon, bishop of Exeter, died 1223           188
+       (_From Murray's_ 'Handbook to the Southern Cathedrals')
+
+   90. Beverley Minster, Yorkshire, the south transept;
+       built about 1220--1230                                 189
+       (_From Britton's_ 'Architectural Antiquities')
+
+   91. Longthorpe manor house, Northamptonshire, built
+       about 1235                                             192
+       (_From Hudson Turner's_ 'Domestic Architecture')
+
+   92. A ship in the reign of Henry III.                      193
+
+   93. A bed in the reign of Henry III.                       196
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero D. i. ff. 21 and 22 _b_)
+
+   94. Barn of thirteenth-century date at Raunds,
+       Northamptonshire                                       197
+       (_From Hudson Turner's_ 'Domestic Architecture')
+
+   95. A fight between armed and mounted knights of the time
+       of Henry III.                                          201
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero D. i. f. 4)
+
+   96. Seal of Robert Fitzwalter, showing a mounted knight
+       in complete mail armour; date about 1265               202
+       (_From an original impression_)
+
+   97. Effigy of a knight at Gosperton, showing armour worn
+       from about 1250 to 1300; date about 1270               203
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   98. Building operations in the reign of Henry III., with
+       the king giving directions to the architect            204
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero D. i. f. 23 _b_)
+
+   99. East end of Westminster abbey church; begun by
+       Henry III. in 1245                                     205
+       (_From a photograph_)
+
+  100. Nave of Salisbury cathedral church, looking west;
+       date, between 1240 and 1250                            206
+       (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+  101. A king and labourers in the reign of Henry III.        207
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero D. i. f. 21 _b_)
+
+  102. Great Seal of Edward I. (slightly reduced)             209
+       (_From an original impression_)
+
+  103. Group of armed knights and a king in ordinary
+       dress; date, _temp._ Edward I.                         211
+       (_From_ Arundel MS. 83, f. 132)
+
+  104. Nave of Lichfield cathedral church, looking east;
+       built about 1280                                       213
+       (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+  105. Effigy of Eleanor of Castile, queen of Edward I.,
+       in Westminster abbey                                   215
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  106. Cross erected near Northampton by Edward I. in
+       memory of queen Eleanor                                217
+       (_From a photograph_)
+
+  107. Sir John d'Abernoun, died 1277, from his brass at
+       Stoke Dabernon; showing armour worn from about 1250
+       to 1300                                                219
+       (_From Waller's_ 'Monumental Brasses')
+
+  108. Edward II. from his monument in Gloucester cathedral   225
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  109. Lincoln cathedral, the central tower; built about
+       1310                                                   227
+       (_From Britton's_ 'Architectural Antiquities')
+
+  110. Sir John de Creke, from his brass at Westley
+       Waterless, Cambridgeshire; showing armour worn
+       between 1300 and 1335 or 1340; date, about 1325        229
+       (_From Waller's_ 'Monumental Brasses')
+
+  111. Howden church, Yorkshire, the west front               230
+       (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 7th
+       edition, by J. H. Parker)
+
+  112. Effigies of Edward III. and queen Philippa, from
+       their tombs in Westminster abbey                       233
+       (_From Blore's_ 'Monumental Remains')
+
+  113. A knight--Sir Geoffrey Luttrell, who died
+       1345--receiving his helm and pennon from his wife;
+       another lady holds his shield                          236
+       (_From the Luttrell Psalter_, 'Vetusta Monumenta')
+
+  114. William of Hatfield, second son of Edward III.,
+       from his tomb in York Minster                          237
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  115. York Minster, the nave, looking west                   238
+       (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+  116. Royal Arms of Edward III., from his tomb               239
+       (_From a photograph_)
+
+  117. Shooting at the butts with the long bow                241
+
+  118. Contemporary view of a fourteenth-century walled
+       town                                                   243
+       (_From the Luttrell Psalter_, 'Vetusta Monumenta')
+
+  119. Gloucester cathedral church, the choir, looking east   244
+       (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+  120. The lord's upper chamber or solar at Sutton Courtenay
+       manor-house; date, about 1350                          245
+
+  121. Interior of the hall at Penshurst, Kent; built about
+       1340                                                   246
+
+  122. A small house or cottage at Meare, Somerset; built
+       about 1350                                             247
+
+  123. Norborough Hall, Northamptonshire; built about 1350    247
+       (_From Hudson Turner's_ 'Domestic Architecture')
+
+  124. Ploughing                                              248
+
+  125. Harrowing; and a boy slinging stones at the birds      248
+
+  126. Breaking the clods with mallets                        249
+
+  127. Cutting weeds                                          249
+
+  128. Reaping                                                249
+
+  129. Stacking corn                                          250
+
+  130. Threshing corn with a flail                            250
+       (_From the Luttrell Psalter_, 'Vetusta Monumenta')
+
+  131. West front of Edington church, Wilts; built about
+       1360                                                   253
+       (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 7th edition,
+       by J. H. Parker)
+
+  132. Gold noble of Edward III.                              255
+       (_From an original example_)
+
+  133. Effigy of Edward the Black Prince; from his tomb at
+       Canterbury                                             256
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  134. William of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester
+       1367-1404; from his tomb at Winchester                 260
+       (_From Murray's_ 'Handbook to the Southern Cathedrals')
+
+  135. Tomb of Edward III. in Westminster abbey               263
+       (_From Blore's_ 'Monumental Remains')
+
+  136. Figures of Edward the Black Prince and Lionel
+       duke of Clarence; from the tomb of Edward III.         264
+       (_From Hollis's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  137. Richard II. and his first queen, Anne of Bohemia;
+       from their tomb in Westminster abbey                   267
+       (_From Hollis's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  138. Portrait of Geoffrey Chaucer                           270
+       (_From Harl MS. 4866_)
+
+  139. A gentleman riding out with his hawk                   271
+
+  140. Carrying corn, a cart going uphill                     272
+
+  141. State carriage of the fourteenth century               273
+
+  142. Bear-baiting                                           275
+       (_From the Luttrell Psalter_, 'Vetusta Monumenta')
+
+  143. West end of the nave of Winchester cathedral church    276
+       (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+  144. Meeting of Henry of Lancaster and Richard II. at
+       Flint                                                  284
+
+  145. Henry of Lancaster claiming the throne                 285
+       (_From Harl MS. 1319_)
+
+  146. Effigy of a knight at Clehonger, showing development
+       of plate armour; date about 1400                       287
+       (_From Hollis's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  147. Henry IV. and his queen Joan of Navarre; from their
+       tomb in Canterbury cathedral church                    290
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  148. Royal arms as borne from about 1408 to 1603            291
+       (_From a fifteenth-century seal_)
+
+  149. Thomas Cranley, archbishop of Dublin; from his
+       brass at New College, Oxford, showing the
+       archiepiscopal costume                                 292
+       (_From Waller's_ 'Monumental Brasses')
+
+  150. The Battle of Shrewsbury                               294
+
+  151. Fight in the lists with poleaxes                       297
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Julius E. iv. ff. 4 and 7)
+
+  152. Costume of a judge about 1400; from a brass at
+       Deerhurst                                              298
+       (_From Waller's_ 'Monumental Brasses')
+
+  153. Henry V.                                               300
+       (_From an original portrait belonging to the Society
+       of Antiquaries_)
+
+  154. Effigy of William Phelip, lord Bardolph; from
+       his tomb at Dennington, Suffolk                        304
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  155. Marriage of Henry V. and Catherine of France           305
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Julius E. iv. f. 22)
+
+  156. Henry VI.                                              308
+       (_From an original picture in the National Portrait
+       Gallery_)
+
+  157. Fotheringay church, Northamptonshire; begun in 1434    311
+       (_From a photograph by G. A. Nichols, Stamford_)
+
+  158. and 159. Front and back views of the gilt-latten
+       effigy of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, died
+       1439; from his tomb at Warwick                         314, 315
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  160. Tattershall castle, Lincolnshire; built between 1433
+       and 1455                                               316
+       (_From a photograph by G. A. Nichols, Stamford_)
+
+  161. Part of Winfield manor-house, Derbyshire; built
+       about 1440                                             318
+       (_From a photograph by R. Keene, Derby_)
+
+  162. The Divinity School, Oxford; built between 1445 and
+       1454                                                   319
+       (_From a photograph by W. H. Wheeler, Oxford_)
+
+  163. A sea-fight                                            325
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Julius E. iv. f. 18 _b_)
+
+  164. Effigy of Sir Robert Harcourt, K.G., showing
+       armour worn from about 1445 to 1480                    326
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  165. Edward IV.                                             330
+       (_From an original portrait belonging to the Society
+       of Antiquaries_)
+
+  166. A fifteenth-century ship                               333
+       (_From_ Harl. MS. 2278, f. 16)
+
+  167. Large ship and boat of the fifteenth century           339
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Julius E. iv. f. 5)
+
+  168. Richard III.                                           341
+       (_From an original portrait belonging to the Society
+       of Antiquaries_)
+
+  169. Henry VII.                                             344
+
+  170. Elizabeth of York, queen of Henry VII.                 345
+       (_From original pictures in the National Portrait
+       Gallery_)
+
+  171. Tudor Rose; from the chapel of Henry VII.,
+       Westminster                                            346
+
+  172. Tower of St. Mary's church, Taunton; built about 1500  353
+       (_From Britton's_ 'Architectural Antiquities')
+
+  173. King's College Chapel, Cambridge; interior, looking
+       east                                                   355
+       (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+
+
+
+GENEALOGICAL TABLES
+
+
+I
+
+_ENGLISH KINGS FROM ECGBERHT TO HENRY I._
+
+
+                                  ECGBERHT
+                                   802-839
+                                      |
+                                      |
+                                  ÆTHELWULF
+                                   839-858
+                                      |
+             +---------------+--------+--------+-----------------+
+             |               |                 |                 |
+             |               |                 |                 |
+         ÆTHELBALD       ÆTHELBERHT         ÆTHELRED          ÆLFRED
+          858-86          860-866            866-871         871-901
+                                                                 |
+                                                                 |
+                   +---------------------------------------------+
+                   |                                             |
+                   |                                             |
+                EADWARD                                  Æthelflæd = Æthelred
+                the Elder                             (the Lady of   Ealdorman
+                 899-924                                   the        of the
+                   |                                     Mercians)   Mercians
+                   |
+                   |
+                   +--------------------+--------------------+
+                   |                    |                    |
+                   |                    |                    |
+                ÆTHELSTAN            EADMUND               EADRED
+                  924-940            940-946              946-955
+                                        |
+                                        |
+            +---------------------------+
+            |                           |
+          EADWIG          Æthelflæd = EADGAR  = Ælfthryth
+         955-959                    | 959-975 |
+                                    |         |
+                                    |         |  Richard I.   Svend
+                                    |         |   Duke of      |
+                                    |         |  Normandy      |
+                                    |         |        |       |
+                                    |         |        |       |
+                   +----------------+         |        |       |
+                   |                          |        |       |
+                EADWARD           Ælfled = ÆTHELRED = EMMA = CNUT
+               the Martyr                |   the    |      1016-1035
+                 975-979                 | Unready  |          |
+                                         | 979-1016 |          |
+       +---------------------------------+          |          |
+       |                                            |   +------+-----+
+       |                                            |   |            |
+    EADMUND                                         |   |            |
+    Ironside                                        |  HAROLD   HARTHACNUT
+      1016                                          | 1036-1039  1039-1042
+       |                                            |
+       |                                            |
+       |                                            |             Godwine
+       |                                            |                |
+       |                                            |                |
+       |                                            |          +------------+
+  +----+-------+                      +-------------+          |            |
+  |            |                      |             |          |            |
+ Eadmund     Eadward                Ælfred        EADWARD = Eadgyth       HAROLD
+          the Ætheling               the            the                    1066
+               |                    Ætheling     Confessor
+               |                                 1042-1066
+        +------+------+
+        |             |
+     Eadgar         Margaret = Malcolm Canmore
+  the Ætheling               |
+                             |
+                          Eadgyth =   HENRY I.
+                          (Matilda)  1100-1135
+
+
+II
+
+_GENEALOGY OF THE NORMAN DUKES AND OF THE KINGS OF ENGLAND FROM THE
+CONQUEST TO HENRY VII._
+
+
+                             Hrolf
+                           912-927 (?)
+                               |
+                               |
+                       William Longsword
+                          927 (?)-943
+                               |
+                               |
+                     Richard I., the Fearless
+                            943-996
+                               |
+                               |
+                 +-------------+----------------+
+                 |                              |
+                 |                              |
+       Richard II., the Good               Emma = (1) Æthelred
+              996-1026                          | the Unready
+                 |                              |
+                 |                              |
+         +-------+--------+                     |
+         |                |                     |
+         |                |                     |
+    Richard III.        Robert                EADWARD
+     1026-1028         1028-1035           the Confessor
+                          )
+                          (
+                          )
+                      WILLIAM I
+                       1035-1087
+                    King of England
+                       1066-1087
+                           |
+                           |
+                           |
+        +--------------+---+-------+-----------------+
+        |              |           |                 |
+        |              |           |                 |
+      Robert      WILLIAM II    HENRY I.       Adela = Stephen
+      Duke of      1087-1100   1100-1135             | Count of
+      Normandy                     |                 |  Blois
+      1087-1106                    |                 |
+                                   |                 |
+                     Henry V. = Matilda = Geoffrey  STEPHEN
+                     Emperor            | Count of  1135-1154
+                                        | Anjou
+                                        |
+                                      HENRY II.
+                                     1154-1189
+                                        |
+                         +--------------+
+                         |
+      +-----------+------+------+------------+
+      |           |             |            |
+    Henry     Geoffrey      RICHARD I.     JOHN
+                            1189-1199    1199-1216
+                                             |
+                                             |
+                                         HENRY III.
+                                         1216-1272
+                                             |
+                             +---------------+
+                             |
+                         EDWARD I.
+                         1272-1307
+                             |
+                             |
+                        EDWARD II.
+                         1307-1327
+                             |
+                             |
+                        EDWARD III
+                         1327-1377
+                             |
+        +---------------+----+------------------+----------------+
+        |               |                       |                |
+        |               |                       |                |
+    Edward the       Lionel              John of Gaunt        Edmund
+    Black Prince  Duke of Clarence      Duke of Lancaster   Duke of York
+        |               |                       |                |
+    RICHARD II.    Philippa = Edmund        HENRY IV.            |
+    1377-1399               | Mortimer      1399-1412            |
+                            |  Earl of          |                |
+                            |  March        HENRY V.             |
+                            |               1413-1422            |
+                  Roger, Earl of March          |                |
+                            |               HENRY VI.            |
+                            |               1422-1461            |
+                            |                                    |
+                   +--------+--+       +-------------------------+
+                   |           |       |
+                   |           |       |
+                Edmund       Anne = Richard
+             Earl of March        | Earl of Cambridge
+                                  |
+                        Richard, Duke of York
+                                  |
+                                  |
+                      +-----------+----------+
+                      |                      |
+                      |                      |
+                  EDWARD IV.              RICHARD III.
+                  1461-1483                1483-1485
+                      |
+                      |
+               +------+------------+
+               |                   |
+            EDWARD V.          Elizabeth = HENRY VII.
+              1483                         1485-1509
+                                          (Descended from
+                                          John of Gaunt by
+                                         Catherine Swynford)
+
+
+III
+
+_GENEALOGY OF THE KINGS OF SCOTLAND FROM DUNCAN I. TO JAMES IV._
+
+
+                           DUNCAN I.
+                          (died 1057)
+                               |
+                      +--------+-----------------+
+                      |                          |
+      Margaret = MALCOLM III.~~~~~~~~~         DONALD BANE
+     sister of |    Canmore          )          1093-1094,
+      Edgar    |   1057-1093         (           restored
+     Ætheling  |                     )          1095-1098
+               |                     (
+               |                   DUNCAN II.
+      +--------+--+-----------+     1094-1095
+      |           |           |
+    EDGAR    ALEXANDER I.  DAVID I.
+  1098-1107   1107-1124    1124-1153
+                               |
+                             Henry
+                               |
+       +-----------+-----------+--------+
+       |           |                    |
+  MALCOLM IV.   WILLIAM               David
+  1153-1165     the Lion        Earl of Huntingdon
+                1165-1214                |
+                    |                 +--+---------------------+
+                    |                 |                        |
+              ALEXANDER II.        Margaret                 Isabella
+                 1214-1249            |                        |
+                                 Devorguilla = John Balliol Robert Bruce
+              ALEXANDER III.                 |                 |
+                 1249-1285           JOHN BALLIOL           Robert Bruce
+                     |                 1292-1296               |
+                 Margaret = Eric,                           ROBERT BRUCE
+                          |  King of                          1306-1329
+                          |  Norway                            |
+                          |                    +-------------+-+
+                          |                    |             |
+                       Margaret             DAVID II.      Margaret = Walter
+                    (the Maid of            1329-1370               | Stewart
+                       Norway)                                      |
+                                          +-------------------------+
+                                          |
+                             ROBERT II., Stewart or Stuart
+                                      1370-1390
+                                          |
+                                     ROBERT III.
+                                      1390-1406
+                                          |
+                                      JAMES I.
+                                      1406-1437
+                                          |
+                                      JAMES II.
+                                      1437-1460
+                                          |
+                                      JAMES III.
+                                      1460-1488
+                                          |
+                                      JAMES IV.
+                                      1488-1513
+
+
+IV
+
+_GENEALOGY OF THE KINGS OF FRANCE FROM HUGH CAPET TO LOUIS XII._
+
+
+                    Hugh the Great
+                      (died 956)
+                           |
+                       HUGH CAPET
+                        987-996
+                           |
+                         ROBERT
+                        996-1031
+                           |
+                        HENRY I.
+                       1031-1060
+                           |
+                       PHILIP I.
+                       1060-1108
+                           |
+                       LOUIS VI.
+                       1108-1137
+                           |
+                       LOUIS VII.
+                       1137-1180
+                           |
+                       PHILIP II.
+                       1180-1223
+                           |
+                      LOUIS VIII.
+                       1223-1226
+                           |
+                     (St.) LOUIS IX
+                       1226-1270
+                           |
+                      PHILIP III.
+                       1270-1285
+                           |
+                           +---------------------------------+
+                           |                                 |
+                       PHILIP IV.                          Charles
+                       1283-1314                          of Valois
+                           |                                  |
+       +---------------+---+--------+------------+            |
+       |               |            |            |        PHILIP VI
+    LOUIS X.       PHILIP V.   CHARLES IV.    Isabella    1328-1350
+    1314-1316      1316-1322    1322-1328  m. Edward II.      |
+        |              |                        |             |
+     +--+---+          |                        |             |
+     |      |         Two                   Edward III.      JOHN
+  Jeanne  JOHN     daughters                               1350-1364
+         (died seven                                           |
+          days old)                                            |
+                             +-----------------------------+---+
+                             |                             |
+                         CHARLES V.                Dukes of Burgundy
+                         1364-1380                      Philip
+                             |                             |
+       +---------------------+                             |
+       |                     |                            John
+  CHARLES VI.              Louis                           |
+   1380-1422          Duke of Orleans                    Philip
+       |                     |                             |
+  CHARLES VII.            Charles                       Charles
+   1422-1461          Duke of Orleans
+       |                     |
+   LOUIS XI.             LOUIS XII.
+   1461-1483             1498-1519
+       |
+  CHARLES VIII.
+   1483-1498
+
+
+_SHORTER AND SOMETIMES MORE DETAILED GENEALOGIES will be found in the
+following pages._
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+  Genealogy of the principal Northumbrian kings                     41
+
+      "       "  English kings from Ecgberht to Eadgar              56
+
+      "       "  English kings from Eadgar to Eadgar the Ætheling   78
+
+      "       "  Danish kings                                       83
+
+  Genealogical connection between the Houses of England and
+               Normandy                                             84
+
+  Genealogy of the Mercian Earls                                    85
+
+      "       "  family of Godwine                                  89
+
+      "       "  Conqueror's sons and children                     131
+
+      "       "  sons and grandchildren of Henry II.               156
+
+      "       "  John's sons and grandsons                         208
+
+      "       "  claimants of the Scottish throne                  216
+
+      "       "  more important sons of Edward III.                265
+
+      "       "  claimants of the throne in 1399                   286
+
+      "       "  kings of Scotland from Robert Bruce to James I.   295
+
+      "       "  Nevills                                           324
+
+      "       "  Houses of Lancaster and York                      327
+
+      "       "  Beauforts and Tudors                              335
+
+      "       "  House of York                                     337
+
+      "       "  Woodvilles and Greys                              338
+
+  Abbreviated genealogy of Henry VII. and his competitors          344
+
+  Genealogy of the Houses of Spain and Burgundy                    349
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
+
+
+PART I.
+
+_ENGLAND BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+PREHISTORIC AND ROMAN BRITAIN.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Cæsar's first invasion                                       B.C. 55
+  Invasion of Aulus Plautius                                   A.D. 43
+  Recall of Agricola                                                84
+  Severus in Britain                                               208
+  End of the Roman Government                                      410
+
+
+1. =Palæolithic Man of the River-Drift.=--Countless ages ago, there
+was a period of time to which geologists have given the name of the
+Pleistocene Age. The part of the earth's surface afterwards called
+Britain was then attached to the Continent, so that animals could pass
+over on dry land. The climate was much colder than it is now, and it
+is known from the bones which have been dug up that the country was
+inhabited by wolves, bears, mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses, and other
+creatures now extinct. No human remains have been found amongst these
+bones, but there is no doubt that men existed contemporaneously with
+their deposit, because, in the river drift, or gravel washed down by
+rivers, there have been discovered flints sharpened by chipping, which
+can only have been produced by the hand of man. The men who used them
+are known as Palæolithic, or the men of ancient stone, because these
+stone implements are rougher and therefore older than others which
+have been discovered. These Palæolithic men of the river drift were a
+race of stunted savages who did not cultivate the ground, but lived on
+the animals which they killed, and must have had great difficulty in
+procuring food, as they did not know how to make handles for their
+sharpened flints, and must therefore have had to hold them in their
+hands.
+
+[Illustration: Palæolithic flint scraper from Icklingham, Suffolk.
+(Evans.)]
+
+[Illustration: Palæolithic flint implement from Hoxne, Suffolk.]
+
+2. =Cave-dwelling Palæolithic Man.=--This race was succeeded by
+another which dwelt in caves. They, as well as their predecessors, are
+known as Palæolithic men, as their weapons were still very rude. As,
+however, they had learnt to make handles for them, they could
+construct arrows, harpoons, and javelins. They also made awls and
+needles of stone; and, what is more remarkable, they possessed a
+decided artistic power, which enabled them to indicate by a few
+vigorous scratches the forms of horses, mammoths, reindeer, and other
+animals. Vast heaps of rubbish still exist in various parts of Europe,
+which are found to consist of the bones, shells, and other refuse
+thrown out by these later Palæolithic men, who had no reverence for
+the dead, casting out the bodies of their relations to decay with as
+little thought as they threw away oyster-shells or reindeer-bones.
+Traces of Palæolithic men of this type have been found as far north as
+Derbyshire. Their descendants are no longer be met with in these
+islands. The Eskimos of the extreme north of America, however, have
+the same artistic faculty and the same disregard for the dead, and it
+has therefore been supposed that the cave-dwelling men were of the
+race to which the modern Eskimos belong.
+
+[Illustration: Engraved bone from Cresswell Crags, Derbyshire, now in
+the British Museum (full size).]
+
+[Illustration: Neolithic flint arrow-head from Rudstone, Yorks.
+(Evans.)]
+
+[Illustration: Neolithic celt or cutting instrument from Guernsey.
+(Evans.)]
+
+[Illustration: Neolithic axe from Winterbourn Steepleton, Dorset.
+(Evans.)]
+
+[Illustration: Early British Pottery.]
+
+3. =Neolithic Man.=--Ages passed away during which the climate became
+more temperate, and the earth's surface in these regions sank to a
+lower level. The seas afterwards known as the North Sea and the
+English Channel flowed over the depression; and an island was thus
+formed out of land which had once been part of the continent. After
+this process had taken place, a third race appeared, which must have
+crossed the sea in rafts or canoes, and which took the place of the
+Palæolithic men. They are known as Neolithic, or men of the new stone
+age, because their stone implements were of a newer kind, being
+polished and more efficient than those of their predecessors. They
+had, therefore, the advantage of superior weapons, and perhaps of
+superior strength, and were able to overpower those whom they found in
+the island. With their stone axes they made clearings in the woods in
+which to place their settlements. They brought with them domestic
+animals, sheep and goats, dogs and pigs. They spun thread with spindle
+and distaff, and wove it into cloth upon a loom. They grew corn and
+manufactured a rude kind of pottery. Each tribe lived in a state of
+war with its neighbours. A tribe when attacked in force took shelter
+on the hills in places of refuge, which were surrounded by lofty
+mounds and ditches. Many of these places of refuge are still to be
+seen, as, for instance, the one which bears the name of Maiden Castle,
+near Dorchester. On the open hills, too, are still to be found the
+long barrows which the Neolithic men raised over the dead. There is
+little doubt that these men, whose way of life was so superior to that
+of their Eskimo-like predecessors, were of the race now known as
+Iberian, which at one time inhabited a great part of Western Europe,
+but which has since mingled with other races. The Basques of the
+Pyrenees are the only Iberians who still preserve anything like purity
+of descent, though even the Basques have in them blood the origin of
+which is not Iberian.
+
+[Illustration: Early British Pottery.]
+
+4. =Celts and Iberians.=--The Iberians were followed by a swarm of
+new-comers called Celts. The Celts belong to a group of races
+sometimes known as the Aryan group, to which also belong Teutons,
+Slavonians, Italians, Greeks, and the chief ancient races of Persia
+and India. The Celts were the first to arrive in the West, where they
+seized upon lands in Spain, in Gaul, and in Britain, which the
+Iberians had occupied before them. They did not, however, destroy the
+Iberians altogether. However careful a conquering tribe maybe to
+preserve the purity of its blood, it rarely succeeds in doing so. The
+conquerors are sure to preserve some of the men of the conquered race
+as slaves, and a still larger number of young and comely women who
+become the mothers of their children. In time the slaves and the
+children learn to speak the language of their masters or fathers. Thus
+every European population is derived from many races.
+
+[Illustration: Bronze celt from the Isle of Harty, Kent (1/2).]
+
+5. =The Celts in Britain.=--The Celts were fair-haired and taller than
+the Iberians, whom they conquered or displaced. They had the advantage
+of being possessed of weapons of bronze, for which even the polished
+stone weapons of the Iberians were no match. They burned instead of
+burying their dead, and raised over the ashes those round barrows
+which are still to be found intermingled with the long barrows of the
+Iberians.
+
+[Illustration: Bronze lance-head found in Ireland.]
+
+[Illustration: Bronze caldron found in Ireland.]
+
+6. =Goidels and Britons.=--The earliest known name given to this
+island was Albion. It is uncertain whether the word is of Celtic or of
+Iberian origin. The later name Britain is derived from a second swarm
+of Celts called Brythons or Britons, who after a long interval
+followed the first Celtic immigration. The descendants of these first
+immigrants are distinguished from the new-comers by the name of
+Goidels, and it is probable that they were at one time settled in
+Britain as well as in Ireland, and that they were pushed across the
+sea into Ireland by the stronger and more civilised Britons. At all
+events, when history begins Goidels were only to be found in Ireland,
+though at a later time they colonised a part of what is now known as
+Scotland, and sent some offshoots into Wales. At present the languages
+derived from that of the Goidels are the Gaelic of the Highlands, the
+Manx of the Isle of Man, and the Erse of Ireland. The only language
+now spoken in the British Isles which is derived from that of the
+Britons is the Welsh; but the old Cornish language, which was spoken
+nearly up to the close of the eighteenth century, came from the same
+stock. It is therefore likely that the Britons pushed the Goidels
+northward and westward, as the Goidels had formerly pushed the
+Iberians in the same directions. It was most likely that the Britons
+erected the huge stone circle of Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain, though
+it is not possible to speak with certainty. That of Avebury is of an
+earlier date and uncertain origin. Both were probably intended to
+serve as monuments of the dead, though it is sometimes supposed that
+they were also used as temples.
+
+[Illustration: View of Stonehenge. (From a photograph.)]
+
+7. =Phoenicians and Greeks.=--The most civilised nations of the
+ancient world were those which dwelt round the Mediterranean Sea. It
+was long supposed that the Phoenicians came to Britain from the coast
+of Syria, or from their colonies at Carthage and in the south of
+Spain, for the tin which they needed for the manufacture of bronze.
+The peninsula of Devon and Cornwall is the only part of the island
+which produces tin, and it has therefore been thought that the
+Cassiterides, or tin islands, which the Phoenicians visited, were to
+be found in that region. It has, however, been recently shown that the
+Cassiterides were most probably off the coast of Galicia, in Spain,
+and the belief that Phoenicians visited Britain for tin must therefore
+be considered to be very doubtful. The first educated visitor who
+reached Britain was Pytheas, a Greek, who was sent by the merchants of
+the Greek colony of Massalia (_Marseilles_) about =330= B.C. to make
+discoveries which might lead to the opening across Gaul of a
+trade-route between Britain and their city. It was probably in
+consequence of the information which he carried to Massalia on his
+return that there sprang up a trade in British tin. Another Greek,
+Posidonius, who came to Britain about two centuries after Pytheas,
+found this trade in full working order. The tin was brought by land
+from the present Devon or Cornwall to an island called Ictis, which
+was only accessible on foot after the tide had ebbed. This island was
+probably Thanet, which was in those days cut off from the mainland by
+an arm of the sea which could be crossed on foot at low water. From
+Thanet the tin was carried into Gaul across the straits, and was then
+conveyed in waggons to the Rhone to be floated down to the
+Mediterranean.
+
+8. =Gauls and Belgians in Britain.=--During the time when this trade
+was being carried on, tribes of Gauls and Belgians landed in Britain.
+The Gauls were certainly, and the Belgians probably, of the same
+Celtic race as that which already occupied the island. The Gauls
+settled on the east coast as far as the Fens and the Wash, whilst the
+Belgians occupied the south coast, and pushed northwards towards the
+Somerset Avon. Nothing is known of the relations between the
+new-comers and the older Celtic inhabitants. Most likely those who
+arrived last contented themselves with mastering those whom they
+defeated, without attempting to exterminate them. At all events,
+states of some extent were formed by the conquerors. Thus the Cantii
+occupied the open ground to the north of the great forest which then
+filled the valley between the chalk ranges of the North and South
+Downs; the Trinobantes dwelt between the Lea and the Essex Stour; the
+Iceni occupied the peninsula between the Fens and the sea which was
+afterwards known as East Anglia (_Norfolk_ and _Suffolk_); and the
+Catuvellauni dwelt to the west of the Trinobantes, spreading over the
+modern Hertfordshire and the neighbouring districts.
+
+[Illustration: Part of a British gold corselet found at Mold.]
+
+9. =Culture and War.=--Though there were other states in Britain, the
+tribes which have been named had the advantage of being situated on
+the south-eastern part of the island, and therefore of being in
+commercial communication with the continental Gauls of their own race
+and language. Trade increased, and brought with it the introduction of
+some things which the Britons would not have invented for themselves.
+For instance, the inhabitants of the south-east of Britain began to
+use gold coins and decorations in imitation of those which were then
+common in Gaul. Yet, in spite of these improvements, even the most
+civilised Britons were still in a rude and barbarous condition. They
+had no towns, but dwelt in scattered huts. When they were hard pressed
+by an enemy they took refuge in an open space cleared in the woods,
+and surrounded by a high earthwork crowned by a palisade and guarded
+by felled trees. When they went out to battle they dyed their faces in
+order to terrify their enemies. Their warriors made use of chariots,
+dashing in them along the front of the enemy's line till they espied
+an opening in his ranks. They then leapt down and charged on foot into
+the gap. Their charioteers in the meanwhile drove off the horses to a
+safe distance, so as to be ready to take up their comrades if the
+battle went against them.
+
+10. =Religion of the Britons.=--The Celtic races worshipped many gods.
+In Gaul, the Druids, who were the ministers of religion, taught the
+doctrine of the transmigration of souls, and even gave moral
+instruction to the young. In Ireland, and perhaps in Britain, they
+were conjurers and wizards. Both in Gaul and Britain they kept up the
+traditional belief which had once been prevalent in all parts of the
+world, that the gods could only be appeased by human sacrifices. It
+was supposed that they needed either to drink human blood or to be
+supplied with human slaves, and that the only way to give them what
+they wanted was to despatch as many human beings as possible into the
+other world. The favourite way of doing this was to construct a huge
+wicker basket in the shape of a man, to cram it with men and women,
+and to set it on fire. At other times a Druid would cut open a single
+human victim, and would imagine that he could foretell the future by
+inspecting the size and appearance of the entrails.
+
+[Illustration: Julius Cæsar. (From a bust in the British Museum.)]
+
+11. =The Romans in Gaul.= B.C. =55=.--In the year =55= B.C. the Celts
+of south-eastern Britain first came in contact with a Roman army. The
+Romans were a civilised people, and had been engaged for some
+centuries in conquering the peoples living round the Mediterranean.
+They possessed disciplined armies, and a regular government. By the
+beginning of the year the Roman general, Gaius Julius Cæsar, had made
+himself master of Gaul. Then, after driving back with enormous
+slaughter two German tribes which had invaded Gaul, he crossed the
+Rhine, not because he wished to conquer Germany, but because he wished
+to strike terror into the Germans in order to render them unwilling
+to renew their attack. This march into Germany seems to have suggested
+to Cæsar the idea of invading Britain. It is most unlikely that he
+thought of conquering the island, as he had quite enough to do in
+Gaul. What he really wanted was to prevent the Britons from coming to
+the help of their kindred whom he had just subdued, and he would
+accomplish this object best by landing on their shores and showing
+them how formidable a Roman army was.
+
+12. =Cæsar's First Invasion.= B.C. =55=.--Accordingly, towards the end
+of August, Cæsar crossed the straits with about 10,000 men. There is
+some uncertainty about the place of his landing, but he probably first
+appeared off the spot at which Dover now stands, and then, being
+alarmed at the number of the Britons who had crowded to defend the
+coast, made his way by sea to the site of the modern Deal. There, too,
+his landing was opposed, but he managed to reach the shore with his
+army. He soon found, however, that the season was too advanced to
+enable him to accomplish anything. A storm having damaged his shipping
+and driven off the transports on which was embarked his cavalry, he
+returned to Gaul.
+
+13. =Cæsar's Second Invasion.= B.C. =54=--Cæsar had hitherto failed to
+strike terror into the Britons. In the following year he started in
+July, so as to have many weeks of fine weather before him, taking with
+him as many as 25,000 foot and 2,000 horse. After effecting a landing
+he pushed inland to the Kentish Stour, where he defeated the natives
+and captured one of their stockades. Good soldiers as the Romans were,
+they were never quite at home on the sea, and Cæsar was recalled to
+the coast by the news that the waves had dashed to pieces a large
+number of his ships. As soon as he had repaired the damage he resumed
+his march. His principal opponent was Cassivelaunus, the chief of the
+tribe of the Catuvellauni, who had subdued many of the neighbouring
+tribes, and whose stronghold was a stockade near the modern St.
+Albans. This chief and his followers harassed the march of the Romans
+with the rush of their chariots. If Cassivelaunus could have counted
+upon the continued support of all his warriors, he might perhaps have
+succeeded in forcing Cæsar to retreat, as the country was covered with
+wood and difficult to penetrate. Many of the tribes, however, which
+now served under him longed to free themselves from his rule. First,
+the Trinobantes and then four other tribes broke away from him and
+sought the protection of Cæsar. Cæsar, thus encouraged, dashed at his
+stockade and carried it by storm. Cassivelaunus abandoned the
+struggle, gave hostages to Cæsar, and promised to pay a yearly
+tribute. On this Cæsar returned to Gaul. Though the tribute was never
+paid, he had gained his object. He had sufficiently frightened the
+British tribes to make it unlikely that they would give him any
+annoyance in Gaul.
+
+14. =South-eastern Britain after Cæsar's Departure.= B.C. =54=--A.D.
+=43=.--For nearly a century after Cæsar's departure Britain was left
+to itself. The Catuvellauni recovered the predominance which they had
+lost. Their chieftain, Cunobelin, the original of Shakspere's
+Cymbeline, is thought to have been a grandson of Cassivelaunus. He
+established his power over the Trinobantes as well as over his own
+people, and made Camulodunum, the modern Colchester, his headquarters.
+Other tribes submitted to him as they had submitted to his
+grandfather. The prosperity of the inhabitants of south-eastern
+Britain increased more rapidly than the prosperity of their ancestors
+had increased before Cæsar's invasion. Traders continued to flock over
+from Gaul, bringing with them a knowledge of the arts and refinements
+of civilised life, and those arts and refinements were far greater now
+that Gaul was under Roman rule than they had been when its Celtic
+tribes were still independent. Yet, in spite of the growth of trade,
+Britain was still a rude and barbarous country. Its exports were but
+cattle and hides, corn, slaves, and hunting dogs, together with a few
+dusky pearls.
+
+15. =The Roman Empire.=--The Roman state was now a monarchy. The
+Emperor was the head of the army, as well as the head of the state.
+Though he was often a cruel oppressor of the wealthy personages who
+lived in Rome itself, and whose rivalry he feared, he, for the most
+part, sought to establish his power by giving justice to the provinces
+which had once been conquered by Rome, but were now admitted to share
+in the advantages of good government which the Empire had to give. One
+consequence of the conquest of nations by Rome was that there was now
+an end to cruel wars between hostile tribes. An army was stationed on
+the frontier of the Empire to defend it against barbarian attacks. In
+the interior the Roman peace, as it was called, prevailed, and there
+was hardly any need of soldiers to keep order and to maintain
+obedience.
+
+16. =The Invasion of Aulus Plautius.= A.D. =43=.--One question which
+each Emperor had to ask himself was whether he would attempt to
+enlarge the limits of the Empire or not. For a time each Emperor had
+resolved to be content with the frontier which Cæsar had left. There
+had consequently for many years been no thought of again invading
+Britain. At last the Emperor Claudius reversed this policy. There is
+reason to suppose that some of the British chiefs had made an attack
+upon the coasts of Gaul. However this may have been, Claudius in =43=
+sent Aulus Plautius against Togidumnus and Caratacus, the sons of
+Cunobelin, who were now ruling in their father's stead. Where one
+tribe has gained supremacy over others, it is always easy for a
+civilised power to gain allies amongst the tribes which have been
+subdued. Cæsar had overpowered Cassivelaunus by enlisting on his side
+the revolted Trinobantes, and Aulus Plautius now enlisted on his side
+the Regni, who dwelt in the present Sussex, and the Iceni, who dwelt
+in the present Norfolk and Suffolk. With their aid, Aulus Plautius, at
+the head of 40,000 men, defeated the sons of Cunobelin. Togidumnus was
+slain, and Caratacus driven into exile. The Romans then took
+possession of their lands, and, stepping into their place, established
+over the tribes chieftains who were now dependent on the Emperor
+instead of on Togidumnus and Caratacus. Claudius himself came for a
+brief visit to receive the congratulations of the army on the victory
+which his lieutenant had won. Aulus Plautius remained in Britain till
+=47=. Before he left it the whole of the country to the south of a
+line drawn from the Wash to some point on the Severn had been
+subjugated. The mines of the Mendips and of the western peninsula were
+too tempting to be left unconquered, and it is probably their
+attraction which explains the extension of Roman power at so early a
+date over the hilly country in the west.
+
+17. =The Colony of Camulodunum.=--In =47= Aulus Plautius was succeeded
+by Ostorius Scapula. He disarmed the tribes dwelling to the west of
+the Trent, whilst he attempted to establish the Roman authority more
+firmly over those whose territory lay to the east of that river.
+Amongst these later were the Iceni, who had been hitherto allowed to
+preserve their native government in dependence on the Roman power. The
+consequence was that they rose in arms. Ostorius overpowered them, and
+then sought to strengthen his hold upon the south-east of Britain by
+founding (=51=) a Roman colony at Camulodunum, which had formerly been
+the headquarters of Cunobelin. Roman settlers--for the most part
+discharged soldiers--established themselves in the new city, bringing
+with them all that belonged to Roman life with all its conveniences
+and luxuries. Roman temples, theatres, and baths quickly rose, and
+Ostorius might fairly expect that in Britain, as in Gaul, the native
+chiefs would learn to copy the easy life of the new citizens, and
+would settle their quarrels in Roman courts of law instead of taking
+arms on their own behalf.
+
+18. =The Conquests of Ostorius Scapula.=--Ostorius, however, was soon
+involved in fresh troubles. Nothing is more difficult for a civilised
+power than to guard a frontier against barbarous tribes. Such tribes
+are accustomed to plunder one another, and they are quick to perceive
+that the order and peace which a civilised power establishes offers
+them a richer booty than is to be found elsewhere. The tribes beyond
+the line which Ostorius held were constantly breaking through to
+plunder the Roman territory, and he soon found that he must either
+allow the lands of Roman subjects to be plundered, or must carry war
+amongst the hostile tribes. He naturally chose the latter alternative,
+and the last years of his government were spent in wars with the
+Ordovices of Central Wales, and with the Silures of Southern Wales.
+The Silures were not only a most warlike people, but they were led by
+Caratacus, who had taken refuge with them after his defeat by Aulus
+Plautius in the east. The mountainous region which these two tribes
+defended made it difficult to subdue them, and though Caratacus was
+defeated (=50=), and ultimately captured and sent as a prisoner to
+Rome, Ostorius did not succeed in effectually mastering his hardy
+followers. The proof of his comparative failure lies in the fact that
+he established strong garrison towns along the frontier of the hilly
+region, which he would not have done unless he had considered it
+necessary to have a large number of soldiers ready to check any
+possible rising. At the northern end of the line was Deva (_Chester_),
+at the southern was Isca Silurum (_Caerleon upon Usk_) and in each of
+which was placed a whole legion, about 5,000 men. Between them was the
+smaller post of Uriconium, or more properly Viriconium (_Wroxeter_),
+the city of the Wrekin.
+
+19. =Government of Suetonius Paullinus.= =58.=--When Suetonius
+Paullinus arrived to take up the government, he resolved to complete
+the conquest of the west by an attack on Mona (_Anglesey_). In Mona
+was a sacred place of the Druids, who gave encouragement to the still
+independent Britons by their murderous sacrifices and their
+soothsayings. When Suetonius attempted to land (=61=), a rabble of
+women, waving torches and shrieking defiance, rushed to meet him on
+the shore. Behind them the Druids stood calling down on the intruders
+the vengeance of the gods. At first the soldiers were terrified and
+shrunk back. Then they recovered courage, and put to the sword or
+thrust into the flames the priests and their female rout. The Romans
+were tolerant of the religion of the peoples whom they subdued, but
+they could not put up with the continuance of a cruel superstition
+whose upholders preached resistance to the Roman government.
+
+20. =Boadicea's Insurrection.= =61.=--At the very moment of success
+Suetonius was recalled hurriedly to the east. Roman officers and
+traders had misused the power which had been given them by the valour
+of Roman soldiers. Might had been taken for right, and the natives
+were stripped of their lands and property at the caprice of the
+conquerors. Those of the natives to whom anything was left were called
+upon to pay a taxation far too heavy for their means. When money was
+not to be found to satisfy the tax-gatherer, a Roman usurer was always
+at hand to proffer the required sum at enormous interest, after which
+the unhappy borrower who accepted the proposal soon found himself
+unable to pay the debt, and was stripped of all that he possessed to
+satisfy the cravings of the lender. Those who resisted this oppression
+were treated as the meanest criminals. Boadicea, the widow of
+Prasutagus, who had been the chief of the Iceni, was publicly flogged,
+and her two daughters were subjected to the vilest outrage. She called
+upon the whole Celtic population of the east and south to rise against
+the foreign tyrants. Thousands answered to her call, and the angry
+host rushed to take vengeance upon the colonists of Camulodunum. The
+colonists had neglected to fortify their city, and the insurgents,
+bursting in, slew by the sword or by torture men and women alike. The
+massacre spread wherever Romans were to be found. A Roman legion
+hastening to the rescue was routed, and the small force of cavalry
+attached to it alone succeeded in making its escape. Every one of the
+foot soldiers was slaughtered on the spot. It is said that 70,000
+Romans perished in the course of a few days.
+
+21. =The Vengeance of Suetonius.=--Suetonius was no mean general, and
+he hastened back to the scene of destruction. He called on the
+commander of the legion at Isca Silurum to come to his help. Cowardice
+was rare in a Roman army, but this officer was so unnerved by terror
+that he refused to obey the orders of his general, and Suetonius had
+to march without him. He won a decisive victory at some unknown spot,
+probably not far from Camulodunum, and 80,000 Britons are reported to
+have been slain by the triumphant soldiery. Boadicea committed suicide
+by poison. The commander of the legion at Isca Silurum also put an end
+to his own life, in order to escape the punishment which he deserved.
+Suetonius had restored the Roman authority in Britain, but it was to
+his failure to control his subordinates that the insurrection had been
+due, and he was therefore promptly recalled by the Emperor Nero. From
+that time no more is heard of the injustice of the Roman government.
+
+22. =Agricola in Britain.= =78--84.=--Agricola, who arrived as
+governor in =78=, took care to deal fairly with all sorts of men, and
+to make the natives thoroughly satisfied with his rule. He completed
+the conquest of the country afterwards known as Wales, and thereby
+pushed the western frontier of Roman Britain to the sea. Yet from the
+fact that he found it necessary still to leave garrisons at Deva and
+Isca Silurum, it may be gathered that the tribes occupying the hill
+country were not so thoroughly subdued as to cease to be dangerous.
+Although the idea entertained by Ostorius of making a frontier on land
+towards the west had thus been abandoned, it was still necessary to
+provide a frontier towards the north. Even before Agricola arrived it
+had been shown to be impossible to stop at the line between the Mersey
+and the Humber. Beyond that line was the territory of the Brigantes,
+who had for some time occupied the position which in the first years
+of the Roman conquest had been occupied by the Iceni--that is to say,
+they were in friendly dependence upon Rome, without being actually
+controlled by Roman authority. Before Agricola's coming disputes had
+arisen with them, and Roman soldiers had occupied their territory.
+Agricola finished the work of conquest. He now governed the whole of
+the country as far north as to the Solway and the Tyne, and he made
+Eboracum, the name of which changed in course of time into York, the
+centre of Roman power in the northern districts. A garrison was
+established there to watch for any danger which might come from the
+extreme north, as the garrisons of Deva and Isca Silurum watched for
+dangers which might come from the west.
+
+23. =Agricola's Conquests in the North.=--Agricola thought that there
+would be no real peace unless the whole island was subdued. For seven
+years he carried on warfare with this object before him. He had
+comparatively little difficulty in reducing to obedience the country
+south of the narrow isthmus which separates the estuary of the Clyde
+from the estuary of the Forth. Before proceeding further he drew a
+line of forts across that isthmus to guard the conquered country from
+attack during his absence. He then made his way to the Tay, but he had
+not marched far up the valley of that river before he reached the edge
+of the Highlands. The Caledonians, as the Romans then called the
+inhabitants of those northern regions, were a savage race, and the
+mountains in the recesses of which they dwelt were rugged and
+inaccessible, offering but little means of support to a Roman army. In
+=84= the Caledonians, who, like all barbarians when they first come in
+contact with a civilised people, were ignorant of the strength of a
+disciplined army, came down from their fortresses in the mountains
+into the lower ground. A battle was fought near the Graupian Hill,
+which seems to have been situated at the junction of the Isla and the
+Tay. Agricola gained a complete victory, but he was unable to follow
+the fugitives into their narrow glens, and he contented himself with
+sending his fleet to circumnavigate the northern shores of the island,
+so as to mark out the limits of the land which he still hoped to
+conquer. Before the fleet returned, however, he was recalled by the
+Emperor Domitian. It has often been said that Domitian was jealous of
+his success; but it is possible that the Emperor really thought that
+the advantage to be gained by the conquest of rugged mountains would
+be more than counterbalanced by the losses which would certainly be
+incurred in consequence of the enormous difficulty of the task.
+
+[Illustration: Commemorative tablet of the Second Legion found at
+Halton Chesters on the Roman Wall.]
+
+24. =The Roman Walls.=--Agricola, in addition to his line of forts
+between the Forth and the Clyde, had erected detached forts at the
+mouth of the valleys which issue from the Highlands, in order to
+hinder the Caledonians from plundering the lower country. In =119= the
+Emperor Hadrian visited Britain. He was more disposed to defend the
+Empire than to extend it, and though he did not abandon Agricola's
+forts, he also built further south a continuous stone wall between the
+Solway and the Tyne. This wall, which, together with an earthwork of
+earlier date, formed a far stronger line of defence than the more
+northern forts, was intended to serve as a second barrier to keep out
+the wild Caledonians if they succeeded in breaking through the first.
+At a later time a lieutenant of the Emperor, Antoninus Pius, who
+afterwards became Emperor himself, connected Agricola's forts
+between the Forth and Clyde by a continuous earthwork. In =208= the
+Emperor Severus arrived in Britain, and after strengthening still
+further the earthwork between the Forth and Clyde, he attempted to
+carry out the plans of Agricola by conquering the land of the
+Caledonians. Severus, however, failed as completely as Agricola had
+failed before him, and he died soon after his return to Eboracum.
+
+[Illustration: View of part of the Roman Wall.]
+
+[Illustration: Ruins of a Turret on the Roman Wall.]
+
+[Illustration: Part of the Roman Wall at Leicester.]
+
+[Illustration: Pediment of a Roman temple found at Bath.]
+
+25. =The Roman Province of Britain.=--Very little is known of the
+history of the Roman province of Britain, except that it made
+considerable progress in civilisation. The Romans were great
+road-makers, and though their first object was to enable their
+soldiers to march easily from one part of the country to another, they
+thereby encouraged commercial intercourse. Forests were to some extent
+cleared away by the sides of the new roads, and fresh ground was
+thrown open to tillage. Mines were worked and country houses built,
+the remains of which are in some places still to be seen, and bear
+testimony to the increased well-being of a population which, excepting
+in the south-eastern part of the island, had at the arrival of the
+Romans been little removed from savagery. Cities sprang up in great
+numbers. Some of them were at first garrison towns, like Eboracum,
+Deva, and Isca Silurum. Others, like Verulamium, near the present St.
+Albans, occupied the sites of the old stockades once used as places of
+refuge by the Celts, or, like Lindum, on the top of the hill on which
+Lincoln Cathedral now stands, were placed in strongly defensible
+positions. Aquæ Sulis, the modern Bath, owes its existence to its warm
+medicinal springs. The chief port of commerce was Londinium, the
+modern London. Attempts which have been made to explain its name by
+the Celtic language have failed, and it is therefore possible that an
+inhabited post existed there even before the Celts arrived. Its
+importance was, however, owing to its position, and that importance
+was not of a kind to tell before a settled system of commercial
+intercourse sprang up. London was situated on the hill on which St.
+Paul's now stands. There first, after the Thames narrowed into a
+river, the merchant found close to the stream hard ground on which he
+could land his goods. The valley for some distance above and below it
+was then filled with a wide marsh or an expanse of water. An old track
+raised above the marsh crossed the river by a ford at Lambeth, but, as
+London grew in importance, a ferry was established where London Bridge
+now stands, and the Romans, in course of time, superseded the ferry by
+a bridge. It is, therefore, no wonder that the Roman roads both from
+the north and from the south converged upon London. Just as Eboracum
+was a fitting centre for military operations directed to the defence
+of the northern frontier, London was the fitting centre of a trade
+carried on with the Continent, and the place would increase in
+importance in proportion to the increase of that trade.
+
+[Illustration: Roman altar from Rutchester.]
+
+26. =Extinction of Tribal Antagonism.=--The improvement of
+communications and the growth of trade and industry could not fail to
+influence the mind of the population. Wars between tribes, which
+before the coming of the Romans had been the main employment of the
+young and hardy, were now things of the past. The mutual hatred which
+had grown out of them had died away, and even the very names of
+Trinobantes and Brigantes were almost forgotten. Men who lived in the
+valley of the Severn came to look upon themselves as belonging to the
+same people as men who lived in the valleys of the Trent or the
+Thames. The active and enterprising young men were attracted to the
+cities, at first by the novelty of the luxurious habits in which they
+were taught to indulge, but afterwards because they were allowed to
+take part in the management of local business. In the time of the
+Emperor Caracalla, the son of Severus, every freeman born in the
+Empire was declared to be a Roman citizen, and long before that a
+large number of natives had been admitted to citizenship. In each
+district a council was formed of the wealthier and more prominent
+inhabitants, and this council had to provide for the building of
+temples, the holding of festivals, the erection of fortifications, and
+the laying out of streets. Justice was done between man and man
+according to the Roman law, which was the best law that the world had
+seen, and the higher Roman officials, who were appointed by the
+Emperor, took care that justice was done between city and city. No one
+therefore, wished to oppose the Roman government or to bring back the
+old times of barbarism.
+
+27. =Want of National Feeling.=--Great as was the progress made, there
+was something still wanting. A people is never at its best unless
+those who compose it have some object for which they can sacrifice
+themselves, and for which, if necessary, they will die. The Briton had
+ceased to be called upon to die for his tribe, and he was not expected
+to die for Britain. Britain had become a more comfortable country to
+live in, but it was not the business of its own inhabitants to guard
+it. It was a mere part of the vast Roman Empire, and it was the duty
+of the Emperors to see that the frontier was safely kept. They were so
+much afraid lest any particular province should wish to set up for
+itself and to break away from the Empire, that they took care not to
+employ soldiers born in that province for its protection. They sent
+British recruits to guard the Danube or the Euphrates, and Gauls,
+Spaniards, or Africans to guard the wall between the Solway and the
+Tyne, and the entrenchment between the Forth and the Clyde. Britons,
+therefore, looked on their own defence as something to be done for
+them by the Emperors, not as something to be done by themselves. They
+lived on friendly terms with one another, but they had nothing of what
+we now call patriotism.
+
+28. =Carausius and Allectus.= =288--296.=--In =288= Carausius, with
+the help of some pirates, seized on the government of Britain and
+threw off the authority of the Emperor. He was succeeded by Allectus,
+yet neither Carausius nor Allectus thought of making himself the head
+of a British nation. They called themselves Emperors and ruled over
+Britain alone, merely because they could not get more to rule over.
+
+29. =Constantius and Constantine.= =296--337.=--Allectus was
+overthrown and slain by Constantius, who, however, did not rule, as
+Carausius and Allectus had done, by mere right of military
+superiority. The Emperor Diocletian (=285--305=) discovered that the
+whole Empire, stretching from the Euphrates to the Atlantic, was too
+extensive for one man to govern, and he therefore decreed that there
+should in future be four governors, two principal ones named Emperors
+(_Augusti_), and two subordinate ones named Cæsars. Constantius was
+first a Cæsar and afterwards an Emperor. He was set to govern Spain,
+Gaul, and Britain, but he afterwards became Emperor himself, and for
+some time established himself at Eboracum (_York_). Upon his death
+(=306=), his son Constantine, after much fighting, made himself sole
+Emperor (=325=), overthrowing the system of Diocletian. Yet in one
+respect he kept up Diocletian's arrangements. He placed Spain, Gaul,
+and Britain together under a great officer called a Vicar, who
+received orders from himself and who gave orders to the officers who
+governed each of the three countries. Under the new system, as under
+the old, Britain was not treated as an independent country. It had
+still to look for protection to an officer who lived on the Continent,
+and was therefore apt to be more interested in Gaul and Spain than he
+was in Britain.
+
+30. =Christianity in Britain.=--When the Romans put down the Druids
+and their bloody sacrifices, they called the old Celtic gods by Roman
+names, but made no further alteration in religious usages. Gradually,
+however, Christianity spread amongst the Romans on the Continent, and
+merchants or soldiers who came from the Continent introduced it into
+Britain. Scarcely anything is known of its progress in the island.
+Alban is said to have been martyred at Verulamium, and Julius and
+Aaron at Isca Silurum. In =314= three British bishops attended a
+council held at Arles in Gaul. Little more than these few facts have
+been handed down, but there is no doubt that there was a settled
+Church established in the island. The Emperor Constantine acknowledged
+Christianity as the religion of the whole Empire. The remains of a
+church of this period have recently been discovered at Silchester.
+
+31. =Weakness of the Empire.=--The Roman Empire in the time of
+Constantine had the appearance rather than the reality of strength.
+Its taxation was very heavy, and there was no national enthusiasm to
+lead men to sacrifice themselves in its defence. Roman citizens became
+more and more unwilling to become soldiers at all, and the Roman
+armies were now mostly composed of barbarians. At the same time the
+barbarians outside the Empire were growing stronger, as the tribes
+often coalesced into wide confederacies for the purpose of attacking
+the Empire.
+
+32. =The Picts and Scots.=--The assailants of Britain on the north and
+the west were the Picts and Scots. The Picts were the same as the
+Caledonians of the time of Agricola. We do not know why they had
+ceased to be called Caledonians. The usual derivation of their name
+from the Latin _Pictus_, said to have been given them because they
+painted their bodies, is inaccurate. Opinions differ whether they were
+Goidels with a strong Iberian strain, or Iberians with a Goidelic
+admixture. They were probably Iberians, and at all events they were
+more savage than the Britons had been before they were influenced by
+Roman civilisation. The Scots, who afterwards settled in what is now
+known as Scotland, at that time dwelt in Ireland. Whilst the Picts,
+therefore, assailed the Roman province by land, and strove, not always
+unsuccessfully, to break through the walls which defended its northern
+frontier, the Scots crossed the Irish Sea in light boats to plunder
+and slay before armed assistance could arrive.
+
+33. =The Saxons.=--The Saxons, who were no less deadly enemies of the
+Roman government, were as fierce and restless as the Picts and Scots,
+and were better equipped and better armed. At a later time they
+established themselves in Britain as conquerors and settlers, and
+became the founders of the English nation; but at first they were only
+known as cruel and merciless pirates. In their long flat-bottomed
+vessels they swooped down upon some undefended part of the coast and
+carried off not only the property of wealthy Romans, but even men and
+women to be sold in the slave-market. The provincials who escaped
+related with peculiar horror how the Saxons were accustomed to torture
+to death one out of every ten of their captives as a sacrifice to
+their gods.
+
+34. =Origin of the Saxons.=--The Saxons were the more dangerous
+because it was impossible for the Romans to reach them in their homes.
+They were men of Teutonic race, speaking one of the languages,
+afterwards known as Low German, which were once spoken in the whole of
+North Germany. The Saxon pirates were probably drawn from the whole of
+the sea coast stretching from the north of the peninsula of Jutland to
+the mouth of the Ems, and if so, there were amongst them Jutes, whose
+homes were in Jutland itself; Angles, who inhabited Schleswig and
+Holstein; and Saxons, properly so called, who dwelt about the mouth of
+the Elbe and further to the west. All these peoples afterwards took
+part in the conquest of southern Britain, and it is not unlikely that
+they all shared in the original piratical attacks. Whether this was
+the case or not, the pirates came from creeks and inlets outside the
+Roman Empire, whose boundary was the Rhine, and they could therefore
+only be successfully repressed by a power with a good fleet, able to
+seek out the aggressors in their own homes and to stop the mischief at
+its source.
+
+35. =The Roman Defence.=--The Romans had always been weak at sea, and
+they were weaker now than they had been in earlier days. They were
+therefore obliged to content themselves with standing on the
+defensive. Since the time of Severus, Britain had been divided, for
+purposes of defence, into Upper and Lower Britain. Though there is no
+absolute certainty about the matter, it is probable that Upper
+Britain comprised the hill country of the west and north, and that
+Lower Britain was the south-eastern part of the island, marked off by
+a line drawn irregularly from the Humber to the Severn.[1] Lower
+Britain in the early days of the Roman conquest had been in no special
+need of military protection. In the fourth century it was exposed more
+than the rest of the island to the attacks of the Saxon pirates.
+Fortresses were erected between the Wash and Beachy Head at every
+point at which an inlet of the sea afforded an opening to an invader.
+The whole of this part of the coast became known as the Saxon Shore,
+because it was subjected to attacks from the Saxons, and a special
+officer known as the Count of the Saxon Shore was appointed to take
+charge of it. An officer known as the Duke of the Britains (_Dux
+Britanniarum_) commanded the armies of Upper Britain; whilst a third,
+who was a civilian, and superior in rank over the other two, was the
+Count of Britain, and had a general supervision of the whole country.
+
+    [Footnote 1: There were also four smaller divisions, ultimately
+    increased to five. All that is known about their position is that
+    they were not where they are placed in our atlases.]
+
+36. =End of the Roman Government.= =383--410.=--In =383= Maximus, who
+was probably the Duke of the Britains, was proclaimed Emperor by his
+soldiers. If he could have contented himself with defending Britain,
+it would have mattered little whether he chose to call himself an
+Emperor or a Duke. Unhappily for the inhabitants of the island, not
+only did every successful soldier want to be an Emperor, but every
+Emperor wanted to govern the whole Empire. Maximus, therefore, instead
+of remaining in Britain, carried a great part of his army across the
+sea to attempt a conquest of Gaul and Spain. Neither he nor his
+soldiers ever returned, and in consequence the Roman garrison in the
+island was deplorably weakened. Early in the fifth century an
+irruption of barbarians gave full employment to the army which
+defended Gaul, so that it was impossible to replace the forces which
+had followed Maximus by fresh troops from the Continent. The Roman
+Empire was in fact breaking up. The defence of Britain was left to the
+soldiers who remained in the island, and in =409= they proclaimed a
+certain Constantine Emperor. Constantine, like Maximus, carried his
+soldiers across the Channel in pursuit of a wider empire than he could
+find in Britain. He was himself murdered, and his soldiers, like those
+of Maximus, did not return. In =410= the Britons implored the Emperor
+Honorius to send them help. Honorius had enough to do to ward off the
+attacks of barbarians nearer Rome, and announced to the Britons that
+they must provide for their own defence. From this time Britain ceased
+to form part of the Roman Empire.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Landing of the Jutes in Thanet                              A.D. 449?
+  The West Saxons defeated at Mount Badon                          520
+  The West Saxons take Sorbiodunum                                 552
+  Battle of Deorham                                                577
+  The West Saxons defeated at Faddiley                             584
+
+
+1. =Britain after the Departure of the Romans.= =410--449=?--After the
+departure of the Romans, the Picts from the north and the Scots from
+Ireland continued their ravages, but though they caused terrible
+misery by slaughtering or dragging into slavery the inhabitants of
+many parts of the country, they did not succeed in making any
+permanent conquests. The Britons were not without a government and an
+armed force; and their later history shows that they were capable of
+carrying on war for a long time against enemies more formidable than
+the Picts and Scots. Their rulers were known by the British title
+Gwledig, and probably held power in different parts of the island as
+the successors of the Roman Duke of the Britains and of the Roman
+Count of the Saxon Shore. Their power of resistance to the Picts and
+the Scots was, however, weakened by the impossibility of turning their
+undivided attention to these marauders, as at the same time that they
+had, to defend the Roman Wall and the western coast against the Picts
+and Scots, they were exposed on the eastern coast to the attacks of
+the Saxon pirates.
+
+2. =The Groans of the Britons.=--In their misery the thoughts of the
+Britons turned to those Roman legions who had defended their fathers
+so well. In =446= they appealed to Aëtius, the commander of the Roman
+armies, to deliver them from their destroyers. "The groans of the
+Britons" was the title which they gave to their appeal to him. "The
+barbarians," they wrote, "drive us to the sea; the sea drives us back
+to the barbarians; between them we are exposed to two sorts of death:
+we are either slain or drowned." Aëtius had no men to spare, and he
+sent no help to the Britons. Before long the whole of Western Europe
+was overrun by barbarian tribes, the title of Emperor being retained
+only by the Roman Emperor who ruled from Constantinople over the East,
+his authority over the barbarians of the West being no more than
+nominal.
+
+3. =The Conquest of Kent.= =449=?--It had been the custom of the Roman
+Empire to employ barbarians as soldiers in their armies, and
+Vortigern, the British ruler, now followed that bad example. In or
+about =449= a band of Jutish sea-rovers landed at Ebbsfleet, in the
+Isle of Thanet. According to tradition their leaders were Hengist and
+Horsa, names signifying the horse and the mare, which were not very
+likely to have been borne by real warriors. Whatever may have been the
+names of the chiefs, Vortigern took them into his service against the
+Picts, giving them the Isle of Thanet as a dwelling-place for
+themselves. With their help he defeated the Picts, but afterwards
+found himself unable to defend himself against his fierce auxiliaries.
+Thanet was still cut off from the mainland by an arm of the sea, and
+the Jutes were strong enough to hold it against all assailants. Their
+numbers rapidly increased as shiploads of their fellows landed, and
+they crossed the strait to win fresh lands from the Britons on the
+mainland of Kent. In several battles Vortigern was overpowered. His
+rival and successor, Ambrosius Aurelianus, whose name makes it
+probable that he was an upholder of the old Roman discipline, drove
+back the Jutes in turn. He did not long keep the upper hand, and in
+=465= he was routed utterly. The defeat of the British army was
+followed by an attack upon the great fortresses which had been erected
+along the Saxon Shore in the Roman times. The Jutes had no means of
+carrying them by assault, but they starved them out one by one, and
+some twenty-three years after their first landing, the whole of the
+coast of Kent was in their hands.
+
+4. =The South Saxons.= =477.=--The conquests of the Jutes stopped at
+the inlet of the sea now filled by Romney Marsh. To the south and west
+was the impenetrable Andred's Wood, which covered what is now known as
+the Weald. At its eastern extremity stood by the sea the strong
+fortified town of Anderida, which gave its name to the wood, the most
+westerly of the fortresses of the Saxon Shore still unconquered by the
+Jutes. It was at last endangered by a fresh pirate band--not of Jutes
+but of Saxons--which landed near Selsey, and fought its way eastwards,
+conquering the South Downs and the flat land between the South Downs
+and the sea, till it reached Anderida. Anderida was starved out after
+a long blockade, and the Saxons, bursting in, 'slew all that dwelt
+therein, nor was there henceforth one Briton left.' To this day the
+Roman walls of Anderida stand round the site of the desolated city
+near the modern Pevensey. Its Saxon conquerors came to be known as the
+South Saxons, and their land as Sussex.
+
+5. =The West Saxons and the East Saxons.=--Another swarm also of
+Saxons, called Gewissas, landed on the shore of Southampton Water.
+After a time they were reinforced by a body of Jutes, and though the
+Jutes formed settlements of their own in the Isle of Wight and on the
+mainland, the difference of race and language between them and the
+Gewissas was not enough to prevent the two tribes from coalescing.
+Ultimately Gewissas and Jutes became known as West Saxons, and
+established themselves in a district roughly corresponding with the
+modern Hampshire. Then, having attempted to penetrate further west,
+they were defeated at Mount Badon, probably Badbury Rings in
+Dorsetshire. Their overthrow was so complete as to check their advance
+for more than thirty years. Whilst the coast line from the inlet of
+the sea now filled by Romney Marsh to the western edge of Hampshire
+had thus been mastered by Saxons, others of the same stock, known as
+East Saxons, seized upon the low coast to the north of the Thames.
+From them the land was called Essex. Neither Saxons nor Jutes,
+however, were as yet able to penetrate far up the valley of the
+Thames, as the Roman settlement of London, surrounded by marshes,
+still blocked the way.
+
+6. =The Anglian Settlements.=--The coast-line to the north of the East
+Saxons was seized at some unascertained dates by different groups of
+Angles. The land between the Stour and the great fen which in those
+days stretched far inland from the Wash was occupied by two of these
+groups, known as the North folk and the South folk. They gave their
+names to Norfolk and Suffolk, and at some later time combined under
+the name of East Anglians. North of the Wash were the Lindiswara--that
+is to say, the settlers about the Roman Lindum, the modern Lincoln,
+and beyond them, stretching to the Humber, were the Gainas, from whom
+is derived the name of the modern Gainsborough. To the north of the
+Humber the coast was fringed by Angle settlements which had not yet
+coalesced into one.
+
+7. =Nature of the Conquest.=--The three peoples who effected this
+conquest were afterwards known amongst themselves by the common name
+of English, a name which was originally equivalent to Angle, whilst
+amongst the whole of the remaining Celtic population they were only
+known as Saxons. The mode in which the English treated the Britons was
+very different from that of the Romans, who were a civilised people
+and aimed at governing a conquered race. The new-comers drove out the
+Britons in order to find homes for themselves, and they preferred to
+settle in the country rather than in a town. No Englishman had ever
+lived in a town in his German home, or was able to appreciate the
+advantages of the commerce and manufacture by which towns are
+supported. Nor were they inclined to allow the inhabitants of the
+Roman towns to remain unmolested in their midst. When Anderida was
+captured not a Briton escaped alive, and there is good reason to
+believe that many of the other towns fared no better, especially as
+the remains of some of them still show marks of the fire by which they
+were consumed. What took place in the country cannot be certainly
+known. Many of the British were no doubt killed. Many took refuge in
+fens or woods, or fled to those portions of the island in which their
+countrymen were still independent. It is difficult to decide to what
+extent the men who remained behind were spared, but it is impossible
+to doubt that a considerable number of women were preserved from
+slaughter. The conquerors, at their landing, must have been for the
+most part young men, and when they wanted wives, it would be far
+easier for them to seize the daughters of slain Britons than to fetch
+women from the banks of the Elbe.
+
+8. =The Cultivators of the Soil.=--When the new-comers planted
+themselves on British soil, each group of families united by kinship
+fixed its home in a separate village or township, to which was given
+the name of the kindred followed by 'ham' or 'tun,' the first word
+meaning the home or dwelling, the second the earthen mound which
+formed the defence of the community. Thus Wokingham is the home of the
+Wokings, and Wellington the 'tun' of the Wellings. Each man had a
+homestead of his own, with a strip or strips of arable land in an open
+field. Beyond the arable land was pasture and wood, common to the
+whole township, every villager being entitled to drive his cattle or
+pigs into them according to rules laid down by the whole township.
+
+9. =Eorls, Ceorls, Gesiths.=--The population was divided into Eorls
+and Ceorls. The Eorl was hereditarily distinguished by birth, and the
+Ceorl was a simple freeman without any such distinction. How the
+difference arose we do not know, but we do know that the Eorl had
+privileges which the Ceorl had not. Below the Ceorls were slaves
+taken in war or condemned to slavery as criminals. There were also men
+known as Gesiths, a word which means 'followers,' who were the
+followers of the chiefs or Ealdormen (_Eldermen_) who led the
+conquerors. The Gesiths formed the war-band of the chief. They were
+probably all of them Eorls, so that though every settler was either an
+Eorl or a Ceorl, some Eorls were also Gesiths. This war-band of
+Gesiths was composed of young men who attached themselves to the chief
+by a tie of personal devotion. It was the highest glory of the Gesith
+to die to save his chief's life. Of one Gesith it is told that, when
+he saw a murderer aiming a dagger at his chief, he, not having time to
+seize the assassin, threw his body between the blow and his chief, and
+perished rather than allow him to be killed. It was even held to be
+disgraceful for a Gesith to return from battle alive if his chief had
+been slain. The word by which the chief was known was Hlaford
+(_Lord_), which means a giver of bread, because the Gesiths ate his
+bread. They not only ate his bread, but they shared in the booty which
+he brought home. They slept in his hall, and were clothed in the
+garments woven by his wife and her maidens. A continental writer tells
+how a body of Gesiths once approached their lord with a petition that
+he should take a wife, because as long as he remained unmarried there
+was no one to make new clothes for them or to mend their old ones.
+
+10. =The Gesiths and the Villagers.=--At the time of the English
+settlement, therefore, there were two sorts of warriors amongst the
+invaders. The Ceorls, having been accustomed to till land at home,
+were quite ready to till the lands which they had newly acquired in
+Britain. They were, however, ready to defend themselves and their
+lands if they were attacked, and they were under the obligation of
+appearing in arms when needed for defence. This general army of the
+villagers was called the Fyrd. On the other hand, the Gesiths had not
+been accustomed to till land at home, but had made fighting their
+business. War, in short, which was an unwelcome accident to the Ceorl,
+was the business of life to the Gesith. The exact relationship between
+the Gesiths and the Ceorls cannot be ascertained with certainty. It is
+not improbable that the Gesiths, being the best warriors amongst their
+countrymen, sometimes obtained land granted them by their chiefs, and
+were expected in consequence to be specially ready to serve the chief
+whom they had followed from their home. It was from their relation to
+their chief that they were called Gesiths, a name gradually abandoned
+for that of Thegns, or servants, when they--as was soon the
+case--ceased to live with their chief and had houses and lands of
+their own, though they were still bound to military service. How these
+Thegns cultivated their lands is a question to which there is no
+certain answer. In later days they made use of a class of men known as
+bondmen or villeins. These bondmen were not, like slaves, the property
+of their masters. They had land of their own which they were allowed
+to cultivate for themselves on condition of spending part of their
+time in cultivating the land of their lords. It has been supposed by
+some writers that the Thegns employed bondmen from the earliest times
+of the conquest. If, however, this was the case, there arises a
+further question whether the bondmen were Englishmen or Britons. The
+whole subject is under investigation, and the evidence which exists is
+excessively scanty. It is at least certain that the further the
+conquest progressed westwards, the greater was the number of Britons
+preserved alive.
+
+11. =English and Welsh.=--The bulk of the population on the eastern
+and southern coasts was undoubtedly English. English institutions and
+English language took firm root. The conquerors looked on the Britons
+with the utmost contempt, naming them Welsh, a name which no Briton
+thought of giving to himself, but which Germans had been in the habit
+of applying somewhat contemptuously to the Celts on the Continent. So
+far as British words have entered into the English language at all,
+they have been words such as _gown_ or _curd_, which are likely to
+have been used by women, or words such as _cart_ or _pony_, which are
+likely to have been used by agricultural labourers, and the evidence
+of language may therefore be adduced in favour of the view that many
+women and many agricultural labourers were spared by the conquerors.
+
+12. =The Township and the Hundred.=--The smallest political community
+of the new settlers was the village, or, as it is commonly called, the
+township, which is still represented by the parish, the parish being
+merely a township in which ecclesiastical institutions have been
+maintained whilst political institutions have ceased to exist. The
+freemen of the township met to settle small questions between
+themselves, under the presidency of their reeve or headman. More
+important cases were brought before the hundred-moot, or meeting of
+the hundred, a district which had been inhabited, or was supposed to
+have been inhabited, either by a hundred kindred groups of the
+original settlers or by the families of a hundred warriors. This
+hundred-moot was held once a month, and was attended by four men and
+the reeve from every township, and also by the Eorls and Thegns living
+in the hundred. It not only settled disputes about property, but gave
+judgment in criminal cases as well.
+
+13. =Weregild.=--In early days, long before the English had left their
+lands beyond the sea, it was not considered to be the business of the
+community to punish crime. If any one was murdered, it was the duty of
+the kinsmen of the slain man to put to death the murderer. In course
+of time men got tired of the continual slaughter produced by this
+arrangement, and there sprang up a system according to which the
+murderer might offer to the kinsmen a sum of money known as weregild,
+or the value of a man, and if this money was accepted, then peace was
+made and all thought of vengeance was at an end. At a later time, at
+all events after the arrival of the English in this country, charges
+of murder were brought before the hundred-moot whenever the alleged
+murderer and his victim lived in the same hundred. If the accused
+person did not dispute the fact the moot sentenced him to pay a
+weregild, the amount of which differed in proportion to the rank of
+the slain man, not in proportion to the heinousness of the offence. As
+there was a weregild for murder, so there was also a graduated scale
+of payments for lesser offences. One who struck off a hand or a foot
+could buy off vengeance at a fixed rate.
+
+14. =Compurgation and Ordeal.=--A new difficulty was introduced when a
+person who was charged with crime denied his guilt. As there were no
+trained lawyers and there was no knowledge of the principles of
+evidence, the accused person was required to bring twelve men to be
+his compurgators--that is to say, to hear him swear to his own
+innocence, and then to swear in turn that his oath was true. If he
+could not find men willing to be his compurgators he could appeal to
+the judgment of the gods, which was known as the Ordeal. If he could
+walk blindfold over red-hot ploughshares, or plunge his arm into
+boiling water, and show at the end of a fixed number of days that he
+had received no harm, it was thought that the gods bore witness to his
+innocency and had as it were become his compurgators when men had
+failed him. It is quite possible that all or most of those who tried
+the ordeal failed, but as nobody would try the ordeal who could get
+compurgators, those who did not succeed must have been regarded as
+persons of bad character, so that no surprise would be expressed at
+their failure.
+
+15. =Punishments.=--When a man had failed in the ordeal there was a
+choice of punishments. If his offence was a slight one, a fine was
+deemed sufficient. If it was a very disgraceful one, such as secret
+murder, he was put to death or was degraded to slavery, in most cases
+he was declared to be a 'wolf's-head'--that is to say, he was outlawed
+and driven into the woods, where, as the protection of the community
+was withdrawn from him, anyone might kill him without fear of
+punishment.
+
+16. =The Folk-moot.=--As the hundred-moot did justice between those
+who lived in the hundred, so the folk-moot did justice between those
+who lived in different hundreds, or were too important to be judged in
+the hundred-moot. The folk-moot was the meeting of the whole folk or
+tribe, which consisted of several hundreds. It was attended, like the
+hundred-moot, by four men and the reeve from each township, and it met
+twice a year, and was presided over by the chief or Ealdorman. The
+folk-moot met in arms, because it was a muster as well as a council
+and a court. The vote as to war and peace was taken in it, and while
+the chief alone spoke, the warriors signified their assent by clashing
+their swords against their shields.
+
+17. =The Kingship.=--How many folks or tribes settled in the island it
+is impossible to say, but there is little doubt that many of them soon
+combined. The resistance of the Britons was desperate, and it was only
+by joining together that the settlers could hope to overcome it. The
+causes which produced this amalgamation of the folks produced the
+king. It was necessary to find a man always ready to take the command
+of the united folks, and this man was called King, a name which
+signifies the man of the kinship or race at the head of which he
+stood. His authority was greater than the Ealdorman's, and his
+warriors were more numerous than those which the Ealdorman had led. He
+must come of a royal family--that is, of one supposed to be descended
+from the god Woden. As it was necessary that he should be capable of
+leading an army, it was impossible that a child could be king, and
+therefore no law of hereditary succession prevailed. On the death of a
+king the folk-moot chose his successor out of the kingly family. If
+his eldest son was a grown man of repute, the choice would almost
+certainly fall upon him. If he was a child or an invalid, some other
+kinsman of the late king would be selected.
+
+18. =The Legend of Arthur.=--Thirty-two years passed away after the
+defeat of the West Saxons at Mount Badon in =520= (see p. 28) before
+they made any further conquests. Welsh legends represent this period
+as that of the reign of Arthur. Some modern inquirers have argued that
+Arthur's kingdom was in the north, whilst others have argued that it
+was in the south. It is quite possible that the name was given by
+legend to more than one champion; at all events, there was a time when
+an Ambrosius, probably a descendant of Ambrosius Aurelianus (see p.
+27), protected the southern Britons. This stronghold was at
+Sorbiodunum, the hill fort now a grassy space known as Old Sarum, and
+his great church and monastery, where Christian priests encouraged the
+Christian Britons in their struggle against the heathen Saxons, was at
+the neighbouring Ambresbyrig (_the fortress of Ambrosius_), now
+modernised into Amesbury. Thirty-two years after the battle of Mount
+Badon the kingdom of Ambrosius had been divided amongst his
+successors, who were plunged in vice and were quarrelling with one
+another.
+
+[Illustration: _Walker & Boutallse._
+
+Plan of the city of Old Sarum, the ancient _Sorbiodunum_. The
+Cathedral is of later date.]
+
+19. =The West Saxon Advance.=--In =552= Cynric, the West Saxon king,
+attacked the divided Britons, captured Sorbiodunum, and made himself
+master of Salisbury Plain. Step by step he fought his way to the
+valley of the Thames, and when he had reached it, he turned eastwards
+to descend the river to its mouth. Here, however, he found himself
+anticipated by the East Saxons, who had captured London, and had
+settled a branch of their people under the name of the Middle Saxons
+in Middlesex. The Jutes of Kent had pushed westwards through the
+Surrey hills, but in =568= the West Saxons defeated them and drove
+them back. After this battle, the first in which the conquerors strove
+with one another, the West Saxons turned northwards, defeated the
+Britons in =571= at Bedford, and occupied the valleys of the Thame and
+Cherwell and the upper valley of the Ouse. They are next heard of much
+further west, and it has been supposed that they turned in that
+direction because they found the lower Ouse already held by Angle
+tribes. However this may have been, they crossed the Cotswolds in
+=577= under two brothers, Ceawlin and Cutha, and at Deorham defeated
+and slew three kings who ruled over the cities of Glevum
+(_Gloucester_), Corinium (_Cirencester_), and Aquæ Sulis (_Bath_).
+They seized on the fertile valley of the Severn, and during the next
+few years they pressed gradually northwards. In =584= they destroyed
+and sacked the old Roman station of Viriconium. This was their last
+victory for many a year. They attempted to reach Chester, but were
+defeated at Faddiley by the Britons, who slew Cutha in the battle.
+
+[Illustration: Old Sarum from an engraving published in 1843, showing
+mound. (It is now obscured by trees from this point of view.)]
+
+20. =Repulse of the West Saxons.=--After the defeat at Faddiley the
+West Saxons split up into two peoples. Those of them who settled in
+the lower Severn valley took the name of Hwiccan, and joined the
+Britons against their own kindred. This alliance could hardly have
+taken place if the Hwiccan, in settling in the Severn valley, had
+destroyed the whole, or even a considerable part, of the Celtic
+population, though there can be little doubt that there was still
+slaughter when a battle was fought or a town taken by storm; as it is
+known that the magnificent Roman buildings at Bath were standing in
+ruins and the city untenanted many years after the capture of the
+city. At all events, the Britons, now allied with the Hwiccan,
+defeated Ceawlin at Wanborough. After this disaster, though the West
+Saxon kingdom retained its independence, it was independent within
+smaller limits than those which Ceawlin had wished to give to it. If
+he had seized Chester he would have been on the way to gain the
+mastery over all England, but he had tried to do too much in a short
+time. His people can hardly have been numerous enough to occupy in
+force a territory reaching from Southampton Water to Bedford on one
+side and to Chester on another.
+
+21. =The Advance of the Angles.=--Whilst the West Saxons were
+enlarging their boundaries in the south, the Angles were gradually
+spreading in the centre and the north. The East Anglians were stopped
+on their way to the west by the great fen, but either a branch of the
+Lindiswara or some new-comers made their way up the Trent, and
+established themselves first at Nottingham and then at Leicester, and
+called themselves the Middle English. Another body, known as the
+Mercians, or men of the mark or border-land, seized on the upper
+valley of the Trent. North of the Humber the advance was still slower.
+In =547=, five years before the West Saxons attacked Sorbiodunum, Ida,
+a chieftain of one of the scattered settlements on the coast, was
+accepted as king by all those which lay between the Tees and the
+Forth. His new kingdom was called Bernicia, and his principal fortress
+was on a rock by the sea at Bamborough. During the next fifty years he
+and his successors enlarged their borders till they reached that
+central ridge of moorland hill which is sometimes known as the Pennine
+range. The Angles between the Tees and the Humber called their country
+Deira, but though they also united under a king, their progress was as
+slow as that of the Bernicians. Bernicia and Deira together were known
+as North-humberland, the land north of the Humber, a much larger
+territory than that of the modern county of Northumberland.
+
+22. =The Kymry.=--It is probable that the cause of the slow advance of
+the northern Angles lay in the existence of a strong Celtic state in
+front. Welsh tradition speaks of a ruler named Cunedda, who after the
+departure of the Roman legions governed the territory from the Clyde
+to the south of Wales, which formed the greater part of what had once
+been known as Upper Britain. (See p. 25.) This territory was inhabited
+by a mixed population of Britons and Goidels, with an isolated body of
+Picts in Galloway. A common danger from the English fused them
+together, and as a sign of the wearing out of old distinctions, they
+took the name of Kymry, or Comrades, the name by which the Welsh are
+known amongst one another to this day, and which is also preserved in
+the name of Cumberland, though the Celtic language is no longer spoken
+there.
+
+23. =Britain at the End of the Sixth Century.=--During the sixth
+century the Kymry ceased to be governed by one ruler, but the
+chieftains of the various territories all acknowledged the supremacy
+of a descendant of Cunedda. For purposes of war they combined
+together, and as the country which they occupied was hilly and easily
+defended, the northern English discovered that they too must unite
+amongst themselves if they were to overpower the united resistance of
+the Kymry.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE STRIFE OF THE ENGLISH KINGDOMS.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Augustine's mission                                              597
+  Æthelfrith's victory at Chester                                  613
+  Penda defeats Eadwine at Heathfield                              633
+  Penda's defeat at Winwæd                                         655
+  Theodore Archbishop of Canterbury                                668
+  Offa defeats the West Saxons at Bensington                       779
+  Ecgberht returns to England                                      800
+  Death of Ecgberht                                                839
+
+
+1. =England and the Continent.=--Whatever may be the exact truth about
+the numbers of Britons saved alive by the English conquerors, there
+can be no doubt that English speech and English customs prevailed
+wherever the English settled. In Gaul, where the German Franks made
+themselves masters of the country, a different state of things
+prevailed. Roman officials continued to govern the country under
+Frankish kings, Roman bishops converted the conquerors to
+Christianity, and Roman cities maintained, as far as they could, the
+old standard of civilisation. All commercial intercourse between Gaul,
+still comparatively rich and prosperous, and Britain was for some time
+cut off by the irruption of the English, who were at first too rude
+and too much engaged in fighting to need the products of a more
+advanced race. Gradually, however, as the English settled down into
+peaceful industry along the south-eastern shores of the island, trade
+again sprang up, as it had sprung up in the wild times preceding the
+landing of Cæsar. The Gaulish merchants who crossed the straits found
+themselves in Kent, and during the years in which the West Saxon
+Ceawlin was struggling with the Britons the communications between
+Kent and the Continent had become so friendly that in =584=, or a
+little later, Æthelberht, king of Kent, took to wife Bertha, the
+daughter of a Frankish king, Charibert. Bertha was a Christian, and
+brought with her a Christian bishop. She begged of her husband a
+forsaken Roman church for her own use. This church, now known as St.
+Martin's, stood outside the walls of the deserted city of Durovernum,
+the buildings of which were in ruins, except where a group of rude
+dwellings rose in a corner of the old fortifications. In these
+dwellings Æthelberht and his followers lived, and to them had been
+given the new name of Cantwarabyrig or Canterbury (_the dwelling of
+the men of Kent_). The English were heathen, but their heathenism was
+not intolerant.
+
+2. =Æthelberht's Supremacy.=--Æthelberht's authority reached far
+beyond his native Kent. Within a few years after his marriage he had
+gained a supremacy over most of the other kings to the south of the
+Humber. There is no tradition of any war between Æthelberht and these
+kings, and he certainly did not thrust them out from the leadership of
+their own peoples. The exact nature of his supremacy is, however,
+unknown to us, though it is possible that they were bound to follow
+him if he went to war with peoples not acknowledging his supremacy, in
+which case his position towards them was something of the same kind as
+that of a lord to his gesiths.
+
+3. =Gregory and the English.=--Æthelberht's position as the over-lord
+of so many kings and as the husband of a Christian wife drew upon him
+the attention of Gregory, the Bishop of Rome, or Pope. Many years
+before, as a deacon, he had been attracted by the fair faces of some
+boys from Deira exposed for sale in the Roman slave-market. He was
+told that the children were Angles. "Not Angles, but angels," he
+replied. "Who," he asked, "is their king?" Hearing that his name was
+Ælla, he continued to play upon the words. "Alleluia," he said, "shall
+be sung in the land of Ælla." Busy years kept him from seeking to
+fulfil his hopes, but at last the time came when he could do something
+to carry out his intentions, not in the land of Ælla, but in the land
+of Æthelberht. He became Pope. In those days the Pope had far less
+authority over the Churches of Western Europe than he afterwards
+acquired, but he offered the only centre round which they could rally,
+now that the Empire had broken up into many states ruled over by
+different barbarian kings. The general habit of looking to Rome for
+authority, which had been diffused over the whole Empire whilst Rome
+was still the seat of the Emperors, made men look to the Roman Bishop
+for advice and help as they had once looked to the Roman Emperor.
+Gregory, who united to the tenderheartedness of the Christian the
+strength of will and firmness of purpose which had marked out the best
+of the Emperors, now sent Augustine to England as the leader of a band
+of missionaries.
+
+4. =Augustine's Mission. 597.=--Augustine with his companions landed
+at Ebbsfleet, in Thanet, where Æthelberht's forefathers had landed
+nearly a century and a half before. After a while Æthelberht arrived.
+Singing a litany, and bearing aloft a painting of the Saviour, the
+missionaries appeared before him. He had already learned from his
+Christian wife to respect Christians, but he was not prepared to
+forsake his own religion. He welcomed the new-comers, and told them
+that they were free to convert those who would willingly accept their
+doctrine. A place was assigned to them in Canterbury, and they were
+allowed to use Bertha's church. In the end Æthelberht himself,
+together with thousands of the Kentish men, received baptism. It was
+more by their example than by their teaching that Augustine's band won
+converts. The missionaries lived 'after the model of the primitive
+Church, giving themselves to frequent prayers, watchings, and
+fastings; preaching to all who were within their reach, disregarding
+all worldly things as matters with which they had nothing to do,
+accepting from those whom they taught just what seemed necessary for
+livelihood, living themselves altogether in accordance with what they
+taught, and with hearts prepared to suffer every adversity, or even to
+die, for that truth which they preached.'
+
+5. =Monastic Christianity.=--These missionaries were monks as well as
+preachers. The Christians of those days considered the monastic life
+to be the highest. In the early days of the Church, when the world was
+full of vice and cruelty, it seemed hardly possible to live in the
+world without being dragged down to its wickedness. Men and women,
+therefore, who wished to keep themselves pure, withdrew to hermitages
+or monasteries, where they might be removed from temptation, and might
+fit themselves for heaven by prayer and fasting. In the fifth century
+Benedict of Nursia had organised in Italy a system of life for the
+monastery which he governed, and the Benedictine rule, as it was
+called, was soon accepted in almost all the monasteries of Western
+Europe. The special feature of this rule was that it encouraged labour
+as well as prayer. It was a saying of Benedict himself that 'to labour
+is to pray.' He did not mean that labour was good in itself, but that
+monks who worked during some hours of the day would guard their minds
+against evil thoughts better than if they tried to pray all day long.
+Augustine and his companions were Benedictine monks, and their
+quietness and contentedness attracted the population amidst which they
+had settled. The religion of the heathen English was a religion which
+favoured bravery and endurance, counting the warrior who slaughtered
+most enemies as most highly favoured by the gods. The religion of
+Augustine was one of peace and self-denial. Its symbol was the cross,
+to be borne in the heart of the believer. The message brought by
+Augustine was very hard to learn. If Augustine had expected the whole
+English population to forsake entirely its evil ways and to walk in
+paths of peace, he would probably have been rejected at once. It was
+perhaps because he was a monk that he did not expect so much. A monk
+was accustomed to judge laymen by a lower standard of self-denial than
+that by which he judged himself. He would, therefore, not ask too much
+of the new converts. They must forsake the heathen temples and
+sacrifices, and must give up some particularly evil habits. The rest
+must be left to time and the example of the monks.
+
+6. =The Archbishopric of Canterbury.=--After a short stay Augustine
+revisited Gaul and came back as Archbishop of the English. Æthelberht
+gave to him a ruined church at Canterbury, and that poor church was
+named Christ Church, and became the mother church of England. From
+that day the Archbishop's See has been fixed at Canterbury. If
+Augustine in his character of monk led men by example, in his
+character of Archbishop he had to organise the Church. With
+Æthelberht's help he set up a bishopric at Rochester and another in
+London. London was now again an important trading city, which, though
+not in Æthelberht's own kingdom of Kent, formed part of the kingdom of
+Essex, which was dependent on Kent. More than these three Sees
+Augustine was unable to establish. An attempt to obtain the friendly
+co-operation of the Welsh bishops broke down because Augustine
+insisted on their adoption of Roman customs; and Lawrence, who
+succeeded to the archbishopric after Augustine's death, could do no
+more than his predecessor had done.
+
+7. =Death of Æthelberht. 616.=--In =616= Æthelberht died. The
+over-lordship of the kings of Kent ended with him, and Augustine's
+church, which had largely depended upon his influence, very nearly
+ended as well. Essex relapsed into heathenism, and it was only by
+terrifying Æthelberht's son with the vengeance of St. Peter that
+Lawrence kept him from relapsing also. On the other hand, Rædwald,
+king of the East Anglians, who succeeded to much of Æthelberht's
+authority, so far accepted Christianity as to worship Christ amongst
+his other gods.
+
+8. =The Three Kingdoms opposed to the Welsh.=--Augustine's Church
+was weak, because it depended on the kings, and had not had time to
+root itself in the affections of the people. Æthelberht's supremacy
+was also weak. The greater part of the small states which still
+existed--Sussex, Kent, Essex, East Anglia, and most of the small
+kingdoms of central England--were no longer bordered by a Celtic
+population. For them the war of conquest and defence was at an end.
+If any one of the kingdoms was to rise to permanent supremacy it
+must be one of those engaged in strenuous warfare, and as yet
+strenuous warfare was only carried on with the Welsh. The kingdoms
+which had the Welsh on their borders were three--Wessex, Mercia, and
+North-humberland, and neither Wessex nor Mercia was as yet very
+strong. Wessex was too distracted by conflicts amongst members of
+the kingly family, and Mercia was as yet too small to be of much
+account. North-humberland was therefore the first of the three to
+rise to the foremost place. Till the death of Ælla, the king of
+Deira, from whose land had been carried off the slave-boys whose
+faces had charmed Gregory at Rome, Deira and Bernicia had been as
+separate as Kent and Essex. Then in =588= Æthelric of Bernicia drove
+out Ælla's son and seized his kingdom of Deira, thus joining the two
+kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia (see p. 36) into one, under the new
+name of North-humberland.[2]
+
+    [Footnote 2: Genealogy of the principal Northumbrian
+    kings:--[_Note._--The names of kings are in capitals. The figures
+    denote the order of succession of those who ruled over the whole of
+    North-humberland. Those whose names are followed by a B. or D. ruled
+    only over Bernicia or Deira respectively.]
+
+     _House of Bernicia_                     _House of Deira_
+
+          IDA B.                                 Iffa D.
+            |                                       |
+            |                                ---------------
+            |                                |             |
+      1. ÆTHELRIC                          ÆLLA D.       Ælfric
+            |                                |             |
+            |           ---------------------------        |
+            |           |                         |        |
+      2. ÆTHELFRITH = Acha                  3. EADWINE   OSRIC D.
+                    |                                      |
+               --------------                              |
+               |            |                              |
+          4. OSWALD    5. OSWIU                         OSWINI D.]
+
+9. =Æthelfrith and the Kymry.=--In =593=, four years before the
+landing of Augustine, Æthelric was succeeded by his son Æthelfrith.
+Æthelfrith began a fresh struggle with the Welsh. We know little of
+the internal history of the Welsh population, but what we do know
+shows that towards the end of the sixth century there was an
+improvement in their religious and political existence. The
+monasteries were thronged, especially the great monastery of
+Bangor-iscoed, in the modern Flintshire, which contained 2,000 monks.
+St. David and other bishops gave examples of piety. In fighting
+against Æthelfrith the warriors of the Britons were fighting for their
+last chance of independence. They still held the west from the Clyde
+to the Channel. Unhappily for them, the Severn, the Dee, and the
+Solway Firth divided their land into four portions, and if an enemy
+coming from the east could seize upon the heads of the inlets into
+which those rivers flowed he could prevent the defenders of the west
+from aiding one another. Already in =577=, by the victory of Deorham
+(see p. 35), the West Saxons had seized on the mouth of the Severn,
+and had split off the West Welsh of the south-western peninsula.
+Æthelfrith had to do with the Kymry, whose territories stretched from
+the Bristol Channel to the Clyde, and who held an outlying wedge of
+land then known as Loidis and Elmet, which now together form the West
+Riding of Yorkshire.
+
+10. =Æthelfrith's Victories.=--The long range of barren hills which
+separated Æthelfrith's kingdom from the Kymry made it difficult for
+either side to strike a serious blow at the other. In the extreme
+north, where a low valley joins the Firths of Clyde and Forth, it was
+easier for them to meet. Here the Kymry found an ally outside their
+own borders. Towards the end of the fifth century a colony of Irish
+Scots had driven out the Picts from the modern Argyle. In =603= their
+king, Aedan, bringing with him a vast army, in which Picts and the
+Kymry appear to have taken part, invaded the northern part of
+Æthelfrith's country. Æthelfrith defeated him at Degsastan, which was
+probably Dawstone, near Jedburgh. 'From that time no king of the
+Scots durst come into Britain to make war upon the English.' Having
+freed himself from the Scots in the north, Æthelfrith turned upon the
+Kymry. After a succession of struggles of which no record remains, he
+forced his way in =613= to the western sea near Chester. The Kymry had
+brought with them the 2,000 monks of their great monastery
+Bangor-iscoed, to pray for victory whilst their warriors were engaged
+in battle. Æthelfrith bade his men to slay them all. 'Whether they
+bear arms or no,' he said, 'they fight against us when they cry
+against us to their God.' The monks were slain to a man. Their
+countrymen were routed, and Chester fell into the hands of the
+English. The capture of Chester split the Kymric kingdom in two, as
+the battle of Deorham thirty-five years before had split that kingdom
+off from the West Welsh of the south-western peninsula. The Southern
+Kymry, in what is now called Wales, could no longer give help to the
+Northern Kymry between the Clyde and the Ribble, who grouped
+themselves into the kingdom of Strathclyde, the capital of which was
+Alcluyd, the modern Dumbarton. Three weak Celtic states, unable to
+assist one another, would not long be able to resist their invaders.
+
+11. =The Greatness of Eadwine.=--Powerful as Æthelfrith was, he was
+jealous of young Eadwine, a son of his father's rival, Ælla of Deira.
+For some years Eadwine had been in hiding, at one time with Welsh
+princes, at another time with English kings. In =617= he took refuge
+with Rædwald, the king of the East Angles. Æthelfrith demanded the
+surrender of the fugitive. Rædwald hesitated, but at last refused.
+Æthelfrith attacked him, but was defeated and slain near the river
+Idle, at some point near Retford. Eadwine the Deiran then became king
+over the united North-humberland in the place of Æthelfrith the
+Bernician, whose sons fled for safety to the Picts beyond the Forth.
+Eadwine completed and consolidated the conquests of his predecessors.
+He placed a fortress, named after himself Eadwinesburh, or Edinburgh,
+on a rocky height near the Forth, to guard his land against a fresh
+irruption of Scots and Picts, such as that which had been turned back
+at Degsastan. He conquered from the Kymry Loidis and Elmet, and he
+launched a fleet at Chester which added to his dominions the Isle of
+Man and the greater island which was henceforth known as Anglesea, the
+island of the Angles. Eadwine assumed unwonted state. Wherever he went
+a standard was borne before him, as well as a spear decorated with a
+tuft of feathers, the ancient sign of Roman authority. It has been
+thought by some that his meaning was that he, rather than any
+Welshman, was the true Gwledig, the successor of the Duke of the
+Britains (_Dux Britanniarum_), and that the name of Bretwalda, or
+ruler of the Britons, which he is said to have borne, was only a
+translation of the Welsh Gwledig. It is true that the title of
+Bretwalda is given to other powerful kings before and after Eadwine,
+some of whom were in no sense rulers over Britons; but it is possible
+that it was taken to signify a ruler over a large part of Britain,
+though the men over whom he ruled were English, and not Britons.
+
+12. =Eadwine's Supremacy.=--Eadwine's immediate kingship did not reach
+further south than the Humber and the Dee. But before =625= he had
+brought the East Angles and the kingdoms of central England to submit
+to his over-lordship, and he hoped to make himself over-lord of the
+south as well, and thus to reduce all England to dependence on
+himself. In =625= he planned an attack upon the West Saxons, and with
+the object of winning Kent to his side, he married Æthelburh, a sister
+of the Kentish king. Kent was still the only Christian kingdom, and
+Eadwine was obliged to promise to his wife protection for her
+Christian worship. He was now free to attack the West Saxons. In
+=626=, before he set out, ambassadors arrived from their king. As
+Eadwine was listening to them, one of their number rushed forward to
+stab him. His life was saved by the devotion of Lilla, one of his
+thegns, who threw his body in the way of the assassin, and was slain
+by the stroke intended for his lord. After this Eadwine marched
+against the West Saxons. He defeated them in battle and forced them to
+acknowledge him as their over-lord. He was now over-lord of all the
+English states except Kent, and Kent had become his ally in
+consequence of his marriage.
+
+13. =Character of the later Conquests.=--Eadwine's over-lordship had
+been gained with as little difficulty as Æthelberht's had been. The
+ease with which each of them carried out their purpose can only be
+explained by the change which had taken place in the condition of the
+English. The small bodies of conquerors which had landed at different
+parts of the coast had been interested to a man in the defence of the
+lands which they had seized. Every freeman had been ready to come
+forward to defend the soil which his tribe had gained. After tribe had
+been joined to tribe, and still more after kingdom had been joined to
+kingdom, there were large numbers who ceased to have any interest in
+resisting the Welsh on what was, as far as they were concerned, a
+distant frontier. Thus, when Ceawlin was fighting to extend the West
+Saxon frontiers in the valley of the Severn, it mattered little to a
+man whose own allotted land lay on the banks of the Southampton Water
+whether or not his English kinsmen won lands from the Welsh near Bath
+or Gloucester. The first result of this change was that the king's
+war-band formed a far greater proportion of his military force than it
+had formed originally. There was still the obligation upon the whole
+body of the freemen to take arms, but it was an obligation which had
+become more difficult to fulfil, and it must often have happened that
+very few freemen took part in a battle except the local levies
+concerned in defending their own immediate neighbourhood. A military
+change of this kind would account for the undoubted fact that the
+further the English conquest penetrated to the west the less
+destructive it was of British life. The thegns, or warriors personally
+attached to the king, did not want to plough and reap with their own
+hands. They would be far better pleased to spare the lives of the
+conquered and to compel them to labour. Every step in advance was
+marked by a proportionately larger Welsh element in the population.
+
+14. =Political Changes.=--The character of the kingship was as much
+affected by the change as the character of the population. The old
+folk-moots still remained as the local courts of the smaller kingdoms,
+or of the districts out of which the larger kingdoms were composed,
+and continued to meet under the presidency of ealdormen appointed or
+approved by the king. Four men and a reeve, all of them humble
+cultivators, could not, however, be expected to walk up to York from
+the shores of the Forth, or even from the banks of the Tyne, whenever
+Eadwine needed their counsel. Their place in the larger kingdoms was
+therefore taken by the Witenagemot (_The moot of the wise men_),
+composed of the ealdormen and the chief thegns, together with the
+priests attached to the king's service in the time of heathendom, and,
+in the time of Christianity, the bishop or bishops of his kingdom. In
+one way the king was the stronger for the change. His counsellors,
+like his fighting force, were more dependent on himself than before.
+He was able to plan greater designs, and to carry out military
+enterprises at a greater distance. In another way he was the weaker
+for the change. He had less support from the bulk of his people, and
+was more likely to undertake enterprises in which they had no
+interest. The over-lordships of Æthelberht and Eadwine appear very
+imposing, but no real tie united the men of the centre of England to
+those of Kent at one time, or to those of North-humberland at another.
+Eadwine was supreme over the other kings because he had a better
+war-band than they had. If another king appeared whose war-band was
+better than his, his supremacy would disappear.
+
+15. =Eadwine's Conversion and Fall.=--In =627= Eadwine, moved by his
+wife's entreaties and the urgency of her chaplain, Paulinus, called
+upon his Witan to accept Christianity. Coifi, the priest, declared
+that he had long served his gods for naught, and would try a change of
+masters. 'The present life of man, O king,' said a thegn, 'seems to me
+in comparison of that time which is unknown to us like to the swift
+flight of a sparrow through the room wherein you sit at supper in
+winter, with your ealdormen and thegns, and a good fire in the midst,
+and storms of rain and snow without.... So this life of man appears
+for a short space, but of what went before or what is to follow we are
+utterly ignorant. If therefore this new doctrine contains something
+more certain, it seems justly to deserve to be followed.' On this
+recommendation Christianity was accepted. Paulinus was acknowledged as
+Bishop of York. The new See, which had been originally intended by
+Pope Gregory to be an archbishopric, was ultimately acknowledged as
+such, but as yet it was but a missionary station. Paulinus converted
+thousands in Deira, but the men of Bernicia were unaffected by his
+pleadings. Christianity, like the extension of all better teaching,
+brought at first not peace but the sword. The new religion was
+contemptible in the eyes of warriors. The supremacy of Eadwine was
+shaken. The men of East Anglia slew their king, who had followed his
+over-lord's example by accepting Christianity. The worst blow came
+from Mercia. Hitherto it had been only a little state on the Welsh
+border. Its king, Penda, the stoutest warrior of his day, now gathered
+under him all the central states, and founded a new Mercia which
+stretched from the Severn to the Fens. He first turned on the West
+Saxons, defeated them at Cirencester, and in =628= brought the
+territory of the Hwiccas under Mercian sway. On the other hand, East
+Anglia accepted Eadwine's supremacy and Christianity. Penda called to
+his aid Cædwalla, the king of Gwynnedd, the Snowdonian region of
+Wales. That he should have done so shows how completely Æthelfrith's
+victory at Chester, by cutting the Kymric realm in two, had put an end
+to all fears that the Kymry could ever make head against England as a
+whole. The alliance was too strong for Eadwine, and in =633=, at the
+battle of Heathfield--the modern Hatfield, in Yorkshire--the great
+king was slain and his army routed.
+
+16. =Oswald's Victory at Heavenfield.=--Penda was content to split up
+Bernicia and Deira into separate kingdoms, and to join East Anglia to
+his subject states. Cædwalla had all the wrongs of his race to avenge.
+He remained in North-humberland burning and destroying till =635=,
+when Oswald, who was a son of Æthelfrith and of Eadwine's sister, and
+therefore united the claims of the rival families, gathered the men of
+Bernicia round him, overthrew Cædwalla at Heavenfield, near the Roman
+Wall, and was gratefully accepted as king by the whole of
+North-humberland.
+
+17. =Oswald and Aidan.=--In the days of Eadwine, Oswald, as the heir
+of the rival house of Bernicia, had passed his youth in exile, and had
+been converted to Christianity in the monastery of Hii, the island now
+known as Iona. The monastery had been founded by Columba, an Irish
+Scot. Christianity had been introduced into Ireland by Patrick early
+in the fifth century. Ireland was a land of constant and cruel war
+between its tribes, and all who wished to be Christians in more than
+name withdrew themselves into monasteries, where they lived an even
+stricter and more ascetic life than the monks did in other parts of
+Western Europe. Bishops were retained in the monasteries to ordain
+priests, but they were entirely powerless. Columba's monastery at Hii
+sent its missionaries abroad, and brought Picts as well as Scots under
+the influence of Christianity. Oswald now requested its abbot, the
+successor of Columba, to send a missionary to preach the faith to the
+men of North-humberland in the place of Paulinus, who had fled when
+Eadwine was slain. The first who was sent came back reporting that the
+people were too stubborn to be converted. "Was it their stubbornness
+or your harshness?" asked the monk Aidan. "Did you forget to give them
+the milk first and then the meat?" Aidan was chosen to take the place
+of the brother who had failed. He established himself, not in an
+inland town, but in Holy Island. His life was spent in wandering
+amongst the men of the valleys opposite, winning them over by his
+gentleness and his self-denying energy. Oswald, warrior as he was, had
+almost all the gentleness and piety of Aidan. 'By reason of his
+constant habit of praying or giving thanks to the Lord he was wont
+whenever he sat to hold his hands upturned on his knees.' On one
+occasion when he sat down to a feast with Aidan by his side, he sent
+both the dainties before him and the silver dish on which they had
+been served to be divided amongst the poor. "May this hand," exclaimed
+the delighted Aidan, "never grow old!"
+
+18. =Oswald's Greatness and Overthrow.=--As a king Oswald based his
+power on the acknowledgment of his over-lordship by all the kingdoms
+which were hostile to Penda. In =635= Wessex accepted Christianity,
+and the acceptance of Christianity brought with it the acceptance of
+Oswald's supremacy. Penda was thus surrounded by enemies, but his
+courage did not fail him, and in =642= at the battle of Maserfield he
+defeated Oswald. Oswald fell in the battle, begging with his last
+words for God's mercy on the souls of his enemies.
+
+19. =Penda's Overthrow.=--After Oswald's fall Bernicia was ruled by
+his brother Oswiu. Deira, again divided from it, was governed first
+by Eadwine's cousin Osric, and then by Osric's son, Oswini, who
+acknowledged Penda as his over-lord. Oswini was a man after Aidan's
+own heart. Once he gave a horse to Aidan to carry him on his mission
+journeys. Aidan gave it away to the first beggar he met. "Is that
+son of a mare," answered Aidan to the reproaches of the king, "worth
+more in your eyes than that son of God?" Oswini fell at the bishop's
+feet and entreated his pardon. Aidan wept. "I am sure," he cried,
+"the king will not live long. I never till now saw a king humble."
+Aidan was right. In =651= Oswini was slain by the order of King
+Oswiu of Bernicia, who had long engaged in a struggle with Penda.
+Penda had for some years been burning and slaughtering in Bernicia,
+till he had turned a quarrel between himself and Oswiu into a
+national strife. Oswiu rescued Bernicia from destruction, and after
+Oswini's murder joined once more the two kingdoms together. Oswini
+was the last heir of Ælla's house, and from that time there was but
+one North-humberland. In =655= Oswiu and Penda met to fight, as it
+seemed for supremacy over the whole of England, by the river Winwæd,
+near the present Leeds. The heathen Penda was defeated and slain.
+
+20. =The Three Kingdoms and the Welsh.=--For a moment it seemed as if
+England would be brought together under the rule of Oswiu. After
+Penda's death Mercia accepted Christianity, and the newly united
+Mercia was split up into its original parts ruled by several kings.
+The supremacy of Oswiu was, however, as little to be borne by the
+Mercians as the supremacy of Penda had been borne by the men of
+North-humberland. Under Wulfhere the Mercians rose in =659= against
+Oswiu. All hope of uniting England was for the present at an end. For
+about a century and a half longer there remained three larger
+kingdoms--North-humberland, Mercia, and Wessex, whilst four smaller
+ones--East Anglia, Essex, Kent, and Sussex--were usually attached
+either to Mercia or to Wessex. The failure of North-humberland to
+maintain the power was no doubt, in the first place owing to the
+absence of any common danger, the fear of which would bind together
+its populations in self-defence. The northern Kymry of Strathclyde
+were no longer formidable, and they grew less formidable as years
+passed on. The southern Kymry of Wales were too weak to threaten
+Mercia, and the Welsh of the south-western peninsula were too weak to
+threaten Wessex. It was most unlikely that any permanent union of the
+English states would be brought about till some enemy arose who was
+more terrible to them than the Welsh could any longer be.
+
+21. =The English Missionaries.=--Some preparation might, however, be
+made for the day of union by the steady growth of the Church. The
+South Saxons, secluded between the forest and the sea, were the last
+to be converted, but with them English heathenism came to an end as an
+avowed religion, though it still continued to influence the multitude
+in the form of a belief in fairies and witchcraft. Monasteries and
+nunneries sprang up on all sides. Missionaries spread over the
+country. In their mouths, and still more in their lives, Christianity
+taught what the fierce English warrior most wanted to learn, the duty
+of restraining his evil passions, and above all his cruelty. Nowhere
+in all Europe did the missionaries appeal so exclusively as they did
+in England to higher and purer motives. Nowhere but in England were to
+be found kings like Oswald and Oswini, who bowed their souls to the
+lesson of the Cross, and learned that they were not their own, but
+were placed in power that they might use their strength in helping the
+poor and needy.
+
+22. =Dispute between Wilfrid and Colman. 664.=--The lesson was all the
+better taught because those who taught it were monks. Monasticism
+brought with it an extravagant view of the life of self-denial, but
+those who had to be instructed needed to have the lesson written
+plainly so that a child might read it. The rough warrior or the rough
+peasant was more likely to abstain from drunkenness, if he had learned
+to look up to men who ate and drank barely enough to enable them to
+live; and he was more likely to treat women with gentleness and
+honour, if he had learned to look up to some women who separated
+themselves from the joys of married life that they might give
+themselves to fasting and prayer. Yet, great as the influence of the
+clergy was, it was in danger of being lessened through internal
+disputes amongst themselves. A very large part of England had been
+converted by the Celtic missionaries, and the Celtic missionaries,
+though their life and teaching was in the main the same as that of the
+Church of Canterbury and of the Churches of the Continent, differed
+from them in the shape of the tonsure and in the time at which they
+kept their Easter. These things were themselves unimportant, but it
+was of great importance that the young English Church should not be
+separated from the Churches of more civilised countries which had
+preserved much of the learning and art of the old Roman Empire. One of
+those who felt strongly the evil which would follow on such a
+separation was Wilfrid. He was scornful and self-satisfied, but he had
+travelled to Rome, and had been impressed with the ecclesiastical
+memories of the great city, and with the fervour and learning of its
+clergy. He came back resolved to bring the customs of England into
+conformity with those of the churches of the Continent. On his
+arrival, Oswiu, in =664=, gathered an assembly of the clergy of the
+north headed by Colman, Aidan's successor, to discuss the point.
+Learned arguments were poured forth on either side. Oswiu listened in
+a puzzled way. Wilfrid boasted that his mode of keeping Easter was
+derived from Peter, and that Christ had given to Peter the keys of the
+kingdom of heaven. Oswiu at once decided to follow Peter, lest when he
+came to the gate of that kingdom Peter, who held the keys, should lock
+him out. Wilfrid triumphed, and the English Church was in all outward
+matters regulated in conformity with that of Rome.
+
+23. =Archbishop Theodore and the Penitential System.=--In =668=, four
+years after Oswiu's decision was taken, Theodore of Tarsus was
+consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury at Rome by the Pope himself. When
+he arrived in England the time had come for the purely missionary
+stage of the English Church to come to an end. Hitherto the bishops
+had been few, only seven in all England. Their number was now
+increased, and they were set to work no longer merely to convert the
+heathen, but to see that the clergy did their duty amongst those who
+had been already converted. Gradually, under these bishops, a
+parochial clergy came into existence. Sometimes the freemen of a
+hamlet, or of two or three hamlets together, would demand the constant
+residence of a priest. Sometimes a lord would settle a priest to teach
+his serfs. The parish clergy attacked violence and looseness of life
+in a way different from that of the monks. The monks had given
+examples of extreme self-denial. Theodore introduced the penitential
+system of the Roman Church, and ordered that those who had committed
+sin should be excluded from sharing in the rites of the Church until
+they had done penance. They were to fast, or to repeat prayers,
+sometimes for many years, before they were readmitted to communion.
+Many centuries afterwards good men objected that these penances were
+only bodily actions, and did not necessarily bring with them any real
+repentance. In the seventh century the greater part of the population
+could only be reached by such bodily actions. They had never had any
+thought that a murder, for instance, was anything more than a
+dangerous action which might bring down on the murderer the vengeance
+of the relations of the murdered man, which might be bought off with
+the payment of a weregild of a few shillings. The murderer who was
+required by the Church to do penance was being taught that a murder
+was a sin against God and against himself, as well as an offence
+against his fellow-men. Gradually--very gradually--men would learn
+from the example of the monks and from the discipline of penance that
+they were to live for something higher than the gratification of their
+own passions.
+
+[Illustration: Saxon church at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts.]
+
+24. =Ealdhelm and Cædmon.=--When a change is good in itself, it
+usually bears fruit in unexpected ways. Theodore was a scholar as well
+as a bishop. Under his care a school grew up at Canterbury, full of
+all the learning of the Roman world. That which distinguished this
+school and others founded in imitation of it was that the scholars did
+not keep their learning to themselves, but strove to make it helpful
+to the ignorant and the poor. They learnt architecture on the
+Continent in order to raise churches of stone in the place of churches
+of wood. One of these churches is still standing at Bradford-on-Avon.
+Its builder was Ealdhelm, the abbot of Malmesbury, a teacher of all
+the knowledge of the time. Ealdhelm, learned as he was, let his heart
+go forth to the unlearned. Finding that his neighbours would not
+listen to his sermons, he sang to them on a bridge to win them to
+higher things. Like all people who cannot read, the English of those
+days loved a song. In the north, Cædmon, a rude herdsman on the lands
+of the abbey which in later days was known as Whitby, was vexed with
+himself because he could not sing. When at ale-drinkings his comrades
+pressed him to sing a song, he would leave his supper unfinished and
+return home ashamed. One night in a dream he heard a voice bidding him
+sing of the Creation. In his sleep the words came to him, and they
+remained with him when he woke. He had become a poet--a rude poet, it
+is true, but still a poet. The gift which Cædmon had acquired never
+left him. He sang of the Creation and of the whole course of God's
+providence. To the end he was unable to compose any songs which were
+not religious.
+
+25. =Bede. 673--735.=--Of all the English scholars of the time Bæda,
+usually known as 'the venerable Bede,' was the most remarkable. He was
+a monk of Jarrow on the Tyne. From his youth up he was a writer on all
+subjects embraced by the knowledge of his day. One subject he made his
+own. He was the first English historian. The title of his greatest
+work was the Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. He told how
+that nation had been converted, and of the fortunes of its Church; but
+for him the Church included the whole nation, and he told of the
+doings of kings and people, as well as of priests and monks. In this
+he was a true interpreter of the spirit of the English Church. Its
+clergy did not stand aloof from the rulers of the state, but worked
+with them as well as for them. The bishops stepped into the place of
+the heathen priests in the Witenagemots of the kings, and counselled
+them in matters of state as well as in matters of religion.
+
+26. =Church Councils.=--Bede recognised in the title of his book that
+there was such a thing as an English nation long before there was any
+political unity. Whilst kingdom was fighting against kingdom, Theodore
+in =673= assembled the first English Church council at Hertford. From
+that time such councils of the bishops and principal clergy of all
+England met whenever any ecclesiastical question required them to
+deliberate in common. The clergy at least did not meet as West Saxons
+or as Mercians. They met on behalf of the whole English Church, and
+their united consultations must have done much to spread the idea
+that, in spite of the strife between the kings, the English nation was
+really one.
+
+[Illustration: Saxon horsemen (Harl. MS. 603.)]
+
+[Illustration: Group of Saxon warriors. (Harl. MS. 603.)]
+
+27. =Struggle between Mercia and Wessex.=--Many years passed away
+before the kingdoms could be brought under one king. North-humberland
+stood apart from southern England, and during the latter half of the
+seventh century Wessex grew in power. Wessex had been weak because it
+was seldom thoroughly united. Each district was presided over by an
+Ætheling, or chief of royal blood, and it was only occasionally that
+these Æthelings submitted to the king. From time to time a strong king
+compelled the obedience of the Æthelings and carried on the old
+struggle with the western Welsh. It was not till =710= that Ine
+succeeded in driving the Welsh out of Somerset, and about the same
+time a body of the West Saxons advancing through Dorset reached
+Exeter. They took possession of half the city for themselves, and left
+the remainder to the Welsh. Ine was, however, checked by fresh
+outbreaks of the subordinate Æthelings, and in =726= he gave up the
+struggle and went on a pilgrimage to Rome. Æthelbald, king of the
+Mercians, took the opportunity to invade Wessex, and made himself
+master of the country and over-lord of all the other kingdoms south of
+the Humber. In =754= the West Saxons rose against him and defeated him
+at Burford. After a few years his successor, Offa, once more took up
+the task of making the Mercian king over-lord of southern England. In
+=775=, after a long struggle, he brought Kent as well as Essex under
+his sway. In =779= he defeated the West Saxons at Bensington, and
+pushed the Mercian frontier to the Thames. Further than that Offa did
+not venture to go, and, great as he was, the West Saxons within their
+shrunken limits continued to be independent of him. He turned his
+arms upon the Welsh, and drove them back from the Severn to the
+embankment which is known from his name as Offa's Dyke. The West
+Saxons, being freed from attack on the side of Mercia, overran Devon.
+Then there was a contest for the West Saxon crown between Beorhtric
+and Ecgberht. Beorhtric gained the upper hand, and entered into
+alliance with Offa by taking his daughter to wife. Ecgberht fled to
+the Continent.
+
+28. =Mohammedanism and the Carolingian Empire.=--A great change had
+passed over Europe since the days when a Frankish princess, by her
+marriage with the Kentish Ethelberht, had smoothed the way for the
+introduction of Christianity into England. In the first part of the
+seventh century Mohammed had preached a new religion in Arabia. He
+taught that there was one God, and that Mohammed was his prophet.
+After his death his Arab followers spread as conquerors over the
+neighbouring countries. Before the end of the century they had subdued
+Persia, Syria, and Egypt, and were pushing westwards along the north
+coast of Africa. In =711= they crossed the Straits of Gibraltar. All
+Spain, with the exception of a hilly district in the north, soon fell
+into their hands, and in =717= they crossed the Pyrenees. There can be
+little doubt that, if they had subdued Gaul, Mohammedanism and not
+Christianity would for a long time have been the prevailing religion
+in Europe. From this Europe was saved by a great Frankish warrior,
+Charles Martel (_the Hammer_), who in =732= drove the invaders back at
+a great battle between Tours and Poitiers. Charles's son, Pippin,
+dethroned the reigning family and became king of the Franks. Pippin's
+son was Charles the Great, who before he died ruled over the whole of
+Gaul and Germany, over the north and centre of Italy, and the
+north-east of Spain. His rule was favoured both by the Frankish
+warriors and by the clergy, who were glad to see so strong a bulwark
+erected against the attacks of the Mohammedans. At that time the Roman
+Empire, which had never ceased to exist at Constantinople, fell into
+the hands of Irene, the murderess of her son. In =800= the Pope,
+refusing to acknowledge that the Empire could have so unworthy a head,
+placed the Imperial crown on the head of Charles as the successor of
+the old Roman Emperors.
+
+29. =Ecgberht's Rule. 802--839.=--Though Charles did not directly
+govern England, he made his influence felt there. Offa had claimed his
+protection, and Ecgberht took refuge at his court. Ecgberht doubtless
+learned something of the art of ruling from him, and in =802= he
+returned to England. Beorhtric was by this time dead, and Ecgberht
+was accepted as king by the West Saxons. Before he died, in =839=, he
+had made himself the over-lord of all the other kingdoms. He was
+never, indeed, directly king of all England. Kent, Sussex, and Essex
+were governed by rulers of his own family appointed by himself.
+Mercia, East Anglia, and North-humberland retained their own kings,
+ruling under Ecgberht as their over-lord. Towards the west Ecgberht's
+direct government did not reach beyond the Tamar, though the Cornish
+Celts acknowledged his authority, as did the Celts of Wales. The Celts
+of Strathclyde and the Picts and Scots remained entirely independent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP AND THE STRUGGLE WITH THE DANES.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  First landing of the Danes                                       787
+  Treaty of Wedmore                                                878
+  Dependent alliance of the Scots with Eadward the Elder           925
+  Accession of Eadgar                                              959
+
+
+1. =The West Saxon Supremacy.=--It was quite possible that the power
+founded by Ecgberht might pass away as completely as did the power
+which had been founded by Æthelfrith of North-humberland or by Penda
+of Mercia. To some extent the danger was averted by the unusual
+strength of character which for six generations showed itself in the
+family of Ecgberht. For nearly a century and a half after Ecgberht's
+death no ruler arose from his line who had not great qualities as a
+warrior or as a ruler. It was no less important that these successive
+kings, with scarcely an exception, kept up a good understanding with
+the clergy, and especially with the Archbishops of Canterbury, so that
+the whole of the influence of the Church was thrown in favour of the
+political unity of England under the West Saxon line. The clergy
+wished to see the establishment of a strong national government for
+the protection of the national Church. Yet it was difficult to
+establish such a government unless other causes than the goodwill of
+the clergy had contributed to its maintenance. Peoples who have had
+little intercourse except by fighting with one another rarely unite
+heartily unless they have some common enemy to ward off, and some
+common leader to look up to in the conduct of their defence.[3]
+
+    [Footnote 3: Genealogy of the English kings from Ecgberht to
+    Eadgar:--
+
+                     ECGBERHT
+                          802-839
+                             |
+                      ÆTHELWULF
+                          839-858
+                             |
+         -----------------------------------------
+         |             |             |           |
+     ÆTHELBALD     ÆTHELBERHT     ÆTHELRED     ÆLFRED
+     858-860       860-866        866-871      871-901
+                                                  |
+        -------------------------------------------
+        |                                       |
+     Eadward                                Æthelflæd = Æthelred
+     899-925                           (the _Lady of the
+        |                                   Mercians_)
+        --------------------------
+        |             |          |
+     ÆTHELSTAN     EADMUND     EADRED
+     925-940       940-946     946-955
+                      |
+                ------------
+                |          |
+             EADWIG     EADGAR
+             955-959    959-975]
+
+[Illustration: Remains of a Viking ship, from a cairn at Gokstad. (Now
+in the University at Christiania.)]
+
+2. =The Coming of the Northmen.=--The common enemy came from the
+north. At the end of the eighth century the inhabitants of Norway and
+Denmark resembled the Angles and Saxons three or four centuries
+before. They swarmed over the sea as pirates to plunder wherever they
+could find stored-up wealth along the coasts of Western Europe. The
+Northmen were heathen still and their religion was the old religion of
+force. They loved battle even more than they loved plunder. They held
+that the warrior who was slain in fight was received by the god Odin
+in Valhalla, where immortal heroes spent their days in cutting one
+another to pieces, and were healed of their wounds in the evening that
+they might join in the nightly feast, and be able to fight again on
+the morrow. He that died in bed was condemned to a chilly and dreary
+existence in the abode of the goddess Hela, whose name is the Norse
+equivalent of Hell.
+
+[Illustration: Gold ring of Æthelwulf.]
+
+3. =The English Coast Plundered.=--Since Englishmen had settled in
+England they had lost the art of seamanship. The Northmen therefore
+were often able to plunder and sail away. They could only be attacked
+on land, and some time would pass before the Ealdorman who ruled the
+district could gather together not only his own war-band, but the
+fyrd, or levy of all men of fighting age. When at last he arrived at
+the spot on the coast where the pirates had been plundering, he often
+found that they were already gone. Yet, as time went on, the Northmen
+took courage, and pushed far enough into the interior to be attacked
+before they could regain the coast. Their first landing had been in
+=787=, before the time of Ecgberht. In Ecgberht's reign their attacks
+upon Wessex were so persistent that Ecgberht had to bring his own
+war-band to the succour of his Ealdormen. His son and successor,
+Æthelwulf, had a still harder struggle. The pirates spread their
+attacks over the whole of the southern and the eastern coast, and
+ventured to remain long enough on shore to fight a succession of
+battles. In =851= they were strong enough to remain during the whole
+winter in Thanet. The crews of no less than 350 ships landed in the
+mouth of the Thames sacked Canterbury and London. They were finally
+defeated by Æthelwulf at Aclea (_Ockley_), in Surrey. In =858=
+Æthelwulf died. Four of his sons wore the crown in succession; the two
+eldest, Æthelbald and Æthelberht, ruling only a short time.
+
+4. =The Danes in the North.=--The task of the third brother,
+Æthelred, who succeeded in =866=, was harder than his father's.
+Hitherto the Northmen had come for plunder, and had departed sooner or
+later. A fresh swarm of Danes now arrived from Denmark to settle on
+the land as conquerors. Though they did not themselves fight on
+horseback, they seized horses to betake themselves rapidly from one
+part of England to the other. Their first attack was made on the
+north, where there was no great affection for the West Saxon kings.
+They overcame the greater part of North-humberland. They beat down the
+resistance of East Anglia, and, fastening its king, Eadmund, to a
+tree, shot him to death with arrows. His countrymen counted him a
+saint, and a great monastery arose at Bury St. Edmunds in his honour.
+Everywhere the Danes plundered and burnt the monasteries, because the
+monks were weak, and their houses were rich with jewelled service
+books and golden plate. They next turned upon Mercia, and forced the
+Mercian under-king to pay tribute to them. Only Wessex, to which the
+smaller eastern states of Kent and Sussex had by this time been
+completely annexed, retained its independence.
+
+5. =Ælfred's Struggle in Wessex. 871--878.=--In Wessex Æthelred strove
+hard against the invaders. He won a great victory at Æscesdun
+(_Ashdown_, near Reading), on the northern slope of the Berkshire
+Downs. After a succession of battles he was slain in =871=. Though he
+left sons of his own, he was succeeded by Ælfred, his youngest
+brother. It was not the English custom to give the crown to the child
+of a king if there was any one of the kingly family more fitted to
+wear it. Ælfred was no common man. In his childhood he had visited
+Rome, and had been hallowed as king by Pope Leo IV., though the
+ceremony could have had no weight in England. He had early shown a
+love of letters, and the story goes that when his mother offered a
+book with bright illuminations to the one of her children who could
+first learn to read it, the prize was won by Ælfred. During Æthelred's
+reign he had little time to give to learning. He fought nobly by his
+brother's side in the battles of the day, and after he succeeded him
+he fought nobly as king at the head of his people. In =878= the Danish
+host, under its king, Guthrum, beat down all resistance. Ælfred was no
+longer able to keep in the open country, and took refuge with a few
+chosen warriors in the little island of Athelney, in Somerset, then
+surrounded by the waters of the fen country through which the Parret
+flowed. After a few weeks he came forth, and with the levies of
+Somerset and Wilts and of part of Hants he utterly defeated Guthrum at
+Ethandun (? _Edington_, in Wiltshire), and stormed his camp.
+
+[Illustration: Gold jewel of Ælfred found at Athelney. (Now in the
+Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.)]
+
+6. =The Treaty of Chippenham, and its Results. 878.=--After this
+defeat Guthrum and the Danes swore to a peace with Ælfred at
+Chippenham. They were afterwards baptised in a body at Aller, not far
+from Athelney. Guthrum with a few of his companions then visited
+Ælfred at Wedmore, a village near the southern foot of the Mendips,
+from which is taken the name by which the treaty is usually but
+wrongly known. By this treaty Ælfred retained no more than Wessex,
+with its dependencies, Sussex and Kent, and the western half of
+Mercia. The remainder of England as far north as the Tees was
+surrendered to the Danes, and became known as the Danelaw, because
+Danish and not Saxon law prevailed in it. Beyond the Tees Bernicia
+maintained its independence under an English king. Though the English
+people never again had to struggle for its very existence as a
+political body, yet, in =886=, after a successful war, Ælfred wrung
+from Guthrum a fresh treaty by which the Danes surrendered London and
+the surrounding district. Yet, even after this second treaty, it might
+seem as if Ælfred, who only ruled over a part of England, was worse
+off than his grandfather, Ecgberht, who had ruled over the whole. In
+reality he was better off. In the larger kingdom it would have been
+almost impossible to produce the national spirit which alone could
+have permanently kept the whole together. In the smaller kingdom it
+was possible, especially as there was a strong West Saxon element in
+the south-west of Mercia in consequence of its original settlement by
+a West Saxon king after the battle of Deorham (see p. 35). Moreover,
+Ælfred, taking care not to offend the old feeling of local
+independence which still existed in Mercia, appointed his son-in-law,
+Æthelred, who was a Mercian, to govern it as an ealdorman under
+himself.
+
+[Illustration: An English vessel. (Harl. MS. 603.)]
+
+7. =Ælfred's Military Work.=--Ælfred would hardly have been able to do
+so much unless his own character had been singularly attractive. Other
+men have been greater warriors or legislators or scholars than Ælfred
+was, but no man has ever combined in his own person so much excellence
+in war, in legislation, and in scholarship. As to war, he was not only
+a daring and resolute commander, but he was an organiser of the
+military forces of his people. One chief cause of the defeats of the
+English had been the difficulty of bringing together in a short time
+the 'fyrd,' or general levy of the male population, or of keeping it
+long together when men were needed at home to till the fields. Ælfred
+did his best to overcome this difficulty by ordering that half the men
+of each shire should be always ready to fight, whilst half remained at
+home. This new half-army, like his new half-kingdom, was stronger than
+the whole one had been before. To an improved army Ælfred added a
+navy, and he was the first English king who defeated the Danes at sea.
+
+[Illustration: A Saxon house. (Harl. MS. 603.)]
+
+8. =His Laws and Scholarship.=--Ælfred was too great a man to want to
+make every one conform to some ideal of his own choosing. It was
+enough for him to take men as they were, and to help them to become
+better. He took the old laws and customs, and then, suggesting a few
+improvements, submitted them to the approval of his Witenagemot, the
+assembly of his bishops and warriors. He knew also that men's conduct
+is influenced more by what they think than by what they are commanded
+to do. His whole land was steeped in ignorance. The monasteries had
+been the schools of learning; and many of them had been sacked by the
+Danes, their books burnt, and their inmates scattered, whilst others
+were deserted, ceasing to receive new inmates because the first duty
+of Englishmen had been to defend their homes rather than to devote
+themselves to a life of piety. Latin was the language in which the
+services of the Church were read, and in which books like Bede's
+Ecclesiastical History were written. Without a knowledge of Latin
+there could be no intercourse with the learned men of the Continent,
+who used that language still amongst themselves. Yet when the Danes
+departed from Ælfred's kingdom, there were but very few priests who
+could read a page of Latin. Ælfred did his best to remedy the evil. He
+called learned men to him wherever they could be found. Some of these
+were English; others, like Asser, who wrote Ælfred's life, were Welsh;
+others again were Germans from beyond the sea. Yet Ælfred was not
+content. It was a great thing that there should be again schools in
+England for those who could write and speak Latin, the language of the
+learned, but his heart yearned for those who could not speak anything
+but their own native tongue. He set himself to be the teacher of
+these. He himself translated Latin books for them, with the object of
+imparting knowledge, not of giving, as a modern translator would do,
+the exact sense of the author. When, therefore, he knew anything which
+was not in the books, but which he thought it good for Englishmen to
+read, he added it to his translation. Even with this he was not
+content. The books of Latin writers which he translated taught men
+about the history and geography of the Continent. They taught nothing
+about the history of England itself, of the deeds and words of the men
+who had ruled the English nation. That these things might not be
+forgotten, he bade his learned men bring together all that was known
+of the history of his people since the day when they first landed as
+pirates on the coast of Kent. The Chronicle, as it is called, is the
+earliest history which any European nation possesses in its own
+tongue. Yet, after all, such a man as Ælfred is greater for what he
+was than for what he did. No other king ever showed forth so well in
+his own person the truth of the saying, 'He that would be first among
+you, let him be the servant of all.'
+
+9. =Eadward the Elder. 899--925.=--In =899= Ælfred died. He had
+already fortified London as an outpost against the Danes, and he left
+to his son, Eadward, a small but strong and consolidated kingdom. The
+Danes on the other side of the frontier were not united. Guthrum's
+kingdom stretched over the old Essex and East Anglia, as well as over
+the south-eastern part of the old Mercia. The land from the Humber to
+the Nen was under the rule of Danes settled in the towns known to the
+English as the Five boroughs of Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Stamford,
+and Nottingham. In the old Deira or modern Yorkshire was a separate
+Danish kingdom. Danes, in short, settled wherever we now find the
+place-names, such as Derby and Whitby, ending in the Danish
+termination 'by' instead of in the English terminations 'ton' or
+'ham,' as in Luton and Chippenham. Yet even in these parts the bulk of
+the population was usually English, and the English population would
+everywhere welcome an English conqueror. A century earlier a Mercian
+or a North-humbrian had preferred independence to submission to a West
+Saxon king. They now preferred a West Saxon king to a Danish master,
+especially as the old royal houses were extinct, and there was no one
+but the West Saxon king to lead them against the Danes.
+
+10. =Eadward's Conquests.=--Eadward was not, like his father, a
+legislator or a scholar, but he was a great warrior. In a series of
+campaigns he subdued the Danish parts of England as far north as the
+Humber. He was aided by his brother-in-law, Æthelred, and after
+Æthelred's death by his own sister, Æthelred's widow, Æthelflæd, the
+Lady of the Mercians, one of the few warrior-women of the world. Step
+by step the brother and sister won their way, not contenting
+themselves with victories in the open country, but securing each
+district as they advanced by the erection of 'burhs' or
+fortifications. Some of these 'burhs' were placed in desolate Roman
+strongholds, such as Chester. Others were raised, like that of
+Warwick, on the mounds piled up in past times by a still earlier race.
+Others again, like that of Stafford, were placed where no fortress had
+been before. Towns, small at first, grew up in and around the 'burhs,'
+and were guarded by the courage of the townsmen themselves. Eadward,
+after his sister's death, took into his own hands the government of
+Mercia, and from that time all southern and central England was
+united under him. In =922= the Welsh kings acknowledged his supremacy.
+
+11. =Eadward and the Scots.=--Tradition assigns to Eadward a wider
+rule shortly before his death. In the middle of the ninth century the
+Picts and the intruding Scots (see p. 42) had been amalgamated under
+Keneth MacAlpin, the king of the Scots, and the new kingdom had since
+been welded together, just as Mercia and Wessex were being welded
+together by the attacks of the Danes. It is said that in =925= the
+king of the Scots, together with other northern rulers, chose Eadward
+'to father and lord.' Probably this statement only covers some act of
+alliance formed by the English king with the king of Scots and other
+lesser rulers. Nothing was more natural than that the Scottish king,
+Constantine, should wish to obtain the support of Eadward against his
+enemies; and it was also natural that if Eadward agreed to support
+him, he would require some acknowledgment of the superiority of the
+English king; but what was the precise form of the acknowledgment must
+remain uncertain. In =925= Eadward died.
+
+12. =Æthelstan. 925--940.=--Three sons of Eadward reigned in
+succession. The eldest, of illegitimate birth, was Æthelstan. Sihtric,
+the Danish king at York, owned him as over-lord, and on Sihtric's
+death in =926=, Æthelstan took Danish North-humberland under his
+direct rule. The Welsh kings were reduced to make a fuller
+acknowledgment of his supremacy than they had made to his father. He
+drove the Welsh out of the half of Exeter which had been left to them,
+and confined them to the modern Cornwall beyond the Tamar. Great
+rulers on the Continent sought his alliance. The empire of Charles the
+Great had broken up. One of Æthelstan's sisters was given to Charles
+the Simple, the king of the Western Franks; another to Hugh the Great,
+Duke of the French and lord of Paris, who, though nominally the vassal
+of the king, was equal in power to his lord, and whose son was
+afterwards the first king of modern France. A third sister was given
+to Otto, the son of Henry, the king of the Eastern Franks, from whom,
+in due time, sprang a new line of Emperors. Æthelstan's greatness drew
+upon him the jealousy of the king of the Scots and of all the northern
+kings. In =937= he defeated them all in a great battle at Brunanburh,
+of which the site is unknown. His victory was celebrated in a splendid
+war-song.
+
+13. =Eadmund (940-946) and Eadred (946-955).=--Æthelstan died in
+=940=. He was succeeded by his young brother, Eadmund, who had fought
+bravely at Brunanburh. Eadmund had to meet a general rising of the
+Danes of Mercia as well as of those of the north. After he had
+suppressed the rising he showed himself to be a great statesman as
+well as a great warrior. The relations between the king of the English
+and the king of the Scots had for some time been very uncertain.
+Little is definitely known about them but it looks as if they joined
+the English whenever they were afraid of the Danes, and joined the
+Danes whenever they were afraid of the English. Eadmund took an
+opportunity of making it to be the interest of the Scottish king
+permanently to join the English. The southern part of the kingdom of
+Strathclyde had for some time been under the English kings. In =945=
+Eadmund overran the remainder, but gave it to Malcolm on condition
+that he should be his fellow-worker by sea and land. The king of Scots
+thus entered into a position of dependent alliance towards Eadmund. A
+great step was thus taken in the direction in which the inhabitants of
+Britain afterwards walked. The dominant powers in the island were to
+be English and Scots, not English and Danes. Eadmund thought it worth
+while to conciliate the Scottish Celts rather than to endeavour to
+conquer them. The result of Eadmund's statesmanship was soon made
+manifest. He himself did not live to gather its fruits. In =946= an
+outlaw who had taken his seat at a feast in his hall slew him as he
+was attempting to drag him out by the hair. The next king, Eadred, the
+last of Eadward's sons, though sickly, had all the spirit of his race.
+He had another sharp struggle with the Danes, but in =954= he made
+himself their master. North-humberland was now thoroughly amalgamated
+with the English kingdom, and was to be governed by an Englishman,
+Oswulf, with the title of Earl, an old Danish title equivalent to the
+English Ealdorman, having nothing to do, except philologically, with
+the old English word Eorl.
+
+14. =Danes and English.=--In =955= Eadred died, having completed the
+work which Ælfred had begun, and which had been carried on by his son
+and his three grandsons. England, from the Forth to the Channel, was
+under one ruler. Even the contrast between Englishmen and Danes was
+soon, for the most part, wiped out. They were both of the same
+Teutonic stock, and therefore their languages were akin to one another
+and their institutions very similar. The Danes of the north were for
+some time fiercer and less easily controlled than the English of the
+south, but there was little national distinction between them, and
+what little there was gradually passed away.
+
+15. =Eadwig. 955--959.=--Eadred was succeeded by Eadwig, the eldest
+son of his brother Eadmund. Eadwig was hardly more than fifteen years
+old, and it would be difficult for a boy to keep order amongst the
+great ealdormen and earls. At his coronation feast he gave deep
+offence by leaving his place to amuse himself with a young kinswoman,
+Ælfgifu, in her mother's room, whence he was followed and dragged back
+by two ecclesiastics, one of whom was Dunstan, Abbot of Glastonbury.
+
+16. =Dunstan.=--Dunstan in his boyhood had been attached to Eadmund's
+court, but he had been driven off by the rivalry of other youths. He
+was in no way fitted to be a warrior. He loved art and song, and
+preferred a book to a sword. For such youths there was no place
+amongst the fighting laymen, and Dunstan early found the peace which
+he sought as a monk at Glastonbury. Eadmund made him abbot, but
+Dunstan had almost to create his monastery before he could rule it.
+Monasteries had nearly vanished from England in the time of the Danish
+plunderings, and the few monks who remained had very little that was
+monastic about them. Dunstan brought the old monks into order, and
+attracted new ones, but to the end of his days he was conspicuous
+rather as a scholar than as an ascetic. From Glastonbury he carried on
+the work of teaching an ignorant generation, just as Ælfred had done
+in an earlier time. Ælfred, however, was a warrior and a ruler first,
+and then a teacher. Dunstan was a teacher first, and then a ruler.
+Eadred took counsel with him, and Dunstan became thus the first
+example of a class of men which afterwards rose to power--that,
+namely, of ecclesiastical statesmen. Up to that time all who had
+governed had been warriors.
+
+17. =Archbishop Oda.=--Another side of the Church's work, the
+maintenance of a high standard of morality, was, in the time of
+Eadred, represented by Oda, Archbishop of Canterbury. The accepted
+standard of morality differs in different ages, and, for many reasons,
+it was held by the purer minds in the tenth century that celibacy was
+nobler than marriage. If our opinion is changed now, it is because
+many things have changed. No one then thought of teaching a girl
+anything, except to sew and to look after the house, and an ignorant
+and untrained wife could only be a burden to a man who was intent upon
+the growth of the spiritual or intellectual life in himself and in
+others. At all times the monks, who were often called the regular
+clergy, because they lived according to a certain rule, had been
+unmarried, and attempts had frequently been made by councils of the
+Church to compel the parish priests, or secular clergy, to follow
+their example. In England, however, and on the Continent as well,
+these orders were seldom heeded, and a married clergy was everywhere
+to be found. Of late, however, there had sprung up in the monastery of
+Cluny, in Burgundy, a zeal for the establishment of universal clerical
+celibacy, and this zeal was shared by Archbishop Oda, though he found
+it impossible to overcome the stubborn resistance of the secular
+clergy.
+
+[Illustration: A monk driven out of the King's presence. (From a
+drawing belonging to the Society of Antiquaries.)]
+
+18. =Eadwig's Marriage.=--In its eagerness to set up a pure standard
+of morality, the Church had made rules against the marriage of even
+distant relations. Eadwig offended against these rules by marrying his
+kinswoman, Ælfgifu. A quarrel arose on this account between Dunstan
+and the young king, and Dunstan was driven into banishment. Such a
+quarrel was sure to weaken the king, because the support of the
+bishops was usually given to him, for the sake of the maintenance of
+peace and order. The dispute came at a bad time, because there was
+also a quarrel among the ealdormen and other great men. At last the
+ealdormen of the north and centre of England revolted and set up the
+king's brother, Eadgar, to be king of all England north of the Thames.
+Upon this, Oda, taking courage, declared Eadwig and his young wife to
+be separated as too near of kin, and even seized her and had her
+carried beyond sea. In =959= Eadwig died, and Eadgar succeeded to the
+whole kingdom.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+EADGAR'S ENGLAND.
+
+
+1. =Eadgar and Dunstan. 959--975.=--Eadgar was known as the Peaceful
+King. He had the advantage, which Eadwig had not, of having the Church
+on his side. He maintained order, with the help of Dunstan as his
+principal adviser. Not long after his accession Dunstan became
+Archbishop of Canterbury. His policy was that of a man who knows that
+he cannot do everything and is content to do what he can. The Danes
+were to keep their own laws, and not to have English laws forced upon
+them. The great ealdormen were to be conciliated, not to be repressed.
+Everything was to be done to raise the standard of morality and
+knowledge. Foreign teachers were brought in to set up schools. More
+than this Dunstan did not attempt. It is true that in his time an
+effort was made to found monasteries, which should be filled with
+monks living after the stricter rule of which the example had been set
+at Cluny, but the man who did most to establish monasteries again in
+England was not Dunstan, but Æthelwold, Bishop of Winchester.
+Æthelwold, however, was not content with founding monasteries. He also
+drove out the secular canons from his own cathedral of Winchester and
+filled their places with monks. His example was followed by Oswald,
+Bishop of Worcester. Dunstan did not introduce monks even into his own
+cathedrals at Worcester and Canterbury. As far as it is now possible
+to understand the matter, the change, though it provoked great
+hostility, was for the better. The secular canons were often married,
+connected with the laity of the neighbourhood, and living an easy
+life. The monks were celibate, living according to a strict rule, and
+conforming themselves to what, according to the standard of the age,
+was the highest ideal of religion. By a life of complete self-denial
+they were able to act as examples to a generation which needed
+teaching by example more than by word. How completely monasticism was
+associated with learning is shown by the fact that the monks now
+established at Worcester took up the work of continuing the Chronicle
+which had been begun under Ælfred (see p. 61).
+
+2. =The Cession of Lothian.=--It is said that Eadgar was once rowed by
+six kings on the river Dee. The story, though probably untrue, sets
+forth his power not only over his own immediate subjects but over the
+whole island. His title of Peaceful shows that at least he lived on
+good terms with his neighbours. There is reason to believe that he was
+able to do this because he followed out the policy of Eadmund in
+singling out the king of Scots as the ruler whom it was most worth his
+while to conciliate. Eadmund had given over Strathclyde to one king of
+Scots. Eadgar, it is said--and probably with truth--gave over Lothian
+to another. Lothian was then the name of the whole of the northern
+part of Bernicia stretching from the Cheviots to the Forth. In
+Eadred's time the Scots had occupied Eadwinesburh (_Edinburgh_), the
+northern border fortress of Bernicia (see p. 43), and after this the
+land to the south of that fortress must have been difficult to defend
+against them. It is therefore likely that the story is true that
+Eadgar ceded Lothian to Kenneth, who was then king of the Scots,
+especially as it would account for the peaceful character of his
+reign. Kenneth in accepting the gift no doubt engaged to be faithful
+to Eadgar, though it is impossible to say what was the exact nature of
+his obligation. It is of more importance that a Celtic king ruled
+thenceforward over an English people as well as over his own Celtic
+Scots, and that ultimately his descendants became more English than
+Celtic in character, through the attraction exercised upon them by
+their English subjects.
+
+3. =Changes in English Institutions.=--The long struggle with the
+Danes could not fail to leave its mark upon English society. The
+history of the changes which took place is difficult to trace; in the
+first place because our information is scanty, in the second because
+things happened in one part of the country which did not happen in
+another. Yet there were two changes which were widely felt: the growth
+of the king's authority, and the acceleration of the process which was
+reducing to bondage the ceorl, or simple freeman.
+
+4. =Growth of the King's Power.=--In the early days of the English
+conquest the kings and other great men had around them their
+war-bands, composed of gesiths or thegns, personally attached to
+themselves, and ready, if need were, to die on their lord's behalf.
+Very early these thegns were rewarded by grants of land on condition
+of continuing military service. Every extension of the king's power
+over fresh territory made their services more important. It had always
+been difficult to bring together the fyrd, or general army of the
+freemen, even of a small district, and it was quite impossible to
+bring together the fyrd of a kingdom reaching from the Channel to the
+Firth of Forth. Ælfred's division of the fyrd into two parts, one to
+fight and the other to stay at home, may have served when all the
+fighting had to be done in the western part of Wessex. Æthelstan or
+Eadmund could not possibly make even half of the men of Devonshire or
+Essex fight in his battles north of the Humber. The kings therefore
+had to rely more and more upon their thegns, who in turn had thegns of
+their own whom they could bring with them; and thus was formed an army
+ready for military service in any part of the kingdom. A king who
+could command such an army was even more powerful than one who could
+command the whole of the forces of a smaller territory.
+
+[Illustration: January--Ploughing and sowing.]
+
+[Illustration: February--Pruning.]
+
+[Illustration: March--Sowing and digging.]
+
+[Illustration: April--Feasting.]
+
+[Illustration: May--Sheep-tending.]
+
+[Illustration: June--Cutting wood.]
+
+[Illustration: Rural life in the eleventh century. January to June.
+(Cott. MS. _Julius A._ vi.)]
+
+[Illustration: July--Mowing.]
+
+[Illustration: August--Harvesting.]
+
+[Illustration: September--Feeding swine.]
+
+[Illustration: October--Hawking.]
+
+[Illustration: November--Making a bonfire.]
+
+[Illustration: December--Threshing and Winnowing.]
+
+[Illustration: Rural life in the eleventh century. July to December.
+(Cott. MS. _Julius A._ vi.)]
+
+5. =Conversion of the Freemen into Serfs.=--It is impossible to give a
+certain account of the changes which passed over the English freemen,
+but there can be little doubt that a process had been for some time
+going on which converted them into bondmen, and that this process was
+greatly accelerated by the Danish wars. When a district was being
+plundered the peasant holders of the strips of village land suffered
+most, and needed the protection of the neighbouring thegn, who was
+better skilled in war than themselves, and this protection they
+could only obtain on condition of becoming bondmen themselves--that is
+to say, of giving certain days in the week to work on the special
+estate of the lord. A bondman differed both from a slave and from a
+modern farmer. Though he was bound to the soil and could not go away
+if he wished to do so, yet he could not be sold as though he were a
+slave; nor, on the other hand, could he, like a farmer, be turned out
+of his holding so long as he fulfilled his obligation of cultivating
+his lord's demesne. The lord was almost invariably a thegn, either of
+the king or of some superior thegn, and there thus arose in England,
+as there arose about the same time on the Continent, a chain of
+personal relationships. The king was no longer merely the head of the
+whole people. He was the personal lord of his own thegns, and they
+again were the lords of other thegns. The serfs cultivated their
+lands, and thereby set them free to fight for the king on behalf of
+the whole nation. It seems at first sight as if the English people had
+fallen into a worse condition. An organisation, partly military and
+partly servile, was substituted for an organisation of free men. Yet
+only in this way could the whole of England be amalgamated. The nation
+gained in unity what it lost in freedom.
+
+6. =The Hundred-moot and the Lord's Court.=--In another way the
+condition of the peasants was altered for the worse by the growth of
+the king's power. In former days land was held as 'folkland,' granted
+by the people at the original conquest, passing to the kinsmen of the
+holder if he died without children. Afterwards the clergy introduced a
+system by which the owner could grant the 'bookland,' held by book or
+charter, setting at nought the claim of his kinsmen, and in order to
+give validity to the arrangement, obtained the consent of the king and
+his Witenagemot (see p. 45). In time, the king and the Witenagemot
+granted charters in other cases, and the new 'bookland' to a great
+extent superseded the old 'folkland,' accompanied by a grant of the
+right of holding special courts. In this manner the old hundred-moots
+became neglected, people seeking for justice in the courts of the
+lords. Yet those who lived on the lord's land attended his court,
+appeared as compurgators, and directed the ordeal just as they had
+once done in the hundred-moot.
+
+7. =The Towns.=--The towns had grown up in various ways. Some were of
+old Roman foundation, such as Lincoln and Gloucester. Others, like
+Nottingham and Bristol, had come into existence since the English
+settlement. Others again gathered round monasteries, like Bury St.
+Edmunds and Peterborough. The inhabitants met to consult about their
+own affairs, sometimes in dependence on a lord. Where there was no
+lord they held a court which was composed in the same way as the
+hundred-moots outside. The townsmen had the right of holding a market.
+Every sale had to take place in the presence of witnesses who could
+prove, if called upon to do so, that the sale had really taken place,
+and markets were therefore usually to be found in towns, because it
+was there that witnesses could most easily be found.
+
+8. =The Origin of the Shires.=--Shires, which were divisions larger
+than the hundreds, and smaller than the larger kingdoms, originated in
+various ways. In the south, and on the east coast as far north as the
+Wash, they were either old kingdoms like Kent and Essex, or
+settlements forming part of old kingdoms, as Norfolk (the north folk)
+formed part of East Anglia, and Dorset or Somerset, the lands of the
+Dorsætan or the Somersætan, formed part of the kingdom of Wessex. In
+the centre and north they were of more recent origin, and were
+probably formed as those parts of England were gradually reconquered
+from the Danes. The fact that most of these shires are named from
+towns--as Derbyshire from Derby, and Warwickshire from Warwick--shows
+that they came into existence after towns had become of importance.
+
+9. =The Shire-moot.=--Whilst the hundred-moot decayed, the folk-moot
+continued to flourish under a new name, as the shire-moot. This moot
+was still attended by the freemen of the shire though the thegns were
+more numerous and the simple freemen less numerous than they had once
+been. Still the continued existence of the shire-moot kept up the
+custom of self-government more than anything else in England. The
+ordeals were witnessed, the weregild inflicted, and rights to land
+adjudged, not by an officer of the king, but by the landowners of the
+shire assembled for the purpose. These meetings were ordinarily
+presided over by the ealdorman, who appeared as the military commander
+and the official head of the shire, and by the bishop, who represented
+the Church. Another most important personage was the sheriff, or
+shire-reeve, whose business it was to see that the king had all his
+rights, to preside over the shire-moot when it sat as a judicial
+court, and to take care that its sentences were put in execution.
+
+[Illustration: _Walker & Boutallse._
+
+Plan and section of a burh of the eleventh century at
+Laughton-en-Le-Morthen, Yorks.]
+
+10. =The Ealdormen and the Witenagemot.=--During the long fight with
+the Danes commanders were needed who could lead the forces of more
+than a single shire. Before the end of Eadred's reign there were
+ealdormen who ruled over many shires. One of them for instance,
+Æthelstan, Ealdorman of East Anglia, and of the shires immediately to
+the west of East Anglia, was so powerful that he was popularly known
+as the Half-King. Such ealdormen had great influence in their own
+districts, and they also were very powerful about the king. The king
+could not perform any important act without the consent of the
+Witenagemot, which was made up of three classes--the Ealdormen, the
+Bishops, and the greater Thegns. When a king died the Witenagemot
+chose his successor out of the kingly family; its members appeared as
+witnesses whenever the king 'booked' land to any one; and it even, on
+rare occasions, deposed a king who was unfit for his post. In the
+days of a great warrior king like Eadward or Eadmund, members of the
+Witenagemot were but instruments in his hands, but if a weak king came
+upon the throne, each member usually took his own way and pursued his
+own interest rather than that of the king and kingdom.
+
+11. =The Land.=--The cultivated land was surrounded either by wood or
+by pasture and open commons. Every cottager kept his hive of bees, to
+produce the honey which was then used as we now use sugar, and drove
+his swine into the woods to fatten on the acorns and beech nuts which
+strewed the ground in the autumn. Sheep and cattle were fed on the
+pastures, and horses were so abundant that when the Danish pirates
+landed they found it easy to set every man on horseback. Yet neither
+the Danes nor the English ever learnt to fight on horseback. They rode
+to battle, but as soon as they approached the enemy they dismounted to
+fight on foot.
+
+12. =Domestic Life.=--The huts of the villagers clustered round the
+house of the lord. His abode was built in a yard surrounded for
+protection by a mound and fence, whilst very great men often
+established themselves in burhs, surrounded by earthworks, either of
+their own raising or the work of earlier times. Its principal feature
+was the hall, in which the whole family with the guests and the thegns
+of the lord met for their meals. The walls were covered with curtains
+worked in patterns of bright colours. The fire was lighted on the
+hearth, a broad stone in the middle, over which was a hole in the roof
+through which the smoke of the hall escaped. The windows were narrow,
+and were either unclosed holes in the wall, or covered with oiled
+linen which would admit a certain amount of light.
+
+[Illustration: Glass tumbler. (British Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: Drinking glass. (British Museum.)]
+
+13. =Food and Drink.=--In a great house at meal-time boards were
+brought forward and placed on tressels. Bread was to be had in plenty,
+and salt butter. Meat too, in winter, was always salted, as turnips
+and other roots upon which cattle are now fed in winter were wholly
+unknown, and it was therefore necessary to kill large numbers of sheep
+and oxen when the cold weather set in. There were dishes, but neither
+plates nor forks. Each man took the meat in his fingers and either bit
+off a piece or cut it off with a knife. The master of the house sat at
+the head of the table, and the lady handed round the drink, and
+afterwards sat down by her husband's side. She, however, with any
+other ladies who might be present, soon departed to the chamber which
+was their own apartment. The men continued drinking long. The cups or
+glasses which they used were often made with the bottoms rounded so
+as to force the guests to keep them in their hands till they were
+empty. The usual drink was mead, that is to say, fermented honey, or
+ale brewed from malt alone, as hops were not introduced till many
+centuries later. In wealthy houses imported wine was to be had.
+English wine was not unknown, but it was so sour that it had to be
+sweetened with honey. It was held to be disgraceful to leave the
+company as long as the drinking lasted, and drunkenness and quarrels
+were not unfrequent. Wandering minstrels who could play and sing or
+tell stories were always welcome, especially if they were jugglers as
+well, and could amuse the company by throwing knives in the air and
+catching them as they fell, or could dance on their hands with their
+legs in the air. When the feast was over, the guests and dependents
+slept on the floor on rugs or straw, each man taking care to hang his
+weapons close to his head on the wall, to defend himself in case of an
+attack by robbers in the night. The lord retired to his chamber,
+whilst the unmarried ladies occupied bowers, or small rooms, each with
+a separate door opening on to the yard. Their only beds were bags of
+straw. Neither men nor women wore night-dresses of any kind, but if
+they took off their clothes at all, wrapped themselves in rugs.
+
+[Illustration: Comb and case of Scandinavian type, found at York. (Now
+in the British Museum.)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ENGLAND AND NORMANDY.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Death of Eadgar                                                  975
+  Accession of Æthelred                                            979
+  Accession of Cnut                                               1016
+  Accession of Eadward the Confessor                              1035
+  Banishment of Godwine                                           1051
+  Accession of Harold and Battle of Senlac                        1066
+
+
+1. =Eadward the Martyr. 975--979.=--Eadgar died in =975=, leaving two
+boys, Eadward and Æthelred.[4] On his death a quarrel broke out
+amongst the ealdormen, some declaring for the succession of Eadward
+and others for the succession of Æthelred. The political quarrel was
+complicated by an ecclesiastical quarrel. The supporters of Eadward
+were the friends of the secular clergy; the supporters of Æthelred
+were the friends of the monks. Dunstan, with his usual moderation,
+gave his voice for the eldest son, and Eadward was chosen king and
+crowned. Not only had he a strong party opposed to him, but he had a
+dissatisfied step-mother in Ælfthryth, the mother of Æthelred, whilst
+his own mother, who had probably been married to Eadgar without full
+marriage rites, had been long since dead. After reigning for four
+years Eadward was murdered near Corfe by some of the opposite party,
+and, as was commonly supposed, by his step-mother's directions.
+
+    [Footnote 4: Genealogy of the English kings from Eadgar to Eadgar
+    the Ætheling:--
+
+                 EADGAR
+                 959-975
+                    |
+         -----------------------
+         |                     |
+      EADWARD               ÆTHELRED
+     the Martyr          the Unready
+      975-979               979-1016
+                               |
+         -----------------------
+         |                     |
+      EADMUND               EADWARD
+     Ironside             the Confessor
+       1016                1042-1066
+         |
+       Eadward
+     the Ætheling
+         |
+       Eadgar
+     the Ætheling]
+
+2. =Æthelred's Early Years. 979--988.=--Æthelred, now a boy of ten,
+became king in =979=. The epithet the Unready, which is usually
+assigned to him, is a mistranslation of a word which properly means
+the Rede-less, or the man without counsel. He was entirely without the
+qualities which befit a king. Eadmund had kept the great chieftains in
+subordination to himself because he was a successful leader. Eadgar
+had kept them in subordination because he treated them with respect.
+Æthelred could neither lead nor show respect. He was always picking
+quarrels when he ought to have been making peace, and always making
+peace when he ought to have been fighting. What he tried to do was to
+lessen the power of the great ealdormen, and bring the whole country
+more directly under his own authority. In =985= he drove out Ælfric,
+the Ealdorman of the Mercians. In =988= Dunstan died, and Æthelred had
+no longer a wise adviser by his side.
+
+3. =The Return of the Danes. 984.=--It would have been difficult for
+Æthelred to overpower the ealdormen even if he had had no other
+enemies to deal with. Unluckily for him, new swarms of Danes and
+Norwegians had already appeared in England. They began by plundering
+the country, without attempting to settle in it. In =991= Brihtnoth,
+Ealdorman of the East Saxons, was defeated and slain by them at
+Maldon. Æthelred could think of no better counsel than to pay them
+10,000_l._, a sum of money which was then of much greater value than
+it is now, to abstain from plundering. It was not necessarily a bad
+thing to do. One of the greatest of the kings of the Germans, Henry
+the Fowler, had paid money for a truce to barbarians whom he was not
+strong enough to fight. But when the truce had been bought Henry took
+care to make himself strong enough to destroy them when they came
+again. Æthelred was never ready to fight the Danes and Norwegians at
+any time. In =994= Olaf Trygvasson, who had been driven from the
+kingship of Norway, and Svend, who had been driven from the kingship
+of Denmark, joined forces to attack London. The London citizens fought
+better than the English king, and the two chieftains failed to take
+the town. 'They went thence, and wrought the greatest evil that ever
+any army could do, in burning, and harrying, and in man-slaying, as in
+Essex, and in Kent, and in Sussex, and in Hampshire. And at last they
+took their horses and rode as far as they could, and did unspeakable
+evil.' The plunderers were now known as 'the army,' moving about where
+they would. Æthelred this time gave them 16,000_l._ He got rid of
+Olaf, who sailed away and was slain by his enemies, but he could not
+permanently get rid of Svend. Svend, about the year =1000=, recovered
+his kingship in Denmark, and was more formidable than he had been
+before. Plunderings went on as usual, and Æthelred had no resource but
+to pay money to the plunderers to buy a short respite. He then looked
+across the sea for an ally, and hoped to find one by connecting
+himself with the Duke of the Normans.
+
+4. =The Norman Dukes. 912--1002.=--The country which lies on both
+sides of the lower course of the Seine formed, at the beginning of the
+tenth century, part of the dominions of Charles the Simple, king of
+the West Franks, who had inherited so much of the dominions of Charles
+the Great as lay west of a line roughly drawn from the Scheldt to the
+Mediterranean through the lower course of the Rhone. Danes and
+Norwegians, known on the Continent as Normans, plundered Charles's
+dominions as they had plundered England, and at last settled in them
+as they had settled in parts of England. In =912= Charles the Simple
+ceded to their leader, Hrolf, a territory of which the capital was
+Rouen, and which became known as Normandy--the land of the Normans.
+Hrolf became the first Duke of the Normans, but his men were fierce
+and rugged, and for some time their southern neighbours scornfully
+called him and his descendants Dukes of the Pirates. In process of
+time a change took place which affected both Normandy and other
+countries as well. The West Frankish kings were descended from Charles
+the Great; but they had failed to defend their subjects from the
+Normans, and they thereby lost hold upon their people. One of their
+dependent nobles, the Duke of the French, whose chief city, Paris,
+formed a bulwark against the Normans advancing up the Seine, grew more
+powerful than themselves. At the same time the Normans were becoming
+more and more French in their speech and customs. At last an alliance
+was made between Hugh Capet, the son of Hugh the Great, Duke of the
+French (see p. 63), and Richard the Fearless, Duke of the Normans. The
+race of Charles the Great was dethroned, and Hugh became king of the
+French. In name he was king over all the territory which had been
+governed by Charles the Simple. In reality that happened in France
+which Æthelred had been trying to prevent in England. Hugh ruled
+directly over his own duchy of France, a patch of land of which Paris
+was the capital. The great vassals of the crown, who answered to the
+English ealdormen, only obeyed him when it was their interest to do
+so. The most powerful of these vassals was the Duke of the Normans.
+In =1002= the duke was Richard II.--the Good--the son of Richard the
+Fearless. In that year Æthelred, who was a widower, married Richard's
+sister, Emma. It was the beginning of a connection with Normandy which
+never ceased till a Norman duke made himself by conquest king of the
+English.
+
+5. =Political Contrast between Normandy and England.=--The causes
+which were making the English thegnhood a military aristocracy acted
+with still greater force in Normandy. The tillers of the soil, sprung
+from the old inhabitants of the land, were kept by their Norman lords
+in even harsher bondage than the English serfs. The Norman warriors
+held their land by military service, each one being bound to fight for
+his lord, and the lord in turn being bound, together with his
+dependents, to fight for a higher lord, and all at last for the Duke
+himself. In England, though, in theory, the relations between the king
+and his ealdormen were not very different from those existing between
+the Norman duke and his immediate vassals, the connection between them
+was far looser. The kingdom as a whole had no general unity. The king
+could not control the ealdormen, and the ealdormen could not control
+the king. Even when ealdormen, bishops, and thegns met in the
+Witenagemot they could not speak in the name of the nation. A nation
+in any true sense hardly existed at all, and they were not chosen as
+representatives of any part of it. Each one stood for himself, and it
+was only natural that men who during the greater part of the year were
+ruling in their own districts like little kings should think more of
+keeping up their own almost independent power at home than of the
+common interests of all England, which they had to consider when they
+met--and that for a few days only at a time--in the Witenagemot.
+Æthelred at least was not the man to keep them united.
+
+6. =Svend's Conquest. 1002--1013.=--Æthelred, having failed to buy off
+the Danes, tried to murder them. In =1002=, on St. Brice's Day, there
+was a general massacre of all the Danes--not of the old inhabitants of
+Danish blood who had settled in Ælfred's time--but of the new-comers.
+Svend returned to avenge his countrymen. Æthelred had in an earlier
+part of his reign levied a land-tax known as the Danegeld to pay off
+the Danes--the first instance of a general tax in England. He now
+called on all the shires to furnish ships for a fleet; but he could
+not trust his ealdormen. Some of the stories told of these times may
+be exaggerated, and some may be merely idle tales, but we know enough
+to be sure that England was a kingdom divided against itself. Svend,
+ravaging as he went, beat down resistance everywhere. In =1012= the
+Danes seized Ælfheah, Archbishop of Canterbury, and offered to set him
+free if he would pay a ransom for his life. He refused to do so, lest
+he should have to wring money from the poor in order to pay it. The
+drunken Danes pelted him with bones till one of the number clave his
+skull with an axe. He was soon counted as a martyr. Long afterwards
+one of the most famous of his successors, the Norman Lanfranc, doubted
+whether he was really a martyr, as he had not died for the faith. 'He
+that dies for righteousness,' answered the gentle Anselm, 'dies for
+the faith,' and to this day the name of Ælfheah is retained as St.
+Alphege in the list of English saints. In =1013= Svend appeared no
+longer as a plunderer but as a conqueror. First the old Danish
+districts of the north and east, and then the Anglo-Saxon realm of
+Ælfred--Mercia and Wessex--submitted to him to avoid destruction. In
+=1013= Æthelred fled to Normandy.
+
+[Illustration: Martyrdom of St. Edmund by the Danes. (From a drawing
+belonging to the Society of Antiquaries.)]
+
+7. =Æthelred Restored. 1014--1016.=--In =1014= Svend died suddenly as
+he was riding at the head of his troops to the attack of the monastery
+of Bury St. Edmunds. A legend soon arose as to the manner of his
+death. St. Edmund himself, the East Anglian king Eadmund who had once
+been martyred by Danes (see p. 58), now appeared, it was said, to
+protect the monastery founded in his honour. 'Help, fellow soldiers!'
+cried Svend, as he caught sight of the saint. 'St. Edmund is coming to
+slay me.' St. Edmund, we are told, ran his spear through the body of
+the aggressor, and Svend died that night in torments. His Danish
+warriors chose his son Cnut king of England.[5] The English
+Witenagemot sent for Æthelred to return. At last, in =1016=, Æthelred
+died before he had conquered Cnut or Cnut conquered him.
+
+    [Footnote 5: Genealogy of the Danish kings:--
+
+                  Svend
+                    |
+     (1) Ælfgifu = CNUT = (2) Emma
+           |     1016-1035      |
+           |                    |
+         HAROLD            HARTHACNUT
+         Harefoot           1040-1042
+        1035-1040]
+
+8. =Eadmund Ironside. 1016.=--Æthelred's eldest son--not the son of
+Emma--Eadmund Ironside, succeeded him. He did all that could be done
+to restore the English kingship by his vigour. In a single year he
+fought six battles; but the treachery of the ealdormen was not at an
+end, and at Assandun (? _Ashington_), in Essex, he was completely
+overthrown. He and Cnut agreed to divide the kingdom, but before the
+end of the year the heroic Eadmund died, and Cnut the Dane became king
+of England without a rival.
+
+9. =Cnut and the Earldoms. 1016--1035.=--Cnut was one of those rulers
+who, like the Emperor Augustus, shrink from no barbarity in gaining
+power, but when once they have acquired it exercise their authority
+with moderation and gentleness. He began by outlawing or putting to
+death men whom he considered dangerous, but when this had once been
+done he ruled as a thoroughly English king of the best type. The Danes
+who had hitherto fought for him had come not as settlers, but as an
+army, and soon after Eadmund's death he sent most of them home,
+retaining a force, variously stated as 3,000 or 6,000, warriors known
+as his House-carls (_House-men_), who formed a small standing army
+depending entirely on himself. They were not enough to keep down a
+general rising of the whole of England, but they were quite enough to
+prevent any single great man from rebelling against him. Cnut
+therefore was, what Æthelred had wished to be, really master of his
+kingdom. Under him ruled the ealdormen, who from this time were known
+as Earls, from the Danish title of Jarl (see p. 64), and of these
+Earls the principal were the three who governed Mercia,
+North-humberland, and Wessex, the last named now including the old
+kingdoms of Kent and Sussex. There was a fourth in East Anglia, but
+the limits of this earldom varied from time to time, and there were
+sometimes other earldoms set up in the neighbouring shires, whereas
+the first-named three remained as they were for some time after Cnut's
+death. It is characteristic of Cnut that the one of the Earls to whom
+he gave his greatest confidence was Godwine, an Englishman, who was
+Earl of the West Saxons. Another Englishman, Leofwine, became Earl of
+the Mercians. A Dane obtained the earldom of the North-humbrians, but
+the land was barbarous, and its Earls were frequently murdered.
+Sometimes there was one Earl of the whole territory, sometimes two. It
+was not till after the end of Cnut's reign that Siward became Earl of
+Deira, and at a later time of all North-humberland as far as the
+Tweed. The descendants of two of these Earls, Godwine and Leofwine,
+leave their mark on the history for some time to come.
+
+10. =Cnut's Empire.=--Beyond the Tweed Malcolm, king of the Scots,
+ruled. He defeated the North-humbrians at Carham, and Cnut ceded
+Lothian to him, either doing so for the first time or repeating the
+act of Eadgar, if the story of Eadgar's cession is true. At all events
+the king of the Scots from this time ruled as far south as the Tweed,
+and acknowledged Cnut's superiority. Cnut also became king of Denmark
+by his brother's death, and king of Norway by conquest. He entered
+into friendly relations with Richard II., Duke of the Normans, by
+marrying his sister Emma, the widow of Æthelred.[6]
+
+    [Footnote 6: Genealogical connection between the Houses of England
+    and Normandy:--
+
+     _Dukes of Normandy_
+        Richard I.
+      the Fearless
+         |
+         -----------------------------
+         |                           |
+     Richard II.      (1) ÆTHELRED=Emma = (2) CNUT, 1016-1035
+     the Good         the Unready |            Godwine
+         |               979-1016 |               |
+         ---------------         --------      ----------
+         |             |         |      |      |        |
+     Richard III.    Robert   Ælfred EADWARD=Eadgyth  HAROLD
+                       |            the Confessor      1066
+                    WILLIAM          1042-1066
+                  the Conqueror
+                   1066-1087]
+
+11. =Cnut's Government.=--Cnut had thus made himself master of a great
+empire, and yet, Dane as he was, though he treated Englishmen and
+Danes as equals, he gave his special favour to Englishmen. He
+restored, as men said, the laws of Eadgar--that is to say, he kept
+peace and restored order as in the days of Eadgar. He reverenced
+monks, and once as he was rowing on the waters of the fens, he heard
+the monks of Ely singing. He bade the boatmen row him to the shore
+that he might listen to the song of praise and prayer. He even went on
+a pilgrimage to Rome, to humble himself in that city which contained
+the burial places of the Apostles Peter and Paul. From Rome he sent a
+letter to his subjects. 'I have vowed to God,' he wrote, 'to live a
+right life in all things; to rule justly and piously my realms and
+subjects, and to administer just judgment to all. If heretofore I have
+done aught beyond what is just, through headiness or negligence of
+youth, I am ready, with God's help, to amend it utterly.' With Cnut
+these were not mere words. It is not likely that there is any truth in
+the story how his flattering courtiers told him to sit by the
+sea-shore and bade the inflowing tide refrain from wetting his feet,
+and how when the waves rose over the spot on which his chair was
+placed he refused to wear his crown again, because that honour
+belonged to God alone, the true Ruler of the world. Yet the story
+would not have been invented except of one who was believed to have
+been clothed with real humility.
+
+12. =The Sons of Cnut. 1035--1042.=--Cnut died in =1035=. Godwine and
+the West Saxons chose Harthacnut, the son of Cnut and Emma to take his
+father's place, whilst the north and centre, headed by Leofwine's son,
+Leofric,[7] Earl of the Mercians, chose Harold, the son of Cnut by an
+earlier wife or concubine. Godwine perhaps hoped that Harthacnut would
+make the West Saxon earldom the centre of the empire which had been
+his father's. Cnut's empire was, however, breaking up. The Norwegians
+chose Magnus, a king of their own race, and Harthacnut remained in
+Denmark to defend it against the attacks of Magnus. In Normandy there
+were two English Ethelings, Ælfred and Eadward, the sons of Æthelred
+by Emma, who seem to have thought that the absence of Harthacnut gave
+them a chance of returning to England. Ælfred landed, but was seized
+by Harold. He was blinded with such cruelty that he died. His death
+was, truly or falsely, attributed to Godwine. As Harthacnut still
+remained in Denmark, the West Saxons deposed him and gave themselves
+to Harold, since which time England has never been divided. In =1040=
+Harold died, and Harthacnut came at last to England to claim the
+crown. He brought with him a Danish fleet, and with his sailors and
+his house-carls he ruled England as a conquered land. He raised a
+Danegeld to satisfy his men, and sent his house-carls to force the
+people to pay the heavy tax. Two of them were killed at Worcester, and
+he burnt Worcester to the ground. In =1042= he died 'as he stood at
+his drink' at a bridal.
+
+    [Footnote 7: Genealogy of the Mercian earls:--
+
+                   Leofwine
+                      |
+                   Leofric
+                      |
+                    Ælfgar
+                      |
+          ---------------------------
+          |                         |
+       Eadwine,                 Morkere,
+     Earl of Mercia     Earl of North-humberland]
+
+[Illustration: First Great Seal of Eadward the Confessor (obverse).]
+
+13. =Eadward the Confessor and Earl Godwine. 1042--1051.=--The English
+were tired of foreign rulers. 'All folk chose Eadward king.' Eadward,
+the son of Æthelred and the brother of the murdered Ælfred, though an
+Englishman on his father's side, was also the son of the Norman Emma,
+and had been brought up in Normandy from his childhood. The Normans
+were now men of French speech, and they were more polite and
+cultivated than Englishmen. Eadward filled his court with Normans. He
+disliked the roughness of the English, but instead of attempting to
+improve them as the great Ælfred had formerly done, he stood entirely
+aloof from them. The name of the Confessor by which he was afterwards
+known was given him on account of his piety, but his piety was not of
+that sort which is associated with active usefulness. He was fond of
+hunting, but was not active in any other way, and he left others to
+govern rather than himself. For some years the real governor of
+England was Earl Godwine, who kept his own earldom of Wessex, and
+managed to procure other smaller earldoms for his sons. As the Mercia
+over which Leofric ruled was only the north-western part of the old
+kingdom, and as Siward (see p. 84) had enough to do to keep the fierce
+men of North-humberland in order, Godwine had as yet no competitor to
+fear. In =1045= he became the king's father-in-law by the marriage of
+Eadward with his daughter, Eadgyth. Eadward, however, did his best for
+his Norman favourites, and appointed one of them, Robert of Jumièges,
+to the bishopric of London, and afterwards raised him to the
+Archbishopric of Canterbury. Between Godwine and the Normans there was
+no goodwill, and though Godwine was himself of fair repute, his eldest
+son, Swegen, a young man of brutal nature, alienated the goodwill of
+his countrymen by seducing the Abbess of Leominster, and by murdering
+his cousin Beorn. Godwine, in his blind family affection, clung to his
+wicked son and insisted on his being allowed to retain his earldom.
+
+[Illustration: Hunting. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+14. =The Banishment of Godwine. 1051.=--At last, in =1051=, the strife
+between the king and the Earl broke out openly. Eadward's
+brother-in-law, Eustace, Count of Boulogne, visited England. On his
+return his men made a disturbance at Dover, and in the riot which
+ensued some of the townsmen as well as some of his own men were slain.
+Eadward called on Godwine, in whose earldom Dover was, to punish the
+townsmen. Godwine refused, and Eadward summoned him to Gloucester to
+account for his refusal. He came attended by an armed host, but
+Leofric and Siward, who were jealous of Godwine's power, came with
+their armed followers to support the king. Leofric mediated, and it
+was arranged that the question should be settled at a Witenagemot to
+be held in London. In the end Godwine was outlawed and banished with
+all his family. Swegen went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and died on
+the way back.
+
+15. =Visit of Duke William. 1051.=--In Godwine's absence Eadward
+received a visit from the Duke of the Normans, William, the bastard
+son of Duke Robert and the daughter of a tanner of Falaise. Robert was
+a son of Richard II., and William was thus the grandson of the brother
+of Eadward's mother, Emma. Such a relationship gave him no title
+whatever to the English throne, as Emma was not descended from the
+English kings, and as, even if she had been, no one could be lawfully
+king in England who was not chosen by the Witenagemot. Eadward,
+however, had no children or brothers, and though he had no right to
+give away the crown, he now promised William that he should succeed
+him. William, indeed, was just the man to attract one whose character
+was as weak as Eadward's. Since he received the dukedom he had beaten
+down the opposition of a fierce and discontented nobility at
+Val-ès-dunes (=1047=). From that day peace and order prevailed in
+Normandy. Law in Normandy did not come as in England from the
+traditions of the shire-moot or the Witenagemot, where men met to
+consult together. It was the Duke's law, and if the Duke was a strong
+man he kept peace in the land. If he was a weak man, the lords fought
+against one another and plundered and oppressed the poor. William was
+strong and wily, and it was this combination of strength and wiliness
+which enabled him to bear down all opposition.
+
+16. =William and the Norman Church.=--An Englishman, who saw much of
+William in after-life, declared that, severe as he was, he was mild to
+good men who loved God. The Church was in his days assuming a new
+place in Europe. The monastic revival which had originated at Cluny
+(see p. 67) had led to a revival of the Papacy. In =1049=, for the
+first time, a Pope, Leo IX., travelled through Western Europe, holding
+councils and inflicting punishments upon the married clergy and upon
+priests who took arms and shed blood. With this improvement in
+discipline came a voluntary turning of the better clergy to an ascetic
+life, and increased devotion was accompanied, as it always was in the
+middle ages, with an increase of learning. William, who by the
+strength of his will brought peace into the state, also brought men of
+devotion and learning into the high places of the Church. His chief
+confidant was Lanfranc, an Italian who had taken refuge in the abbey
+of Bec, and, having become its prior, had made it the central school
+of Normandy and the parts around. With the improvement of learning
+came the improvement of art, and churches arose in Normandy, as in
+other parts of Western Europe, which still preserved the old round
+arch derived from the Romans, though both the arches themselves and
+the columns on which they were borne were lighter and more graceful
+than the heavy work which had hitherto been employed. Of all this
+Englishmen as yet knew nothing. They went on in their old ways, cut
+off from the European influences of the time. It was no wonder that
+Eadward yearned after the splendour and the culture of the land in
+which he had been brought up, or even that, in defiance of English
+law, he now promised to Duke William the succession to the English
+crown.
+
+17. =The Return and Death of Godwine. 1052--1053.=--After William had
+departed Englishmen became discontented at Eadward's increasing favour
+to the Norman strangers. In =1052= Godwine and his sons--Swegen only
+excepted--returned from exile. They sailed up the Thames and landed at
+Southwark. The foreigners hastily fled, and Eadward was unable to
+resist the popular feeling. Godwine was restored to his earldom, and
+an Englishman, Stigand, was made Archbishop of Canterbury in the place
+of Robert of Jumièges, who escaped to the Continent. As it was the law
+of the Church that a bishop once appointed could not be deposed except
+by the ecclesiastical authorities, offence was in this way given to
+the Pope. Godwine did not long outlive his restoration. He was struck
+down by apoplexy at the king's table in =1053=. Harold, who, after
+Swegen's death, was his eldest son, succeeded to his earldom of
+Wessex, and practically managed the affairs of the kingdom in
+Eadward's name.[8]
+
+    [Footnote 8: Genealogy of the family of Godwine:--
+
+                                 Godwine
+                                    |
+        +------+-------+--------+---+----+-------+---------+
+        |      |       |        |        |       |         |
+     Swegen  HAROLD  Tostig  Leofwine  Gyrth  Wulfnoth  Eadgyth = Eadward
+              1066                                                  the
+                                                                 Confessor]
+
+18. =Harold's Greatness. 1053--1066.=--Harold was a brave and
+energetic man, but Eadward preferred his brother Tostig, and on the
+death of Siward appointed him Earl of North-humberland. A little later
+Gyrth, another brother of Harold, became Earl of East Anglia, together
+with Bedfordshire and Oxfordshire, and a fourth brother, Leofwine,
+Earl of a district formed of the eastern shires on either side of the
+Thames. All the richest and most thickly populated part of England was
+governed by Harold and his brothers. Mercia was the only large earldom
+not under their rule. It was now under Ælfgar, the son of Leofric, who
+had lately died.
+
+19. =Harold and Eadward. 1057--1065.=--It became necessary to arrange
+for the succession to the throne, as Eadward was childless, and as
+Englishmen were not likely to acquiesce in his bequest to William. In
+=1057= the Ætheling Eadward, a son of Eadmund Ironside, was fetched
+back from Hungary, where he had long lived in exile, and was accepted
+as the heir. Eadward, however, died almost immediately after his
+arrival. He left but one son, Eadgar the Ætheling (see genealogy at p.
+78), who was far too young to be accepted as a king for many years to
+come. Naturally the thought arose of looking on Harold as Eadward's
+successor. It was contrary to all custom to give the throne to any one
+not of the royal line, but the custom had been necessarily broken in
+favour of Cnut, the Danish conqueror, and it might be better to break
+it in favour of an English earl rather than to place a child on the
+throne, when danger threatened from Normandy. During the remainder of
+Eadward's reign Harold showed himself a warrior worthy of the crown.
+In =1063= he invaded Wales and reduced it to submission. About the
+same time Ælfgar died, and was succeeded by his son, Eadwine, in the
+earldom of the Mercians. In =1065= the men of North-humberland
+revolted against Tostig, who had governed them harshly, and who was
+probably unpopular as a West Saxon amongst a population of Danes and
+Angles. The North-humbrians chose Eadwine's brother, Morkere, as his
+successor, and Harold advised Eadward to acquiesce in what they had
+done. Northamptonshire and Huntingdonshire were committed to Waltheof,
+a son of Siward (see p. 84), and the modern Northumberland was
+committed to a native ruler, Oswulf.
+
+20. =Death of Eadward. 1066.=--England was therefore ruled by two
+great families. Eadwine and Morkere, the grandsons of Leofric,
+governed the Midlands and almost the whole of North-humberland. Harold
+and his brothers, the sons of Godwine, governed the south and the
+east. The two houses had long been rivals, and after Eadward's death
+there would be no one in the country to whom they could even nominally
+submit. Eadward, whose life was almost at an end, was filled with
+gloomy forebodings. His thoughts, however, turned aside from the
+contemplation of earthly things, and he was only anxious that the
+great abbey church of Westminster, which he had been building hard by
+his own new palace on what was then a lonely place outside London,
+should be consecrated before his death. The church, afterwards
+superseded by the structure which now stands there, was built in the
+new and lighter form of round-arched architecture which Eadward had
+learned to admire from his Norman friends. It was consecrated on
+December 28, =1065=, but the king was too ill to be present, and on
+January 5, =1066=, he died, and was buried in the church which he had
+founded. Harold was at once chosen king, and crowned at Westminster.
+
+[Illustration: Tower in the earlier style. Church at Earl's Barton.
+(The battlements are much later.)]
+
+[Illustration: Tower in the earlier style. St Benet's Church,
+Cambridge.]
+
+[Illustration: Building a church in the later style. (From a drawing
+belonging to the Society of Antiquaries.)]
+
+21. =Harold and William. 1066.=--William, as soon as he heard of his
+rival's coronation, claimed the crown. He was now even mightier than
+he had been when he visited Eadward. In =1063= he had conquered Maine,
+and, secure on his southern frontier, he was able to turn his
+undivided attention to England. According to the principles accepted
+in England, he had no right to it whatever; but he contrived to put
+together a good many reasons which seemed, in the eyes of those who
+were not Englishmen, to give him a good case. In the first place he
+had been selected by Eadward as his heir. In the second place the
+deprivation of Robert of Jumièges was an offence against the Church
+law of the Continent, and William was therefore able to obtain from
+the Pope a consecrated banner, and to speak of an attack upon England
+as an attempt to uphold the righteous laws of the Church. In the third
+place, Harold had at some former time been wrecked upon the French
+coast, and had been delivered up to William, who had refused to let
+him go till he had sworn solemnly, placing his hand on a chest which
+contained the relics of the most holy Norman saints, to do some act,
+the nature of which is diversely related, but which Harold never did.
+Consequently William could speak of himself as going to take vengeance
+on a perjurer. With some difficulty William persuaded the Norman
+barons to follow him, and he attracted a mixed multitude of
+adventurers from all the neighbouring nations by promising them the
+plunder of England, an argument which every one could understand.
+During the whole of the spring and the summer ships for the invasion
+of England were being built in the Norman harbours.
+
+[Illustration: Normans feasting; with Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, saying
+grace. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+[Illustration: Harold swearing upon the Relics. (From the Bayeux
+Tapestry.)]
+
+22. =Stamford Bridge. 1066.=--All through the summer Harold was
+watching for his rival's coming. The military organisation of England,
+however, was inferior to that of Normandy. The Norman barons and their
+vassals were always ready for war, and they could support on their
+estates the foreign adventurers who were placed under their orders
+till the time of battle came. Harold had his house-carls, the constant
+guard of picked troops which had been instituted by Cnut, and his
+thegns, who, like the Norman barons, were bound to serve their lord
+in war. The greater part of his force, however, was composed of the
+peasants of the fyrd, and when September came they must needs be sent
+home to attend to their harvest, which seems to have been late this
+year. Scarcely were they gone when Harold received news that his
+brother Tostig, angry with him for having consented to his deposition
+from the North-humbrian earldom, had allied himself to Harold
+Hardrada, the fierce sea-rover, who was king of Norway, and that the
+two, with a mighty host, after wasting the Yorkshire coast, had sailed
+up the Humber. The two Northern Earls, Eadwine and Morkere, were hard
+pressed. Harold had not long before married their sister, and,
+whatever might be the risk, he was bound as the king of all England to
+aid them. Marching swiftly northwards with his house-carls and the
+thegns who joined him on the way, he hastened to their succour. On
+the way worse tidings reached him. The Earls had been defeated, and
+York had agreed to submit to the Norsemen. Harold hurried on the
+faster, and came upon the invaders unawares as they lay heedlessly on
+both sides of the Derwent at Stamford Bridge. Those on the western
+side, unprepared as they were, were soon overpowered. One brave
+Norseman, like Horatius and his comrades in the Roman legend, kept the
+narrow bridge against the army, till an Englishman crept under it and
+stabbed him from below through a gap in the woodwork. The battle
+rolled across the Derwent, and when evening came Harold Hardrada, and
+Tostig himself, with the bulk of the invaders, had been slain. For the
+last time an English king overthrew a foreign host in battle on
+English soil.
+
+[Illustration: A Norman ship. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+[Illustration: Norman soldiers mounted. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+23. =The Landing of William. 1066.=--Harold had shown what an English
+king could do, who fought not for this or that part of the country,
+but for all England. It was the lack of this national spirit in
+Englishmen which caused his ruin. As Harold was feasting at York in
+celebration of his victory, a messenger told him of the landing of the
+Norman host at Pevensey. He had saved Eadwine and Morkere from
+destruction, but Eadwine and Morkere gave him no help in return. He
+had to hurry back to defend Sussex without a single man from the north
+or the Midlands, except those whom he collected on his line of march.
+The House of Leofric bore no goodwill to the House of Godwine. England
+was a kingdom divided against itself.
+
+[Illustration: Group of archers on foot. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+[Illustration: Men fighting with axes. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+24. =The Battle of Senlac. 1066.--=Harold, as soon as he reached the
+point of danger, drew up his army on the long hill of Senlac on which
+Battle Abbey now stands. On October 14 William marched forth to attack
+him. The military equipment of the Normans was better than that of the
+English. Where the weapons on either side are unlike, battles are
+decided by the momentum--that is to say, by the combined weight and
+speed of the weapons employed. The English fought on foot mostly with
+two-handed axes; the Normans fought not only on horseback with lances,
+but also with infantry, some of them being archers. A horse, the
+principal weapon of a horseman, has more momentum than an armed
+footman, whilst an arrow can reach the object at which it is aimed
+long before a horse. Harold, however, had in his favour the slope of
+the hill up which the Normans would have to ride, and he took
+advantage of the lie of the ground by posting his men with their
+shields before them on the edge of the hill. The position was a strong
+one for purposes of defence, but it was not one that made it easy for
+Harold to change his arrangements as the fortunes of the day might
+need. William, on the other hand, had not only a better armed force,
+but a more flexible one. He had to attack, and, versed as he was in
+all the operations of war, he could move his men from place to place
+and make use of each opportunity as it arrived. The English were brave
+enough, but William was a more intelligent leader than Harold, and his
+men were better under control. Twice after the battle had begun the
+Norman horsemen charged up the hill only to be driven back. The wily
+William, finding that the hill was not to be stormed by a direct
+attack, met the difficulty by galling the English with a shower of
+arrows and ordering his left wing to turn and fly. The stratagem was
+successful. Some of the English rushed down the hill in pursuit. The
+fugitives faced round and charged the pursuers, following them up the
+slope. The English on the height were thus thrown into confusion; but
+they held out stoutly, and as the Norman horsemen now in occupation of
+one end of the hill charged fiercely along its crest, they locked
+their shields together and fought desperately for life, if no longer
+for victory. Slowly and steadily the Normans pressed on, till they
+reached the spot where Harold, surrounded by his house-carls, fought
+beneath his standard. There all their attacks were in vain, till
+William, calling for his bowmen, bade them shoot their arrows into the
+air. Down came the arrows in showers upon the heads of the English
+warriors, and one of them pierced Harold's eye, stretching him
+lifeless on the ground. In a series of representations in worsted
+work, known as the Bayeux Tapestry, which was wrought by the needle of
+some unknown woman and is now exhibited in the museum of that city,
+the scenes of the battle and the events preceding it are pictorially
+recorded.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Harold, who is attempting to pull the arrow
+from his eye. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+25. =William's Coronation. 1066.=--William had destroyed both the
+English king and the English army. It is possible that England, if
+united, might still have resisted. The great men at London chose for
+their king Eadgar the Ætheling, the grandson of Eadmund Ironside.
+Eadwine and Morkere were present at the election, but left London as
+soon as it was over. They would look after their own earldoms; they
+would not join others, as Harold had done, in defending England as a
+whole. Divided England would sooner or later be a prey to William. He
+wanted, however, not merely to reign as a conqueror, but to be
+lawfully elected as king, that he might have on his side law as well
+as force. He first struck terror into Kent and Sussex by ravaging the
+lands of all who held out against him. Then he marched to the Thames
+and burnt Southwark. He did not, however, try to force his way into
+London, as he wanted to induce the citizens to submit voluntarily to
+him, or at least in a way which might seem voluntary. He therefore
+marched westwards, crossed the Thames at Wallingford, and wheeled
+round to Berkhampstead. His presence there made the Londoners feel
+utterly isolated. Even if Eadwine and Morkere wished to do anything
+for them, they could not come from the north or north-west without
+meeting William's victorious army. The great men and citizens alike
+gave up all thought of resistance, abandoned Eadgar, and promised to
+take William for their king. On Christmas Day, =1066=, William was
+chosen with acclamation in Eadward's abbey at Westminster, where
+Harold had been chosen less than a year before. The Normans outside
+mistook the shouts of applause for a tumult against their Duke, and
+set fire to the houses around. The English rushed out to save their
+property, and William, frightened for the only time in his life, was
+left alone with the priests. Not knowing what was next to follow, he
+was crowned king of the English by Ealdred, Archbishop of York, in an
+empty church, amidst the crackling of flames and the shouts of men
+striving for the mastery.
+
+[Illustration: Coronation of a king, _temp._ William the Conqueror.
+(From a drawing in the possession of the Society of Antiquaries.)]
+
+
+_Books recommended for further study of Part I._
+
+DAWKINS, W. Boyd. Early Man in Britain.
+
+RHYS, J. Early Britain.
+
+ELTON, C. J. Origins of English History.
+
+GUEST, E. Origines Celticæ. Vol. ii. pp. 121-408.
+
+FREEMAN. History of the Norman Conquest. Vols. i.-iii.
+
+GREEN, J. R. The Making of England.
+
+---- The Conquest of England.
+
+---- History of the English People. Vol. i. pp. 1-114.
+
+BRIGHT, W. Chapters of English Church History.
+
+STUBBS, W. The Constitutional History of England. Chaps. I.-IX.
+
+CUNNINGHAM, W. The Growth of English Industry and Commerce during the
+Early and Middle Ages. pp. 1-128.
+
+HODGKIN, T. The Political History of England. Vol i. From the Earliest
+Times to 1066.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+_THE NORMAN AND ANGEVIN KINGS._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+WILLIAM I. =1066--1087.=
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  William's coronation                                            1066
+  Completion of the Conquest                                      1070
+  The rising of the Earls                                         1075
+  The Gemot at Salisbury                                          1086
+  Death of William I.                                             1087
+
+
+[Illustration: A silver penny of William the Conqueror, struck at
+Romney.]
+
+1. =The First Months of the Conquest. 1066--1067.=--Though at the time
+when William was crowned he had gained actual possession of no more
+than the south-eastern part of England, he claimed a right to rule the
+whole as lawful king of the English, not merely by Eadward's bequest,
+but by election and coronation. In reality, he came as a conqueror,
+whilst the Normans by whose aid he gained the victory at Senlac left
+their homes not merely to turn their Duke into a king, but also to
+acquire lands and wealth for themselves. William could not act justly
+and kindly to his new subjects even if he wished. What he did was to
+clothe real violence with the appearance of law. He gave out that as
+he had been the lawful king of the English ever since Eadward's death,
+Harold and all who fought under him at Senlac had forfeited their
+lands by their treason to himself as their lawful king. These lands he
+distributed amongst his Normans. The English indeed were not entirely
+dispossessed. Sometimes the son of a warrior who had been slain was
+allowed to retain a small portion of his father's land. Sometimes the
+daughter or the widow of one of Harold's comrades was compelled to
+marry a Norman whom William wished to favour. Yet, for all that, a
+vast number of estates in the southern and eastern counties passed
+from English into Norman hands. The bulk of the population, the
+serfs--or, as they were now called by a Norman name, the
+villeins--were not affected by the change, except so far as they found
+a foreign lord less willing than a native one to hearken to their
+complaints. The changes which took place were limited as yet to a
+small part of England. In three months after his coronation William
+was still without authority beyond an irregular line running from the
+Wash to the western border of Hampshire, except that he held some
+outlying posts in Herefordshire. It is true that Eadwine and Morkere
+had acknowledged him as king, but they were still practically
+independent. Even where William actually ruled he allowed all
+Englishmen who had not fought on Harold's side to keep their lands,
+though he made them redeem them by the payment of a fine, on the
+principle that all lands in the country, except those of the Church,
+were the king's lands, and that it was right to fine those who had not
+come to Senlac to help him as their proper lord.
+
+2. =The Conquest of the West and North. 1067--1069.=--In March =1067=
+William returned to Normandy. In his absence the Normans left behind
+in England oppressed the English, and were supported in their
+oppression by the two regents appointed to govern in William's name,
+his half-brother, Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, whom he had made Earl of
+Kent, and William Fitz-Osbern, Earl of Hereford. In some parts the
+English rose in rebellion. In December William returned, and after
+putting down resistance in the south-eastern counties, set himself to
+conquer the rest of England. It took him more than two years to
+complete his task. Perhaps he would have failed even then if the whole
+of the unconquered part of the country had risen against him at the
+same time. Each district, however, resisted separately, and he was
+strong enough to beat them down one by one. In the spring of =1068= he
+besieged and took Exeter, and subdued the West to the Land's End. When
+this had been accomplished he turned northwards against Eadwine and
+Morkere, who had declared against him. William soon frightened them
+into submission, and seized on York and all the country to the south
+of York on the eastern side of England. In =1069= the English of the
+North rose once more and summoned to their aid Svend, king of
+Denmark, a nephew of the great Cnut. Svend sent a Danish fleet, and
+the Danes were joined by Eadgar the Ætheling and by other English
+chiefs. They burnt and plundered York, but could do no more. Their
+great host melted away. The Danes went off with their booty to their
+ships, and the English returned to their homes. William found no army
+to oppose him, and he not only regained the lands which he had
+occupied the year before, but added to them the whole country up to
+the Tweed.
+
+3. =The Completion of the Conquest. 1070.=--William was never cruel
+without an object, but there was no cruelty which he would not commit
+if it would serve his purpose. He resolved to make all further
+resistance impossible. The Vale of York, a long and wide stretch of
+fertile ground running northwards from the city to the Tees, was laid
+waste by William's orders. The men who had joined in the revolt were
+slain. The stored-up crops, the ploughs, the carts, the oxen and sheep
+were destroyed by fire. Men, women, and children dropped dead of
+starvation, and their corpses lay unburied in the wasted fields. Some
+prolonged life by feeding on the flesh of horses, or even of men.
+Others sold themselves into slavery, bowing their heads, as was said,
+in the evil days for meat. "Waste! waste! waste!" was the account
+given long afterwards of field after field in what had once been one
+of the most fertile districts in England. William's work of conquest
+was almost over. Early in =1070= he crossed the hills amidst frost and
+snow, and descended upon Chester. Chester submitted, and with it the
+shires on the Welsh border. The whole of England was at last subdued.
+
+4. =Hereward's Revolt and the Homage of Malcolm. 1070--1072.=--Only
+one serious attempt to revolt was afterwards made, but this was no
+more than a local rising. The Isle of Ely was in those days a real
+island in the midst of the waters of the fens. Hereward, with a band
+of followers, threw himself into the island, and it was only after a
+year's attack that he was driven out. When the revolt was at its
+height, Eadwine and Morkere fled from William's court to join the
+insurgents. Eadwine was murdered by his own attendants. Morkere
+reached Ely, and when resistance was at an end was banished to
+Normandy. No man ever deserved less pity than these two brothers. They
+had never sought any one's advantage but their own, and they had been
+faithless to every cause which they had pretended to adopt. Before
+Hereward was overpowered, Malcolm, king of the Scots, ravaged northern
+England, carrying off with him droves of English slaves. In =1072=
+William, who had by that time subdued Hereward, marched into Scotland
+as far as the Tay. Malcolm submitted to him at Abernethy, and
+acknowledged him to be his lord. Malcolm's acknowledgment was only a
+repetition of the acknowledgment made by his predecessors the Scottish
+kings, to Eadward and Cnut (see pp. 63, 84); but William was more
+powerful than Eadward or Cnut had been, and was likely to construe the
+obligation more strictly.
+
+5. =How William kept down the English.=--William, having conquered
+England, had now to govern it. His first object was to keep the
+English in subjection.
+
+_(a) The Confiscation of Land._--In the first place he continued to
+treat all who had resisted him as rebels, confiscating their land and
+giving it to some Norman follower. In almost every district there was
+at least one Norman landowner, who was on the watch against any
+attempt of his English neighbours to revolt, and who knew that he
+would lose his land if William lost his crown.
+
+_(b) Building Castles._--In the second place William built a castle in
+every town of importance, which he garrisoned with his own men. The
+most notable example of these castles is the Tower of London.
+
+_(c) The Feudal Army._--In the third place, though the diffusion of
+Norman landowners and of William's castles made a general revolt of
+the English difficult, it did not make it impossible, and William took
+care to have an army always ready to put down a revolt if it occurred.
+No king in those days could have a constantly paid army, such as
+exists in all European countries at the present day, because there was
+not much money anywhere. Some men had land and some men had bodily
+strength, and they bartered one for the other. The villein gave his
+strength to plough and reap for his lord, in return for the land which
+he held from him. The fighting man gave his strength to his lord, to
+serve him with his horse and his spear, in return for the land which
+he held from him. This system, which is known as feudal, had been
+growing up in England before the Conquest, but it was perfected on the
+Continent, and William brought it with him in its perfected shape. The
+warrior who served on horseback was called a knight, and when a knight
+received land from a lord on military tenure--that is to say, on
+condition of military service--he was called the vassal of his lord.
+When he became a vassal he knelt, and, placing his hands between those
+of his lord, swore to be his man. This act was called doing homage.
+The land which he received as sufficient to maintain him was called a
+knight's fee. After this homage the vassal was bound to serve his
+lord in arms, this service being the rent payable for his land. If the
+vassal broke his oath and fought against his lord, he was regarded as
+a traitor, or a betrayer of his trust, and could be turned out of his
+land. The whole land of England being regarded as the king's, all land
+was held from the king. Sometimes the knights held their fees directly
+from the king and did homage to him. These knights were known as
+tenants in chief (_in capite_), however small their estates might be.
+Usually, however, the tenants in chief were large landowners, to whom
+the king had granted vast estates; and these when they did homage
+engaged not merely to fight for him in person, but to bring some
+hundreds of knights with them. To enable them to do this they had to
+give out portions of their land to sub-tenants, each engaging to bring
+himself and a specified number of knights. There might thus be a
+regular chain of sub-tenants, A engaging to serve under B, B under C,
+C under D, and so on till the tenant-in-chief was reached, who engaged
+to bring them all to serve the king. Almost all the larger
+tenants-in-chief were Normans, though Englishmen were still to be
+found amongst the sub-tenants, and even amongst the smaller
+tenants-in-chief. The whole body, however, was preponderantly Norman,
+and William could therefore depend upon it to serve him as an army in
+the field in case of an English rising.
+
+6. =How William kept down the Normans.=--William was not afraid only
+of the English. He had cause to fear lest the feudal army, which was
+to keep down the English, might be strong enough to be turned against
+himself, and that the barons--as the greater tenants-in-chief were
+usually called--might set him at naught as Eadwine and Morkere had set
+Harold at naught, and as the Dukes of Normandy had set at naught the
+kings of France. To prevent this he adopted various contrivances.
+
+_(a) Abolition of the great Earldoms._--In the first place he
+abolished the great earldoms. In most counties there were to be no
+earls at all, and no one was to be earl of more than one county. There
+was never again to be an Earl of the West Saxons like Godwine, or an
+Earl of the Mercians like Leofric.
+
+_(b) The Estates of the Barons scattered._--- Not only did William
+diminish the official authority of the earls, he also weakened the
+territorial authority of the barons. Even when he granted to one man
+estates so numerous that if they had been close together they would
+have extended at least over a whole county, he took care to scatter
+them over England, allowing only a few to be held by a single owner in
+any one county. If, therefore, a great baron took it into his head to
+levy war against the king, he would have to collect his vassals from
+the most distant counties, and his intentions would thus be known
+before they could be put in practice.
+
+_(c) The Fyrd kept in readiness._--Still more important was William's
+resolution to be the real head of the English nation. He had weakened
+it enough to fear it no longer, but he kept it strong enough to use
+it, if need came, against the Norman barons. He won Englishmen to his
+side by the knowledge that he was ready to do them justice whenever
+they were wronged, and he could therefore venture to summon the fyrd
+whenever he needed support, without having cause to fear that it would
+turn against him.
+
+7. =Ecclesiastical Organisation.=--Before the Conquest the English
+Church had been altogether national. Its bishops had sat side by side
+with the ealdormen or earls in the shire-moots, and in the Witenagemot
+itself. They had been named, like the ealdormen or earls, by the king
+with the consent of the Witenagemot. Ecclesiastical questions had been
+decided and ecclesiastical offences punished not by any special
+ecclesiastical court, but by the shire-moot or Witenagemot, in which
+the laity and the clergy were both to be found. William resolved to
+change all this. The bishops and abbots whom he found were Englishmen,
+and he replaced most of them by Normans. The new Norman bishops and
+abbots were dependent on the king. They looked on the English as
+barbarians, and would certainly not support them in any revolt, as
+their English predecessors might have done. Thurstan, indeed, the
+Norman Abbot of Glastonbury, was so angry with his English monks
+because they refused to change their style of music that he called in
+Norman archers to shoot them down on the steps of the altar. Such
+brutality, however, was exceptional, and, as a rule, even Norman
+bishops and abbots were well disposed towards their English
+neighbours, all the more because they were not very friendly with the
+Norman nobles, who often attempted to encroach on the lands of the
+Church. Many a king in William's position would have been content to
+fill the sees with creatures of his own, who would have done what they
+were bidden and have thought of no one's interest but his. William
+knew, as he had already shown in Normandy, that he would be far better
+served if the clergy were not only dependent on himself but deserving
+the respect of others. He made his old friend Lanfranc (see p. 88)
+Archbishop of Canterbury. Lanfranc had, like William, the mind of a
+ruler, and under him bishops and abbots were appointed who enforced
+discipline. The monks were compelled to keep the rules of their
+order, the canons of cathedrals were forced to send away their wives,
+and though the married clergy in the country were allowed to keep
+theirs, orders were given that in future no priest should marry.
+Everywhere the Church gave signs of new vigour. The monasteries became
+again the seats of study and learning. The sees of bishops were
+transferred from villages to populous towns, as when the Bishop of
+Dorchester, in Oxfordshire, migrated to Lincoln, and the Bishop of
+Thetford to Norwich. New churches were built and old ones restored
+after the new Continental style, which is known in England as Norman,
+and which Eadward had introduced in his abbey of Westminster. The
+Church, though made dependent on William, was independent, so far as
+its spiritual rights were concerned, of the civil courts.
+Ecclesiastical matters were discussed, not in the Witenagemot, but in
+a Church synod, and, in course of time, punishments were inflicted by
+Church courts on ecclesiastical offenders. The power of William was
+strengthened by the change. That power rested on three supports--the
+Norman conquerors, the English nation, and the Church, and each one of
+these three had reason to distrust the other two.
+
+[Illustration: East end of Darenth Church, Kent. Built about 1080.]
+
+8. =Pope Gregory VII.=--The strength which William had acquired showed
+itself in his bearing towards the Pope. In =1073= Archdeacon
+Hildebrand, who for some years had been more powerful at Rome than the
+Popes themselves, himself became Pope under the name of Gregory VII.
+Gregory was as stern a ruler of the Church as William was of the
+State. He was an uncompromising champion of the Cluniac reforms (see
+p. 67). His object was to moderate the cruelty and sinfulness of the
+feudal warriors of Europe by making the Church a light to guide the
+world to piety and self-denial. As matters stood on the Continent, it
+had been impossible for the Church to attain to so high a standard.
+The clergy bought their places and fought and killed like the laymen
+around them. The Cluniac monks, therefore, thought it best to separate
+the clergy entirely from the world. In the first place they were to be
+celibate, that they might not be entangled in the cares of life. In
+the second place they were to refrain from simony, or the purchase of
+ecclesiastical preferment, that they might not be dependent on the
+great men of the world. A third demand was added later, that bishops
+and abbots should not receive from laymen the ring and staff which
+were the signs of their authority--the ring as the symbol of marriage
+to their churches; the staff or crozier, in the shape of a shepherd's
+crook, as the symbol of their pastoral authority. The Church, in fact,
+was to be governed by its own laws in perfect independence, that it
+might become more pure itself, and thus capable of setting a better
+example to the laity. As might have been expected, though the internal
+condition of the Church was greatly improved, yet when Gregory
+attempted entirely to free ecclesiastics from the influence and
+authority of the State, he found himself involved in endless quarrels.
+Clergy and laity alike resisted him, and they were supported by the
+Emperor Henry IV., whose rule extended over Germany and the greater
+part of Italy. Gregory next claimed the right of excommunicating kings
+and emperors, and of deposing them if they did not repent after
+excommunication. The State, he declared, was as the moon, receiving
+light from the Church, which shone like the sun in heaven. The whole
+of the remainder of Gregory's life was spent in a struggle with the
+Emperor, and the struggle was carried on by the successors of both.
+
+[Illustration: Part of the nave of St. Alban's Abbey Church. Built by
+Abbot Paul between 1077 and 1093.]
+
+9. =William and Gregory VII.=--It is remarkable that such a Pope as
+Gregory never came into conflict with William. William appointed
+bishops and abbots by giving them investiture, as the presenting of
+the ring and staff was called. He declared that no Pope should be
+obeyed in England who was not acknowledged by himself, that no papal
+bulls or letters should have any force till he had allowed them, and
+that the decrees of an ecclesiastical synod should bind no one till he
+had confirmed them. When, at a later time, Gregory required William to
+do homage to the see of Rome, William refused, on the ground that
+homage had never been rendered by his predecessors. To all this
+Gregory submitted. No doubt Gregory was prudent in not provoking
+William's anger; but that he should have refrained from even finding
+fault with William may perhaps be set down to the credit of his
+honesty. He claimed to make himself the master of kings because as a
+rule they did not care to advance the purity of the Church. William
+did care to advance it. He chose virtuous and learned bishops, and
+defended the clergy against aggression from without and corruption
+within. Gregory may well have been content to leave power over the
+Church in the hands of a king who ruled it in such a fashion.
+
+10. =The Rising of the Earls. 1075.=--Of the three classes of men over
+which William ruled, the great Norman barons imagined themselves to be
+the strongest, and were most inclined to throw off his yoke. The chief
+feature of the reigns of William and of his successors for three
+generations was the struggle which scarcely ever ceased between the
+Norman barons on the one side, and the king supported by the English
+and the clergy on the other. It was to the advantage of the king that
+he had not to contend against the whole of the Normans. Normans with
+small estates clung for support, like their English neighbours, to the
+crown. The first of many risings of the barons took place in =1075=.
+Roger, Earl of Hereford, in spite of William's prohibition, gave his
+sister in marriage to Ralph of Wader, Earl of Norfolk, who, though of
+English birth on his father's side, had fought for William at Senlac,
+and may practically be counted as a Norman. As the chronicler
+expressed it:
+
+  There was that bride-ale
+  To many men's bale.
+
+The two earls plotted a rising against William and the revivals of the
+old independent earldoms. They took arms and were beaten. Ralph fled
+the country, and Roger was condemned to perpetual imprisonment. His
+followers were blinded or had their feet cut off. It was the Norman
+custom not to put criminals to death. To this rule, however, William
+made one exception. Waltheof, the last earl of purely English race,
+had been present at the fatal bride-ale, but though he had listened to
+the plottings of the conspirators, he had revealed all that he knew to
+William. His wife, Judith, a niece of the Conqueror, accused him of
+actual treason, and he was beheaded at Winchester. By the English he
+was regarded as a martyr, and it was probably his popularity amongst
+them which made William resolve upon his death.
+
+11. =The New Forest.=--Only once did William cause misery amongst his
+subjects for the sake of his own enjoyment. Many kings before him had
+taken pleasure in hunting, but William was the first who claimed the
+right of hunting over large tracts of country exclusively for himself.
+He made, as the chronicler says, 'mickle deer-frith'--a tract, that is
+to say, in which the deer might have peace--'and laid laws therewith
+that he who slew hart or hind that man should blind him.... In sooth
+he loved the high deer as though he were their father.' He forbade, in
+short, all men, except those to whom he gave permission, to hunt
+within the limits of the royal forests. In the south-west of
+Hampshire, near his favourite abode at Winchester, he enlarged the New
+Forest. The soil is poor, and it can never have been covered by
+cultivated fields, but here and there, by the sides of streams, there
+were scattered hamlets, and these were destroyed and the dwellers in
+them driven off by William's orders, that there might be a 'mickle
+deer-frith.' We may be sure that there was not nearly as much misery
+caused by the making of the New Forest as was caused by the harrying
+of the Vale of York, but popular tradition rightly held in more
+abhorrence the lesser cruelty for the sake of pleasure than the
+greater cruelty for the sake of policy. It told how the New Forest was
+accursed for William's family. In his own lifetime a son and a
+grandson of his were cut off within it by unknown hands, probably
+falling before the vengeance of some who had lost home and substance
+through the creation of the Forest, and in due time another son, who
+succeeded him on the throne, was to meet with a similar fate.
+
+12. =Domesday Book. 1085--1086.=--It was to William's credit that his
+government was a strong one. In William's days life and property and
+female honour were under the protection of a king who knew how to make
+himself obeyed. Strong government, however, is always expensive, and
+William and his officers were always ready with an excuse for getting
+money. "The king and the headmen loved much and overmuch covetousness
+on gold and on silver, and they recked not how sinfully it was gotten,
+if only it came to them.... They reared up unright tolls, and many
+other unright things they did that are hard to reckon." Other men, in
+short, must observe the law; William's government was a law to itself.
+It was, however, a law, and not a mere scramble for money. Though
+there were no Danish invaders now, William continued to levy the
+Danegeld, and he had rents and payments due to him in many quarters
+which had been due to his predecessors. In order to make his exactions
+more complete and more regular, he resolved to have set down the
+amount of taxable property in the realm that his full rights might be
+known, and in =1085=, "He sent over all England into ilk shire his
+men, and let them find out how many hundred hides were in the shire,
+or what the king himself had of land or cattle in the land, or whilk
+rights he ought to have.... Eke he let write how mickle of land his
+archbishops had, and his bishops, and his abbots and his earls, and
+what or how mickle ilk man had that landholder was in England in land
+and in cattle, and how mickle fee it was worth. So very narrowly he
+let speer it out that there was not a single hide nor a yard of land,
+nor so much as--it is a shame to tell, though he thought it no shame
+to do--an ox nor a cow nor a swine was left that was not set in his
+writ." The chronicler who wrote these words was an English monk of
+Peterborough. Englishmen were shocked by the new regularity of
+taxation. They could hardly be expected to understand the advantages
+of a government strong enough through regular taxation to put down the
+resistance of rebellious earls at home and to defy invasion from
+abroad. The result of the inquiries of the king's commissioners was
+embodied in Domesday Book, so called because it was no more possible
+to appeal from it than from the Last Judgment.
+
+[Illustration: Reduced facsimile of part of Domesday Book.]
+
+13. =William's Great Councils.=--Though William was himself the true
+ruler of England, he kept up the practice of his predecessors in
+summoning the Witenagemot from time to time. In his days, however, the
+name of the Witenagemot was changed into that of the Great Council,
+and, to a slight extent, it changed its nature with its name. The
+members of the Witenagemot had attended because they were officially
+connected with the king, being ealdormen or bishops or thegns serving
+in some way under him. Members of the Great Council attended because
+they held land in chief from the king. The difference, however, was
+greater in appearance than in reality. No doubt men who held very
+small estates in chief might, if they pleased, come to the Great
+Council, and if they had done so the Great Council would have been
+much more numerously attended than the Witenagemot had been. The
+poorer tenants-in-chief, however, found that it was not only too
+troublesome and expensive to make the journey at a time when all long
+journeys had to be made on horseback, but that when they arrived their
+wishes were disregarded. They therefore stayed at home, so that the
+Great Council was regularly attended only by the bishops, the abbots
+of the larger abbeys, and certain great landowners who were known as
+barons. In this way the Great Council became a council of the wealthy
+landowners, as the Witenagemot had been, though the two assemblies
+were formed on different principles.
+
+14. =The Gemot at Salisbury. 1086.=--In =1086=, after Domesday Book
+had been finished, William summoned an unusually numerous assembly,
+known as the Great Gemot, to meet at Salisbury. At this not only the
+tenants-in-chief appeared, but also all those who held lands from them
+as sub-tenants. "There came to him," wrote the chronicler, "... all
+the landowning men there were over all England, whose soever men they
+were, and all bowed down before him and became his men, and swore
+oaths of fealty to him, that they would be faithful to him against all
+other men." It was this oath which marked the difference between
+English and Continental feudalism, though they were now in other
+respects alike. On the Continent each tenant swore to be faithful to
+his lord, but only the lords who held directly from the crown swore to
+be faithful to the king. The consequence was that when a lord rebelled
+against the king, his tenants followed their lord and not the king. In
+England the tenants swore to forsake their lord and to serve the king
+against him if he forsook his duty to the king. Nor was this all. Many
+men break their oaths. William, however, was strong enough in England
+to punish those who broke their oaths to him, whilst the king of
+France was seldom strong enough to punish those who broke their oaths
+to him.
+
+15. =William's Death. 1087.=--The oath taken at Salisbury was the
+completion of William's work in England. To contemporaries he appeared
+as a foreign conqueror, and often as a harsh and despotic ruler. Later
+generations could recognise that his supreme merit was that he made
+England one. He did not die in England. In =1087= he fought with his
+lord, the king of France, Philip I. In anger at a jest of Philip's he
+set fire to Mantes. As he rode amidst the burning houses his horse
+shied and threw him forward on the pommel of his saddle. He was now
+corpulent and the injury proved fatal. On September 9 he died. When
+the body was carried to Caen for burial in the abbey of St. Stephen,
+which William himself had reared, a knight stepped forward and claimed
+as his own the ground in which the grave had been dug. It had been
+taken, he said, by William from his father. "In the name of God," he
+cried, "I forbid that the body of the robber be covered with my mould,
+or that he be buried within the bounds of my inheritance." The
+bystanders acknowledged the truth of his accusation, and paid the
+price demanded.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+WILLIAM II. =1087--1100.=
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Accession of William II                                         1087
+  Norman rebellion against William II.                            1088
+  Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury                                1093
+  The Council of Rockingham, and the First Crusade                1095
+  Conquest of Jerusalem by the Crusaders                          1099
+  Death of William II.                                            1100
+
+
+1. =The Accession of the Red King. 1087.=--In Normandy the Conqueror
+was succeeded by his eldest son, Robert. Robert was sluggish and
+incapable, and his father had expressed a wish that England, newly
+conquered and hard to control, should be ruled by his more energetic
+second son, William. To the third son, Henry, he gave a sum of money.
+There was as yet no settled rule of succession to the English crown,
+and William at once crossed the sea and was crowned king of the
+English at Westminster, by Lanfranc. William Rufus, or the Red King,
+as men called him, feared not God nor regarded man. Yet the English
+rallied round him, because they knew that he was strong-willed, and
+because they needed a king who would keep the Norman barons from
+oppressing them. For that very reason the more turbulent of the Norman
+barons declared for Robert, who would be too lazy to keep them in
+order. In the spring of =1088= they broke into rebellion in his name.
+William called the English people to his help. He would not, he said,
+wring money from his subjects or exercise cruelty in defence of his
+hunting grounds. On this the English rallied round him. At the head of
+a great army he marched to attack the rebels, and finally laid siege
+to Rochester, which was held against him by his uncle Odo, Bishop of
+Bayeux, whom he had released from the imprisonment in which the
+Conqueror had kept him. William called upon yet greater numbers of the
+English to come to his help. Every one, he declared, who failed him
+now should be known for ever by the shameful name of _Nithing_, or
+worthless. The English came in crowds. When at last Odo surrendered,
+the English pleaded that no mercy should be shown him. "Halters, bring
+halters!" they cried; "hang up the traitor bishop and his accomplices
+on the gibbet." William, however, spared him, but banished him for
+ever from England.
+
+2. =The Wickedness of the Red King.=--William had crushed the Norman
+rebels with English aid. When the victory was won he turned against
+those who had helped him. It was not that he oppressed the English
+because they were English, but that he oppressed English and Normans
+alike, though the English, being the weaker, felt his cruelty most. He
+broke all his promises. He gathered round him mercenary soldiers from
+all lands to enforce his will. He hanged murderers and robbers, but he
+himself was the worst of robbers. When he moved about the country with
+the ruffians who attended him, the inhabitants fled to the woods,
+leaving their houses to be pillaged. William allowed no law to be
+pleaded against his own will. His life, and the life of his courtiers,
+was passed in the foulest vice. He was as irreligious as he was
+vicious. It was in especial defiance of the Christian sentiment of the
+time that he encouraged the Jews, who had begun to come into England
+in his father's days, to come in greater numbers. They grew rich as
+money-lenders, and William protected them against their debtors,
+exacting a high price for his protection. Once, it is said, he invited
+the Jewish rabbis to argue in his presence with the bishops on the
+merits of their respective creeds, and promised to become a Jew if
+the rabbis had the better of the argument. His own mouth was filled
+with outrageous blasphemies. "God," he said, "shall never see me a
+good man. I have suffered too much at His hands."
+
+3. =Ranulf Flambard.=--The chief minister of the Red King was Ranulf
+Flambard, whom he ultimately made Bishop of Durham. He was one of the
+clerks of the king's chapel. The word 'clerk' properly signified a
+member of the clergy. The only way in which men could work with their
+brains instead of with their hands was by becoming clerks, the
+majority of whom, however, only entered the lower orders, without any
+intention of becoming priests or even deacons. Few, except clerks,
+could read or write, and whatever work demanded intelligence naturally
+fell into their hands. They acted as physicians or lawyers, kept
+accounts, and wrote letters. The clerks of the king's chapel were the
+king's secretaries and men of business. These ready writers had taken
+a leading part in the compilation of Domesday Book, and they were
+always active in bringing in money. Under the Conqueror they were
+expected to observe at least something of the rules of justice. Under
+the Red King they were expected to disregard them entirely. Of all the
+clerks Ranulf Flambard was the most unscrupulous; therefore he rose
+into the greatest favour. The first William had appointed high
+officers, known as Justiciars, to act in his name from time to time
+when he was absent from England, or was from any cause unable to be
+present when important business was transacted. Flambard was appointed
+Justiciar by the second William, and in his hands the office became
+permanent. The Justiciar was now the king's chief minister, acting in
+his name whether he was present or absent. Flambard used his power to
+gather wealth for the king on every side. "He drave the king's
+gemots," we are told, "over all England;" that is to say, he forced
+the reluctant courts to exact the money which he claimed for the king.
+
+4. =Feudal Dues.=--It was Flambard who systematised, if he did not
+invent, the doctrine that the king was to profit by his position as
+supreme landlord. In practice this meant that he exacted to the full
+the consequences of feudal tenure. If a man died who held land by
+knight service from the crown, leaving a son who was a minor, the boy
+became the ward of the king, who took the profits of his lands till he
+was twenty-one, and forced him to pay a relief or fine for taking them
+into his own hands when he attained his majority. If the land fell to
+an heiress the king claimed the right of marrying her to whom he
+would, or of requiring of her a sum of money for permission to take a
+husband at her own choice, or, as was usually the case, at the choice
+of her relations. Under special circumstances the king exacted aids
+from his tenants-in-chief. If he were taken prisoner they had to pay
+to ransom him from captivity. When he knighted his eldest son or
+married his eldest daughter they had to contribute to the expense. It
+is true that this was in accordance with the principle of feudality.
+Neither a boy nor a woman could render service in the field, and it
+was therefore only fair that the king should hold the lands at times
+when no service was rendered to him for them; and it was also fair
+that the dependents should come to their lord's help in times of
+special need, especially as all that the king took from them they in
+turn took from their own sub-tenants. Flambard, however, did not
+content himself with a moderately harsh exaction of these feudal dues.
+The grievance against him was that he made the king 'to be every man's
+heir, whether he were in orders or a layman,' that is to say, that
+Flambard so stripped and exhausted the land belonging to the king's
+wards as to make it almost worthless, and then demanded reliefs so
+enormous that when the estate had at last been restored, all its value
+had passed into the hands of the king. When a bishop or an abbot died,
+the king appointed no successor, and appropriated the revenues of the
+vacant see or monastery till some one chose to buy the office from
+him. The king alone grew rich, whilst his vassals were impoverished.
+
+5. =Archbishop Anselm.=--In =1089= Lanfranc died, and the
+archbishopric of Canterbury was then left vacant for nearly four
+years. The Archbishop of Canterbury was more than the first of English
+bishops. He was not only the maintainer of ecclesiastical discipline,
+but also the mouthpiece of the English people when they had complaints
+to make to the king. Men turned their thoughts to Anselm, the Abbot of
+Bec. Anselm was a stranger from Aosta, on the Italian side of the
+Alps. He was the most learned man of the age, and had striven to
+justify the theology of the day by rational arguments. He was as
+righteous as he was learned, and as gentle as he was righteous. Tender
+to man and woman, he had what was in those days a rare tenderness to
+animals, and had caused astonishment by saving a hunted hare from its
+pursuers. In =1092= the king's vassals assembled in the Great Council
+urged William to choose a successor to Lanfranc, and asked him to
+allow prayers to be offered in the churches that God might move his
+heart to select a worthy chief pastor. "Pray as you will," said the
+king, scornfully. "I shall do as I think good; no man's prayers will
+do anything to shake my will!" In the spring of =1093= William fell
+sick. Believing himself to be a dying man, he promised to amend his
+life, and named Anselm archbishop. On his refusal to accept the
+nomination, Anselm was dragged to the king's bedside, and the pastoral
+staff, the symbol of the pastoral office of a bishop, was forced into
+his hands by the bystanders.
+
+6. =The Council of Rockingham. 1095.=--To this well-meant violence
+Anselm submitted unwillingly. He was, he said, a weak old sheep to be
+yoked with an untamed bull to draw the plough of the English Church.
+Yet, gentle as he was, he was possessed of indomitable courage in
+resistance to evil. William recovered, and returned to his blasphemy
+and his tyranny. In vain Anselm warned him against his sins. A fresh
+object of dispute soon arose between the king and the new archbishop.
+Two Popes claimed the obedience of Christendom. Urban II. was the Pope
+acknowledged by the greater part of the Church. Clement III. was the
+Pope supported by the Emperor. Anselm declared that Urban was the true
+Pope, and that he would obey none other. William asserted that his
+father had laid down a rule that no Pope should be acknowledged in
+England without the king's assent, and he proposed to act upon it by
+acknowledging neither Clement nor Urban. His object was, perhaps, to
+prevent the enforcement of ecclesiastical discipline by temporarily
+getting rid of the papal authority. Anselm wanted the authority of the
+Pope to check vice and disorder. The question was set aside for a
+time, but in =1095= Anselm, tired of witnessing William's wicked
+actions, asked leave to go to Rome to fetch from Urban the pallium, a
+kind of scarf given by the Pope to archbishops in recognition of their
+office. William replied that he did not acknowledge Urban as Pope. A
+Great Council was summoned to Rockingham to discuss the question. The
+lay barons, who liked to see the king resisted, were on Anselm's side.
+The bishops, many of whom were creatures of William, appointed from
+amongst his clerks, took the side of the king. Anselm stated his case
+firmly and moderately, and then, caring nothing for the angry king,
+retired into the chapel and went quietly to sleep. The king, finding
+that the barons would give him no support, was unable to punish
+Anselm. Two years later, in =1097=, Anselm betook himself to Rome, and
+William at once seized on his estates.
+
+7. =William II. and his Brothers.=--Normandy under Robert was even
+worse off than England under William. William was himself a tyrant,
+but in Normandy there were at least a hundred tyrants because Robert
+was too easy-tempered to bring any one to justice. The land was full
+of violence. Each baron made war on his neighbour, and, as usual, the
+peasant suffered most. Robert's own life was vicious and wasteful, and
+he was soon in debt. He sold the Cotentin and the territory of
+Avranches to his youngest brother, Henry. Henry was cool-headed and
+prudent, and he kept order in his new possession better than either of
+his elder brothers would have done. The brothers coveted the
+well-ordered land, and in =1091=, two years before Anselm became
+archbishop, they marched together against Henry. Henry was besieged on
+St. Michael's Mount, a rocky island surrounded by the sea at high
+water. After a time water ran short. The easy-tempered Robert sent in
+a supply. "Shall we let our brother die of thirst?" he said to
+William. Henry was in the end forced to surrender, and the land which
+he had purchased was lost to him for a time. In =1095= Henry was again
+in Normandy. Robert of Bellême, the lord of Domfront, was the most
+cruel of the cruel barons. Once he had torn out with his own hands the
+eyes of his godson, merely because the child's father had displeased
+him. The people of Domfront called on Henry to deliver them from such
+a monster. Henry seized Domfront, ruled its people with justice, and
+soon recovered the possessions from which his brothers had driven him.
+
+8. =William and Scotland. 1093--1094.=--William's attention was at
+this time drawn to the North. Early in his reign he annexed
+Cumberland, and had secured it against the Scots by fortifying
+Carlisle, which had been desolate since the Danish invasion in the
+reign of Ælfred. Malcolm, king of the Scots, was a rude warrior who
+had been tamed into an outward show of piety by his saintly wife,
+Margaret, the sister of Eadgar the Ætheling. Though he could not read
+her books of devotion, he liked to look at the pictures in them and to
+kiss the relics which she honoured. Margaret gathered Englishmen round
+her, and spread abroad something of southern piety and civilisation
+amongst the fierce Celtic warriors of her husband. She could not teach
+them to change their natures. In =1093= Malcolm burst into
+Northumberland, plundering and burning, till an Englishman slew him at
+Alnwick. Queen Margaret died broken-hearted at the news, and was
+before long counted as a saint. For the moment the Scottish Celts were
+weary of the English queen and her English ways. They set up Malcolm's
+brother, Donald Bane, as their king, refusing to be governed by any
+of Margaret's sons. Donald at once 'drave out all the English that
+before were with King Malcolm.' In =1094= Duncan, Margaret's step-son,
+gained the crown from Donald with the aid of a troop of English and
+Norman followers. The Celts soon drove out his followers, and after a
+while they slew him and restored Donald.
+
+9. =Mowbray's Rebellion. 1095.=--William had as yet too much to do at
+home to interfere further in Scotland. The Norman barons hated him,
+and in =1095= Robert of Mowbray, Earl of Northumberland--the name was
+now confined to the land between the Tweed and the Tyne--refused
+obedience. William at once marched against him, and took from him the
+new castle which he had built in =1080=, and which has ever since been
+known as Newcastle-on-Tyne. Robert held out long in his stronger
+fortress of Bamborough, which was only taken at last by fraud. He was
+condemned to a lifelong imprisonment, and it is even said that the
+Pope, seeing his case hopeless, allowed his wife to marry again as
+though her husband had been dead. Mowbray's rebellion, like the
+conspiracy of the Earls against the Conqueror, shows how eagerly the
+Norman barons longed to shake off the yoke of the king, and how
+readily Englishmen and the less powerful Normans supported even a
+tyrannical king rather than allow the barons to have their way.
+
+10. =The First Crusade. 1095--1099.=--These petty wars were
+interrupted by a call to arms from the Pope. For centuries Christians
+had made pilgrimages to Bethlehem and Jerusalem, the holy places where
+their Lord had been born and had been crucified. When the Arabs
+conquered the Holy Land, Mohammedans as they were, they gave
+protection to the pilgrims from the West. The Turks, who were also
+Mohammedans, had lately obtained the mastery over the Arabs, and had
+secured dominion over the Holy Land. They were fierce warriors,
+ignorant and cruel, who either put the pilgrims to death or subjected
+them to torture and ill-usage. In =1095= Pope Urban II. came to
+Clermont to appeal to the Christians of the West to set out on a
+Crusade--a war of the Cross--to deliver the Holy City from the
+infidel. After he had spoken the multitude burst out with the cry, "It
+is the will of God!" Men of every rank placed on their garments a
+cross, as the sign of their devotion to the service of Christ. In
+=1096= a huge multitude set forth under Peter the Hermit, who had been
+active in urging men to take part in the Crusade. They believed it to
+be unnecessary to take money or food, trusting that God would supply
+His warriors. All these perished on the way. A better-equipped body
+of knights and nobles set out later under Godfrey of Bouillon. They
+fought their way through Asia Minor and Syria to Jerusalem, and in
+=1099= the Holy City was taken by storm. Godfrey, though he became its
+first Christian king, refused to be crowned. "I will not," he said,
+"wear a crown of gold where my Saviour wore a crown of thorns." The
+piety of the Christian warriors was not accompanied by mercy to the
+vanquished. Holding Mohammedans to be the special enemies of God, they
+treated them as no better than savage beasts. There was a terrible
+butchery when Jerusalem was taken, and Christian men fancied that they
+did God service by dashing out the brains of Mohammedan babes against
+the walls.
+
+11. =Normandy in Pledge. 1096.=--Robert was amongst the Crusaders. To
+raise money for his expedition he pledged Normandy to his brother
+William. William had no wish to take part in a holy war, but he was
+ready to make profit out of those who did. Normandy was the better for
+the change. It is true that William oppressed it himself, but he saved
+the people from the worse oppression of the barons.
+
+12. =The Last Years of the Red King.=--The remaining years of
+William's reign were years of varying success. An English force set up
+Eadgar, the son of Malcolm and Margaret, as king of the Scots, and
+Eadgar consented to hold his crown as William's vassal. William's
+attempts to reduce the Welsh to submission ended in failure, and he
+was obliged to content himself with hemming them in with castles. In
+=1098= the wicked Robert of Bellême succeeded his brother as earl of
+Shrewsbury. Robert robbed and tortured Englishmen as he had robbed and
+tortured Normans. He was a great builder of castles, and at
+Bridgenorth he raised a fortress as the centre of a group of strong
+places which could defy the Welsh and form the basis of his operations
+against them. In the same year William captured Le Mans, the capital
+of Maine, which had recovered its independence from Robert, which was
+held against him by Helie de la Flêche, one of the few unselfish men
+of the day. Unlike his father, the Red King often began enterprises
+which he did not finish. In =1099= he had all his work to do over
+again. He was hunting in the New Forest when he heard that Helie had
+regained Le Mans. He rode hard to Southampton, and, leaping on board a
+vessel, bade the sailors put to sea. A storm was raging, and the
+sailors prayed him to wait till the wind fell. "I never heard," he
+answered, "of a king being drowned." The next morning he was in
+Normandy. He recovered Le Mans, but returned to England without
+conquering Maine.
+
+13. =The Death of the Red King. 1100.=--On August 2, =1100=, the Red
+King went out to hunt in the New Forest. In the evening his body was
+found pierced by an arrow. Who his slayer was is unknown. The blow may
+have been accidental. It is more likely to have been intentional. In
+every part of England were men who had good cause to hate William, and
+nowhere were his enemies in greater numbers than round the New Forest.
+Whoever was his slayer, the body of the tyrant was borne to the
+cathedral of Winchester and buried as the corpse of a wild beast,
+without funeral rites or weeping eyes. When, after a few years had
+passed, the tower above the unhallowed tomb fell in, men said that it
+had fallen because so foul a body lay beneath it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+HENRY I. AND STEPHEN.
+
+HENRY I., =1100--1135=. STEPHEN, =1135--1154=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  The Accession of Henry I.                                       1100
+  Battle of Tinchebrai                                            1106
+  Death of Henry I. and Accession of Stephen                      1135
+  The Civil War                                                   1139
+  Treaty of Wallingford                                           1153
+  Death of Stephen                                                1154
+
+
+[Illustration: Henry I. and his queen Matilda. (From the west front of
+Rochester Cathedral.)]
+
+1. =The Accession of Henry I. 1100.=--When the news spread that the
+Red King had been slain in the New Forest, his younger brother, Henry,
+hastened to Winchester, where he was chosen king by the barons who
+happened to be there. At his coronation at Westminster he swore to
+undo all the evil of his brother's reign. The name by which he came to
+be known--the Lion of Justice--shows how well he kept his promise. He
+maintained order as his father had done, and his brother had not done.
+Flambard, the wicked minister of the Red King, was imprisoned in the
+Tower, and Anselm, the good archbishop, recalled to England. Henry's
+chief strength lay in the support of the English. To please them he
+married Eadgyth, the daughter of Malcolm and Margaret, the descendant
+through her mother of the old English kings. Through Eadgyth the
+blood of Alfred and Ecgberht was transmitted to the later kings. It
+was, however, necessary that she should take another name. Every one
+at Henry's court talked French, and 'Eadgyth' was unpronounceable in
+French. The new queen was therefore known as Matilda, or Maud. The
+English called her the good queen. The Normans mocked her husband and
+herself by giving them the English nicknames of Godric and Godgifu.
+
+2. =Invasion of Robert. 1101.=--One danger at least Henry had to face.
+The Norman barons yearned after the weak rule of Robert, who was again
+in possession of Normandy. Once, we are told, he had to stay in bed
+till noon, because his favourites had carried off his clothes, and he
+had no others to put on. A duke who could not keep his own clothes was
+not likely to be able to rule his duchy, and Normandy was again the
+scene of fightings and plunderings which he made no effort to
+suppress. Flambard, having escaped from prison, fled to Normandy, and
+urged Robert to claim England as the heritage of the eldest son of the
+Conqueror. Robert listened to the tempter and sailed for England. When
+he landed at Porchester he found that the Church and the English had
+rallied to Henry. Robert's position was hopeless, and he made a treaty
+with his brother, abandoning all claim to the crown.
+
+3. =Revolt of Robert of Bellême. 1102.=--Henry knew that the great
+barons wished well to Robert, and on one pretext or another he
+stripped most of them of power. Robert of Bellême, the strongest and
+wickedest of them all, rose in revolt. After capturing many of his
+castles, Henry laid siege to his great fortress at Bridgenorth. The
+barons who served under Henry urged him to spare a rebel who was one
+of their own class. The Englishmen and the inferior Norman knights
+thought otherwise. "Lord King Henry," they cried, "trust not those
+traitors. They do but strive to deceive you, and to take away from you
+the strength of kingly justice.... Behold, we all stand by you
+faithfully; we are ready to serve and help you in all things. Attack
+the castle vigorously; shut in the traitor on all sides, and make no
+peace with him till you have him alive or dead in your hands."
+Bridgenorth was taken, and Robert of Bellême, having been stripped of
+his English land, was sent off to Normandy. Henry was now, in very
+truth, king of the English. "Rejoice, King Henry," ran a popular song,
+"and give thanks to the Lord God, because thou art a free king since
+thou hast overthrown Robert of Bellême, and hast driven him from the
+borders of thy kingdom." Never again during Henry's reign did the
+great Norman lords dare to lift hand against him.
+
+4. =The Battle of Tinchebrai. 1106.=--It was impossible for Henry to
+avoid interference in Normandy. Many of his vassals in England
+possessed lands in Normandy as well, where they were exposed to the
+violence of Robert of Bellême and of others who had been expelled from
+England. The Duke of the Normans would do nothing to keep the peace,
+and Henry crossed the sea to protect his own injured subjects. Duke
+Robert naturally resisted him, and at last, in =1106=, a great battle
+was fought at Tinchebrai, in which Robert was utterly defeated. Duke
+Robert was kept for the remainder of his life a prisoner in Cardiff
+Castle, where he died after an imprisonment of twenty-eight years.
+Henry became Duke of the Normans as well as king of the English, and
+all Normandy was the better for the change. Robert of Bellême was
+thrown into prison, and the cruel oppressor thus shared the fate of
+the weak ruler whose remissness had made his oppressions possible.
+
+[Illustration: Seal of Milo of Gloucester, showing mounted armed
+figure in the reign of Henry I.]
+
+5. =Henry and Anselm. 1100--1107.=--Though Anselm had done everything
+in his power to support Henry against Robert of Bellême, he was
+himself engaged in a dispute with the king which lasted for some
+years. A bishop in Anselm's time was not only a great Church officer,
+whose duty it was to maintain a high standard of religion and morality
+amongst the clergy. He was also one of the king's barons, because he
+was possessed of large estates, and was therefore bound like any other
+baron to send knights to the king when they were needed. Consequently,
+when Anselm became archbishop he had not only received investiture
+from William II. by accepting from him the ring and the staff which
+were the signs of ecclesiastical authority, but also did homage, thus
+acknowledging himself to be the king's man, and obliging himself, not
+indeed to fight for him in person, but to send knights to fight under
+his orders. When, however, Henry came to the throne, and asked Anselm
+to repeat the homage which he had done to William, Anselm not only
+refused himself to comply with the king's request, but also refused to
+consecrate newly-chosen bishops who had received investiture from
+Henry. During the time of his exile Anselm had taken part in a council
+of the Church, in which bishops and abbots had been forbidden by the
+Pope and the council either to receive investiture from laymen or to
+do homage to them. These decrees had not been issued merely to serve
+the purpose of papal ambition. At that time all zealous ecclesiastics
+thought that the only way to stop the violence of kings in their
+dealings with the Church was to make the Church entirely independent.
+Anselm's experience of the Red King's wickedness must have made him
+ready to concur with this new view, and there can be no doubt that it
+was from the most conscientious motives that he refused to do homage
+to Henry. On the other hand, Henry, wishing to rule justly, thought it
+very hard that the archbishop should insist upon the independence of
+the bishops, especially as in consequence of their large estates they
+had so many knights to send into the field. Though the dispute was a
+hot one, it was carried on without any of the violence which had
+characterised the dispute between Anselm and the Red King, and it
+ended in a compromise. Henry abandoned all claim to give the ring and
+the pastoral staff which were the signs of a bishop's or an abbot's
+spiritual jurisdiction, whilst Anselm consented to allow the new
+bishop or abbot to render the homage which was the sign of his
+readiness to employ all his temporal wealth and power on the king's
+behalf. The bishop was to be chosen by the chapter of his cathedral,
+the abbot by the monks of his abbey, but the election was to take
+place in the king's presence, thus giving him influence over their
+choice. Whether this settlement would work in favour of the king or
+the clergy depended on the character of the kings and the clergy. If
+the kings were as riotous as the Red King and the clergy as
+self-denying as Anselm, the clergy would grow strong in spite of these
+arrangements. If the kings were as just and wise as Henry, and the
+clergy as wicked as Ralph Flambard, all advantage would be on the side
+of the king.
+
+6. =Roger of Salisbury.=--After the defeat of the Norman barons the
+Great Council ceased for a time to have any important influence on the
+government. Henry was practically an absolute king, and it was well
+that he should be so, as the country wanted order more than
+discussion. Henry, however, loved to exercise absolute power in an
+orderly way, and he chose for his chief minister Roger, whom he made
+Bishop of Salisbury. Roger had first attracted his notice when he was
+going out hunting, by saying mass in a shorter time than any other
+priest, but he retained his favour by the order and system which he
+introduced into the government. A special body of officials and
+councillors was selected by the king--perhaps a similar body had been
+selected by his predecessor--to sit in judgment over cases in which
+tenants-in-chief were concerned, as well as over other cases which
+were, for one reason or another, transferred to it from the Baronial
+Courts. This council or committee was called the _Curia Regis_ (the
+King's Court). The members of this _Curia Regis_ met also in the
+Exchequer, so called from the chequered cloth which covered the table
+at which they sat. They were then known as Barons of the Exchequer,
+and controlled the receipts and outgoings of the treasury. The
+Justiciar presided in both the _Curia Regis_ and the Exchequer.
+Amongst those who took part in these proceedings was the Chancellor,
+who was then a secretary and not a judge, as well as other superior
+officers of the king. A regular system of finance was introduced, and
+a regular system of justice accompanied it. At last the king
+determined to send some of the judges of his court to go on circuit
+into distant parts of the kingdom. These itinerant Justices
+(_Justitiarii errantes_) brought the royal power into connection with
+the local courts. Their business was of a very miscellaneous
+character. They not only heard the cases in which the king was
+concerned--the pleas of the crown, as they were called--but they made
+assessments for purposes of taxation, listened to complaints, and
+conveyed the king's wishes to his people.
+
+[Illustration: Monument of Roger, Bishop of Salisbury (died 1139), in
+his cathedral church.]
+
+7. =Growth of Trade.=--Though Henry's severe discipline was not liked,
+yet the law and order which he maintained told on the prosperity of
+the country, and the trade of London flourished so much as to attract
+citizens from Normandy to settle in it. Flemings too, trained in
+habits of industry, came in crowds, and with the view of providing a
+bulwark against the Welsh, Henry settled a colony of them in South
+Pembrokeshire, which has since been known as Little England beyond
+Wales. The foreigners were not popular, but the Jews, to whom Henry
+continued the protection which William had given them, were more
+unpopular still.
+
+[Illustration: Porchester Church, Hampshire. Built about 1135.]
+
+8. =The Benedictines.=--In the midst of this busy life the Benedictine
+monasteries were still harbours of refuge for all who did not care to
+fight or trade. They were now indeed wealthier than they had once
+been, as gifts, usually of land, had been made to the monks by those
+who reverenced their piety. Sometimes these gifts took a shape which
+afterwards caused no little evil. Landowners who had churches on their
+lands often gave to a monastery the tithes which had hitherto been
+paid for the support of the parish priest, and the monastery stepped
+into the place of the parish priest, sending a vicar to act for it in
+the performance of its new duties. As the monks themselves grew richer
+they grew less ascetic. Their life, however, was not spent in
+idleness. They cared for the poor, kept a school for the children, and
+managed their own property. Some of their number studied and wrote,
+and our knowledge of the history of these times is mainly owing to
+monastic writers. When Henry I. came to the throne the Chronicle was
+still being written in the English tongue by the monks of Worcester,
+and for some years after his death was still carried on at
+Peterborough. The best historical compositions were, however, in
+Latin, the language understood by the clergy over all Western Europe.
+Amongst the authors of these Latin works, the foremost was William of
+Malmesbury.
+
+9. =The Cistercians.=--Useful as the Benedictines were, there were
+some monks who complained that the extreme self-denial of their
+founder, St. Benedict, was no longer to be met with, and the
+complainants had lately originated a new order, called the Cistercian,
+from Cîteaux, in Burgundy, the site of their first abbey. The
+Cistercians made their appearance in England in =1128=. Their
+buildings and churches were simpler than those of the Benedictines,
+and their life more austere. They refused to receive gifts of tithes
+lest they should impoverish the parish clergy. They loved to make
+their homes in solitary places far from the haunts of men, and some of
+the most beautiful of the abbeys which remain in ruins--those, for
+instance, of Fountains and Tintern--were Cistercian abbeys. They are
+beautiful, not because the Cistercians loved pleasant places, but
+because they loved solitude, whilst the Benedictines had either
+planted themselves in towns or had allowed towns to grow up round
+their monasteries.
+
+[Illustration: Part of the nave of Durham Cathedral. Built about
+1130.]
+
+10. =The White Ship.=--Henry, in consequence of the possession of
+Normandy, had been frequently involved in war with France. Robert's
+son, William Clito, claimed Normandy, and his claim was supported by
+Louis VI. the Fat, who was styled king of France, though the territory
+which he actually ruled was no larger than Normandy. In these wars
+Henry was usually successful, and at last, in =1127=, William was
+killed, and Henry freed from danger. His own son, also named William,
+had already been drowned on the voyage between Normandy and England in
+=1120=. The ship in which he sailed ran upon a rock, and the young man
+was placed in a boat, and might have escaped if he had not returned to
+save his half-sister, the Countess of Perche, who was still on board.
+As soon as he approached the sailors and passengers crowded into the
+boat and swamped it. Only one man, a butcher, was saved, by clinging
+to the mast of the ship when it sank. The captain, who was with him
+on the mast, threw himself off as soon as he learned that the king's
+son had been drowned, and perished in the water. It is said that no
+man dared to tell Henry that his son was drowned, and that at last a
+little child was sent to inform him of his misfortune.
+
+11. =The Last Years of Henry I.=--Henry had many illegitimate
+children, but after William's death the only lawful child left to him
+was Matilda. She had been married as a child to the Emperor Henry V.,
+but her husband had died before she was grown up, and she then
+returned to her father, as the Empress Matilda. There had never been a
+queen in England, and it would have been very hard for a woman to rule
+in those times of constant war and bloodshed. Yet Henry persuaded the
+barons to swear to accept her as their future sovereign. He then
+married her to Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, who came of a brave and
+active race, and whose lands, which lay to the south of Normandy,
+would enlarge the French possessions of Henry's descendants. In =1135=
+Henry died. The great merit of his English government was that he
+forsook his brother's evil ways of violence, and maintained peace by
+erecting a regular administrative system, which kept down the outrages
+of the barons. One of the English chroniclers in recording his death
+prayed that God might give him the peace that he loved.[9]
+
+    [Footnote 9: Genealogy of the Conqueror's sons and grandchildren:--
+
+                       WILLIAM I. = Matilda of Flanders
+                       1066-1087  |
+            +------------+--------+---+---------+
+            |            |            |         |
+     Robert, Duke of  WILLIAM II.  HENRY I.   Adela = Stephen of Blois
+       Normandy       1087-1100    1100-1135        |
+            |                          |            |
+            |               |                |  STEPHEN
+      William Clito      William             |  1135-1154
+                                             |
+             (1) The Emperor Henry V. = Matilda = (2) Geoffrey Plantagenet
+                                                |
+                                              HENRY II.
+                                              1154-1189]
+
+[Illustration: Keep of Rochester Castle. Built between 1126 and 1139.]
+
+12. =Stephen's Accession. 1135.=--Among the barons who had sworn to
+obey Matilda was Stephen of Blois, a son of the Conqueror's daughter
+Adela, and a nephew of Henry I. As soon as Henry's death was known
+Stephen made his way to London, where he was joyfully received as
+king. The London citizens felt that their chief interest lay in the
+maintenance of peace, and they thought that a man would be more likely
+than a woman to secure order. The barons chose Stephen king at
+Winchester, where his brother, Henry of Blois, was the bishop. Shortly
+afterwards some of these very barons rose against him, but their
+insurrection was soon repressed. More formidable was the hostility of
+David, king of the Scots. David was closely connected with the family
+of Henry I., his sister having been Henry's wife, the Empress Matilda
+being consequently his niece. He also held in right of his own wife
+the earldom of Huntingdon. Under the pretext of taking up Matilda's
+cause he broke into the north of England. Though he himself carried on
+the work of introducing English civilisation into Scotland, his Celtic
+followers were still savage, and massacred women and infants. In
+=1137= Stephen drove David back. In =1138= David reappeared, and this
+time the aged Thurstan, Archbishop of York, sent the levies of the
+North against him. In the midst of the English army was a cart bearing
+a standard, at the top of which the banners of the three great
+churches of St. Peter's of York, St. John of Beverley, and St. Wilfrid
+of Ripon, waved round the consecrated Host. The battle which ensued,
+near Northallerton, has consequently been known as the battle of the
+Standard. The Scots were completely defeated, but Stephen, in spite of
+the victory gained for him, found himself obliged to buy peace at a
+heavy price. He agreed that David's son, Henry, should hold
+Northumberland, with the exception of the fortresses of Bamborough and
+of Newcastle, as a fief of the English Crown. David himself was also
+allowed to keep Cumberland without doing homage.
+
+[Illustration: Keep of Castle Rising. Built about 1140-50.]
+
+13. =Civil War.=--It would have been well for Stephen if he had learnt
+from the men of the North that his strength lay in rallying the
+English people round him against the great barons, as the Red King and
+Henry I. had done when their right to the crown had been challenged by
+Robert. Instead of this, he brought over mercenaries from Flanders,
+and squandered treasure and lands upon his favourites so as to have
+little left for the hour of need. He made friends easily, but he made
+enemies no less easily. One of the most powerful of the barons was
+Robert, Earl of Gloucester, an illegitimate son of Henry I., who held
+the strong fortress of Bristol, and whose power extended over both
+sides of the lower course of the Severn. In =1138= Stephen, who
+distrusted him, ordered his castles to be seized. Robert at once
+declared his half-sister Matilda to be the lawful queen, and a
+terrible civil war began. Robert's garrison at Bristol was a terror to
+all the country round. He, too, gathered foreign mercenaries, who knew
+not what pity was. Other barons imitated Robert's example, fighting
+only for themselves whether they nominally took the part of Stephen or
+of Matilda, and the southern and midland counties of England were
+preyed upon by the garrisons of their castles.
+
+14. =Stephen's Quarrel with the Clergy. 1139.=--Evil as were the men
+who fought on either side, it was to Stephen and not to Matilda and
+Robert that men as yet looked to restore order. The port towns,
+London, Yarmouth, and Lynn, clung to him to the last. Unfortunately
+Stephen did not know how to make good use of his advantages. The
+clergy, like the traders, had always been in favour of order. Some of
+them, with the Justiciar, Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, at their head,
+had organised the Exchequer of Henry I., had gathered in the payments
+due to the Crown, or had acted as judges. Yet with all their zeal in
+the service of the Crown, they had not omitted to provide for their
+own interests. Roger in particular had been insatiable in the pursuit
+of wealth for himself and of promotion for his family. One of his
+nephews, Nigel, Bishop of Ely, was Treasurer, whilst another,
+Alexander, was Bishop of Lincoln, and his own illegitimate son, Roger,
+was Chancellor. In =1139= Stephen, rightly or wrongly, threw him into
+prison with his son and Alexander of Lincoln. The other nephew, Nigel,
+escaped to his uncle's castle at Devizes, in which was the younger
+Roger's mother, Matilda of Ramsbury. Stephen brought her son before
+the castle, and put a rope round his neck to hang him unless the
+castle was surrendered. The unhappy mother could not bear the sight,
+and opened the gates to Stephen. It might have been wise to deprive a
+too ambitious bishop of his castle, but it was not wise personally to
+maltreat the clergy. Every priest in England turned against Stephen.
+His own brother, Henry, Bishop of Winchester, declared against him,
+and Stephen was obliged to do penance for his offence. The
+administration of the Exchequer was shattered, and though it was not
+altogether destroyed, and money was brought to it for the king's use
+even in the worst times, Stephen's financial resources were from
+henceforth sadly diminished.
+
+15. =Anarchy. 1139.=--The war now lapsed into sheer anarchy. The
+barons on either side broke loose from all restraint. "They fought
+amongst themselves with deadly hatred; they spoiled the fairest lands
+with fire and rapine; in what had been the most fertile of counties
+they destroyed almost all the provision of bread." All goods and money
+they carried off, and if they suspected any man to have concealed
+treasure they tortured him to oblige him to confess where it was.
+"They hanged up men by the feet and smoked them with foul smoke; some
+were hanged up by their thumbs, others by their head, and coats of
+mail were hung on to their feet. They put knotted strings about men's
+heads, and twisted them till they went to the brain. They put men into
+prisons where adders and snakes and toads were crawling; and so they
+tormented them. Some they put into a chest, short and narrow and not
+deep, and that had sharp stones within; and forced men therein, so
+that they broke all their limbs. In many of the castles were hateful
+and grim things called neckties, which two or three men had enough to
+do to carry. This instrument of torture was thus made: it was fastened
+to a beam, and had a sharp iron to go about a man's neck and throat,
+so that he might no way sit or lie or sleep, but he bore all the iron.
+Many thousands they starved with hunger.... Men said openly that
+Christ and His saints were asleep."
+
+16. =The End of the War. 1141--1148.=--In the autumn of =1139=,
+Matilda appeared in England, and in =1141= there was a battle at
+Lincoln, in which Stephen was taken prisoner. Henry of Winchester (see
+p. 131) acknowledged Matilda as queen, and all England submitted to
+her, London giving way most reluctantly. Her rule did not last long.
+She was as much too harsh as Stephen was too good-natured. She seized
+the lands of the Church, and ordered the Londoners to pay a heavy fine
+for having supported Stephen. On this the Londoners rang their bells,
+and the citizens in arms swarmed out of their houses 'like bees out of
+a hive.' Matilda fled to Winchester before them. Bishop Henry then
+turned against her. Robert of Gloucester was taken prisoner, and after
+a while Matilda was obliged to set free King Stephen in exchange for
+her brother. Fighting continued for some time. On all sides men were
+longing for peace. The fields were untilled because no man could tell
+who would reap the harvest. Thousands perished of starvation. If peace
+there was to be, it could only come by Stephen's victory. It was now
+known that Matilda was even less fit to govern than Stephen. Stephen
+took one castle after another. In =1147= Earl Robert died, and in
+=1148= Matilda gave up the struggle and left England.
+
+[Illustration: Tower of Castor Church, Northamptonshire. Built about
+1145. (The parapet and spire are later.)]
+
+17. =Henry, Duke of the Normans. 1149.=--Whilst Matilda had been
+losing England her husband had been conquering Normandy, and for a
+little while it seemed possible that England and Normandy would be
+separated; England remaining under Stephen and his heirs, and
+Normandy united with Anjou under the Angevin Geoffrey and his
+descendants. That the separation did not yet take place was partly
+owing to the different character of the two heirs. Stephen's son,
+Eustace, was rough and overbearing. Geoffrey's son, Henry, was shrewd
+and prudent. Henry had already been in England when he was still quite
+young, and had learnt something of English affairs from his uncle,
+Robert of Gloucester. He returned to his father in =1147=, and in
+=1149= Geoffrey gave up to him the duchy of Normandy. He was then sent
+to try his fortune in England in his mother's stead, but he was only a
+boy of sixteen, and too young to cope with Stephen. In =1150= he
+abandoned the struggle for a time. In his absence Stephen had still
+rebels to put down and castles to besiege, but he had the greater part
+of the kingdom at his back, and if Henry had continued to leave him
+alone he would probably have reduced all his enemies to submission.
+
+18. =The Last Days of Stephen. 1153--1154.=--In =1150= Geoffrey died,
+and Henry became Count of Anjou as well as Duke of Normandy. Before
+long he acquired a much wider territory than either Anjou or Normandy.
+Louis VII. of France had to wife Eleanor, the Duchess of Aquitaine,
+and through her had added to his own scanty dominions the whole of the
+lands between the Loire and the Pyrenees. Louis, believing that she
+was unfaithful to him, had divorced her on the pretext that she was
+too near of kin. Henry was not squeamish about the character of so
+great an heiress, and in =1152= married the Duchess of Aquitaine for
+the sake of her lands. Thus strengthened, he again returned to
+England. He was now a young man of nineteen; his vigour was as great
+as that of Stephen, and his skill greater. He won fortress after
+fortress. Before the end of =1153= Eustace died, and Stephen had no
+motive for prolonging the strife if his personal interests could be
+saved. It was arranged by the treaty of Wallingford that Stephen
+should retain the crown for life, and that Henry should be his heir.
+The castles which had sprung up during the civil war without the
+licence of the king--the 'adulterine castles,' as they were
+called--and there were no less than 365[10] of them--were to be
+destroyed, and order and good government were to return. For five
+months Henry remained in England. The robber barons could not hold out
+against the two rivals now united. Many of the castles were
+demolished, and 'such good peace as never was here' was established.
+In =1154= Stephen died, and young Henry ruled England in his own name.
+
+    [Footnote 10: The number usually given, '1,115,' is probably an
+    error.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+HENRY II. =1154--1189=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Accession of Henry II.                                          1154
+  Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury                                1162
+  The Constitutions of Clarendon                                  1164
+  Murder of Archbishop Thomas                                     1172
+  The Assize of Arms                                              1181
+  Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem                                1187
+  Death of Henry II.                                              1189
+
+
+1. =Henry's Accession. 1154.=--Henry II. was but twenty-one when he
+returned, after Stephen's death, to govern England. He had before him
+the difficult task of establishing order where anarchy had prevailed,
+but it was a task for which he was specially suited. His frame was
+strong and thick-set, and he was as active as he was strong. His
+restlessness was the dismay of his courtiers. Eager to see everything
+for himself, and having to rule a territory extending from the
+Pyrenees to the Scottish border, he was always on the move. His
+followers were not allowed to know till he started in the morning
+where he intended to sleep at night, and he frequently changed his
+mind even after he had set out. He was as busy with his mind as he was
+with his body, as fond of a book as of a horse, and ready to chat with
+any one of whatever rank. Even when he was at mass he either drew
+pictures to amuse himself or conversed in whispers with his
+neighbours. His ceaseless energy was combined with a strong will, a
+clear perception of the limits beyond which action would be unwise, a
+good eye for ability in others, and a power of utilising their ability
+in his own service. On the Continent his sagacity appeared in his
+resolution to be content with the dominions which he had acquired
+without making further conquests. In England his main object was the
+same as that of his predecessors, to establish the king's authority
+over the great barons. What especially distinguished him was his clear
+perception of the truth that he could only succeed by securing, not
+merely the passive goodwill, but the active co-operation of those who,
+whether they were of Norman or of English descent, were inferior in
+wealth and position to the great barons.
+
+[Illustration: Effigies of Henry II. and Queen Eleanor at
+Fontevrault.]
+
+2. =Pacification of England.=--Henry's first year was spent in
+completing the work which he had begun after the treaty of
+Wallingford. He sent Stephen's mercenaries over the sea and
+completed the destruction of the 'adulterine castles.' One great rebel
+after another was forced to submit and have his strong walls pulled
+down. There were to be no more dens of robbers in England, but all men
+were to obey the king and the law. What castles remained were the
+king's, and as long as they were his rebellions would not be likely to
+be successful. Henry even regained from Malcolm IV., king of the
+Scots, Northumberland and Cumberland, which had been surrendered by
+Stephen (see p. 133). In his government Henry did his best to carry
+out the plans of his grandfather, Henry I. It was perhaps because he
+was afraid that one Justiciar would be too powerful, that he appointed
+two, Richard de Lucy and the Earl of Leicester, to see that justice
+was executed and the government maintained whether the king were
+absent or present. The old Bishop Nigel of Ely was reappointed
+Treasurer, and presided over the Exchequer at Westminster. Thomas of
+London, known in later times by the name of Becket,[11] an active and
+vigorous man, fifteen years older than the king, who had been ordained
+a deacon, but had nothing clerical about him except the name, was made
+Chancellor. Thomas was the king's chosen friend, and the two together
+delighted in the work of restoring order. Thomas liked sumptuous
+living, and the magnificence of his housekeeping and of his feasts was
+the talk of the whole country. Yet though he laughed and jested in the
+midst of his grandeur, he kept himself from every kind of vice. Henry
+was fond of horseplay, and once on a bitter winter's day, when he was
+riding with Thomas, he snatched at a fine new scarlet mantle from the
+Chancellor's neck to throw to a beggar. Thomas struggled hard, and the
+two men nearly pulled one another off their horses, but in the end the
+beggar got the mantle.
+
+    [Footnote 11: His father's name was Becket, but at that time
+    hereditary surnames had not come into use. He was once called Thomas
+    Becket in his lifetime by one of his murderers as an insult.]
+
+3. =Henry and Feudality.=--It was principally with Thomas the
+Chancellor that Henry consulted as to the best means of establishing
+his authority. He resolved not only to renew but to extend the
+administrative system of Henry I. The danger which threatened him came
+from the great barons, and as the great barons were as dangerous to
+the lesser ones and to the bulk of the people as they were to the
+king, Henry was able to strengthen himself by winning the affections
+of the people. Feudality in itself was only a method of owning land;
+but it was always threatening to pass into a method of government. In
+France the great feudal lords ruled their own territories with very
+little regard for the wishes of the king, and the smaller feudal lords
+had their own courts in which they hanged and imprisoned their
+villeins. In Stephen's time an attempt had been made to introduce this
+system into England, with evil consequences both to king and people.
+Before the Conquest great landowners had often received permission
+from the king to exercise criminal jurisdiction in the Manor Courts on
+their own estates, whilst the vast extent of their landed property
+gave them a preponderant voice in the proceedings of the shire-moots,
+now known by the Normans as County Courts. Henry resolved to attack
+the evil at both ends: in the first place to make the barons support
+the king's government instead of setting up their own; in the second
+place, to weaken the Manor and County Courts and to strengthen courts
+directly proceeding from himself.
+
+4. =The Great Council and the Curia Regis.=--Henry in the early years
+of his reign revived the importance of the Great Council, taking care
+that it should be attended not only by the great barons, but by
+vassals holding smaller estates, and therefore more dependent on
+himself. He summoned the Great Council oftener than his predecessors
+had done. In this way even the greater barons got the habit of sharing
+in the government of England as a whole, instead of seeking to split
+up the country, as France was split up, into different districts, each
+of which might be governed by one of themselves. It was in consequence
+of the increasing habit of consulting with the king that the Great
+Council, after many changes, ultimately grew into the modern
+Parliament. It was of no less importance that Henry II. strengthened
+the _Curia Regis_, which had been established in the reign of Henry I.
+(see p. 127) to collect the king's revenue, to give him political
+advice, and to judge as many questions as it could possibly get hold
+of. It was especially by doing justice that the _Curia Regis_ was
+likely to acquire strength, and the strength of the _Curia Regis_ was
+in reality the strength of the king.
+
+5. =Scutage.=--If Henry was to carry out justice everywhere it would
+be necessary for him to weaken still further the power of the barons.
+He reintroduced a plan which had been first adopted by his
+grandfather, which had the double merit of strengthening the king upon
+the Continent and of weakening the barons in England. Henry needed an
+army to defend his Continental possessions against the king of France.
+The fyrd, or general levy of Englishmen, was not bound to fight except
+at home, and though the feudal vassals were liable to serve abroad,
+they could only be made to serve for forty days in the year, which
+was too short a time for Henry's purposes. He accordingly came to an
+agreement with his vassals. The owner of every knight's fee was to pay
+a sum of money known as scutage (_shield-money_) in lieu of service.
+Both parties gained by the arrangement. The king got money with which
+he paid mercenaries abroad, who would fight for him all the year
+round, and the vassal escaped the onerous duty of fighting in quarrels
+in which he took no interest. Indirectly the change weakened the
+feudal vassals, because they had now less opportunity than before of
+acquiring a military training in actual war.
+
+[Illustration: Ecclesiastical costume in the twelfth century.]
+
+6. =Archbishop Thomas. 1162.=--Henry, who meditated great judicial
+reforms, foresaw that the clergy would be an obstacle in his way. He
+was eager to establish one law for his whole kingdom, and the clergy,
+having been exempted by the Conqueror from the jurisdiction of the
+ordinary law courts in all ecclesiastical matters, had, during the
+anarchy of Stephen's reign, encroached on the royal authority, and
+claimed to be responsible, even in criminal cases, only to the
+ecclesiastical courts, which were unable to inflict the penalty of
+death, so that a clerk who committed a murder could not be hanged like
+other murderers. As large numbers of clerks were only in the lower
+orders, and as many of them had only taken those orders to escape from
+the hardships of lay life, their morals were often no better than
+those of their lay neighbours. A vacancy occurring in the
+Archbishopric of Canterbury, Henry, who wished to make these clerks
+punishable by his own courts, thought that the arrangement would
+easily be effected if Thomas, who had hitherto been active as a
+reformer in his service, were Archbishop as well as Chancellor. It was
+in vain that Thomas remonstrated. "I warn you," he said to Henry,
+"that, if such a thing should be, our friendship would soon turn to
+bitter hate." Henry persisted in spite of the warning, and Thomas
+became Archbishop.
+
+7. =Breach between Henry and Thomas.=--The first act of the new
+Archbishop was to surrender his Chancellorship. He was unable, he
+said, to serve two masters. It is not difficult to understand his
+motives. The Church, as the best men of the twelfth century believed,
+was divinely instituted for the guidance of the world. It was but a
+short step for the nobler spirits amongst the clergy to hold it
+necessary that, in order to secure the due performance of such exalted
+duties, the clergy should be exempted from the so-called justice of
+laymen, which was often only another name for tyranny, even if the
+exemption led to the infliction upon wicked clerks of lesser
+punishments than were meet. In this way the clergy would unconsciously
+fall into the frame of mind which might lead them to imagine it more
+to the honour of God that a wicked clerk should be insufficiently
+punished than that he should be punished by a layman. Of all men
+Archbishop Thomas was the most likely to fall into this mistake. He
+was, as Chancellor, prone to magnify his office, and to think more of
+being the originator of great reforms than of the great reforms
+themselves. As Archbishop he would also be sure to magnify his office,
+and to think less, as Anselm would have thought, of reconciling the
+true interests of the kingdom with the true interests of the Church,
+than of making the Archbishop's authority the centre of stirring
+movement, and of raising the Church, of which he was the highest
+embodiment in England, to a position above the power of the king. All
+this he would do with a great, if not a complete, sincerity. He would
+feel that he was himself the greater man because he believed that he
+was fighting in the cause of God.
+
+[Illustration: A bishop ordaining a priest. (From a MS. of the latter
+part of the twelfth century.)]
+
+8. =The Constitutions of Clarendon. 1164.=--Between a king eager to
+assert the rights of the crown and an archbishop eager to assert the
+rights of the clergy a quarrel could not be long deferred. Thomas's
+first stand, however, was on behalf of the whole country. At a Great
+Council at Woodstock he resisted the king's resolution to levy the old
+tax of Danegeld, and in consequence Danegeld was never levied again.
+Henry had for some time been displeased because, without consulting
+him, the Archbishop had seized on lands which he claimed as the
+property of the see of Canterbury, and had excommunicated one of the
+king's tenants. Then a clerk who had committed a rape and a murder had
+been acquitted in an ecclesiastical court. On this, Henry called on
+the bishops to promise to obey the customs of the realm. Thomas, being
+told that the king merely wanted a verbal promise to save his dignity,
+with some reluctance consented. He soon found that he had been
+tricked. In =1164= Henry summoned a Great Council to meet at
+Clarendon, and directed some of the oldest of his barons to set down
+in writing the customs observed by his grandfather. Their report was
+intended to settle all disputed points between the king and the
+clergy, and was drawn up under sixteen heads known as the
+Constitutions of Clarendon. The most important of them declared that
+beneficed clergy should not leave the realm without the king's leave;
+that no tenant-in-chief of the king should be excommunicated without
+the king's knowledge; that no villein should be ordained without his
+lord's consent; that a criminous clerk should be sent to the
+ecclesiastical court for trial, and that after he had been there
+convicted or had pleaded guilty the Church should deprive him and
+leave him to the lay court for further punishment. It was for the
+_Curia Regis_ to determine what matters were properly to be decided by
+the ecclesiastical courts; and no appeal to Rome was to be allowed
+without its permission. To all this Thomas was violently opposed,
+maintaining that the sentence of deprivation, which was all that an
+ecclesiastical court was empowered to inflict, was so terrible, that
+one who had incurred it ought not to be sentenced to any further
+penalty by a lay court. After six days' struggle he left the Council,
+refusing to assent to the Constitutions.
+
+9. =The Persecution of Archbishop Thomas. 1164.=--Unluckily for
+himself, Henry could not be content firmly and quietly to enforce the
+law as it had been declared at Clarendon. He had in his character much
+of the orderly spirit of his grandfather, Henry I., but he had also
+something of the violence of his great-uncle, William II. A certain
+John the Marshal had a suit against the archbishop, and when the
+archbishop refused to plead in a lay court, the king's council
+sentenced him to a fine of 500_l._ Then Henry summoned the archbishop
+to his castle at Northampton to give an account of all the money
+which, when he was Chancellor, he had received from the king--a claim
+which is said to have amounted to 30,000_l._, a sum equal in the money
+of these days to not much less than 400,000_l._ now. Thomas, with the
+crucifix in his hand, awaited in the hall the decision of Henry, who
+with the council was discussing his fate in an upper chamber. When the
+Justiciar came out to tell him that he had been declared a traitor he
+refused to listen, and placed himself under the Pope's protection. Hot
+words were bandied on either side as he walked out of the hall. "This
+is a fearful day," said one of his attendants. "The Day of Judgment,"
+replied Thomas, "will be more fearful." Thomas made his way to the
+coast and fled to France. Henry in his wrath banished no less than
+four hundred of the archbishop's kinsmen and friends. Thomas found
+less help in France than he had expected. There were once more two
+rival Popes--Alexander III., who was acknowledged by the greater part
+of the clergy and by the kings of England and France, and Calixtus
+III., who had been set up by the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa.
+Alexander was too much afraid lest Henry should take the part of
+Calixtus to be very eager in supporting Thomas. He therefore did his
+best to effect a reconciliation between Henry and Thomas, but for some
+years his efforts were of no avail.
+
+[Illustration: Small ship of the latter part of the twelfth century.]
+
+10. =The Assize of Clarendon. 1166.=--Henry, being temporarily
+disembarrassed of Thomas's rivalry, was able to devote his time to
+carrying out still further the judicial organisation of the country.
+In =1166= he held a Great Council at Clarendon, and with its approval
+issued a set of decrees known as the Assize of Clarendon. By this
+assize full force was given to a change which had for some time been
+growing in the judicial system. The old English way of dealing with
+criminals had been by calling on an accused person to swear to his own
+innocence and to bring compurgators to swear that his oath was true.
+If the accused failed to find compurgators he was sent to the ordeal.
+According to the new way there was to be in each county juries
+consisting of twelve men of the hundred and of four from each township
+in it to present offences--felonies, murders, and robberies--and to
+accuse persons on common report. They were sworn to speak the truth,
+so that their charges were known as verdicts (_verè dicta_). No
+compurgators were allowed, but the accused, after his offence had been
+presented, had to go to the ordeal, and even if he succeeded in this
+he was, if his character was notoriously bad, to abjure the
+realm--that is to say, to be banished, swearing never to return. If he
+came back he was held to be an outlaw, and might be put to death
+without mercy by any one.
+
+11. =Recognitions.=--A very similar system to that which was thus
+adopted in criminal cases had already in the early part of Henry's
+reign been widely extended in civil cases. When, before the Conquest,
+disputes occurred amongst the English as to the possession of
+property, each party swore to the justice of his own case, brought
+compurgators, and summoned witnesses to declare in his favour. There
+was, however, no method of cross-examination, and if the hundred or
+shire court was still unsatisfied, it had recourse to the ordeal. The
+Normans introduced the system of trial by battle, under the belief
+that God would intervene to give victory to the litigant whose cause
+was just. This latter system, however, had never been popular with the
+English, and Henry favoured another which had been in existence in
+Normandy before the Conquest, and was fairly suited to English habits.
+This was the system of recognitions. Any freeholder who had been
+dispossessed of his land might apply to the _Curia Regis_, and the
+_Curia Regis_ ordered the sheriff of the county in which was the land
+in dispute to select four knights of that county, by whom twelve
+knights were chosen to serve as Recognitors. It was the business of
+these Recognitors to find out either by their own knowledge or by
+private inquiry the truth of the matter. If they were unanimous their
+verdict was accepted as final. If not, other knights were added to
+them, and when at last twelve were found agreeing, their agreement was
+held to settle the question.
+
+12. =The Germ of the Jury.=--Thus, whilst in criminal cases the local
+knowledge of sworn accusers was treated as satisfactory evidence of
+guilt, in civil cases a system was growing up in which is to be traced
+the germ of the modern jury. The Recognitors did not indeed hear
+evidence in public or become judges of the fact, like the modern jury;
+they were rather sworn witnesses, allowed to form an opinion not
+merely, like modern witnesses, on what they had actually seen or
+heard, but also on what they could gather by private inquiry.
+
+13. =The Itinerant Justices Revived.=--To carry out this system Henry
+renewed his grandfather's experiment of sending members of the _Curia
+Regis_ as itinerant justices visiting the counties. They held what
+were called the pleas of the crown--that is to say, trials which were
+brought before the king's judges instead of being tried either in the
+county courts or the manorial courts. Both these judges and the king
+had every interest in getting as much business before their courts as
+possible. Offenders were fined and suitors had to pay fees, and the
+best chance of increasing these profits was to attract suitors by
+administering justice better than the local courts. The more thronged
+were the king's courts, the more rich and powerful he became. The
+consequent growth of the influence of the itinerant justices was no
+doubt offensive to the lords of the manor, and especially to the
+greater landowners, as diminishing their importance, and calling them
+to account whenever they attempted to encroach on their less powerful
+neighbours.
+
+14. =The Inquisition of the Sheriffs. 1170.=--It was not long before
+Henry discovered another way of diminishing the power of the barons.
+In the early part of his reign the sheriffs of the counties were still
+selected from the great landowners, and the sheriff was not merely the
+collector of the king's revenue in his county, but had, since the
+Conquest, assumed a new importance in the county court, over which in
+the older times the ealdorman or earl and the bishop had presided.
+Since the Conquest the bishop, having a court of his own for
+ecclesiastical matters, had ceased to take part in its proceedings,
+and the earl's authority, which had been much lessened after the
+Conquest, had now disappeared. The sheriff, therefore, was left alone
+at the head of the county court, and when the new system of trial grew
+up he as well as the itinerant justices was allowed to receive the
+presentments of juries. When, in the spring of =1170=, the king
+returned to England after an absence of four years, he held a strict
+inquiry into the conduct of them all, and deposed twenty of them. In
+many cases, no doubt, the sheriffs had done things to displease Henry,
+but there can be no doubt that the blow thus struck at the sheriffs
+was, in the main, aimed at the great nobility. The successors of those
+turned out were of lower rank, and therefore more submissive. From
+this time it was accepted by the kings of England as a principle of
+government that no great noble should serve as sheriff.
+
+15. =The Nobles and the Church.=--Henry knew well that the great
+nobles were indignant, and that it was possible that they might rise
+against him, as at one time or another they had risen against every
+king since the Conquest. He knew too that his predecessors had found
+their strongest support against the nobles in the Church, and that the
+Church was no longer unanimously on his side. He could indeed count
+upon all the bishops save one. Bishops who were or had been his
+officials, bishops envious of Thomas or afraid of himself, were all at
+his disposal, but they brought him no popular strength. Thomas alone
+amongst them had a hold on the imagination of the people through his
+austerities and his daring. Moreover, as the champion of the clergy,
+he was regarded as being also the champion of the people, from whose
+ranks the clergy were recruited.
+
+16. =The Coronation of Young Henry. 1170.=--At the moment of Henry's
+return to England he had special need of the Church. He wished the
+kingdom of England to pass at his death to his eldest son, Henry, and
+since the Conquest no eldest son had ever succeeded his father on the
+throne. He therefore determined to adopt a plan which had succeeded
+with the kings of France, of having the young Henry chosen and crowned
+in his own lifetime, so that when he died he might be ready to step
+into his father's place. Young Henry was chosen, and on June 14,
+=1170=, he was crowned by Roger, Archbishop of York; but on the day
+before the coronation Roger received from Thomas a notice of his
+excommunication of all bishops taking part in the ceremony, on the
+ground that it belonged only to an Archbishop of Canterbury to crown a
+king, and this excommunication had been ratified by the Pope. It was
+therefore possible that the whole ceremony might go for nothing.
+
+17. =The Return of Archbishop Thomas. 1170.=--To obviate this danger
+Henry again sought to make peace with Thomas. An agreement was come to
+on the vague terms that the past should be forgotten on both sides.
+Henry perhaps hoped that when Thomas was once again in England he
+would be too wise to rake up the question of his claim to crown the
+king. If it was so he was soon disappointed. On December 1, =1170=,
+Thomas landed at Sandwich and rode to Canterbury amidst the shouts of
+the people. He refused to release from excommunication the bishops who
+had taken part in young Henry's coronation unless they would first
+give him satisfaction for the wrong done to the see of Canterbury,
+thus showing that he had forgotten nothing.
+
+[Illustration: Part of the choir of Canterbury Cathedral (in building
+from 1175-1184).]
+
+18. =Murder of Archbishop Thomas. 1170.=--The aggrieved bishops at
+once crossed the sea to lay their complaint before Henry. "What a
+parcel of fools and dastards," cried Henry impatiently, "have I
+nourished in my house, that none of them can be found to avenge me on
+one upstart clerk!" Four of his knights took him at his word, and
+started in all haste for Canterbury. The Archbishop before their
+arrival had given fresh offence in a cause more righteous than that of
+his quarrel with the bishops. Ranulf de Broc and others who had had
+the custody of his lands in his absence refused to surrender them,
+robbed him of his goods, and maltreated his followers. On Christmas
+Day he excommunicated them and repeated the excommunication of the
+bishops. On December 29 the four knights sought him out. They do not
+seem at first to have intended to do him bodily harm. The
+excommunication of the king's servants before the king had been
+consulted was a breach of the Constitutions of Clarendon, and they
+bade him, in the king's name, to leave the kingdom. After a hot
+altercation the knights retired to arm themselves. The archbishop was
+persuaded by his followers to take refuge in the church. In rushed the
+knights crying, "Where is the traitor? Where is the archbishop?"
+"Behold me," replied Thomas, "no traitor, but a priest of God." The
+assailants strove to lay hands upon him. He struggled and cast forth
+angry words upon them. In the madness of their wrath they struck him
+to the ground and slew him as he lay.
+
+19. =Popular Indignation. 1171.=--Archbishop Thomas did not die as a
+martyr for any high or sacred cause. He was not a martyr for the
+faith, like those who had been thrown to the lions by the Roman
+emperors. He was not a martyr for righteousness, like Archbishop
+Ælfheah. He was a martyr for the privileges of his order and of his
+see. Yet if he sank below the level of the great martyrs, he did not
+sink to that lowest stage at which men cry out for the preservation of
+their own privileges, after those privileges have ceased to benefit
+any but themselves. The sympathy of the mass of the population shows
+the persistence of a widespread belief that in maintaining the
+privileges of the clergy Thomas was maintaining the rights of the
+protectors of the poor. This sentiment was only strengthened by his
+murder. All through Europe the news was received with a burst of
+indignation. Of that indignation the Pope made himself the mouthpiece.
+In the summer of =1171= two Papal legates appeared in Normandy to
+excommunicate Henry unless he was able to convince them that he was
+guiltless of the murder. Henry was too cautious to abide their coming.
+He crossed first to England and then to Ireland, resolved to have
+something to offer the Pope which might put him in a better humour.
+
+20. =State of Ireland.=--In the domain of art, Ireland was inferior to
+no European nation. In metal-work, in sculpture, and in the skilful
+illumination of manuscripts it surpassed them all. It had no mean
+school of music and song. In political development it lagged far
+behind. Ireland was still in the tribal stage, and had never been
+welded into unity by foreign conquerors, as Gaul had been welded into
+unity by the Romans, and as England had been welded into unity by the
+Normans. Tribe warred with tribe and chief with chief. The efforts of
+chiefs to attain supremacy over the whole island had always ended in
+partial or complete failure. The Danes had made settlements in Dublin,
+Wexford, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick, but though the native Celtic
+population was not strong enough to expel them, neither were they
+strong enough to conquer the Celts. The Church was as disorganised as
+the State, and there was little discipline exercised outside the
+monasteries. For some time the Popes and the Archbishops of Canterbury
+had been anxious to establish a better regulated Church system, and in
+=1154= Adrian IV.--the only Englishman who was ever Pope--hoping that
+Henry would bring the Irish Church under Papal order, had made him a
+present of Ireland, on the ground that all islands belonged to the
+Pope.
+
+21. =Partial Conquest of Ireland. 1166--1172.=--Henry, however, had
+too much to do during the earlier years of his reign to think of
+conquering Ireland. In =1166= Dermot, king or chief of Leinster,
+having been driven out of his dominions, appealed to Henry for aid.
+Henry gave him leave to carry over to Ireland any English knights whom
+he could persuade to help him. On this a number of knights from South
+Wales, of whom the most important was Richard de Clare, afterwards
+known as Strongbow, flocked across the Irish Sea (=1169--1170=). They
+fought and conquered, and Strongbow, who married Dermot's daughter,
+gave himself the title of Earl of Leinster. The rule of these knights
+was a rule of cruelty and violence, and, what was more, it might well
+become dangerous to Henry himself. If feudal nobles established
+themselves in Ireland, they might soon be holding out a hand to help
+the feudal nobles who were Henry's worst enemies in England. When
+Henry landed in Ireland in =1171= he set himself to restore order. The
+Irish welcomed him because he alone could bridle the invaders, and the
+invaders submitted to him because they dared not resist him. He
+gathered a synod of the clergy at Cashel, and arranged for the future
+discipline of the Church. Unhappily he could not remain long in
+Ireland, and when he left it the old anarchy and violence blazed up
+again. Though Henry had not served Ireland, he had gained his own
+personal ends. He had frightened Strongbow and his followers, and had
+shown the Pope, by his proceedings at Cashel, that his friendship was
+worth having.
+
+[Illustration: Mitre of Archbishop Thomas of Canterbury preserved at
+Sens.]
+
+22. =Young Henry's Coronation and the Revolt of the Barons.
+1172--1174.=--In the spring of =1172= Henry was back in Normandy. The
+English barons were longing to take advantage of his quarrel with the
+Church, and his only chance of resisting them was to propitiate the
+Church. He met the Papal legates at Avranches, swore that he was
+innocent of the death of Thomas, and renounced the Constitutions of
+Clarendon. He then proceeded to pacify Louis VII., whose daughter was
+married to the younger Henry, by having the boy recrowned in due form.
+Young Henry was a foolish lad, and took it into his head that because
+he had been crowned his father's reign was at an end. In =1173= he
+fled for support to his father-in-law and persuaded him to take up his
+cause. "Your master," said Louis to the ambassadors of the father, "is
+king no longer. Here stands the king of the English." These words were
+the signal for a general attack on the elder king. Headed by Louis,
+his neighbours and discontented subjects took arms against him, and it
+was not till September that he prevailed over them. In July the great
+English barons of the north and centre rose in insurrection, and
+William the Lion, king of the Scots, joined them. De Lucy, the
+Justiciar, stood up for Henry; but, though he gained ground, the war
+was still raging in the following year, =1174=. In the spring of that
+year the rebels were gaining the upper hand, and the younger Henry was
+preparing to come to their help. In July the elder Henry landed in
+England. For the first and only time in his life he brought to England
+the mercenaries who were paid with the scutage money. At Canterbury he
+visited the tomb of Thomas, now acknowledged as a martyr, spent the
+whole night in prayer and tears, and on the next morning was, at his
+own request, scourged by the monks as a token of his penitence. That
+night he was awakened by a messenger with good news. Ranulf de
+Glanvile had won for him a great victory at Alnwick, had dispersed the
+barons' host, and had taken prisoner the Scottish king. About the same
+time the fleet which was to bring his son over was dispersed by a
+storm. Within a few weeks the whole rebellion was at an end. It was
+the last time that the barons ventured to strive with the king till
+the time came when they had the people and the Church on their side.
+William the Lion was carried to Normandy, where, by the treaty of
+Falaise, he acknowledged himself the vassal of the king of England for
+the whole of Scotland.
+
+[Illustration: Military and civil costume of the latter part of the
+twelfth century.]
+
+23. =The Assize of Arms. 1181.=--In September =1174= there was a
+general peace. In =1181= Henry issued the Assize of Arms, organising
+the old fyrd in a more serviceable way. Every English freeman was
+bound by it to find arms of a kind suitable to his property, that he
+might be ready to defend the realm against rebels or invaders. The
+Assize of Arms is the strongest possible evidence as to the real
+nature of Henry's government. He had long ago sent back to the
+Continent the mercenaries whom he had brought with him in the peril of
+=1174=, and he now entrusted himself not to a paid standing army, but
+to the whole body of English freemen. He was, in truth, king of the
+English not merely because he ruled over them, but because they were
+ready to rally round him in arms against those barons whose ancestors
+had worked such evil in the days of Stephen. England was not to be
+given over either to baronial anarchy or to military despotism.
+
+24. =Henry II. and his Sons.=--In England Henry ruled as a national
+king over a nation which, at least, preferred his government to that
+of the barons. The old division between English and Norman was dying
+out, and though the upper classes, for the most part, still spoke
+French, intermarriages had been so frequent that there were few
+amongst them who had not some English ancestress and who did not
+understand the English language. Henry was even strong enough to
+regain much that he had surrendered when he abandoned the
+Constitutions of Clarendon. In his Continental possessions there was
+no such unity. The inhabitants of each province were tenacious of
+their own laws and customs, and this was especially the case with the
+men of Aquitaine, the country south of the Loire, who differed in
+habits, and even in language, from the Frenchmen of Normandy and
+Anjou. They therefore found it difficult to give a share of the
+allegiance which they owed to their own duchess, Eleanor, to her
+Angevin husband, the king of England. Henry in =1172= having appointed
+his eldest son, Henry, as the future ruler of Normandy and Anjou as
+well as of England, thought it wise to recognise this feeling by
+giving to his second son, Richard, the immediate possession of
+Eleanor's duchy of Aquitaine. In =1181= he provided for his third son,
+Geoffrey, by a marriage with Constance, the heiress of Brittany, over
+which country he claimed a feudal superiority as Duke of the Normans.
+Yet, though he gave away so much to his sons, he wished to keep the
+actual control over them all. The arrangement did not turn out well.
+He had set no good example of domestic peace. His sons knew that he
+had married their mother for the sake of her lands, that he had
+subsequently thrown her into prison and had been faithless to her with
+a succession of mistresses. Besides this, they were torn away from
+him by the influence of the men whom they were set to rule. Richard
+was dragged away from his father by the interests and feelings of the
+men of Aquitaine, Geoffrey by the interests and feelings of the men of
+Brittany. John, the fourth son, who was named Lackland from having no
+territory assigned to him, was, as yet, too young to be
+troublesome.[12] Both Richard and Geoffrey had taken part with their
+brother Henry in the great revolt of =1173=. In =1177= they were again
+quarrelling with their father and with each other. "Dost thou not
+know," was the message which Geoffrey sent to his father, "that it is
+our proper nature, planted in us by inheritance from our ancestors,
+that none of us should love the other, but that ever brother should
+strive with brother and son against father? I would not that thou
+shouldst deprive us of our hereditary right nor vainly seek to rob us
+of our nature." Henry loved his children, and could never bring
+himself to make war very seriously against them. Henry died young in
+=1183=, and Geoffrey in =1185=. Richard was now the heir of all his
+father's lands, from the Tweed to the Pyrenees. Henry made an effort
+to provide for John in Ireland, and in =1185= he sent the youth--now
+eighteen years old--to Dublin to rule as king of Ireland. John soon
+showed his incompetence. He was rude to the English barons, and still
+ruder to the Irish chiefs, amusing himself by laughing at their dress
+and pulling the hairs out of their beards. Before the end of the year
+his father was obliged to recall him.
+
+    [Footnote 12: Genealogy of the sons and grandchildren of Henry
+    II.:--
+
+                             HENRY II.
+                             1154-1189
+                                 |
+         ---------------------------------------------------
+         |               |              |                  |
+       Henry          RICHARD        Geoffrey         JOHN = (1) Avice of
+     _m._ Margaret   1189-1199    _m._ Constance  1199-1216|    Gloucester
+      of France   _m._ Berengaria   of Brittany            | (2) Isabella of
+                    of Navarre          |                  |    Angoulême
+                                        |                  |
+                                      Arthur            HENRY III.
+                                                        1216-1272]
+
+25. =The Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. 1187.=--The divisions in
+Henry's family were stirred up afresh by the new king of France,
+Philip II., who had succeeded his father, Louis VII., in =1179=.
+Philip was resolved to enlarge his narrow dominions at the expense of
+Henry. He was Henry's feudal lord, and he was crafty enough to know
+that by assisting Henry's sons he might be able to convert his nominal
+lordship into a real power. News, however, arrived in the midst of the
+strife which for a little time put an end to the discords of men and
+peoples. The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, which had been established
+after the first crusade, had only maintained itself because the
+Mahommedan rulers of Egypt were the rivals and enemies of the
+Mahommedan rulers of Syria. Yet even with the advantage of divisions
+amongst their enemies, the Christians had only defended themselves
+with difficulty. A second crusade which had gone out to relieve them
+in Stephen's reign, under the Emperor Conrad III. and Louis VII. of
+France, had accomplished nothing. Their real defenders were two bodies
+of soldiers, known as the Knights Templars and the Knights of St.
+John, who were bound, like monks, to vows of celibacy, so that they
+might always be free to defend Jerusalem. At last a great Mahommedan
+warrior, Saladin, arose, who ruled both Egypt and Syria, and was
+therefore able to bring the united forces of the two countries against
+the Christian colony. In =1187= he destroyed the Christian army at
+Tiberias, and in the same year took Jerusalem and almost every city
+still held by the Christians in the East. Tyre alone held out, and
+that, too, would be lost unless help came speedily.
+
+26. =The Last Years of Henry II. 1188--1189.=--For a moment the rulers
+of the West were shocked at the tidings from the East. In =1188=
+Philip, Henry, and Richard had taken the cross as the sign of their
+resolution to recover the Holy City from the infidel. To enable him to
+meet the expenses of a war in the East, Henry imposed upon England a
+new tax of a tenth part of all movable property, which is known as the
+Saladin tithe, but in a few months those who were pledged to go on the
+crusade were fighting with one another--first Henry and Richard
+against Philip, and then Philip and Richard against Henry. At last, in
+=1189=, Henry, beaten in war, was forced to submit to Philip's terms,
+receiving in return a list of those of his own barons who had engaged
+to support Richard against his father. The list reached him when he
+was at Chinon, ill and worn out. The first name on it was that of his
+favourite son John. The old man turned his face to the wall. "Let
+things go now as they will," he cried bitterly. "I care no more for
+myself or for the world." After a few days of suffering he died. The
+last words which passed his lips were, "Shame, shame upon a conquered
+king."
+
+27. =The Work of Henry II.=--The wisest and most powerful ruler can
+only assist the forces of nature; he cannot work against them. Those
+who merely glance at a map in which the political divisions of France
+are marked as they existed in Henry's reign, cannot but wonder that
+Henry did not make himself master of the small territory which was
+directly governed, in turn, by Louis VII. and Philip II. A careful
+study of the political conditions of his reign shows, however, that he
+was not really strong enough to do anything of the kind. His own power
+on the Continent was purely feudal, and he held authority over his
+vassals there because they had personally done homage to him. Henry,
+however, had also done homage to the king of France, and did not
+venture, even if he made war upon his lord, the king of France, to
+push matters to extremities against him, lest his sons as his own
+vassals might push matters to extremities against himself. He could
+not, in short, expel the king of France from Paris, lest he should
+provoke his own vassals to follow his example of insubordination and
+expel him from Bordeaux or Rouen. Moreover, Henry had too much to do
+in England to give himself heart and soul to Continental affairs,
+whilst the king of France, on the contrary, who had no foreign
+possessions, and was always at his post, would be the first to profit
+by a national French feeling whenever such a feeling arose. England
+under Henry II. was already growing more united and more national. The
+crown which Henry derived from the Conqueror was national as well as
+feudal. Henry, like his predecessors, had two strings to his bow. On
+the one hand he could call upon his vassals to be faithful to him
+because they had sworn homage to him, whilst he himself, as far as
+England was concerned, had sworn homage to no one. On the other hand,
+he could rally round him the national forces. To do this he must do
+justice and gain the goodwill of the people at large. It was this that
+he had attempted to do, by sending judges round the country and by
+improving the law, by establishing scutage to weaken the power of the
+barons, and by strengthening the national forces by the Assize of
+Arms. No doubt he had little thanks for his pains. Men could feel the
+weight of his arm and could complain of the heavy fines exacted in his
+courts of justice. It was only a later generation, which enjoyed the
+benefits of his hard discipline, which understood how much England
+owed to him.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+RICHARD I. =1189--1199=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Accession of Richard I.                                         1189
+  Richard's Return to England from the Crusade                    1194
+  Death of Richard I.                                             1199
+
+
+1. =Richard in England. 1189.=--Richard was accepted without dispute
+as the master of the whole of the Angevin dominions. He was a warrior,
+not a statesman. Impulsive in his generosity, he was also impulsive in
+his passions. Having determined to embark on the crusade, he came to
+England eager to raise money for its expenses. With this object he not
+only sold offices to those who wished to buy them, and the right of
+leaving office to those who wished to retire, but also, with the
+Pope's consent, sold leave to remain at home to those who had taken
+the cross. Regardless of the distant future, he abandoned for money to
+William the Lion the treaty of Falaise, in which William had engaged
+to do homage to the English king.
+
+[Illustration: Royal arms of England from Richard I. to Edward III.
+(From the wall arcade, south aisle of nave, Westminster Abbey.)]
+
+[Illustration: The Galilee or Lady Chapel, Durham Cathedral. Built by
+Bishop Hugh of Puiset between 1180 and 1197.]
+
+2. =William of Longchamps. 1189--1191.=--To secure order during his
+absence Richard appointed two Justiciars--Hugh of Puiset, Bishop of
+Durham, and William of Longchamps, Bishop of Ely. At the same time he
+attempted to conciliate all who were likely to be dangerous by making
+them lavish grants of land, especially giving what was practically
+royal authority over five shires to his brother John. Such an
+arrangement was not likely to last. Before the end of =1189= Richard
+crossed to the Continent. Scarcely was he gone when the populace in
+many towns turned savagely on the Jews and massacred them in crowds.
+The Jews lived by money-lending, and money-lenders are never popular.
+In York they took refuge in the castle, and when all hope of defending
+themselves failed, slew their wives and children, set fire to the
+castle, and perished in the flames. The Justiciars were too much
+occupied with their own quarrels to heed such matters. Hugh was a
+stately and magnificent prelate. William was lame and misshapen,
+quick of wit and unscrupulous. In a few weeks he had deprived his
+rival of all authority. His own power did not last long. He had a
+sharp tongue, and did not hesitate to let all men, great and small,
+know how meanly he thought of them. Those whom he despised found a
+leader in John, who was anxious to succeed his brother, and thought
+that it might some day be useful to have made himself popular in
+England. In the autumn of =1191= William of Longchamps was driven out
+of the country.
+
+3. =The Third Crusade. 1189--1192.=--Richard threw his whole
+heart--his lion's heart, as men called it--into the crusade. Alike by
+sea and by land, he knew better than any other leader of his age how
+to direct the operations of war. He was too impetuous to guard himself
+against the intrigues and personal rancour of his fellow-Crusaders. At
+Messina he quarrelled with the wily Philip II. of France, while he
+gave offence to all Germans by upholding the claims of Tancred to the
+crown of Sicily, which was also claimed by the German king, who
+afterwards became the Emperor Henry VI. In the spring of =1191=
+Richard sailed from Sicily for the Holy Land, conquering Cyprus on the
+way, where he married Berengaria of Navarre. Passing on to the coast
+of Syria, he found the Crusaders besieging Acre, and his own vigour
+greatly contributed to its fall. When Acre was taken Philip slipped
+home to plot against Richard, and Richard found every French Crusader
+and every German Crusader banded together against him. When he
+advocated the right of Guy of Lusignan to the crown of Jerusalem, they
+advocated the claim of Conrad of Montferrat. Jerusalem was not to be
+had for either of them. Twice Richard brought the Crusading host
+within a few miles of the Holy City. Each time he was driven to
+retreat by the failure of the Crusaders to support him. The last time
+his comrades invited him at least to reach a spot from which a view of
+the city could be gained. Richard refused. If he was not worthy, he
+said, to regain the city, he was not worthy to look on it.
+
+4. =The Return of Richard. 1192--1194.=--In =1192= there was nothing
+for it but to return home. Enemies were watching for him on every
+shore. Landing at the head of the Adriatic, he attempted to make his
+way in disguise through Germany. With characteristic want of
+reflection, he roasted his meat at a village inn near Vienna with a
+jewelled ring on his finger. Attention was aroused, and he was
+arrested and delivered up to Leopold, Duke of Austria, who had been
+his bitter antagonist in the Holy Land, and Leopold delivered him up
+to his own feudal superior, the Emperor, Henry VI.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of a knight in the Temple Church, London,
+showing armour of the end of the twelfth century.]
+
+The imprisonment of Richard was joyful news to Philip and John. John
+did his best to get into his hands all the English and Continental
+dominions of his brother. His meanness was, however, by this time well
+known, and he was repelled on all sides. At last in =1193= the Emperor
+consented to let Richard go on payment of what was then the enormous
+ransom of 150,000 marks, or 100,000_l._ "Beware," wrote Philip to John
+when he heard that the Emperor's consent had been given; "the devil is
+loose again," Philip and John tried to bribe the Emperor to keep his
+prisoner, but in February =1194= Richard was liberated, and set out
+for England.
+
+5. =Heavy taxation.=--Before Richard reappeared in England each
+tenant-in-chief had to pay the aid which was due to deliver his lord
+from prison (see p. 117), but this was far from being enough. Besides
+all kinds of irregular expedients the Danegeld had been practically
+revived, and to it was now given the name of carucage, a tax of two
+shillings on every plough-land. Another tax of a fourth part of all
+movable goods had also been imposed, for which a precedent had been
+set by Henry II. when he levied the Saladin tithe (see p. 157).
+Richard had now to gather in what was left unpaid of these charges.
+Yet so hated was John that Richard was welcomed with every appearance
+of joy, and John thought it prudent to submit to his brother. Philip,
+however, was still an open enemy, and as soon as Richard had gathered
+in all the money that he could raise in England he left the country
+never to return. On the Continent he could best defend himself against
+Philip, and, besides this, Richard was at home in sunny Aquitaine, and
+had no liking for his English realm.
+
+6. =The Administration of Hubert Walter. 1194--1198.=--For four years
+the administration of England was in the hands of a new Justiciar, the
+Archbishop of Canterbury, Hubert Walter. He was a statesman of the
+school of Henry II., and he carried the jury system yet farther than
+Henry had done. The immense increase of taxation rendered it the more
+necessary to guard against unfairness, and Hubert Walter placed the
+selection of the juries of presentment (see p. 147) in the hands of
+four knights in every shire, who, as is probable, were chosen by the
+freeholders in the County Court, instead of being named by the
+sheriff. This was a further step in the direction of allowing the
+counties to manage their own affairs, and a still greater one was
+taken by the frequent employment of juries in the assessment of the
+taxes paid within the county, so as to enable them to take a prominent
+part in its financial as well as in its judicial business. In =1198=
+there was taken a new survey of England for taxable purposes, and
+again elected juries were employed to make the returns. In this year
+Archbishop Hubert retired from the Justiciarship, and was succeeded by
+Geoffrey Fitz-Peter. Archbishop Hubert's administration marks a great
+advance in constitutional progress, though it is probable that his
+motive was only to raise money more readily. The main constitutional
+problem of the Norman and Angevin reigns was how to bring the national
+organisation of the king's officials into close and constant
+intercourse with the local organisation of the counties. Henry I. and
+Henry II. had attacked the problem on one side by sending the judges
+round the country to carry the king's wishes and commands to each
+separate county. It still remained to devise a scheme by which the
+wishes and complaints of the counties could be brought to the king.
+Hubert Walter did not contrive that this should be done, but he made
+it easy to be done in the next generation, because before he left
+office he had increased the powers of the juries in each county and
+had accustomed them to deal independently with all the local matters
+in which the king and the county were both interested. It only
+remained to bring these juries together in one place where they might
+join in making the king aware of the wishes and complaints of all
+counties alike. When this had been accomplished there would, for the
+first time, be a representative assembly in England.
+
+[Illustration: Richard I. From his tomb at Fontevrault.]
+
+[Illustration: Berengaria. From her tomb at Espan.]
+
+7. =Death of Richard. 1199.=--It was not only Richard's love for his
+old home which fixed him on the Continent. He knew that the weakest
+part of his dominions was there. His lands beyond sea had no natural
+unity. Normans did not love Angevins, neither did Angevins love the
+men of Poitou or Guienne. Philip was willingly obeyed in his own
+dominions, and he had all the advantage which his title of king of the
+French could give him. Richard fought desperately, and for the most
+part successfully, against the French king, and formed alliances with
+all who were opposed to him. He built on a rock overhanging the Seine
+above Les Andelys a mighty fortress--the Château Gaillard, or Saucy
+Castle, as he called it in jest. With characteristic haste he
+completed the building in a few months. "How fair a child is mine!" he
+called to his followers, "this child but a twelvemonth old." Other
+child he had none, and he had but the miserable John to look to to
+hold his dominions after he was gone. He did not live long enough to
+see whether his new castle could stand a siege. A peasant dug up a
+treasure on the land of the lord of Châlus in the Limousin. Richard
+claimed it as his right because he was the over-lord. On the refusal
+of the lord to surrender it he laid siege to Châlus. An arrow from the
+castle struck him on the shoulder. The wound rankled, and
+mortification followed. As Richard lay dying the castle surrendered,
+and the man who had aimed the fatal shot was brought before him. "What
+have I done to thee," asked Richard, "that thou shouldest slay me?"
+"Thou hast slain my father and two of my brothers with thy own hand,"
+said the prisoner, "and thou wouldest fain have killed me too. Avenge
+thyself upon me as thou wilt. I will gladly endure the greatest
+torments thou canst devise, since I have seen thee on thy deathbed."
+Richard, generous to the last, bade his attendants set the prisoner
+free. They kept him till Richard was dead, and then tortured him to
+death.
+
+[Illustration: Part of the choir of Ripon Cathedral: built during the
+last quarter of the twelfth century.]
+
+8. =Church and State under the Angevin Kings.=--During the forty-five
+years of the reigns of Richard and his father the chief feature of
+English history is the growth of the power of the state. There was
+more justice and order, and also more taxation, at the end of the
+period than at the beginning. During the same period the influence of
+the Church grew less. The character of Thomas's resistance to the king
+was lower than that of Anselm, and not long after Thomas's murder
+Henry indirectly regained the power which he had lost, and filled the
+sees with officials and dependents who cared little for the higher
+aims of religion. The evil consequences of making the Church
+dependent on the king were at least as great as those of freeing the
+political and social life of the clergy from the control of the State.
+Even monasticism ceased to afford a strong example of self-denial. The
+very Cistercians, who had begun so well, had fallen from their
+original purity. They were now owners of immense tracts of
+pasture-land, and their keenness in money-making had become notorious.
+They exercised great influence, but it was the influence of great
+landlords, not the influence of ascetics.
+
+9. =Growth of Learning.=--The decay of asceticism was to some extent
+brought about by the opening of new careers into which energetic men
+might throw themselves. They were needed as judges, as administrators,
+as councillors. A vigorous literature sprung up in the reign of Henry
+II., but at the end of the reign most of it was connected with the
+court rather than with the monasteries. Henry's Justiciar, Ranulf de
+Glanvile, wrote the first English law-book. His Treasurer, Richard
+Fitz-Nigel, set forth in the _Dialogus de Scaccario_ the methods of
+his financial administration, and also produced 'The Deeds of King
+Henry and King Richard.' William of Newburgh, indeed, the best
+historian of these reigns, wrote in a small Yorkshire monastery, but
+Roger of Hoveden and Ralph de Diceto pursued their historical work
+under the influence of the court. Still more striking is the
+universality of the intellectual inquisitiveness of Walter Map. On the
+one hand, in his _De Nugis Curialium_ he chattered over the manners of
+his contemporaries, and in his satirical poems scourged the greed and
+vices of the clergy, whilst on the other hand he took a principal part
+in spreading a knowledge of the legend of the high-souled King Arthur
+and of the quest of the Holy Grail. Giraldus Cambrensis again, or
+Gerald of Wales, wrote on all sorts of subjects with shrewd humour and
+extensive knowledge.
+
+10. =The University of Oxford.=--There was already in England a place
+where learning was cherished for its own sake. For some time there had
+been growing up on the Continent gatherings for the increase of
+learning, which ultimately were known as universities, or corporations
+of teachers and scholars. One at Bologna had devoted itself to the
+study of the civil or Roman law. Another at Paris gave itself to the
+spread of all the knowledge of the time. In these early universities
+there were no colleges. Lads, very poor for the most part, flocked to
+the teachers and lodged themselves as best they could. Such a
+university, though the name was not used till later, had been
+gradually forming at Oxford. Its origin and early history is obscure,
+but in =1186= Giraldus, wishing to find a cultivated audience for his
+new book on the topography of Ireland, read it aloud at Oxford, where,
+as he tells us, 'the clergy in England chiefly flourished and excelled
+in clerkly lore.' It appears that there were already separate
+faculties or branches of study, and persons recognised as doctors or
+teachers in all of them.
+
+[Illustration: Lay costumes in the twelfth century.]
+
+[Illustration: Costume of shepherds in the twelfth century.]
+
+11. =Country and Town.=--Intellectual progress was accompanied by
+material progress. In the country the old system of cultivation by the
+labour service of villein-tenants still prevailed, but in many parts
+the service had been commuted, either for a money payment or for
+payments in kind, such as payments of a fixed number of eggs or fowls,
+or of a fixed quantity of honey or straw. Greater progress was made in
+the towns. At the time of the Conquest there were about eighty towns
+in England, most of them no larger than villages. The largest towns
+after London were Winchester, Bristol, Norwich, York, and Lincoln, but
+even these had not a population much above 7,000 apiece. In the
+smaller towns trade was sufficiently provided for by the establishment
+of a market to which country people brought their grain or their
+cattle, and where they provided themselves in turn with such rude
+household necessaries as they required. Even before the Conquest port
+towns had grown up on the coast, but foreign trade was slight,
+imports being almost entirely confined to luxuries for the rich. The
+order introduced by the Normans and the connection between England and
+the king's Continental possessions was followed by an increase of
+trade, and there arose in each of the larger towns a corporation which
+was known as the Merchant Gild, and which was, in some instances at
+least, only a development of an older association existing in the
+times before the Conquest. No one except the brothers of the Merchant
+Gild was allowed to trade in any article except food, but any one
+living in the town might become a brother on payment of a settled fee.
+The first Merchant Gild known was constituted in =1093=. A little
+later, Henry I. granted charters to some of the towns, conferring on
+them the right of managing their own affairs; and his example was
+followed, in far greater profusion, by Henry II. and Richard I. Though
+the organisation of the Merchant Gild was originally distinct from the
+organisation of the town, and the two were in theory kept apart, the
+Merchant Gild, to which most of the townsmen belonged, usually
+encroached upon the authorities of the town, regulated trade to its
+own advantage, and practically controlled the choice of officers, the
+principal officer being usually styled an Alderman, with power to keep
+order and generally to provide for the well-being of the place. In
+this way the tradesmen and merchants of the towns prepared themselves
+unconsciously for the time when they would be called on to take part
+in managing the affairs of the country. Even in these early times,
+however, the artisans in some of the trades attempted to combine
+together.
+
+12. =Condition of London.=--Of all the towns London had been growing
+most rapidly in wealth and population, and during the troubles in
+which John had been pitted against William of Longchamps it had
+secured the right of being governed by a Mayor and Aldermen of its
+own, instead of being placed under the jurisdiction of the King's
+sheriff. The Mayor and Aldermen, however, did not represent all the
+townsmen. In London, though there is no evidence of the existence of a
+Merchant Gild, there was a corporation composed of the wealthier
+traders, by which the city was governed. The Mayor and Aldermen were
+chosen out of this corporation, as were the juries elected to assess
+the taxes. Artisans soon came to believe that these juries dealt
+unfairly with the poor. One of the Aldermen, William Longbeard, made
+himself the mouthpiece of their complaints and stirred them up against
+the rest. Hubert Walter sent a messenger to seize him, but William
+Longbeard slew the messenger and fled into the church of Mary-at-Bow.
+Here, according to the ideas of his age, he should have been safe, as
+every church was considered to be a sanctuary in which no criminal
+could be arrested. Hubert Walter, however, came in person to seize
+him, set the church on fire, and had him dragged out. William
+Longbeard was first stabbed, and then tried and hanged, and for the
+time the rich tradesmen had their way against the poorer artisans.
+
+[Illustration: Hall of Oakham Castle, Rutland: built about 1185.]
+
+13. =Architectural Changes.=--Even in the most flourishing towns the
+houses were still mostly of wood or rubble covered with thatch, and
+only here and there was to be found a house of stone. So slight,
+indeed, were the ordinary buildings, that it was provided by the
+Assize of Clarendon that the houses of certain offenders should be
+carried outside the town and burnt. Here and there, however, as in the
+case of the so-called Jews' house at Lincoln, stone houses were
+erected. In the larger houses the arrangements were much as they had
+been before the Conquest, the large hall being still the most
+conspicuous part, though another apartment, known as the solar, to
+which an ascent was made by steps from the outside, and which served
+as a sitting-room for the master of the house, had usually been
+added. The castles reared by the king or the barons were built for
+defence alone, and it was in the great cathedrals and churches that
+the skill of the architect was shown. An enormous number of parish
+churches of stone were raised by Norman builders to supersede earlier
+buildings of wood. For some time the round-arched Norman architecture
+which had been introduced by Eadward the Confessor was alone followed,
+such as may be studied in the Galilee of Durham (see p. 160) the nave
+of St. Albans (see p. 109) and the tower of Castor (see p. 136).
+Gradually the pointed arch of Gothic architecture took its place, and
+after a period of transition, of which the nave of Durham, and the
+choirs of Canterbury and of Ripon afford examples (see pp. 130, 150,
+166), the graceful style now known as Early English was first used on
+a large scale in =1192= in the choir of the cathedral of Lincoln.
+
+[Illustration: Norman House at Lincoln, called the Jews' House. Built
+about 1140. The square windows are of later date.]
+
+
+_Books recommended for further study of Part II._
+
+STUBBS, W. (Bishop of Oxford). Constitutional History of England. Vol
+i. chaps. ix.-xiii.
+
+FREEMAN, E. A. History of the Norman Conquest. Vols. iv. and v.
+History of William Rufus.
+
+GREEN, J. R. History of the English People. Vol. i. pp. 115-189.
+
+NORGATE, Miss K. England under the Angevin Kings. Vols. i. and ii. pp.
+1-388.
+
+CUNNINGHAM, W. Growth of English Industry and Commerce during the
+Early and Middle Ages, pp. 129-173.
+
+WAKEMAN, H. O., and HASSALL, A. Constitutional Essays.
+
+ADAMS, G. B. The Political History of England. Vol. ii. From the
+Norman Conquest to the Death of John (1066-1216).
+
+
+
+
+PART III.
+
+_THE GROWTH OF THE PARLIAMENTARY CONSTITUTION._ =1199-1399=.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+JOHN. =1199-1216=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Accession of John                                               1199
+  Loss of Normandy                                                1204
+  England under an Interdict                                      1208
+  Magna Carta                                                     1215
+  Death of John                                                   1216
+
+
+1. =The Accession of John. 1199.=--After Richard's death there were
+living but two descendants of Henry II. in the male line--John,
+Richard's only surviving brother, and Arthur, the young son of John's
+elder brother, Geoffrey. The English barons had to make their choice
+between uncle and nephew, and, as had been done in the days of Ælfred,
+they preferred the grown man to the child. It was the last time when
+that principle of election was confessedly acted on. Archbishop Hubert
+in announcing the result used words which seem strange now:
+"Forasmuch," he declared to the people assembled to witness John's
+coronation, "as we see him to be prudent and vigorous, we all, after
+invoking the Holy Spirit's grace, for his merits no less than his
+royal blood, have with one consent chosen him for our king." In
+reality, John was of all men most unworthy. He was without dispute the
+worst of the English kings. Like William II. he feared not God nor
+regarded man. Though William indeed was more vicious in his private
+life, John's violence and tyranny in public life was as great as
+William's, and he added a meanness and frivolity which sank him far
+below him.
+
+2. =John's First War with Philip II. 1199--1200.=--On the Continent
+John had a difficult game to play. Normandy and Aquitaine submitted
+to him, but Anjou and its dependent territories declared for Arthur,
+who was Duke of Brittany in right of his mother. Philip II., who had
+long been the rival of Richard, now took the field in =1199= as the
+rival of John in support of Arthur; but for the moment he ruined his
+chance of success by keeping in his own hands the castles which he
+took from John instead of making them over to Arthur. Arthur's
+supporters took offence, and in =1200= Philip made peace with John.
+Philip acknowledged John as Richard's heir, but forced him in return
+to pay a heavy sum of money, and to make other concessions.
+
+3. =John's Misconduct in Poitou. 1200--1201.=--John did not know how
+to make use of the time of rest which he had gained. Being tired of
+his wife, Avice of Gloucester, he persuaded some Aquitanian bishops to
+divorce him from her, though he took care to keep the lands which he
+had received from her at her marriage. He then married Isabella of
+Angoulême, though she was betrothed to a Poitevin noble, Hugh of
+Lusignan. Hugh was enraged, and, together with many of his neighbours,
+took arms against John. In =1201= John charged all the barons of
+Poitou with treason, and bade them clear their character by selecting
+champions to fight with an equal number of English and Norman knights.
+
+4. =The Loss of Normandy and Anjou. 1202--1204.=--The Poitevin barons,
+instead of accepting the wager of battle, appealed to Philip as John's
+over-lord, and in =1202= Philip summoned John to answer their
+complaints before his peers. John not only did not appear, but made no
+excuse for his absence; and Philip afterwards pretended that the peers
+had condemned him to forfeit his lands. After this Philip, in alliance
+with Arthur, invaded Normandy. John's aged mother, Eleanor, who was
+far more able and energetic than her son, took up his cause against
+her grandson Arthur. She was besieged by Arthur at Mirebeau when John
+came to her help, and not only raised the siege, but carried off
+Arthur as a prisoner. Many of his vassals rose against him, and
+finding himself unable to meet them in the field he wreaked his
+vengeance on his helpless prisoner. A little before Easter =1203=
+Arthur ceased to live. How the boy died has never been known, but it
+was generally believed that he was drowned in the Seine near
+Rouen--some said by his uncle's own hands. The murderer was the first
+to suffer from the crime. Philip at once invaded Normandy. The Norman
+barons had long ceased to respect John, and very few of them would do
+anything to help him. Philip took castle after castle. John was indeed
+capable of a sudden outbreak of violence, but he was incapable of
+sustained effort. He now looked sluggishly on, feasting and amusing
+himself whilst Philip was conquering Normandy. "Let him alone," he
+lazily said; "I shall some day win back all that he is taking from me
+now." His best friends dropped off from him. The only fortress which
+made a long resistance was that Château Gaillard which Richard had
+built to guard the Seine. In =1204= it was at last taken, and before
+the end of that year Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Touraine, together
+with part of Poitou, had submitted to Philip.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of King John on his monument in Worcester
+Cathedral.]
+
+[Illustration: Isabella, wife of King John. From her monument at
+Fontevrault.]
+
+5. =Causes of Philip's Success.=--It was not owing to John's vigour
+that Aquitaine was not lost as well as Normandy and Anjou. Philip had
+justified his attack on John as being John's feudal lord, and as being
+therefore bound to take the part of John's vassals whom he had
+injured. Hitherto the power of the king over his great vassals, which
+had been strong in England, had been weak in France. Philip made it
+strong in Normandy and Anjou because he had the support there of the
+vassals of John. That these vassals favoured him was owing partly to
+John's contemptible character, but also to the growth of national
+unity between the inhabitants of Normandy and Anjou on the one hand
+and those of Philip's French dominions on the other. Normans and
+Angevins both spoke the same language as the Frenchmen of Paris and
+its neighbourhood. Their manners and characters were very much the
+same, and the two peoples very soon blended with one another. They had
+been separated merely because their feudal organisation had been
+distinct, because the lord over one was John and over the other was
+Philip. In Aquitaine it was otherwise. The language and manners there,
+though much nearer to those of the French than they were to those of
+the English, differed considerably from the language and manners of
+the Frenchmen, Normans, and Angevins. What the men of Aquitaine really
+wanted was independence. They therefore now clung to John against
+Philip as they had clung to Richard against Henry II. They resisted
+Henry II. because Henry II. ruled in Anjou and Normandy, and they
+wished to be free from any connection with Anjou and Normandy. They
+resisted Philip because Philip now ruled in Anjou and Normandy. They
+were not afraid of John any longer, because they thought that now that
+England alone was left to him, he would be too far off to interfere
+with them.
+
+6. =The Election of Stephen Langton to the Archbishopric of
+Canterbury. 1205.=--In England John had caused much discontent by the
+heavy taxation which he imposed, not with the regularity of Henry II.
+and Hubert Walter, but with unfair inequality. In =1205= Archbishop
+Hubert Walter died. The right of choosing a new archbishop lay with
+the monks of the monastery of Christchurch at Canterbury, of which
+every archbishop, as the successor of St. Augustine, was the abbot.
+This right, however, had long been exercised only according to the
+wish of the king, who practically named the archbishop. This time the
+monks, without asking John's leave, hurriedly chose their sub-prior
+Reginald, and sent him off with a party of monks to Rome, to obtain
+the sanction of the Pope. Reginald was directed to say nothing of his
+election till he reached Rome; but he was a vain man, and had no
+sooner reached the Continent than he babbled about his own dignity as
+an archbishop. When John heard this he bade the monks choose the
+Bishop of Norwich, John de Grey, the king's treasurer; and the monks,
+thoroughly frightened, chose him as if they had not already made their
+election. John had, however, forgotten to consult the bishops of the
+province of Canterbury, who had always been consulted by his father
+and brother, and they too sent messengers to the Pope to complain of
+the king.
+
+[Illustration: Bishop Marshall of Exeter, died 1206; from his tomb at
+Exeter, showing a bishop vested for mass.]
+
+7. =Innocent III. and Stephen Langton. 1206.=--The Pope was Innocent
+III., who at once determined that John must not name bishops whose
+only merit was that they were good state officials. Being an able man,
+he soon discovered that Reginald was a fool. He therefore in =1206=
+sent for a fresh deputation of monks, and, as soon as they arrived in
+Rome, bade them make a new choice in the name of their monastery. At
+Innocent's suggestion they chose Stephen Langton, one of the most
+pious and learned men of the day, whose greatness of character was
+hardly suspected by anyone at the time.
+
+8. =John's Quarrel with the Church. 1206--1208.=--The choice of an
+archbishop in opposition to the king was undoubtedly something new.
+The archbishopric of Canterbury was a great national office, and a
+king as skilful as Henry II. would probably have succeeded in refusing
+to allow it to be disposed of by the Pope and a small party of monks.
+John was unworthy to be the champion of any cause whatever. In =1207=,
+after an angry correspondence with Innocent, he drove the monks of
+Christchurch out of the kingdom. Innocent in reply threatened England
+with an interdict, and in the spring of =1208= the interdict was
+published.
+
+9. =England under an Interdict. 1208.=--An interdict carried with it
+the suppression of all the sacraments of the Church except those of
+baptism and extreme unction. Even these were only to be received in
+private. No words of solemn import were pronounced at the burial of
+the dead. The churches were all closed, and to the men of that time
+the closing of the church-doors was like the closing of the very gate
+of heaven. In the choice of the punishment inflicted there was some
+sign that the Papacy was hardly as strong in the thirteenth as it had
+been in the eleventh century. Gregory VII. had smitten down kings by
+personal excommunication; Innocent III. found it necessary to stir up
+resistance against the king by inflicting sufferings on the people.
+Yet there is no evidence of any indignation against the Pope. The
+clergy rallied almost as one man round Innocent, and songs proceeded
+from the monasteries which mocked the few official bishops who took
+John's side as money-makers who cared more for marks than for Mark,
+and more for lucre than for Luke, whilst John de Grey was branded with
+the title of 'that beast of Norwich.' John taking no heed of the
+popular feeling, seized the property of the clergy who obeyed the
+interdict. Yet he was not without fear lest the barons should join the
+clergy against him, and to keep them in obedience he compelled them to
+entrust to him their eldest sons as hostages. One lady to whom this
+order came replied that she would never give her son to a king who had
+murdered his nephew.
+
+10. =John Excommunicated. 1209.=--In =1209= Innocent excommunicated
+John himself. John cared nothing for being excluded from the services
+of the Church, but he knew that if the excommunication were published
+in England few would venture to sit at table with him, or even to
+speak with him. For some time he kept it out of the country, but it
+became known that it had been pronounced at Rome, and even his own
+dependents began to avoid his company. He feared lest the barons whom
+he had wearied with heavy fines and taxes might turn against him, and
+he needed large sums of money to defend himself against them. First he
+turned on the Jews, threw them into prison, and after torturing those
+who refused to pay, wrung from them 40,000_l._ The abbots were next
+summoned before him and forced by threats to pay 100,000_l._ Besides
+this the wealthy Cistercians had to pay an additional fine, the amount
+of which is uncertain, but of which the lowest estimate is 27,000_l._
+In =1211= some of the barons declared against John, but they were
+driven from the country, and those who remained were harshly treated.
+Some of their sons who had been taken as hostages were hanged or
+starved to death.
+
+[Illustration: Parsonage house of early thirteenth-century date at
+West Dean, Sussex.]
+
+11. =The Pope threatens John with Deposition. 1212--1213.=--In =1212=
+Innocent's patience came to an end, and he announced that he would
+depose John if he still refused to give way, and would transfer his
+crown to his old enemy, Philip II. The English clergy and barons were
+not likely to oppose the change. Philip gathered a great army in
+France to make good the claim which he expected Innocent to give him.
+John, indeed, was not entirely without resource. The Emperor Otto IV.
+was John's sister's son, and as he too had been excommunicated by
+Innocent he made common cause with John against Philip. Early in
+=1213= John gathered an army of 60,000 men to resist Philip's landing,
+and if Otto with his Germans were to attack France from the east, a
+French army would hardly venture to cross into England, unless indeed
+it had no serious resistance to fear. John, however, knew well that he
+could not depend on his own army. Many men in the host hated him
+bitterly, and he feared deposition, and perhaps death, at the hands of
+those whom he had summoned to his help.
+
+12. =John's Submission. 1213.=--Under these circumstances John
+preferred submission to the Pope to submission to Philip or his own
+barons. He invited Pandulf, the Pope's representative, to Dover. He
+swore to admit Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury, to restore
+to their rights all those of the clergy or laity whom he had banished,
+and to give back the money which he had wrongfully exacted. Two days
+later he knelt before Pandulf and did homage to the Pope for England
+and Ireland. He was no longer to be an independent king but the Pope's
+vassal. In token of his vassalage he agreed that he and his successors
+should pay to Innocent and his successors 1,000 marks a year, each
+mark being equal to 13_s._ 4_d._, or two-thirds of a pound. Innocent
+had reached his aim as far as John was concerned. In his eyes the
+Papacy was not merely the guide of the Church, it was an institution
+for controlling kings and forcing them to act in accordance with the
+orders of the Popes. It remained to be seen whether the Pope's orders
+would be always unselfish, and whether the English barons and clergy
+would submit to them as readily as did this most miserable of English
+kings.
+
+13. =The Resistance of the Barons and Clergy. 1213.=--At first John
+seemed to have gained all that he wanted by submission. Pandulf bade
+Philip abandon all thought of invading England, and when Philip
+refused to obey, John's fleet fell upon the French fleet off the coast
+of Flanders and destroyed it. John even proposed to land with an army
+in Poitou and to reconquer Normandy and Anjou. His subjects thought
+that he ought to begin by fulfilling his engagements to them. John
+having received absolution, summoned four men from each county to meet
+at St. Albans to assess the damages of the clergy which he had bound
+himself to make good. The meeting thus summoned was the germ of the
+future House of Commons. It was not a national political assembly, but
+it was a national jury gathered together into one place. The exiled
+barons were recalled, and John now hoped that his vassals would follow
+him to Poitou. They refused to do so, alleging their poverty and the
+fact that they had already fulfilled their feudal obligation of forty
+days' service by attending him at Dover. They had, in fact, no
+interest in regaining Normandy and Anjou for John. Though the English
+barons still spoke French, and were proud of their Norman descent,
+they now thought of themselves as Englishmen and cared for England
+alone. John turned furiously on the barons, and was only hindered from
+attacking them by the new Archbishop, who threatened to excommunicate
+everyone who took arms against them. It was time for all Englishmen
+who loved order and law to resist John. Stephen Langton put himself at
+the head of the movement, and at a great assembly at St. Paul's
+produced a charter of Henry I., by which that king had promised to put
+an end to the tyranny of the Red King, and declared amidst general
+applause that it must be renewed by John. It was a memorable scene. Up
+to this time it had been necessary for the clergy and the people to
+support the king against the tyranny of the barons. Now the clergy and
+people offered their support to the barons against the tyranny of the
+king. John had merely the Pope on his side. Innocent's view of the
+situation was very simple. John was to obey the Pope, and all John's
+subjects were to obey John. A Papal legate arrived in England, fixed
+the sum which John was to pay to the clergy, and refused to listen to
+the complaints of those who thought themselves defrauded.
+
+14. =The Battle of Bouvines. 1214.=--In =1214= John succeeded in
+carrying his barons and their vassals across the sea. With one army he
+landed at Rochelle, and recovered what had been lost to him on the
+south of the Loire, but failed to make any permanent conquests to the
+north of that river. Another army, under John's illegitimate brother,
+the Earl of Salisbury, joined the Emperor Otto in an attack on Philip
+from the north. The united force of Germans and English was, however,
+routed by Philip at Bouvines, in Flanders. "Since I have been
+reconciled to God," cried John, when he heard the news, "and submitted
+to the Roman Church, nothing has gone well with me." He made a truce
+with Philip, and temporarily renounced all claims to the lands to the
+north of the Loire.
+
+15. =The Struggle between John and the Barons. 1214--1215.= When John
+returned he called upon all his vassals who had remained at home to
+pay an exorbitant scutage. In reply they met at Bury St. Edmunds. The
+charter of Henry I., which had been produced at St. Paul's the year
+before, was again read, and all present swore to force John to accept
+it as the rule of his own government. John asked for delay, and
+attempted to divide his antagonists by offering to the clergy the
+right of free election to bishoprics and abbacies. Then he turned
+against the barons. Early in =1215= he brought over a large force of
+foreign mercenaries, and persuaded the Pope to threaten the barons
+with excommunication. His attempt was defeated by the constancy of
+Stephen Langton. The demands of the barons were placed in writing by
+the archbishop, and, on John's refusal to accept them, an army was
+formed to force them on the king. The army of God and the Holy Church,
+as it was called, grew rapidly. London admitted it within its walls,
+and the accession of London to the cause of the barons was a sign that
+the traders of England were of one mind with the barons and the
+clergy. John found that their force was superior to his own, and at
+Runnimede on June 15, =1215=, confirmed with his hand and seal the
+articles of the barons, with the full intention of breaking his
+engagement as soon as he should be strong enough to do so.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of a knight in the Temple Church, London,
+showing armour worn between 1190 and 1225.]
+
+16. =Magna Carta. 1215.=--_Magna Carta_, or the Great Charter, as the
+articles were called after John confirmed them, was won by a
+combination between all classes of freemen, and it gave rights to them
+all.
+
+(_a_) _Its Concessions._--The Church was to be free, its privileges
+were to be respected, and its right to free elections which John had
+granted earlier in the year was not to be infringed on. As for the
+laity, the tenants-in-chief were to pay only fixed reliefs when they
+entered on their estates. Heirs under age were to be the king's wards,
+but the king was to treat them fairly, and do nothing to injure their
+land whilst it was in his hands. The king might continue to find
+husbands for heiresses and wives for heirs, but only amongst those of
+their own class. The tenants-in-chief again were bound to pay aids to
+the king when he needed ransom from imprisonment, or money to enable
+him to bear the expenses of knighting his eldest son or of marrying
+his eldest daughter. For all other purposes the king could only demand
+supplies from his tenants-in-chief with the consent of the Common
+Council of the realm. As only the tenants-in-chief were concerned,
+this Common Council was the Great Council of tenants-in-chief, such as
+had met under the Norman and Angevin kings. A fresh attempt, however,
+was made to induce the smaller tenants-in-chief to attend, in addition
+to the bishops, abbots, and barons, by a direction that whilst these
+were to be summoned personally, the sheriffs should in each county
+issue a general summons to the smaller tenants-in-chief. Though the
+sub-tenants had no part in the Common Council of the realm, they were
+relieved by a direction that they should pay no more aids to their
+lords than their lords paid to the king, and by a general declaration
+that all that had been granted to their lords by the king should be
+allowed by their lords to them. The Londoners and other townsmen had
+their privileges assured to them; and all freemen were secured against
+heavy and irregular penalties if they committed an offence.
+
+(_b_) _Its Securities._--Such were the provisions of this truly
+national act, which Englishmen were for ages engaged in maintaining
+and developing. The immediate question was how to secure what had been
+gained. The first thing necessary for this purpose was to make the
+courts of law the arbitrators between the king and his subjects. In a
+series of articles it was declared that the sworn testimony of a man's
+peers should be used whenever fines or penalties were imposed, and
+this insistence on the employment of the jury system as it then
+existed was emphasised by the strong words to which John placed his
+seal: "No freeman may be taken, or imprisoned, or disseised, or
+outlawed, or banished, or in any way destroyed, nor will we go against
+him, or send against him, except by the lawful judgment of his peers,
+or by the law of the land. To none will we sell or deny or delay right
+or justice." It was a good security if it could be maintained, but it
+would avail nothing against a king who was willing and able to use
+force to set up the old tyranny once more. In the first place John
+must dismiss all his foreign mercenaries. So little, however, was John
+trusted that it was thought necessary in the second place to establish
+a body of twenty-five--twenty-four barons and the Mayor of
+London--which was to guard against any attempt of the king to break
+his word. If John infringed upon any of the articles of the Charter
+the twenty-five, with the assistance of the whole community of the
+kingdom, had the right of distraining upon the king's lands till
+enough was obtained to make up the loss to the person who had suffered
+wrong. In other words, there was to be a permanent organisation for
+making war upon the king.
+
+17. =War between John and the Barons. 1215--1216.=--John waited for
+the moment of vengeance. Not only did he refuse to send his
+mercenaries away, but he sent to the Continent for large
+reinforcements. Pope Innocent declared the barons to be wicked rebels,
+and released John from his oath to the Great Charter. War soon broke
+out. John's mercenaries were too strong for the barons, and in the
+beginning of =1216= almost all England with the exception of London
+had been overrun by them. Though the Pope laid London under an
+interdict, neither the citizens nor the barons paid any attention to
+it. They sent to Louis, the eldest son of Philip of France, to invite
+him to come and be their king in John's stead. Louis was married to
+John's niece, and might thus be counted as a member of the English
+royal family. The time had not yet come when a man who spoke French
+was regarded as quite a foreigner amongst the English barons. On May
+21, =1216=, Louis landed with an army in the Isle of Thanet.
+
+[Illustration: A silver penny of John, struck at Dublin.]
+
+18. =Conflict between Louis and John. 1216.=--John, in spite of his
+success, found himself without sufficient money to pay his
+mercenaries, and he therefore retreated to Winchester. Louis entered
+London in triumph, and afterwards drove John out of Winchester.
+Innocent indeed excommunicated Louis, but no one took heed of the
+excommunication. Yet John was not without support. The trading towns
+of the East, who probably regarded Louis as a foreigner, took his
+part, and many of his old officials, to whom the victory of the barons
+seemed likely to bring back the anarchy of Stephen's time, clung to
+him. One of these, a high-spirited and strong-willed man, Hubert de
+Burgh, held out for John in Dover Castle. John kept the field and even
+won some successes. As he was crossing the Wash the tide rose rapidly
+and swept away his baggage. He himself escaped with difficulty. Worn
+out in mind and body, he was carried on a litter to Newark, where on
+October 19, =1216=, he died.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+HENRY III. =1216-1272=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Accession of Henry III.                                         1216
+  The Fall of Hubert de Burgh                                     1232
+  The Provisions of Oxford                                        1258
+  Battle of Lewes                                                 1264
+  Battle of Evesham                                               1265
+  Death of Henry III.                                             1272
+
+
+1. =Henry III. and Louis. 1216--1217.=--Henry III., the eldest son of
+John, was but nine years old at his father's death. Never before had
+it been useful for England that the king should be a child. As Henry
+had oppressed no one and had broken no oaths, those who dared not
+trust the father could rally to the son. The boy had two guardians,
+one of whom was Gualo, the legate of Pope Honorius III., a man gentler
+and less ambitious than Innocent III., whom he had just succeeded; the
+other was William the Marshal, Earl of Pembroke, who had been constant
+to John, not because he loved his evil deeds, but because, like many
+of the older officials, he feared that the victory of the barons would
+be followed by anarchy. These two had on their side the growing
+feeling on behalf of English nationality; whereas, as long as John
+lived, his opponents had argued that it was better to have a foreign
+king like Louis than to have a king like John, who tyrannised over the
+land by the help of foreign mercenaries. Henry's followers daily
+increased, and in =1217= Louis was defeated by the Marshal at Lincoln.
+Later in the year Hubert de Burgh, the Justiciar, sent out a fleet
+which defeated a French fleet off Dover. Louis then submitted and left
+the kingdom.
+
+2. =The Renewal of the Great Charter. 1216--1217.=--The principles on
+which William the Marshal intended to govern were signified by the
+changes made in the Great Charter when it was renewed on the king's
+accession in =1216=, and again on Louis's expulsion in =1217=. Most of
+the clauses binding the king to avoid oppression were allowed to
+stand; but those which prohibited the raising of new taxation without
+the authority of the Great Council, and the stipulation which
+established a body of twenty-five to distrain on John's property in
+case of the breach of the Charter, were omitted. Probably it was
+thought that there was less danger from Henry than there had been from
+John; but the acceptance of the compromise was mainly due to the
+feeling that, whilst it was desirable that the king should govern with
+moderation, it would be a dangerous experiment to put the power to
+control him in the hands of the barons, who might use it for their own
+advantage rather than for the advantage of the nation. The whole
+history of England for many years was to turn on the difficulty of
+weakening the power of a bad king without producing anarchy.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of Henry III. from his tomb in Westminster
+Abbey.]
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of William Longespée, Earl of Salisbury (died
+1227); from his tomb in Salisbury Cathedral: showing armour worn from
+about 1225 to 1250.]
+
+3. =Administration of Hubert de Burgh. 1219-1232.=--In =1219= William
+the Marshal died. For some years the government was mainly in the
+hands of Hubert de Burgh, who strenuously maintained the authority of
+the king over the barons, whilst at the same time he set himself
+distinctly at the head of the growing national feeling against the
+admission of foreigners to wealth and high position in England. As a
+result of the disturbances of John's reign many of the barons and of
+the leaders of the mercenaries had either fortified their own castles
+or had taken possession of those which belonged to the king. In =1220=
+Hubert demanded the surrender of these castles as Henry II. had done
+in the beginning of his reign. In =1221= the Earl of Aumale was forced
+to surrender his castles, and in =1224= Faukes de Breauté, one of the
+leaders of John's mercenaries who had received broad lands in England,
+was reduced to submission and was banished on his refusal to give up
+his great castle at Bedford. As long as Hubert ruled, England was to
+belong to the English. His power was endangered from the very quarter
+from which it ought to have received most support. In =1227= Henry
+declared himself of age. He was weak and untrustworthy, always ready
+to give his confidence to unworthy favourites. His present favourite
+was Peter des Roches, Bishop of Winchester. The bishop was a greedy
+and unscrupulous Poitevin, who regarded the king's favour as a means
+of enriching himself and his Poitevin relatives and friends. Henry was
+always short of money, and was persuaded by Peter that it was
+Hubert's fault. In =1232= Hubert was charged with a whole string of
+crimes and dismissed from office.
+
+[Illustration: Simon, Bishop of Exeter (died 1223); from his tomb at
+Exeter, showing rich mass-vestments.]
+
+[Illustration: Beverley Minster, Yorkshire--the south transept; built
+about 1220-1230.]
+
+4. =Administration of Peter des Roches. 1232-1234.=--Henry was now
+entirely under the power of Peter des Roches. In =1233= he ordered
+Hubert to be seized. Though Hubert took sanctuary in a chapel, he was
+dragged out, and a smith was ordered to put him in fetters. The man
+refused to obey. "Is not this," he said, "that most faithful and
+high-souled Hubert who has so often saved England from the ravages of
+foreigners, and has given England back to the English?" Hubert was
+thrown into the Tower, and was never again employed in any office of
+state. As long as Peter des Roches ruled the king it would be hard to
+keep England for the English. Poitevins and Bretons flocked over from
+the Continent, and were appointed to all the influential posts which
+fell vacant. The barons had the national feeling behind them when they
+raised complaints against this policy. Their leader was Earl Richard
+the Marshal, the son of the Earl William who had governed England
+after the death of John. Without even the semblance of trial Henry
+declared Earl Richard and his chief supporters guilty of treason. At a
+Great Council held at Westminster some of the barons remonstrated.
+Peter des Roches replied saucily that there were no peers in England
+as in France, meaning that in England the barons had no rights against
+the king. Both Henry and Peter could, however, use their tongues
+better than their swords. They failed miserably in an attempt to
+overcome the men whom they had unjustly accused, till in =1234= Peter
+stirred up some of the English lords in Ireland to seize on Earl
+Richard's possessions there. The Earl hurried over to defend his
+estates. Amongst his followers were many of Peter's confidants, who,
+treacherously deserting him in the first battle, left him to be slain
+by his enemies. Peter at least gained nothing by his villainy. Edmund
+Rich, a saintly man, who had recently become Archbishop of Canterbury,
+protested against his misdeeds. All England was behind the Archbishop,
+and Henry was compelled to dismiss Peter and then to welcome back
+Peter's enemies and to restore them to their rights. It was of no
+slight importance that a man so devoted and unselfish as Edmund Rich
+had put himself at the head of the movement. It was a good thing, no
+doubt, to maintain that wealth should be in the hands rather of
+natives than of foreigners; but after all every contention for
+material wealth alone is of the earth, earthy. No object which appeals
+exclusively to the selfish instincts can, in the long run, be worth
+contending for. Edmund Rich's accession to the national cause was a
+guarantee that the claims of righteousness and mercy in the management
+of the national government would not altogether be forgotten, and
+fortunately there were new forces actively at work in the same
+direction. The friars, the followers of St. Francis and St. Dominic,
+had made good their footing in England.
+
+5. =Francis of Assisi.=--Francis, the son of a merchant in the Tuscan
+town of Assisi, threw aside the vanities of youth after a serious
+illness. He was wedded, he declared, to Poverty as his bride. He
+clothed himself in rags. When his father sent him with a horseload of
+goods to a neighbouring market, he sold both horse and goods, and
+offered the money to build a church. His father was enraged, and
+summoned him before the bishop that he might be deprived of the right
+of inheriting that which he knew not how to use. Francis stripped
+himself naked, renouncing even his clothes as his father's property.
+"I have now," he said, "but one Father, He that is in heaven." He
+wandered about as a beggar, subsisting on alms and devoting himself to
+the care of the sick and afflicted. In his heroism of self-denial he
+chose out the lepers, covered as they were with foul and infectious
+sores, as the main objects of his tending. Before long he gathered
+together a brotherhood of men like-minded with himself, who left all,
+to give not alms but themselves to the help of the poor and sorrowful
+of Christ's flock. In =1209= Innocent III. constituted them into a new
+order, not of monks but of Friars (_Fratres_ or brethren). The special
+title of the new order, which after ages have known by the name of
+Franciscans, was that of Minorites (_Fratres Minores_), or the lesser
+brethren, because Francis in his humility declared them to be less
+than the least of Christ's servants. Like Francis, they were to be
+mendicants, begging their food from day to day. Having nothing
+themselves, they would be the better able to touch the hearts of those
+who had nothing. Yet it was not so much the humility of Francis as his
+loving heart which distinguished him amongst men. Not only all human
+beings but all created things were dear to him. Once he is said to
+have preached to birds. He called the sun and the wind his brethren,
+the moon and the water his sisters. When he died the last feeble words
+which he breathed were, "Welcome, sister Death!"
+
+6. =St. Dominic.=--Another order arose about the same time in Spain.
+Dominic, a Spaniard, was appalled, not by the misery, but by the
+ignorance of mankind. The order which he instituted was to be called
+that of the Friars Preachers, though they have in later times usually
+been known as Dominicans. Like the Franciscans they were to be Friars,
+or brothers, because all teaching is vain, as much as all charitable
+acts are vain, unless brotherly kindness be at the root. Like the
+Franciscans they were to be mendicants, because so only could the
+world be convinced that they sought not their own good, but to win
+souls to Christ.
+
+7. =The Coming of the Friars. 1220-1224.=--In =1220= the first
+Dominicans arrived in England. Four years later, in =1224=, the first
+Franciscans followed them. Of the work of the early Dominicans in
+England little is known. They preached and taught, appealing to those
+whose intelligence was keen enough to appreciate the value of
+argument. The Franciscans had a different work before them. The misery
+of the dwellers on the outskirts of English towns was appalling. The
+townsmen had made provision for keeping good order amongst all who
+shared in the liberties,[13] or, as we should say, in the privileges
+of the town; but they made no provision for good order amongst the
+crowds who flocked to the town to pick up a scanty living as best they
+might. These poor wretches had to dwell in miserable hovels outside
+the walls by the side of fetid ditches into which the filth of the
+town was poured. Disease and starvation thinned their numbers. No man
+cared for their bodies or their souls. The priests who served in the
+churches within the town passed them by, nor had they any place in the
+charities with which the brethren of the gilds assuaged the
+misfortunes of their own members. It was amongst these that the
+Franciscans lived and laboured, sharing in their misery and their
+diseases, counting their lives well spent if they could bring comfort
+to a single human soul.
+
+    [Footnote 13: A phrase which may serve to keep in mind the medieval
+    meaning of '_libertas_' is to be found in the statement that a
+    certain monastery kept up a pair of stocks '_pro libertate
+    servandâ_'--that is to say, to keep up its franchise of putting
+    offenders into the stocks.]
+
+8. =Monks and Friars.=--The work of the friars was a new phase in the
+history of the Church. The monks had made it their object to save
+their own souls; the friars made it their object to save the bodies
+and souls of others. The friars, like the monks, taught by the example
+of self-denial; but the friars added active well-doing to the passive
+virtue of restraint. Such examples could not fail to be attended with
+consequences of which those who set them never dreamed, all the more
+because the two new orders worked harmoniously towards a common end.
+The Dominicans quickened the brain whilst the Franciscans touched the
+heart, and the whole nation was the better in consequence.
+
+[Illustration: Longthorpe Manor House, Northampton; built about 1235.
+Some of the larger windows are later.]
+
+9. =The King's Marriage. 1236.=--In =1236= Henry married Eleanor, the
+daughter of the Count of Provence. The immediate consequence was the
+arrival of her four uncles with a stream of Provençals in their train.
+Amongst these uncles William, Bishop-elect of Valence, took the lead.
+Henry submitted his weak mind entirely to him, and distributed rank
+and wealth to the Provençals with as much profusion as he had
+distributed them to the Poitevins in the days of Peter des Roches. The
+barons, led now by the king's brother, Richard of Cornwall,
+remonstrated when they met in the Great Council, which was gradually
+acquiring the right of granting fresh taxes, though all reference to
+that right was dropped out of all editions of the Great Charter issued
+in the reign of Henry. For some time they granted the money which
+Henry continually asked for, coupling, however, with their grant the
+demand that Henry should confirm the Charter. The king never refused
+to confirm it. He had no difficulty in making promises, but he never
+troubled himself to keep those which he had made.
+
+[Illustration: A ship in the reign of Henry III.]
+
+10. =The Early Career of Simon de Montfort. 1231--1243.=--Strangely
+enough, Simon de Montfort, the man who was to be the chief opponent of
+Henry and his foreign favourites, was himself a foreigner. He was
+sprung from a family established in Normandy, and his father, the
+elder Simon de Montfort, had been the leader of a body of Crusaders
+from the north of France, who had poured over the south to crush a
+vast body of heretics, known by the name of Albigeois, from Albi, a
+town in which they swarmed. The elder Simon had been strict in his
+orthodoxy and unsparing in his cruelty to all who were unorthodox.
+From him the younger Simon inherited his unswerving religious zeal and
+his constancy of purpose. There was the same stern resolution in both,
+but in the younger man these qualities were coupled with a
+statesmanlike instinct, which was wanting to the father. Norman as he
+was, he had a claim to the earldom of Leicester through his
+grandmother, and in =1231= this claim was acknowledged by Henry. For
+some time Simon continued to live abroad, but in =1236= he returned to
+England to be present at the king's marriage. He was at once taken
+into favour, and in =1238= married the king's sister, Eleanor. His
+marriage was received by the barons and the people with a burst of
+indignation. It was one more instance, it was said, of Henry's
+preference for foreigners over his own countrymen. In =1239= Henry
+turned upon his brother-in-law, brought heavy charges against him, and
+drove him from his court. In =1240= Simon was outwardly reconciled to
+Henry, but he was never again able to repose confidence in one so
+fickle. In =1242= Henry resolved to undertake an expedition to France
+to recover Poitou, which had been gradually slipping out of his
+hands. At a Great Council held before he sailed, the barons, who had
+no sympathy with any attempt to recover lost possessions in France,
+not only rated him soundly for his folly, but, for the first time,
+absolutely refused to make him a grant of money. Simon told him to his
+face that the Frenchman was no lamb to be easily subdued. Simon's
+words proved true. Henry sailed for France, but in =1243= he
+surrendered all claims to Poitou, and returned discomfited. If he did
+not bring home victory he brought with him a new crowd of Poitevins,
+who were connected with his mother's second husband. All of them
+expected to receive advancement in England, and they seldom expected
+it in vain.
+
+11. =Papal Exactions. 1237--1243.=--Disgusted as were the English
+landowners by the preference shown by the king to foreigners, the
+English clergy were no less disgusted by the exactions of the Pope.
+The claim of Innocent III. to regulate the proceedings of kings had
+been handed down to his successors and made them jealous of any ruler
+too powerful to be controlled. The Emperor Frederick II. had not only
+succeeded to the government of Germany, and to some influence over the
+north of Italy, but had inherited Naples and Sicily from his mother.
+The Pope thus found himself, as it were, between two fires. There was
+constant bickering between Frederick and Gregory IX., a fiery old man
+who became Pope in =1227=, and in =1238= Gregory excommunicated
+Frederick, and called on all Europe to assist him against the man whom
+he stigmatised as the enemy of God and the Church. As the king of
+England was his vassal in consequence of John's surrender, he looked
+to him for aid more than to others, especially as England, enjoying
+internal peace more than other nations, was regarded as especially
+wealthy. In =1237=, the year before Frederick's excommunication,
+Gregory sent Cardinal Otho as his legate to demand money from the
+English clergy. The clergy found a leader in Robert Grossetête, Bishop
+of Lincoln, a wise and practical reformer of clerical disorders; but
+though they grumbled, they could get no protection from the king, and
+were forced to pay. Otho left England in =1241=, carrying immense sums
+of money with him, and the promise of the king to present three
+hundred Italian priests to English benefices before he presented a
+single Englishman. In =1243= Gregory IX. was succeeded by Innocent
+IV., who was even more grasping than his predecessor.
+
+12. =A Weak Parliamentary Opposition. 1244.=--Against these evils the
+Great Council strove in vain to make head. It was now beginning to be
+known as Parliament, though no alteration was yet made in its
+composition. In =1244= clergy and barons joined in remonstrating with
+the king, and some of them even talked about restraining his power by
+the establishment of a Justiciar and Chancellor, together with four
+councillors, all six to be elected by the whole of the baronage.
+Without the consent of the Chancellor thus chosen no administrative
+act could be done. The scheme was a distinct advance upon that of the
+barons who, in =1215=, forced the Great Charter upon John. The barons
+had then proposed to leave the appointment of executive officials to
+the king, and to appoint a committee of twenty-five, who were to have
+nothing to do with the government of the country, but were to compel
+the king by force to keep the promises which he had made. In =1244=
+they proposed to appoint the executive officials themselves. It was
+the beginning of a series of changes which ultimately led to that with
+which we are now familiar, the appointment of ministers responsible to
+Parliament. It was too great an innovation to be accepted at once,
+especially as it was demanded by the barons alone. The clergy, who
+were still afraid of the disorders which might ensue if power were
+lodged in the hands of the barons, refused to support it, and for a
+time it fell to the ground. At the same time Richard of Cornwall
+abandoned the baronial party. He had lately married the queen's
+sister, which may have drawn him over to the king; but it is also
+probable that his own position as the king's brother made him
+unwilling to consent to a scheme which would practically transfer the
+government from the king to the barons. On the other hand Earl Simon
+was found on the side of the barons. He held his earldom by
+inheritance from his English grandmother, and the barons were willing
+to forgive his descent from a foreign grandfather when they found him
+prepared to share their policy.
+
+13. =Growing Discontent. 1244--1254.=--The clergy had to learn by
+bitter experience that it was only by a close alliance with the barons
+that they could preserve themselves from wrong. In =1244= a new envoy
+from the Pope, Master Martin, travelled over England wringing money
+from the clergy. Though he was driven out of the country in =1245=,
+the Papal exactions did not cease. The Pope, moreover, continued to
+present his own nominees to English benefices, and in =1252=
+Grossetête complained that these nominees drew three times as much
+income from England as flowed into the royal exchequer. For a time
+even Henry made complaints, but in =1254= Innocent IV. won him over to
+his side. Frederick II. had died in =1250=, and his illegitimate son,
+Manfred, a tried warrior and an able ruler, had succeeded him as king
+of Sicily and Naples. Innocent could not bear that that crown should
+be worn by the son of the man whom he had hated bitterly, and offered
+it to Edmund, the second son of Henry III. Henry lept at the offer,
+hoping that England would bear the expense of the undertaking. England
+was, however, in no mood to comply. Henry had been squandering money
+for years. He had recently employed Earl Simon in Gascony, where Simon
+had put down the resistance of the nobles with a heavy hand. The
+Gascons complained to Henry, and Henry quarrelled with Simon more
+bitterly than before. In =1254= Henry crossed the sea to restore order
+in person. To meet his expenses he borrowed a vast sum of money, and
+this loan, which he expected England to meet, was the only result of
+the expedition.
+
+[Illustration: A bed in the reign of Henry III.]
+
+14. =The Knights of the Shire in Parliament. 1254.=--During the king's
+absence the queen and Earl Richard, who were left as regents, and who
+had to collect money as best they might, gathered a Great Council, to
+which, for the first time, representative knights, four from each
+shire, were summoned. They were merely called on to report what amount
+of aid their constituents were willing to give, and the regents were
+doubtless little aware of the importance of the step which they were
+taking. It was only, to all appearances, an adaptation of the summons
+calling on the united jury to meet at St. Albans to assess the damages
+of the clergy in the reign of John. It might seem as if the regents
+had only summoned a united jury to give evidence of their
+constituents' readiness to grant certain sums of money. In reality the
+new scheme was sure to take root, because it held out a hope of
+getting rid of a constitutional difficulty which had hitherto proved
+insoluble--the difficulty, that is to say, of weakening the king's
+power to do evil without establishing baronial anarchy in its place.
+It was certain that the representatives of the freeholders in the
+counties would not use their influence for the destruction of order.
+
+[Illustration: Barn of thirteenth-century date at Raunds,
+Northamptonshire.]
+
+15. =Fresh Exactions. 1254-1257.=--At the end of =1254= Henry returned
+to England. In =1255= a new Pope, Alexander IV., confirmed his
+predecessor's grant of the kingdom of Sicily to Edmund, on condition
+that Henry should give a large sum of money for the expenses of a war
+against Manfred. To make it easy for Henry to find the money,
+Alexander gave him a tenth of the revenues of the English clergy, on
+the plea that the clergy had always borne their share of the expenses
+of a crusade, and that to fight for the Pope against Manfred was
+equivalent to a crusade. Immense sums were wrung from the clergy, who
+were powerless to resist Pope and king combined. Their indignation was
+the greater, not only because they knew that religion was not at stake
+in the Pope's effort to secure his political power in Italy, but also
+because the Papal court was known to be hopelessly corrupt, it being a
+matter of common talk that all things were for sale at Rome. The
+clergy indeed were less than ever in a condition to resist the king
+without support. Grossetête was dead, and the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, the queen's uncle, Boniface of Savoy, whose duty it was to
+maintain the rights of the Church, was a man who cared nothing for
+England except on account of the money he drew from it. Other
+bishoprics as well were held by foreigners. The result of the weakness
+of the clergy was that they were now ready to unite with the barons,
+whom they had deserted in =1244= (see p. 195). Henry's misgovernment,
+in fact, had roused all classes against him, as the townsmen and the
+smaller landowners had been even worse treated than the greater
+barons. In =1257= one obstacle to reform was removed. Richard of
+Cornwall, the king's brother, who was formidable through his wealth
+and the numbers of his vassals, had for some time taken part against
+them. In =1257= he was chosen king of the Romans by the German
+electors, an election which would make him Emperor as soon as he had
+been crowned by the Pope. He at once left England to seek his fortunes
+in Germany, where he was well received as long as he had money to
+reward his followers, but was deserted as soon as his purse was empty.
+
+16. =The Provisions of Oxford. 1258.=--The crisis in England came in
+=1258=, whilst Richard was still abroad. Though thousands were dying
+of starvation in consequence of a bad harvest, Henry demanded for the
+Pope the monstrous sum of one-third of the revenue of all England.
+Then the storm burst. At a Parliament at Westminster the barons
+appeared in arms and demanded, first, the expulsion of all foreigners,
+and, secondly, the appointment of a committee of twenty-four--twelve
+from the king's party and twelve from that of the barons--to reform
+the realm. The king unwillingly consented, and the committee was
+appointed. Later in the year Parliament met again at Oxford to receive
+the report of the new committee. The Mad Parliament, as it was
+afterwards called in derision, was resolved to make good its claims.
+The scheme of reinforcing Parliament by the election of knights of the
+shire had indeed been suffered to fall into disuse since its
+introduction in =1254=, yet every tenant-in-chief had of old the right
+of attending, and though the lesser tenants-in-chief had hitherto
+seldom or never exercised that right, they now trooped in arms to
+Oxford to support the barons. To this unwonted gathering the committee
+produced a set of proposals which have gone by the name of the
+Provisions of Oxford. There was to be a council of fifteen, without
+the advice of which the king could do no act, and in this council the
+baronial party had a majority. The offices of state were filled in
+accordance with the wishes of the twenty-four, and the barons thus
+entered into possession of the authority which had hitherto been the
+king's. The danger of the king's tyranny was averted, but it remained
+to be seen whether a greater tyranny would not be erected in its
+stead. One clause of the Provisions of Oxford was not reassuring. The
+old Parliaments, which every tenant-in-chief had at least the
+customary right of attending, were no longer to exist. Their place was
+to be taken by a body of twelve, to be chosen by the barons, which was
+to meet three times a year to discuss public affairs with the council
+of fifteen.
+
+17. =The Expulsion of the Foreigners. 1258.=--The first difficulty of
+the new government was to compel the foreigners to surrender their
+castles. William de Valence, the king's half-brother, headed the
+resistance of the foreigners. The barons swore that no danger should
+keep them back till they had cleared the land of foreigners and had
+obtained the good laws which they needed. Earl Simon set the example
+by surrendering his own castles at Kenilworth and Odiham. The national
+feeling was with Simon and the barons, and at last the foreigners were
+driven across the sea. For a time all went well. The committee of
+twenty-four continued its work and produced a further series of
+reforms. All persons in authority were called on to swear to be
+faithful to the Provisions of Oxford, and the king and his eldest son,
+Edward, complied with the demand.
+
+18. =Edward and the Barons. 1259.=--Early in =1259= Richard came back
+to England, and gave satisfaction by swearing to the Provisions.
+Before long signs of danger appeared. The placing complete authority
+in the hands of the barons was not likely to be long popular, and Earl
+Simon was known to be in favour of a wider and more popular scheme.
+Hugh Bigod, who had been named Justiciar by the barons, gave offence
+by the way in which he exercised his office. Simon was hated by the
+king, and he knew that many of the barons did not love him. The
+sub-tenants--the Knights Bachelors of England as they called
+themselves--doubting his power to protect them, complained, not to
+Simon, but to Edward, the eldest son of the King, that the barons had
+obtained the redress of their own grievances, but had done nothing for
+the rest of the community. Edward was now a young man of twenty,
+hot-tempered and impatient of control, but keen-sighted enough to
+know, what his father had never known, that the royal power would be
+increased if it could establish itself in the affections of the
+classes whose interests were antagonistic to those of the barons. He
+therefore declared that he had sworn to the Provisions, and would keep
+his oath; but that if the barons did not fulfil their own promises, he
+would join the community in compelling them to do so. The warning was
+effectual, and the barons issued orders for the redress of the
+grievances of those who had found so high a patron.
+
+19. =The Breach amongst the Barons. 1259--1261.=--Simon had no wish to
+be involved in a purely baronial policy. He had already fallen out
+with Richard de Clare, Earl of Gloucester, the leader of the barons
+who had resisted the full execution of the promises made at Oxford in
+the interest of the people at large. "With such fickle and faithless
+men," said Simon to him, "I care not to have ought to do. The things
+we are treating of now we have sworn to carry out. And thou, Sir Earl,
+the higher thou art the more art thou bound to keep such statutes as
+are wholesome for the land." The king fomented the rising quarrel, and
+in =1261= announced that the Pope had declared the Provisions to be
+null and void, and had released him from his oath to observe them.
+
+20. =Royalist Reaction and Civil War. 1261.=--Henry now ruled again in
+his own fashion. Even the Earl of Gloucester discovered that if the
+king was to be resisted it must be by an appeal to a body of men more
+numerous than the barons alone. He joined Simon in inviting a
+Parliament to meet, at which three knights should appear for each
+county, thus throwing over the unfortunate narrowing of Parliament to
+a baronial committee of twelve, which had been the worst blot on the
+Provisions of Oxford. In the summer of =1262= the Earl of Gloucester
+died, and was succeeded by his son, Earl Gilbert, one of Simon's
+warmest personal admirers. In =1263= Simon, now the acknowledged head
+of the barons and of the nation, finding that the king could not be
+brought to keep the Provisions, took arms against him. He was a master
+in the art of war, and gained one fortified post after another. Henry,
+being, as usual, short of money, called on the Londoners for a loan.
+On their refusal Edward seized a sum of money which belonged to them,
+and so exasperated them that, on the queen's passing under London
+Bridge, the citizens reviled her and pelted her with stones. The war
+was carried on with doubtful results, and by the end of the year both
+parties agreed to submit to the arbitration of the king of France.
+
+21. =The Mise of Amiens. 1264.=--The king of France Louis IX.,
+afterwards known as St. Louis, was the justest and most unselfish of
+men. In =1259= he had surrendered to Henry a considerable amount of
+territory in France, which Henry had been unable to reconquer for
+himself; and was well satisfied to obtain from Henry in return a
+formal renunciation of the remainder of the lands which Philip II. had
+taken from John. Yet, well-intentioned as Louis was, he had no
+knowledge of England, and in France, where the feudal nobility was
+still excessively tyrannical, justice was only to be obtained by the
+maintenance of a strong royal power. He therefore thought that what
+was good for France was also good for England, and in the beginning of
+=1264= he relieved Henry from all the restrictions which his subjects
+had sought to place upon him. The decision thus taken was known as
+the Mise, or settlement, of Amiens, from the place at which it was
+issued.
+
+22. =The Battle of Lewes. 1264.=--The Mise of Amiens required an
+unconditional surrender of England to the king. The Londoners and the
+trading towns were the first to reject it. Simon put himself at the
+head of a united army of barons and citizens. In the early morning of
+May 14 he caught the king's army half asleep at Lewes. Edward charged
+at the Londoners, against whom he bore a grudge since they had
+ill-treated his mother, and cleared them off the field with enormous
+slaughter. When he returned the battle was lost. Henry himself was
+captured, and Richard, king of the Romans, was found hiding in a
+windmill. Edward, in spite of his success, had to give himself up as a
+prisoner.
+
+[Illustration: A fight between armed and mounted knights of the time
+of Henry III.]
+
+[Illustration: Seal of Robert Fitzwalter, showing a mounted knight in
+complete mail armour. Date, about 1265.]
+
+23. =Earl Simon's Government. 1264-1265.=--Simon followed up his
+victory by an agreement called the Mise of Lewes, according to which
+all matters of dispute were again to be referred to arbitration. In
+the meantime there were to be three Electors, Earl Simon himself, the
+Earl of Gloucester, and the Bishop of Chichester. These were to elect
+nine councillors, who were to name the ministers of state. To keep
+these councillors within bounds a Parliament was called, in which with
+the barons, bishops, and abbots there sat not only chosen knights for
+each shire, but also for the first time two representatives of certain
+towns. This Parliament met in =1265=. It was not, indeed, a full
+parliament, as only Simon's partisans amongst the barons were
+summoned, but it was the fullest representation of England as a whole
+which had yet met, and not a merely baronial committee like that
+proposed in =1258=. The views of Simon were clearly indicated in an
+argumentative Latin poem written after the battle of Lewes by one of
+his supporters. In this poem the king's claim to do as he likes with
+his own is met by a demand that he shall rule according to law. Such a
+demand was made by others than the poet. "The king," a great lawyer of
+the day had said, "is not subject to any man, but to God and the law."
+The difficulty still remained of ascertaining what the law was. The
+poet did not, indeed, anticipate modern theories, and hold that the
+law was what the representatives of the people made it to be; but he
+held that the law consisted in the old customs, and that the people
+themselves must be appealed to as the witnesses of what those old
+customs were. "Therefore," he wrote, "let the community of the kingdom
+advise, and let it be known what the generality thinks, to whom their
+own laws are best known. Nor are all those of the country so ignorant
+that they do not know better than strangers the customs of their own
+kingdom which have been handed down to them by their ancestors."[14]
+The poet, in short, regarded the Parliament as a national jury, whose
+duty it was to give evidence on the laws and customs of the nation, in
+the same way that a local jury gave evidence on local matters.
+
+    [Footnote 14:
+
+    "Igitur communitas regni consulatur;
+     Et quid universitas sentiat, sciatur,
+     Cui leges propriæ maxime sunt notæ.
+     Nec cuncti provinciæ sic sunt idiotæ,
+     Quin sciant plus cæteris regni sui mores,
+     Quos relinquunt posteris hii qui sunt priores."]
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of a knight at Gosperton, showing armour worn
+from about 1250 to 1300. Date, about 1270.]
+
+24. =The Battle of Evesham. 1265.=--Simon's constitution was
+premature. Men wanted a patriotic king who could lead the nation
+instead of one who, like Henry, used it for his own ends. The new
+rulers were sure to quarrel with one another. If Simon was still Simon
+the Righteous, his sons acted tyrannically. The barons began again to
+distrust Simon himself, and the young Earl of Gloucester, like his
+father before him, put himself at the head of the dissatisfied barons,
+and went over to the king. Edward escaped from confinement, by urging
+his keepers to ride races with one another, and then galloping off
+when their horses were too tired to follow him. Edward and Gloucester
+combined forces, and, falling on Earl Simon at Evesham, defeated him
+utterly. Simon was slain in the fight and his body barbarously
+mutilated; but his memory was treasured, and he was counted as a saint
+by the people for whom he had worked. Verses have been preserved in
+which he is compared to Archbishop Thomas, who had given himself as a
+sacrifice for the Church, as Simon had given himself as a sacrifice
+for the nation.
+
+[Illustration: Building operations in the reign of Henry III., with
+the king giving directions to the architect.]
+
+25. =The Last Years of Henry III. 1265--1272.=--The storm which had
+been raised was some time in calming down. Some of Earl Simon's
+followers continued to hold out against the king. When at last they
+submitted, they were treated leniently, and in =1267=, at a Parliament
+at Marlborough, a statute was enacted embodying most of the demands
+for the redress of grievances made by the earlier reformers. The
+kingdom settled down in peace, because Henry now allowed Edward to be
+the real head of the government. Edward, in short, carried on Earl
+Simon's work in ruling justly, with the advantage of being raised
+above jealousies by his position as heir to the throne. In =1270=
+England was so peaceful that Edward could embark on a crusade. At Acre
+he very nearly fell a victim to a fanatic belonging to a body which
+counted assassination a religious duty. His wife, Eleanor of Castile,
+who was tenderly attached to him, had to be led out of his tent, lest
+her bitter grief should distract him during an operation which the
+surgeons held to be necessary. In =1272= Henry III. died, and his
+son, though in a distant land, was quietly accepted as his successor.
+
+[Illustration: East end of Westminster Abbey Church: begun by Henry
+III. in 1245.]
+
+[Illustration: Nave of Salisbury Cathedral Church, looking west. Date,
+between 1240 and 1250.]
+
+[Illustration: A king and labourers in the reign of Henry III.]
+
+26. =General Progress of the Country.=--In spite of the turmoils of
+Henry's reign the country made progress in many ways. Men busied
+themselves with replacing the old round-arched churches by large and
+more beautiful ones, in that Early English style of which Lincoln
+Cathedral was the first example on a large scale. In =1220= it was
+followed by Beverley Minster (see p. 189). The nave of Salisbury
+Cathedral was begun in =1240= (see p. 206), and a new Westminster
+Abbey grew piecemeal under Henry's own supervision during the greater
+part of the reign (see p. 205). Mental activity accompanied material
+activity. At Oxford there were reckoned 15,000 scholars. Most
+remarkable was the new departure taken by Walter de Merton, Henry's
+Chancellor. Hitherto each scholar had shifted for himself, lived where
+he could, and been subjected to little or no discipline. In founding
+Merton College, the first college which existed in the University,
+Merton proposed not only to erect a building in which the lads who
+studied might be boarded and placed under supervision, but to train
+them with a view to learning for its own sake, and not to prepare them
+for the priesthood. The eagerness to learn things difficult was
+accompanied by a desire to increase popular knowledge. For the first
+time since the Chronicle came to an end, which was soon after the
+accession of Henry II., a book--Layamon's _Brut_--appeared in the
+reign of John in the English language, and one at least of the songs
+which witness to the interest of the people in the great struggle with
+Henry III. was also written in the same language. Yet the great
+achievement of the fifty-six years of Henry's reign was--to use the
+language of the smith who refused to put fetters on the limbs of
+Hubert de Burgh (see p. 188)--the giving of England back to the
+English. In =1216= it was possible for Englishmen to prefer a
+French-born Louis as their king to an Angevin John. In =1272= England
+was indeed divided by class prejudices and conflicting interests, but
+it was nationally one. The greatest grievance suffered from Henry III.
+was his preference of foreigners over his own countrymen. In
+resistance to foreigners Englishmen had been welded together into a
+nation, and in their new king Edward they found a leader who would not
+only prove a wise and thoughtful ruler, but who was every inch an
+Englishman.
+
+_Genealogy of John's Sons and Grandsons._
+
+                               JOHN, 1199-1216
+                                 |
+        ----------------------------------------------
+        |                             |              |
+     HENRY III. = Eleanor of       Richard,       Eleanor = Simon de
+     1216-1272  | Provence     Earl of Cornwall             Montfort
+                |            and King of the Romans
+         -------------
+         |           |
+     EDWARD I.    Edmund, titular King of Sicily
+     1272-1307
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+EDWARD I. AND EDWARD II.
+
+EDWARD I., =1272--1307.= EDWARD II., =1307--1327.=
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Accession of Edward I.                                          1272
+  Death of Alexander III.                                         1285
+  The Award of Norham                                             1292
+  The Model Parliament                                            1295
+  The First Conquest of Scotland                                  1296
+  Confirmatio Cartarum                                            1297
+  Completion of the Second Conquest of Scotland                   1304
+  The Incorporation of Scotland with England                      1305
+  The Third Conquest of Scotland                                  1306
+  Accession of Edward II.                                         1307
+  Execution of Gaveston                                           1312
+  Battle of Bannockburn                                           1314
+  Execution of Lancaster                                          1322
+  Deposition of Edward II.                                        1327
+
+
+[Illustration: Great Seal of Edward I.]
+
+1. =The First Years of Edward I. 1272--1279.=--Edward I., though he
+inherited the crown in =1272=, did not return to England till =1274=,
+being able to move in a leisurely fashion across Europe without fear
+of disturbances at home. He fully accepted those articles of John's
+Great Charter which had been set aside at the beginning of the reign
+of Henry III., and which required that the king should only take
+scutages and aids with the consent of the Great Council or Parliament.
+The further requirement of the barons that they should name the
+ministers of the crown, was allowed to fall asleep. Edward was a
+capable ruler, and knew how to appoint better ministers than the
+barons were likely to choose for him. It was Edward's peculiar merit
+that he stood forward not only as a ruler but as a legislator. He
+succeeded in passing one law after another, because he thoroughly
+understood that useful legislation is only possible when the
+legislator on the one hand has an intelligent perception of the
+remedies needed to meet existing evils, and on the other hand is
+willing to content himself with such remedies as those who are to be
+benefited by them are ready to accept. The first condition was
+fulfilled by Edward's own skill as a lawyer, and by the skill of the
+great lawyers whom he employed. The second condition was fulfilled by
+his determination to authorise no new legislation without the counsel
+and consent of those who were most affected by it. He did not, indeed,
+till late in his reign call a whole Parliament together, as Earl Simon
+had done. But he called the barons together in any matter which
+affected the barons, and he called the representatives of the townsmen
+together in any matter which affected the townsmen, and so on with the
+other classes.
+
+2. =Edward I. and Wales. 1276--1284.=--Outside England Edward's first
+difficulty was with the Welsh, who, though their Princes had long been
+regarded by the English Kings as vassals, had practically maintained
+their independence in the mountainous region of North Wales of which
+Snowdon is the centre. Between them and the English Lords Marchers,
+who had been established to keep order in the marches, or border-land,
+there was nothing but hostility. The Welshmen made forays and
+plundered the English lands, and the English retorted by slaughtering
+Welshmen whenever they could come up with them amongst the hills.
+Naturally the Welsh took the side of any enemy of the English kings
+with whom it was possible to ally themselves. Llewelyn, Prince of
+Wales, had joined Earl Simon against Henry III., and had only done
+homage to Henry after Simon had been defeated. After Henry's death he
+refused homage to Edward till =1276=. In =1282= he and his brother
+David renewed the war, and Edward, determined to put an end to the
+independence of such troublesome neighbours, marched against them.
+Before the end of the year Llewelyn was slain, and David was captured
+and executed in =1283=. Wales then came fully under the dominion of
+the English kings. Edward's second son, afterwards King Edward II.,
+was born at Carnarvon in =1284=, and soon afterwards, having become
+heir to the throne upon the death of his elder brother, was presented
+to the Welsh as Prince of Wales, a title from that day usually
+bestowed upon the king's eldest son. At the same time, though Edward
+built strong castles at Conway and Carnarvon to hold the Welsh in awe,
+he made submission easier by enacting suitable laws for them, under
+the name of the Statute of Wales, and by establishing a separate body
+of local officials to govern them, as well as by confirming them in
+the possession of their lands and goods.
+
+[Illustration: Group of armed knights, and a king in ordinary dress.
+Date, _temp._ Edward I.]
+
+3. =Customs Duties. 1275.=--Though Edward I. was by no means
+extravagant, he found it impossible to meet the expenses of government
+without an increase of taxation. In =1275= he obtained the consent of
+Parliament to the increase of the duties on exports and imports which
+had hitherto been levied without Parliamentary sanction. He was now to
+receive by a Parliamentary grant a fixed export duty of 6_s._ 8_d._ on
+every sack of wool sent out of the country, and of a corresponding
+duty on wool-fells and leather. Under ordinary circumstances it is
+useless for any government to attempt to gain a revenue by export
+duty, because such a duty only raises the price abroad of the products
+of its own country, and foreigners will therefore prefer to buy the
+articles which they need from some country which does not levy export
+duties, and where, therefore, the articles are to be had more cheaply.
+England, however, was, in Edward's time, and for many years
+afterwards, an exception to the rule. On the Continent men could not
+produce much wool or leather for sale, because private wars were
+constantly occurring, and the fighting men were in the habit of
+driving off the sheep and the cattle. In England there were no private
+wars, and under the king's protection sheep and cattle could be bred
+in safety. There were now growing up manufactures of cloth in the
+fortified towns of Flanders, and the manufacturers there were obliged
+to come to England for the greater part of the wool which they used.
+They could not help paying not only the price of the wool, but the
+king's export duty as well, because if they refused they could not get
+sufficient wool in any other country.
+
+4. =Edward's Judicial Reforms. 1274--1290.=--Every king of England
+since the Norman Conquest had exercised authority in a twofold
+capacity. On one hand he was the head of the nation, on the other hand
+he was the feudal lord of his vassals. Edward laid more stress than
+any former king upon his national headship. Early in his reign he
+organised the courts of law, completing the division of the _Curia
+Regis_ into the three courts which existed till recent times: the
+Court of King's Bench, to deal with criminal offences reserved for the
+king's judgment, and with suits in which he was himself concerned; the
+Court of Exchequer, to deal with all matters touching the king's
+revenue; and the Court of Common Pleas, to deal with suits between
+subject and subject. Edward took care that the justice administered in
+these courts should as far as possible be real justice, and in =1289=
+he dismissed two Chief Justices and many other officials for
+corruption. In =1285= he improved the Assize of Arms of Henry II. (see
+p. 154), so as to be more sure of securing a national support for his
+government in time of danger.
+
+5. =Edward's Legislation. 1279--1290.=--It was in accordance with the
+national feeling that Edward, in =1290=, banished from England the
+Jews, whose presence was most profitable to himself, but who were
+regarded as cruel tyrants by their debtors. On the other hand, Edward
+took care to assert his rights as a feudal lord. In =1279=, by the
+statute _De religiosis_, commonly known as the Statute of Mortmain, he
+forbade the gift of land to the clergy, because in their hands land
+was no longer liable to the feudal dues. In =1290=, by another
+statute, _Quia emptores_, he forbade all new sub-infeudation. If from
+henceforth a vassal wished to part with his land, the new tenant was
+to hold it, not under the vassal who gave it up, but under that
+vassal's lord, whether the lord was the king or anyone else. The
+object of this law was to increase the number of tenants-in-chief, and
+thus to bring a larger number of landowners into direct relations with
+the king.
+
+[Illustration: Nave of Lichfield Cathedral, looking east. Built about
+1280.]
+
+6. =Edward as a National and as a Feudal Ruler.=--In his government of
+England Edward had sought chiefly to strengthen his position as the
+national king of the whole people, and to depress legally and without
+violence the power of the feudal nobility. He was, however, ambitious,
+with the ambition of a man conscious of great and beneficent aims, and
+he was quite ready to enforce even unduly his personal claims to
+feudal obedience whenever it served his purpose to do so. His
+favourite motto, 'Keep troth' (_Pactum serva_), revealed his sense of
+the inviolability of a personal engagement given or received, but his
+legal mind often led him into construing in his own favour
+engagements in which only the letter of the law was on his side,
+whilst its spirit was against him. It was chiefly in his relations
+with foreign peoples that he fell into this error, as it was here
+that he was most strongly tempted to lay stress upon the feudal tie
+which made for him, and to ignore the importance of a national
+resistance which made against him. In dealing with Wales, for
+instance, he sent David to a cruel death, because he had broken the
+feudal tie which bound him to the king of England, feeling no sympathy
+with him as standing up for the independence of his own people.
+
+7. =The Scottish Succession. 1285-1290.=--In the earlier part of
+Edward's reign Alexander III. was king of Scotland. Alexander's
+ancestors, indeed, had done homage to Edward's ancestors, but in
+=1189= William the Lion had purchased from Richard I. the abandonment
+of all the claim to homage for the crown of Scotland which Henry II.
+had acquired by the treaty of Falaise (see pp. 154, 159). William's
+successors, however, held lands in England, and had done homage for
+them to the English kings. Edward would gladly have restored the old
+practice of homage for Scotland itself, but to this Alexander had
+never given way. To Edward there was something alluring in the
+prospect of being lord of the whole island, as it would not only
+strengthen his own personal position, but would bring two nations into
+peaceful union. Between the southern part of Scotland, indeed, and the
+northern part of England there was no great dissimilarity. On both
+sides of the border the bulk of the population was of the same Anglian
+stock, whilst, in consequence of the welcome offered by the Scottish
+kings to persons of Norman descent, the nobility was as completely
+Norman in Scotland as it was in England, many of the nobles indeed
+possessing lands on both sides of the border. A prospect of effecting
+a union by peaceful means offered itself to Edward in =1285=, when
+Alexander III. was killed by a fall from his horse near Kinghorn.
+Alexander's only descendant was Margaret, a child of his daughter and
+of King Eric of Norway. In =1290= it was agreed that she should marry
+the Prince of Wales, but that the two kingdoms should remain
+absolutely independent of one another. Unfortunately, the Maid of
+Norway, as the child was called, died on her way to Scotland, and this
+plan for establishing friendly relations between the two countries
+came to naught. If it had succeeded three centuries of war and misery
+might possibly have been avoided.
+
+8. =Death of Eleanor of Castile. 1290.=--Another death, which happened
+in the same year, brought sorrow into Edward's domestic life. His wife
+Eleanor died in November. The corpse was brought for burial from
+Lincoln to Westminster, and the bereaved husband ordered the erection
+of a memorial cross at each place where the body rested.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of Eleanor of Castile, queen of Edward I., in
+Westminster Abbey.]
+
+9. =The Award of Norham. 1291--1292.=--Edward, sorrowing as he was,
+was unable to neglect the affairs of State. On the death of the Maid
+of Norway there was a large number of claimants to the Scottish crown.
+The hereditary principle, which had long before been adopted in regard
+to the succession to landed property, was gradually being adopted in
+most kingdoms in regard to the succession to the crown. There were
+still, however, differences of opinion as to the manner in which
+hereditary succession ought to be reckoned, and there were now many
+claimants, of whom at least three could make out a plausible case.
+David, Earl of Huntingdon, a brother of William the Lion, had left
+three daughters. The grandson of the eldest daughter was John Balliol;
+the son of the second was Robert Bruce; the grandson of the third was
+John Hastings. Balliol maintained that he ought to succeed as being
+descended from the eldest: Bruce urged that the son of a younger
+daughter was nearer to the common ancestor, David, than the grandson
+of the elder: whilst Hastings asked that Scotland should be divided
+into three parts--according to a custom which prevailed in feudal
+estates in which the holder left only daughters--amongst the
+representatives of David's three daughters.[15] Every one of these
+three claimants was an English baron, and Bruce held large estates in
+both countries. The only escape from a desolating civil war seemed to
+be to appeal to Edward's arbitration, and in =1291= Edward summoned
+the Scots to meet him at Norham. He then demanded as the price of his
+arbitration the acknowledgment of his position as lord paramount of
+Scotland, in virtue of which the Scottish king, when he had once been
+chosen, was to do homage to himself as king of England. Edward, who
+might fairly have held that, in spite of the abandonment of the treaty
+of Falaise by Richard, he had a right to the old vague over-lordship
+of earlier kings, appears to have thought it right to take the
+opportunity of Scotland's weakness to renew the stricter relationship
+of homage which had been given up by Richard. At all events, the
+Scottish nobles and clergy accepted his demand, though the commonalty
+made some objection, the nature of which has not been recorded. Edward
+then investigated carefully the points at issue, and in =1292= decided
+in favour of Balliol. If he had been actuated by selfish motives he
+would certainly have adopted the suggestion of Hastings that Scotland
+ought to be divided into three kingdoms.
+
+    [Footnote 15: Genealogy of the claimants of the Scottish throne:--
+
+                          DAVID I.
+                         1124-1153
+                             |
+                           Henry
+                             |
+         ----------------------------------------------
+         |            |                               |
+     MALCOLM IV.   WILLIAM                David, Earl of Huntingdon
+     1153-1165     THE LION                           |
+                  1165-1214        -------------------------------------
+                  /               |                   |                |
+                 /                |                   |                |
+                /             Margaret            Isabella            Ada
+       ALEXANDER II.       _m._ Alan, Lord     _m._ Robert Bruce  _m._ Henry
+        1214-1249           of Galloway               |             Hastings
+            |                     |                   |                |
+       ALEXANDER III.         Devorguilla        Robert Bruce        Henry
+        1249-1285          _m._ John Balliol     the Claimant       Hastings
+            |                     |                   |                |
+            |              ----------------           |                |
+         Margaret          |              |           |              John
+       _m._ Eric, king    Margaret   JOHN BALLIOL   Robert Bruce     Hastings,
+         of Norway    _m._ John, the    1292-1296     |               the
+            |          Black Comyn        |           |             Claimant
+            |              |              |           |
+         Margaret,         |        Edward Balliol  ROBERT BRUCE
+       The Maid of    John, the Red                  1306-1329
+         Norway          Comyn]
+
+[Illustration: Cross erected near Northampton by Edward I. in memory
+of Queen Eleanor built between 1291 and 1294.]
+
+10. =Disputes with Scotland and France. 1293--1295.=--The new king of
+Scotland did homage to Edward for his whole kingdom. If Edward could
+have contented himself with enforcing the ordinary obligations of
+feudal superiority all might have gone well. Unfortunately for all
+parties, he attempted to stretch them by insisting in =1293= that
+appeals from the courts of the king of Scotland should lie to the
+courts of the king of England. Suitors found that their rights could
+not be ascertained till they had undertaken a long and costly journey
+to Westminster. A national feeling of resistance was roused amongst
+the Scots, and though Edward pressed his claims courteously, he
+continued to press them. A temper grew up in Scotland which might be
+dangerous to him if Scotland could find an ally, and an ally was not
+long in presenting himself. Philip IV. now king of France, was as wily
+and unscrupulous as Philip II. had been in the days of John. Edward
+was his vassal in Guienne and Gascony, and Philip knew how to turn the
+feudal relationship to account in France as well as Edward knew how to
+turn it to account in Scotland. The Cinque Ports[16] along the
+south-eastern shore of England swarmed with hardy and practised
+mariners, and there had often been sea-fights between French and
+English sailors quite independently of the two kings. In =1293= there
+was a great battle in which the French were worsted. Though Edward was
+ready to punish the offenders, Philip summoned him to appear as a
+vassal before his lord's court at Paris. In =1294=, however, an
+agreement was made between the two kings. Edward was for mere form's
+sake to surrender his French fortresses to Philip in token of
+submission, and Philip was then to return them. Philip, having thus
+got the fortresses into his hands, refused to return them. In =1295= a
+league was made between France and Scotland, which lasted for more
+than three hundred years. Its permanence was owing to the fact that it
+was a league between nations more than a league between kings.
+
+    [Footnote 16: Sandwich, Dover, Hythe, Romney, Hastings; to which
+    were added Winchelsea and Rye as 'ancient towns,' besides several
+    'limbs' or dependencies.]
+
+11. =The Model Parliament. 1295.=--Edward, attacked on two sides,
+threw himself for support on the English nation. Towards the end of
+=1295= he summoned a Parliament which was in most respects the model
+for all succeeding Parliaments. It was attended not only by bishops,
+abbots, earls, and barons, by two knights from every shire, and two
+burgesses from every borough, but also by representatives of the
+chapters of cathedrals and of the parochial clergy. It cannot be said
+with any approach to certainty, whether the Parliament thus collected
+met in one House or not. As, however, the barons and knights offered
+an eleventh of the value of their movable goods, the clergy a tenth,
+and the burgesses a seventh, it is not unlikely that there was a
+separation into what in modern times would be called three Houses, at
+least for purposes of taxation. At all events, the representatives of
+the clergy subsequently refused to sit in Parliament, preferring to
+vote money to the Crown in their own convocations.
+
+[Illustration: Sir John d'Abernoun, died 1277: from his brass at Stoke
+Dabernon: showing armour worn from about 1250 to 1300.]
+
+12. =The first Conquest of Scotland. 1296.=--In =1296= Edward turned
+first upon Scotland. After he crossed the border Balliol sent to him
+renouncing his homage. "Has the felon fool done such folly?" said
+Edward. "If he will not come to us, we will go to him." He won a
+decisive victory over the Scots at Dunbar. Balliol surrendered his
+crown, and was carried off, never to reappear in Scotland. Edward set
+up no more vassal kings. He declared himself to be the immediate king
+of Scotland, Balliol having forfeited the crown by treason. The
+Scottish nobles did homage to him. On his return to England he left
+behind him the Earl of Surrey and Sir Hugh Cressingham as guardians of
+the kingdom, and he carried off from Scone the stone of destiny on
+which the Scottish kings had been crowned, and concerning which there
+had been an old prophecy to the effect that wherever that stone was
+Scottish kings should rule. The stone was placed, where it still
+remains, under the coronation-chair of the English kings in
+Westminster Abbey, and there were those long afterwards who deemed the
+prophecy fulfilled when the Scottish King James VI. came to take his
+seat on that chair as James I. of England.
+
+13. =The Resistance of Archbishop Winchelsey. 1296--1297.=--The
+dispute with France and the conquest of Scotland cost much money, and
+Edward, finding his ordinary revenue insufficient, had been driven to
+increase it by unusual means. He gathered assemblies of the merchants,
+and persuaded them without the leave of Parliament to increase the
+export duties, and he also induced the clergy in the same way to grant
+him large sums. The clergy were the first to resist. In =1296=
+Boniface VIII., a Pope who pushed to the extreme the Papal claims to
+the independence of the Church, issued the Bull, _Clericis laicos_, in
+which he declared that the clergy were not to pay taxes without the
+Pope's consent; and when at the end of the year Edward called on his
+Parliament to grant him fresh sums, Winchelsey, the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, refused, on the ground of this Bull, to allow a penny to
+be levied from the clergy. Edward, instead of arguing with him,
+directed the chief justice of the King's Bench to announce that, as
+the clergy would pay no taxes, they would no longer be protected by
+the king. The clergy now found themselves in evil case. Anyone who
+pleased could rob them or beat them, and no redress was to be had.
+They soon therefore evaded their obligation to obey the Bull, and paid
+their taxes, under the pretence that they were making presents to the
+king, on which Edward again opened his courts to them. In the days of
+Henry I. or Henry II. it would not have been possible to treat the
+clergy in this fashion. The fact was, that the mass of the people now
+looked to the king instead of to the Church for protection, and
+therefore respected the clergy less than they had done in earlier
+days.
+
+14. =The 'Confirmatio Cartarum.' 1297.=--In =1297= Edward, having
+subdued the Scots in the preceding year, resolved to conduct one army
+to Flanders, and to send another to Gascony to maintain his rights
+against Philip IV. He therefore called on his barons to take part in
+these enterprises. Amongst those ordered to go to Gascony were Roger
+Bigod, Earl of Norfolk, and Humfrey Bohun, Earl of Hereford. They
+declared that they were only bound to follow the king himself, and
+that as Edward was not going in person to Gascony they would not go.
+"By God, Sir Earl," said the king to one of them, "you shall either go
+or hang." "By God," was the reply, "I will neither go nor hang." The
+two earls soon found support. The barons were sore because Edward's
+reforms had diminished their authority. The clergy were sore because
+of their recent treatment. The merchants were sore because of the
+exactions to which they had been subjected. Archbishop Winchelsey
+bound the malcontents together by asking Edward to confirm _Magna
+Carta_ and other charters granted by his predecessors, and by adding
+other articles now proposed for the first time, so as to preclude him
+from demanding taxes not granted by Parliament. Edward found that the
+new articles restricted his action more than it had been restricted by
+the older charters. He was deeply vexed, as he thought that he
+deserved to be trusted, and that, though he had exacted illegal
+payments, he had only done so out of necessity. He saw, however, that
+he must yield, but he could not bring himself to yield in person, and
+he therefore crossed the sea to Flanders, leaving the Prince of Wales
+to make the required concession. On October 10, =1297=, the
+_Confirmatio Cartarum_, as it was called, was issued in the king's
+name. It differed from _Magna Carta_ in this, that whereas John had
+only engaged not to exact feudal revenue from his vassals without
+consent of Parliament, Edward I. also engaged not to exact customs
+duties without a Parliamentary grant. From that time no general
+revenue could be taken from the whole realm without a breach of the
+law, though the king still continued for some time to raise tallages,
+or special payments, from the tenants of his own demesne lands.
+
+15. =Wallace's Rising. 1297--1304.=--Whilst Edward was contending with
+his own people his officers had been oppressing the Scots. They had
+treated Scotland as a conquered land, not as a country joined to
+England by equal union. Resistance began in =1297=, and a rising was
+headed by Wallace, a gentleman of moderate fortune in the western
+lowlands. Wallace's bold and vigorous attacks gained him the
+confidence of the lesser gentry and the people, though the nobles,
+mostly of Norman descent, supported the English government, and only
+joined Wallace when it was dangerous to stand aloof. In the autumn, an
+English army advancing into Scotland reached the south bank of the
+Forth near Stirling. Wallace, who showed on that day that he was
+skilful as well as brave, drew up his army on the north bank at some
+little distance from the narrow bridge over which the English must
+come if they were to attack him. When half of them had crossed, he
+fell upon that half before the troops in the rear could advance to its
+succour. Wallace's victory was complete, and he then invaded England,
+ravaging and slaughtering as far as Hexham.
+
+16. =The Second Conquest of Scotland. 1298--1304.=--In =1298= Edward,
+who had been unsuccessful on the Continent, made a truce with Philip.
+Returning to England, he marched against Wallace, and came up with
+him at Falkirk. The battle which ensued, like William's victory at
+Senlac (see p. 96), was a triumph of inventive military skill over
+valour content to rest upon ancient methods. The Scots were hardy
+footmen, drawn up in three rings, and provided with long spears.
+Against such a force so armed the cavalry of the feudal array would
+dash itself in vain. Edward, however, had marked in his Welsh wars the
+superiority of the long-bow drawn to the ear--not, as in the case of
+the shorter bows of older times, to the breast of the archer--and
+sending its cloth-yard shaft with a strength and swiftness hitherto
+unknown. He now brought with him a large force of bowmen equipped in
+this fashion. At Falkirk the long-bow was tried for the first time in
+any considerable battle. The effect was overwhelming: a shower of
+arrows poured upon a single point in the ring of the spearmen soon
+cleared a gap. Edward's cavalry dashed in before the enemy had time to
+close, and the victory was won. Wallace had had scarcely one of the
+Scottish nobles with him either at Stirling or at Falkirk, and unless
+all Scotland combined he could hardly be expected to succeed against
+such a warrior as Edward. Wallace's merit was that he did not despair
+of his country, and that by his patriotic vigour he prepared the minds
+of Scotsmen for a happier day. He himself fled to France, but Scotland
+struggled on without him. Some of the nobles, now that Wallace was no
+longer present to give them cause of jealousy, took part in the
+resistance, and only in =1304= did Edward after repeated campaigns
+complete his second conquest of the country.
+
+17. =The Incorporation of Scotland with England. 1305.=--In =1305=
+Wallace, who had returned from France, but had taken no great part in
+the late resistance, was betrayed to the English. His barbarity in his
+raid on Northumberland in =1297= (see p. 221) had marked him out for
+vengeance, and he was executed at Tyburn as a traitor to the English
+king of Scotland, whose right he had never acknowledged. Edward then
+proceeded to incorporate Scotland with England. Scotland was to be
+treated very much as Wales had been treated before. There was to be as
+little harshness as possible. Nobles who had resisted Edward were to
+keep their estates on payment of fines, the Scottish law was to be
+observed, and Scots were to be chosen to represent the wishes of their
+fellow-countrymen in the Parliament at Westminster. On the other hand,
+the Scottish nobles were to surrender their castles, and the country
+was to be governed by an English Lieutenant, who, together with his
+council, had power to amend the laws.
+
+18. =Character of Edward's Dealings with Scotland.=--Edward's
+dealings with Scotland, mistaken as they were, were not those of a
+self-willed tyrant. If it be once admitted that he was really the lord
+paramount of Scotland, everything that he did may be justified upon
+feudal principles. First, Balliol forfeited his vassal crown by
+breaking his obligations as a vassal. Secondly, Edward, through the
+default of his vassal, took possession of the fief which Balliol had
+forfeited, and thus became the immediate lord of Balliol's vassals.
+Thirdly, those vassals rebelled--so at least Edward would have
+said--against their new lord. Fourthly, they thereby forfeited their
+estates to him, and he was therefore, according to his own view, in
+the right in restoring their estates to them--if he restored them at
+all--under new conditions. Satisfactory as this argument must have
+seemed to Edward, it was weak in two places. The Scots might attack it
+at its basis by retorting that Edward had never truly been lord
+paramount of Scotland at all; or they might assert that it did not
+matter whether he was so or not, because the Scottish right to
+national independence was superior to all feudal claims. It is this
+latter argument which has the most weight at the present day, and it
+seems to us strange that Edward, who had done so much to encourage the
+national growth of England, should have entirely ignored the national
+growth of Scotland. All that can be said to palliate Edward's mistake
+is that it was, at first, difficult to perceive that there was a
+Scottish nationality at all. Changes in the political aspect of
+affairs grow up unobserved, and it was not till after his death that
+all classes in Scotland were completely welded together in resistance
+to an English king. At all events, if he treated the claim of the
+Scots to national independence with contempt, he at least strove,
+according to his own notions, to benefit Scots and English alike. He
+hoped that one nation, justly ruled under one government, would grow
+up in the place of two divided peoples.
+
+19. =Robert Bruce. 1306.=--It was better even for England that
+Edward's hopes should fail. Scotland would have been of little worth
+to its more powerful neighbour if it had been cowed into subjection;
+whereas when, after struggling and suffering for her independence, she
+offered herself freely as the companion and ally of England to share
+in common duties and common efforts, the gift was priceless. That
+Scotland was able to shake off the English yoke was mainly the work of
+Robert Bruce, the grandson of the Robert Bruce who had been one of the
+claimants of the Scottish crown at Norham. The Bruces, like Balliol,
+were of Norman descent, and as Balliol's rivals they had attached
+themselves to Edward. The time was now come when all chances of
+Balliol's restoration were at an end, and thoughts of gaining the
+crown stirred in the mind of the younger Bruce. After Edward's last
+settlement of Scotland it was plain that there was no longer room for
+a Scottish vassal king, and Bruce was therefore driven to connect his
+own aspirations with those of the Scottish nation. He had, however,
+one powerful rival amongst the nobles. John Comyn--the Red Comyn, as
+he was called--had been one of the many claimants of the throne who
+appeared before Edward at Norham, and he still looked with a jealous
+eye upon all who disputed his title. He was, however, persuaded in
+=1306= to meet Bruce in the Grey Friars Church at Dumfries. As Bruce
+pleaded his own right to the crown, Comyn denounced him as a traitor
+to Edward. Bruce answered by driving his dagger into him. "I doubt,"
+cried Bruce, as he rushed from the church, "that I have slain the Red
+Comyn." "I will mak sicker" (_make sure_), said Kirkpatrick, who was
+in attendance upon him, and, going in, completed the murder. Bruce
+made for Scone and was crowned king of Scotland in the presence of
+many of the chief nobility.
+
+20. =Edward's Last March on Scotland and Death. 1306--1307.= Edward,
+to whom Bruce was but a rebel and a murderer, despatched against him
+the Earl of Pembroke who routed his forces at Methven. The revolt was
+suppressed and Bruce's supporters were carried off to English prisons,
+and their lands divided amongst English noblemen. The Countess of
+Buchan, who had taken a prominent part in Bruce's coronation, was
+subjected to an imprisonment of great severity in the castle of
+Berwick. Bruce almost alone escaped. He knew now that he had the
+greater part of the nobility as well as the people at his side, and
+even in his lonely wanderings and hairbreadth escapes he was, what
+neither Balliol nor Wallace had been, the true head of the Scottish
+nation. Before the end of =1306= he reappeared in Carrick, where his
+own possessions lay, and where the whole population was on his side,
+and inflicted heavy losses on the English garrisons. Early in July
+=1307= Edward, who himself had tarried in Cumberland, once more set
+out to take the field in person; but he was now old and worn out, and
+he died at Burgh on Sands, a few miles on the English side of the
+border.
+
+[Illustration: Edward II.; from his monument in Gloucester Cathedral.]
+
+21. =Edward II. and Piers Gaveston. 1307--1312.=--The new king, Edward
+II., was as different as possible from his father. He was not wicked,
+like William II. and John, but he detested the trouble of public
+business, and thought that the only advantage of being a king was that
+he would have leisure to amuse himself. During his father's life he
+devoted himself to Piers Gaveston, a Gascon, who encouraged him in
+his pleasures and taught him to mistrust his father. Edward I.
+banished Gaveston; Edward II., immediately on his accession, not only
+recalled him, but made him regent when he himself crossed to France to
+be married to Isabella, the daughter of Philip IV. The barons, who
+were already inclined to win back some of the authority of which
+Edward I. had deprived them, were very angry at the place taken over
+their heads by an upstart favourite, especially as Gaveston was
+ill-bred enough to make jests at their expense. The barons found a
+leader in Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, the son of that Edmund, the
+brother of Edward I., who had received the title of king of Sicily
+from the Pope (see p. 197). Thomas of Lancaster had very large
+estates. He was an ambitious man, who tried to play the part which had
+been played by Earl Simon without any of Simon's qualifications for
+the position. In =1308= the king yielded to the barons so far as to
+send Gaveston out of the country to Ireland as his Lieutenant. In
+=1309= he recalled him. The barons were exasperated, and in the
+Parliament of =1310= they brought forward a plan for taking the
+king's government out of his hands, very much after the fashion of the
+Provisions of Oxford. Twenty-one barons were appointed Lords
+Ordainers, to draw up ordinances for the government of the country. In
+=1311= they produced the ordinances. Gaveston was to be banished for
+life. The king was to appoint officers only with the consent of the
+barons, without which he was not to go to war nor leave the kingdom.
+The ordinances may have been justified in so far as they restrained
+the authority of a king so incapable as Edward II. Constitutionally
+their acceptance was a retrograde step, as, like the Provisions of
+Oxford, they placed power in the hands of the barons, passing over
+Parliament as a whole. Edward agreed to the ordinances, but refused to
+surrender Gaveston. The barons took arms to enforce their will, and in
+=1312=, having captured Gaveston, they beheaded him near Warwick
+without the semblance of a trial.
+
+22. =Success of Robert Bruce. 1307--1314.=--Whilst Edward and the
+barons were disputing Bruce gained ground rapidly. In =1313= Stirling
+was the only fortress of importance in Scotland still garrisoned by
+the English, and the English garrison bound itself to surrender on
+June 24, =1314=, if it had not been previously relieved. Even Edward
+II. was stirred by this doleful news, and in =1314= he put himself at
+the head of an army to relieve Stirling. Lancaster, however, and all
+whom he could influence refused to follow him, on the ground that the
+king had not, in accordance with the ordinances, received permission
+from the barons to go to war. On June 24 Edward reached Bannockburn,
+within sight of Stirling. Like his father, he brought with him English
+archers as well as English horsemen, but he foolishly sent his archers
+far in advance of his horsemen, where they would be entirely
+unprotected. Bruce, on the other hand, not only had a small body of
+horse, which rode down the archers, but he strengthened the defensive
+position of his spearmen by digging pits in front of his line and
+covering them with turf. Into these pits the foremost horses of the
+English cavalry plunged. Edward's whole array was soon one mass of
+confusion, and before it could recover itself a body of gillies, or
+camp-followers, appearing over a hill was taken for a fresh Scottish
+army. The vast English host turned and fled. Stirling at once
+surrendered, and all Scotland was lost to Edward. Materially, both
+England and Scotland suffered grievously from the result of the battle
+of Bannockburn. English invasions of southern Scotland and Scottish
+invasions of northern England spread desolation far and wide, stifling
+the germs of nascent civilisation. Morally, both nations were in the
+end the gainers. The hardihood and self-reliance of the Scottish
+character is distinctly to be traced to those years of struggle
+against a powerful neighbour. England, too, was the better for being
+balked of its prey. No nation can suppress the liberty of another
+without endangering its own.
+
+[Illustration: Lincoln Cathedral--the central tower; built about
+1310.]
+
+23. =Lancaster's Government. 1314--1322.=--Edward was thrown by his
+defeat entirely under the power of Lancaster, who took the whole
+authority into his hands and placed and displaced ministers at his
+pleasure. Lancaster, however, was a selfish and incompetent ruler. He
+allowed the Scots to ravage the north of England without venturing to
+oppose them, and as he could not even keep order at home, private wars
+broke out amongst the barons. In =1318= Bruce took Berwick, the great
+border fortress against Scotland. It was rather by good luck than by
+good management that Edward was at last able to resist Lancaster.
+Edward could not exist without a personal favourite, and he found one
+in Hugh le Despenser. Despenser was at least an Englishman, which
+Gaveston had not been, and his father, Hugh le Despenser the elder,
+did his best to raise up a party to support the king. In =1321=,
+however, Parliament, under Lancaster's influence, declared against
+them and sentenced them to exile. Edward took arms for his favourites,
+and in =1322= defeated Lancaster at Boroughbridge, and then had him
+tried and beheaded at Pontefract.
+
+24. =A Constitutional Settlement. 1322.=--Favourites as they were, the
+Despensers had at least the merit of seeing that the king could not
+overpower the barons by the mere assertion of his personal authority.
+At a Parliament held at York in =1322=, the king obtained the
+revocation of the ordinances, and a declaration that 'matters to be
+established for the estate of our lord the king and of his heirs, and
+for the estate of the realm and of the people, shall be treated,
+accorded, and established in Parliaments by our lord the king, and by
+the consent of the prelates, earls and barons, and commonalty of the
+realm, according as hath been hitherto accustomed.' Edward I. had in
+=1295= gathered a full Parliament, including the commons. But there
+was no law to prevent him or his successors excluding the commons on
+some future occasion. Edward II. by this declaration, issued with
+consent of Parliament, confirmed his father's practice by a
+legislative act. Unless the law were broken or repealed, no future
+statute could come into existence without the consent of the commons.
+
+25. =The Rule of the Despensers. 1322--1326.=--For some years after
+the execution of Lancaster, Edward, or rather the Despensers, retained
+power, but it was power which did not work for good. In =1323= Edward
+made a truce with Scotland, but the cessation of foreign war did not
+bring with it a cessation of troubles at home. Edward was entirely
+unable to control his favourites. The elder Despenser was covetous and
+the younger Despenser haughty, and they both made enemies for
+themselves and the king. Queen Isabella was alienated from her
+husband, partly by his exclusive devotion to the Despensers and partly
+by the contempt which an active woman is apt to feel for a husband
+without a will of his own. In =1325= she went to France, and was soon
+followed by her eldest son, named Edward after his father. From that
+moment she conspired against her husband. In =1326= she landed,
+accompanied by her paramour, Robert Mortimer, and bringing with her
+foreign troops. The barons rose in her favour. London joined them, and
+all resistance was speedily beaten down. The elder Despenser was
+hanged by the queen at Bristol. The younger was hanged, after a form
+of trial, at Hereford.
+
+[Illustration: Sir John de Creke; from his brass at Westley Waterless,
+Cambridgeshire: showing armour worn between 1300 and 1335 or 1340.
+Date, about 1325.]
+
+26. =The Deposition and Murder of Edward II. 1327.=--Early in =1327= a
+Parliament met at Westminster. It was filled with the king's enemies,
+and under pressure from the queen and Mortimer Edward II. was
+compelled to sign a declaration of his own wrong-doing and
+incompetency, after which he formally resigned the crown. He was
+allowed to live for eight months, at the end of which he was brutally
+murdered in Berkeley Castle. The deposition of Edward II.--for his
+enforced resignation was practically nothing less than that--was the
+work of a faithless wife and of unscrupulous partisans, but at least
+they clothed their vengeance in the forms of Parliamentary action. It
+was by the action of Parliament in loosing the feudal ties by which
+vassals were bound to an unworthy king, that it rose to the full
+position of being the representative of the nation, and at the same
+time virtually proclaimed that the wants of the nation must be
+satisfied at the expense of the feudal claims of the king. The
+national headship of the king would from henceforward be the
+distinguishing feature of his office, whilst his feudal right to
+personal service would grow less and less important every year.
+
+[Illustration: Howden Church, Yorkshire--the west front; built about
+1310-1320. The tower was built between 1390 and 1407.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD III. TO THE TREATY OF BRETIGNI.
+
+1327--1360.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Edward III.,   1327--1377
+
+  Accession of Edward III.                                        1327
+  Beginning of the War with France                                1337
+  Battle of Creçy                                                 1346
+  The Black Death                                                 1348
+  Battle of Poitiers                                              1356
+  Treaty of Bretigni                                              1360
+
+
+1. =Mortimer's Government. 1327--1330.=--Edward III. was only fifteen
+at his accession. For three years power was in the hands of his
+mother's paramour, Mortimer. Robert Bruce, though old and smitten with
+leprosy, was still anxious to wring from England an acknowledgment of
+Scottish independence, and, in spite of the existing truce, sent an
+army to ravage the northern counties of England. Edward led in person
+against it an English force far superior in numbers and equipment; but
+the English soldier needed many things, whilst the Scot contented
+himself with a little oatmeal carried on the back of his hardy pony.
+If he grew tired of that he had but to seize an English sheep or cow
+and to boil the flesh in the hide. Such an army was difficult to come
+up with. Fighting there was none, except once when the Scots broke
+into the English camp at night and almost succeeded in carrying off
+the young king. Mortimer was at his wits' end, and in =1328= agreed to
+a treaty acknowledging the complete independence of Scotland. It was a
+wise thing to do, but no nation likes to acknowledge failure, and
+Mortimer became widely unpopular. He succeeded indeed in breaking up a
+conspiracy against himself, and in =1330= even executed Edmund, Earl
+of Kent, a brother of Edward II. The discontented barons found another
+leader in the king, who, young as he was, had been married at fifteen
+to Philippa of Hainault. Though he was already a father, he was still
+treated by Mortimer as a child, and was virtually kept a prisoner. At
+Nottingham he introduced a body of Mortimer's enemies into the castle
+through a secret passage in the rock on which it stood. His mother
+pleaded in vain for her favourite: "Fair son, have pity on the gentle
+Mortimer." Mortimer was hanged, and Queen Isabella was never again
+allowed to take part in public affairs.
+
+2. =The French Succession. 1328--1331.=--Isabella's three brothers,
+Louis X., Philip V., and Charles IV., had successively reigned in
+France. Louis X. died in =1316=, leaving behind him a daughter and a
+posthumous son, who died a week after his birth. Then Philip V. seized
+the crown, his lawyers asserting that, according to the Salic law, 'no
+part of the heritage of Salic land can fall to a woman,' and that
+therefore no woman could rule in France. As a matter of fact this was
+a mere quibble of the lawyers. The Salic law had been the law of the
+Salian Franks in the fifth century, and had to do with the inheritance
+of estates, not with the inheritance of the throne of France, which
+was not at that time in existence. The quibble, however, was used on
+the right side. What Frenchmen wanted was that France should remain an
+independent nation, which it was not likely to do under a queen who
+might marry the king of another country. The rule thus laid down was
+permanently adopted in France. When Philip V. died in =1322= the
+throne passed, not to his daughter, but to his brother, Charles IV.,
+and when Charles died in =1328=, to his cousin, Philip of Valois, who
+reigned as Philip VI. At that time England was still under the control
+of Mortimer and Isabella, and though Isabella, being the sister of
+Charles IV., thought of claiming the crown, not for herself, but for
+her son, Mortimer did not press the claim. In =1329= he sent Edward to
+do homage to Philip VI. for his French possessions, but Edward only
+did it with certain reservations, and in =1330= preparations for war
+were made in England. In =1331=, after Mortimer's fall, when Edward
+was his own master, he again visited France, and a treaty was
+concluded between the two kings in which he abandoned the reservations
+on his homage.
+
+[Illustration: Effigies of Edward III. and Queen Philippa; from their
+tombs in Westminster Abbey.]
+
+3. =Troubles in Scotland. 1329--1336.=--On his return, Edward looked
+in another direction. In =1329= Robert Bruce died, leaving his crown
+to his son, David II., a child five years old. Certain English
+noblemen had in the late treaty (see p. 231) been promised restoration
+of the estates of their ancestors in Scotland, and in =1332= some of
+them, finding the promise unfulfilled, offered English forces to John
+Balliol's son, Edward, to help him to the Scottish crown. Aided by
+his English allies, Edward Balliol landed in Scotland, defeated the
+Scottish army at Dupplin, and was crowned king. Before the end of the
+year he was surprised at Annan, and fled to England to appeal to
+Edward for help. Though Edward had all the love of enterprise of his
+grandfather, Edward I., yet there was a marked contrast between the
+deliberate calculation of Edward I. and the almost accidental way in
+which Edward III. involved himself in an attempt to regain the
+lordship of Scotland. In =1333= he laid siege to Berwick, then in the
+hands of the Scots. The Scots advanced into England, and their
+spearmen crossed a marsh to attack the English array of knights and
+archers posted on the slope of Halidon Hill. The arrows poured like
+rain on their struggling columns. The Scots were thrown into
+confusion, and their whole army was almost destroyed. Berwick was
+regained, and Bannockburn, it seemed, was avenged. Edward not only set
+up Balliol as his vassal, but compelled him to yield all Scotland
+south of the Forth to be annexed to England. Such a settlement could
+not last. Balliol was as weak as his father had been, and the Scots,
+recovering courage, drove him out in =1334=. Edward invaded Scotland
+again and again. As long as he was in the country he was strong enough
+to keep his puppet on the throne, but whenever he returned to England
+David Bruce's supporters regained strength. The struggle promised to
+be lengthy unless help came to the Scots.
+
+4. =Dispute with France. 1336--1337.=--Philip VI., like Philip IV. in
+the days of Edward I. (see p. 218), had his own reasons for not
+allowing the Scots to be crushed. He pursued the settled policy of his
+predecessors in attempting to bring the great fiefs into his power,
+and especially that part of Aquitaine which was still held by the most
+powerful of his vassals, the king of England. Whilst Edward was doing
+his best to bring Scotland into subjection by open war, Philip was
+doing his best to disturb Edward in his hold upon Aquitaine by secret
+intrigues and legal chicanery. Ill-feeling increased on both sides.
+Philip welcomed David Bruce and gave him protection in France, and in
+=1336= French sailors attacked English shipping and landed plunderers
+in the Isle of Wight. In =1337= Edward determined to resist, and the
+long war roughly known as the Hundred Years' War began. It was in
+reality waged to discover by an appeal to arms whether the whole of
+Aquitaine was to be incorporated with France and whether Scotland was
+to be incorporated with England. That which gave it its peculiar
+bitterness was, however, not so much the claims of the kings, as the
+passions of their subjects. The national antagonism aroused by the
+plunderings of French sea-rovers would be invigorated by the
+plunderings of Englishmen in the fields of France.
+
+5. =Edward's Allies. 1337--1338.=--To Edward it was merely a question
+of defending, first England, and then Aquitaine, against aggression.
+He won over, with large offers of money, the alliance of the princes
+of the Empire whose lands lay round the French frontier to the north
+and east, and even gained the support of the Emperor Lewis the
+Bavarian. His relations with Flanders were even more important. In
+Flanders there had sprung up great manufacturing towns, such as Ghent,
+Bruges, and Ypres, which worked up into cloth the wool which was the
+produce of English sheep. These wealthy towns claimed political
+independence, and thus came into collision with their feudal lord, the
+Count of Flanders. Early in the reign of Philip VI., the Count, who
+held the greater part of his lands from the king of France, had
+appealed to Philip for support, and Philip, who, unlike his wiser
+predecessors, despised the strength which he might gain from the
+goodwill of citizens in a struggle against their lords, took the part
+of the Count, and for a time crushed the citizens at the battle of
+Cassel. After a while the cities recovered themselves, and formed an
+alliance under the leadership of Jacob van Arteveldt, a Flemish
+nobleman, who had ingratiated himself with them by enrolling himself
+amongst the brewers of Ghent, and who was now successful in urging his
+countrymen to enter into friendship with Edward.
+
+6. =Chivalry and War.=--In the long run Edward's cause would be found
+a losing one, but there were circumstances which made it prevail for a
+time. In France there was a broad distinction between gentlemen on the
+one side and citizens and peasants on the other. The gentlemen
+despised all who were not of their own class. In earlier days there
+had sprung up a view of life known as chivalry, which taught that the
+knight was bound to observe the laws of honour, to fight fairly, to
+treat with courtesy a defeated enemy, and to protect women and all who
+were unable to help themselves. Ennobling as the idea was, it had been
+narrowed by the refusal of the gentlemen to extend the rules of
+chivalry beyond their own order, and they were, therefore, ready to
+exercise cruelty upon those who were not gentlemen, whilst proffering
+the most high-flown compliments to those who were. In France, too,
+this broad distinction of ranks told upon the military strength of the
+crown. The fighting force of the French king was his feudal array of
+armour-protected cavalry, composed entirely of gentlemen, and aiming
+at deciding battles in the old fashion by the rush of horsemen. If
+foot soldiers were brought at all into the field they were, for the
+most part, ill armed and ill trained peasants, exposed to be
+helplessly slaughtered by the horsemen.
+
+[Illustration: A knight--Sir Geoffrey Luttrell, who died
+1345--receiving his helm and pennon from his wife. Another lady holds
+his shield.]
+
+7. =Commerce and War.=--In England, on the other hand, the various
+orders of society had been welded together into a united people. The
+king and his vassals indeed still talked the language of chivalry, but
+they were wise enough to seek strength elsewhere. War had become in
+England the affair of the nation, and no longer the affair of a class.
+It must be waged with efficient archers as well as with efficient
+horsemen, the archers being drawn from the class of yeomen or free
+landed proprietors of small plots of land, which was entirely wanting
+in France. Such an army needed pay, and the large sums required for
+the purpose could only be extracted from a nation which, like the
+English, had grown comparatively rich because it was at peace within
+its own borders. Edward was compelled, if he wanted to fight, to
+encourage trade, though it is only fair to remember that he showed
+himself ready to encourage trade without any such ulterior object. He
+brought Flemish weavers into England, and did his best to improve the
+feeble woollen manufacture of the Eastern counties. His great
+resource, however, for purposes of taxation, was the export of wool to
+the Flemish manufacturing towns. Sometimes he persuaded Parliament to
+raise the duties upon exported wool; sometimes he raised them, by an
+evasion of the law, after making a private compact with the merchants
+without consulting Parliament at all; sometimes he turned merchant
+himself and bought wool cheaply in England to sell it dear in
+Flanders. It was said of a great minister of later times that he made
+trade flourish by means of war.[17] It might be said with greater
+truth of Edward III. that he made war flourish by means of trade.
+
+    [Footnote 17: See the inscription on the monument to the elder Pitt
+    in the Guildhall, in the City of London.]
+
+[Illustration: William of Hatfield, second son of Edward III.; from
+his tomb in York Minster: showing rich costume worn by the youth of
+the upper classes about 1340. The embroidery on the tunic has been
+partly worn off on the effigy.]
+
+[Illustration: York Minster:--The nave, looking west, built during the
+first half of the fourteenth century. The west window was completed
+and glazed in 1338.]
+
+8. =Attacks on the North of France. 1338--1340.=--Great as was
+Edward's advantage in having a united nation at his back, it hardly
+seemed in the first years of the war as though he knew how to use it.
+Though he had declared war against Philip in =1337=, he did not begin
+hostilities till the following year. In =1338=, after landing at
+Antwerp, he obtained from the Emperor Lewis the title of Imperial
+Vicar, which gave him a right to the military services of the vassals
+of the Empire. Crowds of German and Low Country lords pressed into his
+ranks, but they all wanted high pay, and his resources, great as
+they were, were soon exhausted, and he had to pawn his crowns to
+satisfy their needs. These lords proved as useless as they were
+expensive. In =1339= Edward crossed the French frontier, but he could
+not induce Philip to fight, and being deserted by his German allies,
+he was obliged to return to England. He then attempted to fall back on
+the support of the Flemings, but was told by them that unless he
+formally took the title of king of France, which he had only
+occasionally done before, they could not fight for him, as the king of
+France, whoever he might be, was their superior lord, and as such had
+a claim to their services. After some hesitation, in the beginning of
+=1340=, Edward satisfied their scruples by reviving the claim which he
+had formerly abandoned, declaring himself to be, in right of his
+mother, the lawful king of France; and quartering the French arms with
+his own. A third territorial question was thus added to the other two.
+Practically Edward's answer to Philip's effort to absorb all Aquitaine
+in France was a counter-demand that all France should be absorbed in
+England.
+
+[Illustration: Royal arms of Edward III., adopted in 1340 and used
+till about 1405. From the tomb of Edward III.]
+
+9. =Battle of Sluys. 1340.=--Edward had not yet learnt to place
+confidence in those English archers who had served him so well at
+Halidon Hill. In =1340=, however, he found himself engaged in a
+conflict which should have taught him where his true strength lay. The
+French navy held the Channel, and had burnt Southampton. The fleet of
+the Cinque Ports was no longer sufficient to cope with the enemy.
+Edward proudly announced that he, like his progenitors, was the lord
+of the English sea on every side, and called out every vessel upon
+which he could lay hands. The result was a naval victory at Sluys, in
+which well-nigh the whole French fleet was absolutely destroyed. It
+was by the English archers that the day was won. So complete was the
+victory that no one dared to tell the ill news to Philip, till his
+jester called out to him, "What cowards those English are!" "Because,"
+he explained, "they did not dare to leap into the sea as our brave
+Frenchmen did."
+
+10. =Attacks on the West of France. 1341--1345.=--If Edward was to
+obtain still greater success, he had but to fight with a national
+force behind him on land as he had fought at sea; but he was slow to
+learn the lesson. Personally he was as chivalrous as Philip, and
+thought that far more could be done by the charge of knights on
+horseback than by the cloth-yard shafts of the English bowmen. For six
+more years he frittered away his strength. There was a disputed
+succession in Brittany, and one of the claimants, John of Montfort,
+ranged himself on the side of the English. There was fighting in
+Brittany and fighting on the borders of Edward's lands in Aquitaine,
+but up to the end of =1345= there was no decisive result on either
+side. In Scotland, too, things had been going so badly for Edward that
+in =1341= David Bruce had been able to return, and was now again
+ruling over his own people.
+
+11. =The Campaign of Creçy. 1346.=--Surprising as Edward's neglect to
+force on a battle in France appears to us, it must be remembered that
+in those days it was far more difficult to bring on an engagement than
+it is in the present day. Fortified towns and castles were then almost
+impregnable, except when they were starved out; and it was therefore
+seldom necessary for a commander--on other grounds unwilling to
+fight--to risk a battle in order to save an important post from
+capture. Edward, however, does not appear to have thought that there
+was anything to be gained by fighting. In =1346= he led a large
+English army into Normandy, taking with him his eldest son, afterwards
+known as the Black Prince, at that time a lad of sixteen. It had been
+from Normandy and Calais that the fleets had put out by which the
+coasts of England had been ravaged, and Edward now deliberately
+ravaged Normandy. He then marched on, apparently intending to take
+refuge in Flanders. As the French had broken the bridges over the
+Seine, he was driven to ascend the bank of the river almost to Paris
+before he could cross. His burnings and his ravages continued till
+Philip, stung to anger, pursued him with an army more than twice as
+numerous as his own. Edward had the Somme to cross on his way, and the
+bridges over that river had been broken by the French, as those over
+the Seine had been broken; and but for the opportune discovery of a
+ford at Blanche Tache Edward would have been obliged to fight with an
+impassable river at his back. When he was once over the Somme he
+refused--not from any considerations of generalship, but from a point
+of honour--to continue his retreat further. He halted on a gentle
+slope near the village of Creçy facing eastwards, as Philip's force
+had swept round to avoid difficulties in the ground, and was
+approaching from that direction.
+
+[Illustration: Shooting at the butts with the long-bow.]
+
+12. =The Tactics of Creçy. 1346.=--Great as was Edward's advantage in
+possessing an army so diverse in its composition as that which he
+commanded, it would have availed him little if he had not known how to
+order that army for battle. At once it appeared that his skill as a
+tactician was as great as his weakness as a strategist. His experience
+at Halidon Hill (see p. 234) had taught him that the archers could
+turn the tide of battle against any direct attack, however violent. He
+knew, too, from the tradition of Bannockburn (see p. 226), that
+archers could readily be crushed by a cavalry charge on the flank; and
+he was well aware that his own horsemen were in too small numbers to
+hold out against the vast host of the French cavalry. He therefore
+drew up his line of archers between the two villages of Creçy and
+Vadicourt, though his force was not large enough to extend from one to
+the other. He then ordered the bulk of his horsemen to dismount and to
+place themselves with levelled spears in bodies at intervals in the
+line of archers. The innovation was thoroughly reasonable, as spearmen
+on foot would be able to check the fiercest charge of horse, if only
+the horse could be exposed to a shower of arrows. The English army was
+drawn up in three corps, two of them in the front line. The Black
+Prince was in command of one of the two bodies in front, whilst the
+king himself took charge of the third corps, which acted as a reserve
+in the rear.
+
+13. =The Battle of Creçy. August 26, 1346.=--When Philip drew nigh in
+the evening his host was weary and hungry. He ordered his knights to
+halt, but each one was thinking, not of obeying orders, but of
+securing a place in the front, where he might personally distinguish
+himself. Those in the rear pushed on, and in a few minutes the whole
+of the French cavalry became a disorganised mob. Then Philip ordered
+15,000 Genoese crossbowmen to advance against the enemy. At the best a
+crossbow was inferior to the English long-bow, as it was weaker in its
+action and consumed more time between each shot. To make matters
+worse, a heavy shower of rain had wetted the strings of the unlucky
+Genoese, rendering their weapons useless. The English had covers for
+their bows, and had kept them dry. The thick shower of their arrows
+drove the Genoese back. Philip took their retreat for cowardice. "Kill
+me those scoundrels!" he cried, and the French knights rode in amongst
+them, slaughtering them at every stride. Then the French horsemen
+charged the English lines. Some one amongst the Black Prince's retinue
+took alarm, and hurried to the king to conjure him to advance to the
+son's assistance. Edward knew better. "Is he dead?" he asked, "or so
+wounded that he cannot help himself?" "No, sire, please God," was the
+reply, "but he is in a hard passage of arms, and he much needs your
+help." "Return," answered the king, "to those that sent you, and tell
+them not to send to me again so long as my son lives; I command them
+to let the boy win his spurs." The French were driven off with
+terrible slaughter, and the victory was won. It was a victory of foot
+soldiers over horse soldiers--of a nation in which all ranks joined
+heartily together over one in which all ranks except that of the
+gentry were despised. Edward III. had contributed a high spirit and a
+keen sense of honour, but it was to the influence of Edward I.--to his
+wide and far-reaching statesmanship, and his innovating military
+genius--that the victory of Creçy was really due.
+
+14. =Battle of Nevill's Cross, and the Siege of Calais.
+1346--1347.=--Whilst Edward was fighting in France, the Scots invaded
+England, but they were defeated at Nevill's Cross, and their king,
+David Bruce (David II.), taken prisoner. Edward, when the news reached
+him, had laid siege to Calais. In this siege cannon,[18] which had
+been used in earlier sieges of the war, were employed, but they were
+too badly made and loaded with too little gunpowder to do much damage.
+In =1347= Calais was starved into surrender, and Edward, who regarded
+the town as a nest of pirates, ordered six of the principal burgesses
+to come out with ropes round their necks, as a sign that they were to
+be put to death. It was only at Queen Philippa's intercession that he
+spared their lives, but he drove every Frenchman out of Calais, and
+peopled it with his own subjects. A truce with Philip was agreed on,
+and Edward returned to England.
+
+    [Footnote 18: It has been said that they were used at Creçy, but
+    this is uncertain.]
+
+[Illustration: Contemporary view of a fourteenth-century walled town.]
+
+[Illustration: Gloucester Cathedral. The choir, looking east: built
+between 1340 and 1350.]
+
+15. =Constitutional Progress. 1337--1347.=--Edward III. had begun his
+reign as a constitutional ruler, and on the whole he had no reason to
+regret it. In his wars with France and Scotland he had the popular
+feeling with him, and he showed his reliance on it when, in =1340=, he
+consented to the abolition of his claim to impose tallage on his
+demesne lands (see p. 221)--the sole fragment of unparliamentary
+taxation legally retained by the king after the _Confirmatio
+Cartarum_. In =1341= the two Houses of Parliament finally separated
+from one another, and when Edward picked a quarrel with Archbishop
+Stratford, the Lords successfully insisted that no member of their
+House could be tried excepting by his peers. The Commons, on the other
+hand, were striving--not always successfully--to maintain their hold
+upon taxation. In =1341= they made Edward a large money grant on
+condition of his yielding to their demands, and Edward (whose
+constitutional intentions were seldom proof against his wish to retain
+the power of the purse) shamelessly broke his engagement after
+receiving the money. On other occasions the Commons were more
+successful; yet, after all, the composition of their House was of more
+importance than any special victory they might gain. In it the county
+members--or knights of the shire--sat side by side with the burgesses
+of the towns. In no other country in Europe would this have been
+possible. The knights of the shire were gentlemen, who on the
+Continent were reckoned amongst the nobility, and despised townsmen
+far too much to sit in the same House with them. In England there was
+the same amalgamation of classes in Parliament as on the
+battle-field. When once gentlemen and burgesses formed part of the
+same assembly, they would come to have common interests; and, in any
+struggle in which the merchants were engaged, it would be a great gain
+to them that a class of men trained to arms would be inclined to take
+their part.
+
+[Illustration: The upper chamber or solar at Sutton Courtenay
+manor-house. Date, about 1350.]
+
+[Illustration: Interior of the Hall at Penshurst, Kent: showing the
+screen with minstrels' gallery over it, and the brazier for fire in
+the middle: built about 1340.]
+
+16. =Edward's Triumph. 1347.=--Edward's return after the surrender of
+Calais was followed by an outburst of luxury. As the sea-rovers of
+Normandy and Calais had formerly plundered Englishmen, English
+landsmen now plundered Normandy and Calais. "There was no woman who
+had not gotten garments, furs, feather-beds, and utensils from the
+spoils." Edward surrounded himself with feasting and jollity. About
+this time he instituted the Order of the Garter, and his tournaments
+were thronged with gay knights and gayer ladies in gorgeous attires.
+The very priests caught the example, and decked themselves in
+unclerical garments. Even architecture lent itself to the prevailing
+taste for magnificence. The beautiful Decorated style which had come
+into use towards the end of the reign of Edward I.--and which may be
+seen[19] in the central tower of Lincoln Cathedral (see p. 227), in
+the west front of Howden Church (see p. 230), and in the nave of York
+Minster (see p. 238)--was, in the reign of Edward III., superseded by
+the Perpendicular style, in which beauty of form was abandoned for the
+sake of breadth, as in the choir of Gloucester and the nave of
+Winchester (see pp. 244, 276). Roofs become wide, as in the Hall of
+Penshurst (see p. 246), and consequently halls were larger and better
+adapted to crowded gatherings than those at Meare and Norborough (p.
+247).
+
+    [Footnote 19: Lichfield Cathedral (p. 213) is transitional.]
+
+[Illustration: A small house or cottage at Meare, Somerset. Built
+about 1350.]
+
+[Illustration: Norborough Hall, Northamptonshire. A manor-house built
+about 1350. The dormer windows and addition to the left are of much
+later date.]
+
+17. =The Black Death. 1348.=--In the midst of this luxurious society
+arrived, in =1348=, a terrible plague which had been sweeping over
+Asia and Europe, and which in modern times has been styled the Black
+Death. No plague known to history was so destructive of life. Half of
+the population certainly perished, and some think that the number of
+those who died must be reckoned at two-thirds.
+
+[Illustration: Ploughing.]
+
+[Illustration: Harrowing. A boy slinging stones at the birds.]
+
+[Illustration: Breaking the clods with mallets.]
+
+[Illustration: Cutting weeds.]
+
+[Illustration: Reaping.]
+
+18. =The Statute of Labourers. 1351.=--This enormous destruction of
+life could not fail to have important results on the economic
+condition of the country. The process of substituting money rents for
+labour service, which had begun some generations before (see p. 168),
+had become very general at the accession of Edward III. so that the
+demesne land which the lord kept in his own hands was on most estates
+cultivated by hired labour. Now, when at least half of the labourers
+had disappeared, those who remained, having less competition to fear,
+demanded higher wages, whilst at the same time the price of the
+produce of the soil was the same or less than it had been before. The
+question affected not merely the great lords but the smaller gentry
+as well. The House of Commons, which was filled with the smaller
+gentry and the well-to-do townsmen--who were also employers of
+labour--was therefore as eager as the House of Lords to keep down
+wages. In =1351= the Statute of Labourers was passed, fixing a scale
+of wages at the rates which had been paid before the Black Death, and
+ordering punishments to be inflicted on those who demanded more. It is
+not necessary to suppose that the legislators had any tyrannical
+intentions. For ages all matters relating to agriculture had been
+fixed by custom; and the labourers were outrageously violating custom.
+Custom, however, here found itself in opposition to the forces of
+nature, and though the statute was often renewed, with increasing
+penalties, it was difficult to secure obedience to it in the teeth of
+the opposition of the labourers. The chief result of the statute was
+that it introduced an element of discord between two classes of
+society.
+
+[Illustration: Stacking corn.]
+
+[Illustration: Threshing corn with the flail.]
+
+19. =The Statute of Treasons. 1352.=--In =1352= was passed the Statute
+of Treasons, by which the offences amounting to treason were defined,
+the chief of them being levying war against the king. As no one but a
+great nobleman was strong enough even to think of levying war against
+the king, this statute may be regarded as a concession to the
+wealthier landowners rather than to the people at large.
+
+20. =The Black Prince in the South of France. 1355.=--In =1350= Philip
+VI. of France died, and was succeeded by his son John. The truce (see
+p. 243) was prolonged, and it was not till =1355= that war was
+renewed. Edward himself was recalled to England by fresh troubles in
+Scotland, but the Black Prince landed at Bordeaux and marched through
+the south of France, plundering as he went. Neither father nor son
+seems to have had any idea of gaining their ends except by driving the
+French by ill-treatment into submission. "You must know," wrote a
+contemporary in describing the condition of southern Languedoc, "that
+this was, before, one of the fat countries of the world, the people
+good and simple, who did not know what war was, and no war had ever
+been waged against them before the Prince of Wales came. The English
+and Gascons found the country full and gay, the rooms furnished with
+carpets and draperies, the caskets and chests full of beautiful
+jewels; but nothing was safe from these robbers." The Prince returned
+to Bordeaux laden with spoils.
+
+21. =The Battle of Poitiers. 1356.=--In =1356= the Black Prince swept
+over central France in another similar plundering expedition. He was
+on his way back with his plunder to Bordeaux with no more than 8,000
+men to guard it when he learnt as he passed near Poitiers that King
+John was close to him with 50,000. He drew up his little force on a
+rising ground amidst thick vineyards, with a hedge in front of him
+behind which he could shelter his archers. As at Creçy, the greater
+part of the English horsemen were dismounted, and John, thinking that
+therein lay their secret of success, ordered most of his horsemen to
+dismount as well, not having discovered that though spearmen on foot
+could present a formidable resistance to a cavalry charge, they were
+entirely useless in attacking a strong position held by archers. Then
+he sent forward 300 knights who retained their horses, bidding a
+strong body of dismounted horsemen to support them. The horsemen,
+followed by the footmen, charged at a gap in the hedge, but the hedge
+on either side was lined with English bowmen, and men and horses were
+struck down. Those who survived fled and scattered their countrymen
+behind. Seeing the disorder, the Black Prince ordered the few knights
+whom he had kept on horseback to sweep round and to fall upon the
+confused crowd in the flank. The archers advanced to second them,
+and, gallantly as the French fought, their unhorsed knights could
+accomplish nothing against the combined efforts of horse and foot.
+King John was taken prisoner and the battle was at an end.
+
+22. =The Courtesy of the Black Prince.=--The Black Prince had been
+cruel to townsmen and peasants, but he was a model of chivalry, and
+knew how to deal with a captive king. At supper he stood behind John's
+chair and waited on him, praising his bravery. "All on our side," he
+said, "who have seen you and your knights, are agreed about this, and
+give you the prize and the chaplet if you will wear it." After the
+astounding victory of Poitiers, the Black Prince, instead of marching
+upon Paris, went back to Bordeaux. In =1357= he made a truce for two
+years and returned to England with his royal captive.
+
+23. =Misery of France. 1356--1359.=--In =1356=, the year in which the
+Black Prince fought at Poitiers, his father ravaged Scotland. Edward,
+however, gained nothing by this fresh attempt at conquest. In his
+retreat he suffered heavy loss, and in =1357=, changing his plan, he
+replaced David Bruce (see p. 242) on the throne, and strove to win the
+support of the Scots instead of exasperating them by violence. In the
+meanwhile the two years' truce brought no good to France. The nobles
+wrung from the peasants the sums needed to redeem their relatives, who
+were prisoners in England, and the disbanded soldiers, French and
+English, formed themselves into free companies and plundered as
+mercilessly as the Black Prince had done in time of war. Worn down
+with oppression, the French peasants broke into a rebellion known as
+the Jacquerie, from the nickname of Jacques-Bonhomme, which the gentry
+gave to them. After committing unheard-of cruelties the peasants were
+repressed and slaughtered. An attempt of the States-General--a sort of
+French Parliament which occasionally met--to improve the government
+failed. Peace with England was talked of, but Edward's terms were too
+hard to be accepted, and in =1359= war began again.
+
+24. =Edward's Last Invasion. 1359--1360.=--So miserably devastated was
+France that Edward, when he invaded the country in =1359=, had to take
+with him not only men and munitions of war, but large stores of
+provisions. He met no enemy in the field, but the land had been so
+wasted that his men suffered much from want of food, in spite of the
+supplies which they had taken with them. "I could not believe," wrote
+an Italian who revisited France after an absence of some years, "that
+this was the same kingdom which I had once seen so rich and
+flourishing. Nothing presented itself to my eyes but a fearful
+solitude, an extreme poverty, land uncultivated, houses in ruins. Even
+the neighbourhood of Paris manifested everywhere marks of destruction
+and conflagration. The streets were deserted; the roads overgrown with
+weeds; the whole a vast solitude." In the spring of =1360= Edward
+moved on towards the banks of the Loire, hoping to find sustenance
+there. Near Chartres he was overtaken by a terrible storm of hail and
+thunder, and in the roar of the thunder he thought that he heard the
+voice of God reproving him for the misery which he had caused. He
+abated his demands and signed the treaty of Bretigni.
+
+[Illustration: West front of Edington Church, Wilts: built about 1360.
+An example of the transition from the Decorated style to the
+Perpendicular.]
+
+25. =The Treaty of Bretigni. 1360.=--By the treaty of Bretigni John
+was to be ransomed for an enormous sum; Edward was to surrender his
+claim to the crown of France and to the provinces north of Aquitaine,
+receiving in return the whole of the duchy of Aquitaine together with
+the districts round Calais and Ponthieu, all of them to be held in
+full sovereignty, without any feudal obligation to the king of
+France. Probably it cost Edward little to abandon his claim to the
+French crown, which had only been an after-thought; and it was a clear
+gain to get rid of those feudal entanglements which had so frequently
+been used as a pretext of aggression against the English kings. It was
+hardly likely, however, that England would long be able to keep a
+country like Aquitaine, which was geographically part of France and in
+which French sympathies were constantly on the increase. "We will obey
+the English with our lips," said the men of Rochelle, when their town
+was surrendered, "but our hearts shall never be moved towards them."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+REIGN OF EDWARD III. AFTER THE TREATY OF BRETIGNI.
+
+1360--1377.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Edward III., 1327-1377.
+
+  Battle of Navarrete                                             1367
+  Renewal of war with France                                      1369
+  Truce with France                                               1375
+  The Good Parliament                                             1376
+  Death of Edward III.                                            1377
+
+
+1. =The First Years of Peace. 1360--1364.=--To hold his new provinces
+the better, Edward sent the Black Prince to govern them in =1363= with
+the title of Duke of Aquitaine. King John had been liberated soon
+after the making of the peace, and had been allowed to return to
+France on payment of part of his ransom, and on giving hostages for
+the payment of the remainder. In =1363= one of the hostages, his son,
+the Duke of Anjou, broke his parole and fled, on which John, shocked
+at such perfidy, returned to England to make excuses for him, and died
+there in =1364=. If honour, he said, were not to be found elsewhere,
+it ought to be found in the breasts of kings.
+
+2. =The Spanish Troubles. 1364--1368.=--John's eldest son and
+successor, Charles V., known as the Wise, or the Prudent, was less
+chivalrous, but more cautious than his father, and soon found an
+opportunity of stirring up trouble for the Black Prince without
+exposing his own lands to danger. Pedro the Cruel, king of Castile,
+who had for some time been the ally of England, had murdered his
+wife, tyrannised over his nobles, and contracted an alliance with the
+Mohammedans of Granada. The Pope having excommunicated him, his own
+illegitimate brother, Henry of Trastamara, claimed the crown, and
+sought aid of the king of France. Charles V. sent Bertrand du
+Guesclin, a rising young commander, to his help. Du Guesclin's army
+was made up of men of the Free Companies (see p. 252), which still
+continued to plunder France on their own account after the Peace of
+Bretigni. In this way Charles got rid of a scourge of his own country
+at the same time that he attacked an ally of the English. In =1366= Du
+Guesclin entered Spain. The tyrannical Pedro took refuge at Bayonne,
+where he begged the Black Prince to help him. The Gascon nobles
+pleaded with the Prince to reject the monster, but the Prince was not
+to be held back. "It is not a right thing or reasonable," he said,
+when they urged him to keep aloof from the unjust undertaking to which
+he invited them, "that a bastard should hold a kingdom, and thrust out
+of it, and of his heritage, a brother and heir of the land by legal
+marriage. All kings and sons of kings should never agree nor consent
+to it, for it is a great blow at the royal state." In =1367= the Black
+Prince entered Spain, and with the help of his English archers
+thoroughly defeated Henry at Navarrete. Then vengeance overtook him on
+the side on which he had sinned. Pedro was as false as he was cruel,
+and refused to pay the sums which he had engaged to furnish to the
+Prince's troops. Sickness broke out in the English ranks, and the
+Black Prince returned to Bordeaux with only a fifth part of his army,
+and with his own health irretrievably shattered. In =1368= Henry made
+his way back to Spain, defeated and slew Pedro, and undid the whole
+work of the Black Prince to the south of the Pyrenees.
+
+[Illustration: A gold noble of Edward III., struck between A.D. 1360
+and 1369.]
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of Edward the Black Prince, from his tomb at
+Canterbury: showing the type of armour worn from 1335 to 1400.]
+
+3. =The Taxation of Aquitaine. 1368--1369.=--Worse than this was in
+store for the Black Prince. As his soldiers clamoured for their wages,
+he levied a hearth tax to supply their needs. The Aquitanian
+Parliament declared against the tax, and appealed to the king of
+France to do them right. In =1369= Charles, who knew that the men of
+Aquitaine would be on his side, summoned the Black Prince to Paris to
+defend his conduct, on the pretext that, as there had been some
+informality in the treaty of Bretigni, he was himself still the feudal
+superior of the Duke of Aquitaine. "Willingly," replied the Black
+Prince when he received the summons, "we will go to the court of
+Paris, as the king of France orders it; but it shall be with helmet on
+head and sixty thousand men with us."
+
+4. =The Renewed War. 1369--1375.=--Edward, by the advice of
+Parliament, resumed the title of King of France, and war broke out
+afresh in =1369=. The result of the first war had been owing to the
+blunders of the French in attacking the English archers with the
+feudal cavalry. Charles V. and his commander, Du Guesclin, resolved to
+fight no battles. Their troops hung about the English march, cut off
+stragglers, and captured exposed towns. The English marched hither and
+thither, plundering and burning, but their armies, powerful as they
+were when attacked in a defensive position, could not succeed in
+forcing a battle, and were worn out without accomplishing anything
+worthy of their fame. The Black Prince, soured by failure and
+ill-health, having succeeded in =1370= in recapturing Limoges, ordered
+his men to spare no one in the town. "It was great pity," wrote the
+chronicler Froissart, "for men, women, and children threw themselves
+on their knees before the Prince, crying 'Mercy! mercy! gentle Sire!'"
+The Prince, who had waited at table behind a captive king, hardened
+his heart. More than three thousand--men, women and children--were
+butchered on that day. Yet the spirit of chivalry was strong within
+him, and he spared three gentlemen who fought bravely merely in order
+to sell their lives dearly. In =1371= the Black Prince was back in
+England. His eldest surviving brother, John of Gaunt--or Ghent--Duke
+of Lancaster, continued the war in France. In =1372= the English lost
+town after town. In =1373= John of Gaunt set out from Calais. He could
+plunder, but he could not make the enemy fight. "Let them go," wrote
+Charles V. to his commanders; "by burning they will not become masters
+of your heritage. Though storms rage over a land, they disperse of
+themselves. So will it be with these English." When the English
+reached the hilly centre of France food failed them. The winter came,
+and horses and men died of cold and want. A rabble of half-starved
+fugitives was all that reached Bordeaux after a march of six hundred
+miles. Aquitaine, where the inhabitants were for the most part hostile
+to the English, and did everything in their power to assist the
+French, was before long all but wholly lost, and in =1375= a truce was
+made which put an end to hostilities for a time, leaving only Calais,
+Cherbourg, Brest, Bayonne, and Bordeaux in the hands of the English.
+
+5. =Anti-Papal Legislation. 1351--1366.=--The antagonism between
+England and France necessarily led to an antagonism between England
+and the Papacy. Since =1305= the Popes had fixed their abode at
+Avignon, and though Avignon was not yet incorporated with France, it
+was near enough to be under the control of the king of France. During
+the time of this exile from Rome, known to ardent churchmen as the
+Babylonian captivity of the Church, the Popes were regarded in England
+as the tools of the French enemy. The Papal court, too, became
+distinguished for luxury and vice, and its vast expenditure called for
+supplies which England was increasingly loth to furnish. By a system
+of provisions, as they were called, the Pope provided--or appointed
+beforehand--his nominees to English benefices, and expected that his
+nominees would be allowed to hold the benefices to the exclusion of
+those of the patrons. In =1351= the Statute of Provisors[20] attempted
+to put an end to the system, but it was not immediately successful,
+and had to be re-enacted in later years. In =1353= a Statute of
+_Præmunire_[21] was passed, in which, though the Pope's name was not
+mentioned, an attempt was made to stop suits being carried before
+foreign courts--in other words before the Papal court at Avignon.
+Another claim of the Popes was to the 1,000 marks payable annually as
+a symbol of John's vassalage, a claim most distasteful to Englishmen
+as a sign of national humiliation. Since =1333=, the year in which
+Edward took the government into his own hands, the payment had not
+been made, and in =1366= Parliament utterly rejected a claim made by
+the Pope for its revival.
+
+    [Footnote 20: Provisors are the persons provided or appointed to a
+    benefice.]
+
+    [Footnote 21: So called from the first words of the writs appointed
+    to be issued under it, _Præmunire facias_; the first of these two
+    words being a corruption of _Præmoneri_.]
+
+6. =Predominance of the English Language.=--The national spirit which
+revealed itself in an armed struggle with the French and in a legal
+struggle with the Papacy showed itself in the increasing predominance
+of the English language. In =1362= it supplanted French in the law
+courts, and in the same year Parliament was opened with an English
+speech. French was still the language of the court, but it was
+becoming a foreign speech, pronounced very differently from the
+'French of Paris.'
+
+7. =Piers the Plowman. 1362.=--Cruel as had been the direct results of
+the English victories in France, they had indirectly contributed to
+the overthrow of that feudalism which weighed heavily upon France and
+upon all Continental Europe. The success of the English had been the
+success of a nation strong in the union of classes. The cessation of
+the war drove the thoughts of Englishmen back upon themselves. The old
+spiritual channels had been, to a great extent, choked up. Bishops
+were busy with the king's affairs; monks had long ceased to be
+specially an example to the world; and even the friars had fallen from
+their first estate, and had found out that, though they might
+personally possess nothing, their order might be wealthy. The men who
+won victories in France came home to spend their booty in show and
+luxury. Yet, for all the splendour around, there was a general feeling
+that the times were out of joint, and this feeling was strengthened by
+a fresh inroad of the Black Death in =1361=. To the prevalent
+yearning for a better life, a voice was given by William Langland,
+whose _Vision of Piers the Plowman_ appeared in its first shape in
+=1362=. In the opening of his poem he shows to his readers the
+supremacy of the Maiden Meed--bribery--over all sorts and conditions
+of men, lay and clerical. Then he turns to the purification of this
+wicked world. They who wish to eschew evil and to do good inquire
+their way to Truth--the eternal God--and find their only guide in
+'Piers the Plowman.' The simple men of the plough, who do honest work
+and live upright lives, know how to find the way to Truth. That way
+lies not through the inventions of the official Church, the pardons
+and indulgences set up for sale. "They who have done good shall go
+into eternal life, but they who have done evil into eternal fire."
+Langland's teaching, in short, is the same as that of the great
+Italian poet, Dante, who, earlier in the century, had cried aloud for
+the return of justice and true religion. He stands apart from Dante
+and from all others of his time in looking for help to the despised
+peasant. No doubt his peasant was idealised, as no one knew better
+than himself; but it was honesty of work in the place of dishonest
+idleness which he venerated. It was the glory of England to have
+produced such a thought far more than to have produced the men who,
+heavy with the plunder of unhappy peasants, stood boldly to their arms
+at Creçy and Poitiers. He is as yet hardly prepared to say what is the
+righteousness which leads to eternal life. It is not till he issues a
+second edition in =1377= that he can answer. To do well, he now tells
+us, is to act righteously to all in the fear of God. To do better is
+to walk in the way of love: "Behold how good a thing it is for
+brethren to dwell in unity." To do best is to live in fellowship with
+Christ and the Church, and in all humility to bring forth the fruits
+of the Divine communion.
+
+8. =The Anti-Clerical Party. 1371.=--Langland wished to improve, not
+to overthrow, existing institutions, but for all that his work was
+profoundly revolutionary. They who call on those who have left their
+first love to return to it are seldom obeyed, but their voice is often
+welcomed by the corrupt and self-seeking crowd which is eager, after
+the fashion of birds of prey, to tear the carcase from which life has
+departed. A large party was formed in England, especially amongst the
+greater barons, which was anxious to strip the clergy of their wealth
+and power, without any thought for the better fulfilment of their
+spiritual functions. In the Parliament of =1371= bishops were declared
+unfit to hold offices of state. Amongst others who were dismissed was
+William of Wykeham, the Bishop of Winchester. He was a great architect
+and administrator, and having been deprived of the Chancellorship used
+his wealth to found at Winchester the first great public school in
+England. By this time a Chancellor was no longer what he had been in
+earlier days (see p. 127), a secretary to the king. He was now
+beginning to exercise equitable jurisdiction--that is to say, the
+right of deciding suits according to equity, in cases in which the
+strict artificial rules of the ordinary courts stood in the way of
+justice.
+
+[Illustration: William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester, 1367-1404:
+from his tomb at Winchester.]
+
+9. =The Duke of Lancaster. 1374--1376.=--In =1374=, as soon as the
+Duke of Lancaster returned from his disastrous campaign (see p. 257),
+he put himself at the head of the baronial and anti-clerical party. He
+was selfish and unprincipled, but he had enormous wealth, having
+secured the vast estates of the Lancaster family by his marriage with
+Blanche, the granddaughter of the brother of Thomas of Lancaster, the
+opponent of Edward II. Rich as he was he wished to be richer, and he
+saw his opportunity in an attack upon the higher clergy, which might
+end in depriving them not only of political power, but of much of
+their ecclesiastical property as well. His accession to the baronial
+party was of the greater importance because he was now practically the
+first man in the state. The king was suffering from softening of the
+brain, and had fallen under the influence of a greedy and unscrupulous
+mistress, Alice Perrers, whilst the Black Prince was disqualified by
+illness from taking part in the management of affairs. A bargain was
+struck between the Duke and Alice Perrers, who was able to obtain the
+consent of the helpless king to anything she pleased. She even sat on
+the bench with the judges, intimidating them into deciding in favour
+of the suitors who had bribed her most highly. It seemed as if
+Langland's Meed (see p. 259) had appeared in person. The king's
+patronage was shared between her and Lancaster.
+
+10. =John Wycliffe. 1366--1376.=--If Lancaster's character had been
+higher, he might have secured a widespread popularity, as the feeling
+of the age was adverse to the continuance of a wealthy clergy. Even as
+things were, he had on his side John Wycliffe, the most able reasoner
+and devoted reformer of his age, who, like others before and after
+him, imagined that a high spiritual enterprise could be achieved with
+the help of low and worldly politicians. Wycliffe had distinguished
+himself at Oxford, and had attracted Lancaster's notice by the ability
+of his argument against the Pope's claim to levy John's tribute (see
+p. 258). In =1374= he had been sent to Bruges to argue with the
+representatives of the Pope on the question of the provisions, and by
+=1376= had either issued, or was preparing to issue, his work _On
+Civil Lordship_, in which, by a curious adaptation of feudal ideas, he
+declared that all men held their possessions direct from God, as a
+vassal held his estate from his lord; and that as a vassal was bound
+to pay certain military services, failing which he lost his estate, so
+everyone who fell into mortal sin failed to pay his service to God,
+and forfeited his right to his worldly possessions. In this way
+dominion, as he said, was founded on grace--that is to say, the
+continuance of man's right to his possessions depended on his
+remaining in a state of grace. It is true that Wycliffe qualified his
+argument by alleging that he was only announcing theoretical truth,
+and that no man had a right to rob another of his holding because he
+believed him to be living in sin. It is evident, however, that men
+like Lancaster would take no heed of this distinction, and would
+welcome Wycliffe as an ally in the work of despoiling the clergy for
+their own purposes.
+
+11. =Lancaster and the Black Prince. 1376.=--Ordinary citizens, who
+cared nothing for theories which they did not understand, were roused
+against Lancaster by the unblushing baseness of his rule. Nor was this
+all. The anti-clerical party was also a baronial party, and ever since
+the Knights Bachelors of England had turned to the future Edward I. to
+defend them against the barons who made the Provisions of Oxford (see
+p. 199), the country gentry and townsmen had learnt the lesson that
+they would be the first to suffer from the unchecked rule of the
+baronage. They now had the House of Commons to represent their wishes,
+but as yet the House of Commons was too weak to stand alone. At last
+it was rumoured that when the Black Prince died his young son Richard
+was to be set aside, and that Lancaster was to claim the inheritance
+of the crown, as an earlier John had claimed it in the place of the
+youthful Arthur. The Black Prince awoke from his lethargy, and stood
+forward as the leader of the Commons.
+
+12. =The Good Parliament. 1376.=--A Parliament, known as the Good
+Parliament, met in =1376=, and, strong through the Black Prince's
+support, the Commons refused to grant supply till an account of the
+receipts and expenditure had been laid before them. "What," cried
+Lancaster, "do these base and ignoble knights attempt? Do they think
+they be the kings and princes of the land? I think they know not what
+power I am of. I will therefore, early in the morning, appear unto
+them so glorious, and will show such power among them, and with such
+vigour I will terrify them that neither they nor theirs shall dare
+henceforth to provoke me to wrath." Lancaster soon found that his
+brother was stronger than he. The Commons obtained a new Council, in
+which Wykeham was included and from which Lancaster was shut out. They
+then proceeded to accuse before the House of Lords Richard Lyons and
+Lord Latimer of embezzling the king's revenue. Lyons, accustomed to
+the past ways of the court, packed 1,000_l._ in a barrel and sent it
+to the Black Prince. The Black Prince returned the barrel and the
+money, and the Lords condemned Lyons to imprisonment. Latimer was also
+sentenced to imprisonment, but he was allowed to give bail and
+regained his liberty. These two cases are the first instances of the
+exercise of the right of impeachment--that is to say, of the
+accusation of political offenders by the Commons before the Lords.
+Alice Perrers was next driven from court.
+
+[Illustration: Tomb of Edward III. in Westminster Abbey.]
+
+13. =The Last Year of Edward III. 1376--1377.=--Whilst Parliament was
+still sitting the Black Prince, worn out by his exertions, died. His
+son, young Richard, was at once recognised as heir to the throne.
+Lancaster, however, regained his influence over his doting father.
+Alice Perrers and Lord Latimer found their way back to court. The
+Speaker of the House of Commons was thrown into prison. Frivolous
+charges were brought against Wykeham, who was deprived of his
+temporalities and banished from the court. In =1377= a new Parliament,
+elected under Lancaster's influence, reversed all the proceedings of
+the Good Parliament, and showed how little sympathy the baronial party
+had with the people by imposing a poll tax of 4_d._ a head on all
+except beggars, thus making the payment of a labourer and a duke
+equal. The bishops, unable to strike at Lancaster, struck at Wycliffe,
+as his creature. Wycliffe was summoned to appear before an
+ecclesiastical court at St. Paul's, presided over by Courtenay, the
+Bishop of London. He came supported by Lancaster and a troop of
+Lancaster's followers. Hot words were exchanged between them and the
+Bishop. The London crowd took their Bishop's part and the Duke was
+compelled to flee for his life. In the summer of =1377= Edward III.
+died, deserted by everyone, Alice Perrers making off, after robbing
+him of his finger-rings.
+
+[Illustration: Figures of Edward, the Black Prince, and Lionel, Duke
+of Clarence, from the tomb of Edward III.; illustrating the ordinary
+costume of gentlemen at the end of the fourteenth century.]
+
+14. =Ireland from the Reign of John to that of Edward II.=--When
+England was gradually losing its hold on France, what hold it had had
+on Ireland was gradually slipping away. Henry II. had been quite
+unable to effect in Ireland the kind of conquest which William the
+Conqueror had effected in England. William had succeeded because he
+had been able to secure order by placing himself at the head of the
+conquered nation. In Ireland, in the first place, the king was a
+perpetual absentee; and, in the second place, there was no Irish
+national organisation at the head of which he could have placed
+himself, even if he had from time to time visited the island. There
+were separate tribes, each one attached to its own chief and to its
+own laws and customs. They were unable to drive out their feudal
+conquerors; but in the outlying parts of the country, they were able
+to absorb them, just as the English in their own country absorbed
+their Norman conquerors. The difference was that in England the
+conquerors were absorbed into a nation: in Ireland they were absorbed
+into the several tribes. The few who retained the English laws and
+habits were, for the most part, confined to the part of Ireland in the
+neighbourhood of Dublin, which was specially accessible to English
+influences. In =1315= Edward Bruce, the brother of Robert Bruce,
+invaded Ireland, and, though he was ultimately defeated and slain, he
+did enough to shatter the power of the English nobility; and it was
+mainly in consequence of his partial success that the authority of the
+English government was, for some time to come, limited to a certain
+district round Dublin, known about a century later as the English
+Pale, the extent of which varied from time to time.
+
+15. =The Statute of Kilkenny. 1367.=--As long as the French wars
+lasted the attention of the English Government was diverted from
+Ireland. In =1361=, however, the year after the Treaty of Bretigni,
+the king's son, Lionel Duke of Clarence, was sent to extend English
+rule. In =1367= he gathered a Parliament of the English colonists.
+This Parliament passed the Statute of Kilkenny, by which the relations
+between the two races were defined. Within the Pale English laws and
+customs were to prevail, and even Irishmen living there were to be
+debarred from the use of their own language. Beyond the Pale the Irish
+were to be left to themselves, communication between the two peoples
+being cut off as much as possible. The idea of conquering Ireland was
+abandoned, and the idea of maintaining a colony on a definite part of
+Irish soil was substituted for it. The Statute of Kilkenny was, in
+short, a counterpart of the Treaty of Bretigni. In both cases Edward
+III. preferred the full maintenance of his authority over a part of a
+country to its assertion over the whole.
+
+16. =Weakness of the English Colony. 1367--1377.=--It takes two to
+make a bargain, and the Irish were not to be prevented from
+encroaching on the English because the English had resolved no longer
+to encroach upon them. The renewal of the war with France in =1369=
+made it impossible to send help from England, and during the latter
+part of the reign of Edward III. the Irish pillaged freely within the
+English territory, constantly winning ground from their antagonists.
+
+  _Genealogy of the more important Sons of Edward III._
+
+                       EDWARD III.
+                        d. 1377
+                            |
+    --------------------------------------------------
+    |           |             |           |          |
+   Edward,   Lionel,    John of Gaunt,  Edmund,   Thomas,
+  the Black  Duke of      Duke of       Duke of   Duke of
+  Prince,    Clarence,   Lancaster,      York,   Gloucester,
+  d. 1376    d. 1368      d. 1399       d. 1402    d. 1397
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+RICHARD II. AND THE SOCIAL REVOLUTION.
+
+1377--1381.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Richard II., 1377-1399
+
+  Accession of Richard II                                         1377
+  The peasants' revolt                                            1381
+
+
+1. =The First Years of Richard II. 1377--1378.=--"Woe to the land,"
+quoted Langland from Ecclesiastes, in the second edition of _Piers the
+Plowman_, "when the king is a child." Richard was but ten years of age
+when he was raised to the throne. The French plundered the coast, and
+the Scots plundered the Borders. In the presence of such dangers
+Lancaster and Wykeham forgot their differences, and as Lancaster was
+too generally distrusted to allow of his acting as regent, the council
+governed in the name of the young king. Lancaster, however, took the
+lead, and renewed the war with France with but little result beyond so
+great a waste of money as to stir up Parliament to claim a control
+over the expenditure of the Crown.
+
+2. =Wycliffe and the Great Schism. 1378--1381.=--In =1378= began the
+Great Schism. For nearly half a century from that date there were two
+Popes, one at Avignon and one at Rome. Wycliffe had been gradually
+losing his reverence for a single Pope, and he had none left for two.
+He was now busy with a translation of the Bible into English, and sent
+forth a band of "poor priests," to preach the simple gospel which he
+found in it. He was thus brought into collision with the pretensions
+of the priesthood, and was thereby led to question the doctrines on
+which their authority was based. In =1381= he declared his disbelief
+in the doctrine of transubstantiation, and thereby denied to priests
+that power "of making the body of Christ," which was held to mark them
+off from their fellow-men. In any case, so momentous an announcement
+would have cost Wycliffe the hearts of large numbers of his
+supporters. It was the more fatal to his influence as it was
+coincident with social disorders, the blame for which was certain,
+rightly or wrongly, to be laid at his door.
+
+[Illustration: Richard II. and his first queen, Anne of Bohemia: from
+the gilt-latten effigies on their tomb in Westminster Abbey, made by
+Nicholas Broker and Godfrey Prest, coppersmiths of London, in 1395.]
+
+3. =The Poll-taxes. 1379--1381.=--The disastrous war with France made
+fresh taxation unavoidable. In =1379= a poll-tax was imposed by
+Parliament on a graduated scale, reaching from the 6_l._ 13_s._ 4_d._
+required of a duke, to the groat or 4_d._, representing in those days
+at least the value of 4_s._ at the present day, required of the
+poorest peasant. A second poll-tax in =1380= exacted no less than
+three groats from every peasant, and from every one of his unmarried
+children above the age of fifteen. In =1381= a tiler of Dartford in
+Kent struck dead a collector who attempted to investigate his
+daughter's age in an indecent fashion. His neighbours took arms to
+protect him. In an incredibly short time the peasants of the east and
+south of England rose in insurrection.
+
+4. =The Peasants' Grievances.=--The peasants had other grievances
+besides the weight of taxation thrown on them by a Parliament in which
+they had no representatives. The landlords, finding it impossible to
+compel the acceptance of the low wages provided for by the Statute of
+Labourers (see p. 248), had attempted to help themselves in another
+way. Before the Black Death the bodily service of villeins had been
+frequently commuted into a payment of money which had been its fair
+equivalent, but which, since the rise of wages consequent upon the
+Black Death, could not command anything like the amount of labour
+surrendered. The landlords in many places now declared the bargain to
+have been unfair, and compelled the villeins to render once more the
+old bodily service. The discontent which prevailed everywhere was
+fanned not merely by the attacks made by Wycliffe's poor priests upon
+the idle and inefficient clergy, but by itinerant preachers
+unconnected with Wycliffe, who denounced the propertied classes in
+general. One of these, John Ball, a notorious assailant of the gentry,
+had been thrown into prison. His favourite question was--
+
+  When Adam delved and Eve span
+  Who was then a gentleman?
+
+5. =The Peasants' Revolt. 1381.=--From one end of England to another
+the revolt spread. The parks of the gentry were broken into, the deer
+killed, the fish-ponds emptied. The court-rolls which testified to the
+villeins' services were burnt, and lawyers and all others connected
+with the courts were put to death without mercy. From Kent and Essex
+100,000 enraged peasants, headed by Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, released
+John Ball from gaol and poured along the roads to London. They hoped
+to place the young Richard at their head against their enemies the
+gentry. The boy was spirited enough, and in spite of his mother's
+entreaties insisted on leaving the Tower, and being rowed across the
+Thames to meet the insurgents on the Surrey shore. Those who were with
+him, however, refused to allow him to land. The peasants had
+sympathisers in London itself, who allowed them to break into the
+city. Lancaster's palace of the Savoy and the houses of lawyers and
+officials were sacked and burnt. All the lawyers who could be found
+were murdered, and others who were not lawyers shared their fate. The
+mob broke into the Tower, and beheaded Simon of Sudbury, Archbishop of
+Canterbury, who had, as Chancellor, proposed the obnoxious taxes to
+Parliament.
+
+6. =The Suppression of the Revolt.=--The boy-king met the mob at
+Mile-End, and promised to abolish villeinage in England. Charters of
+manumission were drawn out and sealed, and a great part of the
+insurgents returned contentedly home. About 30,000, however, remained
+behind. When Richard came amongst them at Smithfield, Wat Tyler
+threatened him, and Walworth, the Mayor of London, slew Wat Tyler with
+his dagger. A shout for vengeance was raised. With astonishing
+presence of mind Richard rode forward. "I am your king," he said; "I
+will be your leader." His boldness inspired the insurgents with
+confidence, and caused them to desist from their threats and to return
+to their homes. In the country the gentry, encouraged by the failure
+of the insurgents in London, recovered their courage. The insurrection
+was everywhere vigorously suppressed. Richard ordered the payment of
+all services due, and revoked the charters he had granted. The judges
+on their circuits hanged the ringleaders without mercy. When
+Parliament met it directed that the charters of manumission should be
+cancelled. Lords and Commons alike stood up for the rich against the
+poor, and the boy-king was powerless to resist them, and it is
+possible that he did not wish to do so.
+
+7. =Results of the Peasants' Revolt.=--The revolt of the peasants
+strengthened the conservative spirit in the country. The villeinage
+into which the peasants had been thrust back could not, indeed, endure
+long, because service unwillingly rendered is too expensive to be
+maintained. Men were, however, no longer in a mood to listen to
+reformers. Great noblemen, whose right to the services of their
+villeins had been denied, now made common cause with the great
+churchmen. The propertied classes, lay and clerical, instinctively saw
+that they must hang together. Wycliffe's attack on transubstantiation
+finding little response, he was obliged to retire to his parsonage at
+Lutterworth, where he laboured with his pen till his death in =1384=.
+His followers, known by the nickname of Lollards,[22] were, however,
+for some time still popular amongst the poorer classes.
+
+    [Footnote 22: The name is said to have been derived from a low
+    German word, _lollen_, to sing, from their habit of singing, but
+    their clerical opponents derived it from the Latin _lolium_ (tares),
+    as if they were the tares in the midst of the wheat which remained
+    constant to the Church.]
+
+[Illustration: Portrait of Geoffrey Chaucer.]
+
+8. =Chaucer's 'Canterbury Tales.'=--A combination between the great
+nobles and the higher clergy might, at the end of the fourteenth
+century, meet with temporary success; but English society was too
+diversified, and each separate portion of it was too closely linked to
+the other to make it possible for the higher classes to tyrannise over
+the others for any long time. What that society was like is best seen
+in Chaucer's _Canterbury Tales_. Chaucer was in many ways the exact
+opposite of Langland, and was the precursor of modern literature as
+Wycliffe was the precursor of modern religion. He was an inimitable
+story-teller, with an eye which nothing could escape. He was ready to
+take men as he found them, having no yearning for the purification of
+a sinful world. Heroic examples of manly constancy and of womanly
+purity and devotion, are mingled in his pages with coarse and ribald
+tales; still, coarse and ribald as some of his narratives are, Chaucer
+never attempts to make vice attractive. He takes it rather as a matter
+of course, calling, not for reproof, but for laughter, whenever those
+who are doing evil place themselves in ridiculous situations.
+
+9. =The Prologue of the 'Canterbury Tales.'=--Whilst, however, there
+is not one of the _Canterbury Tales_ which fails to bring vividly
+before the reader one aspect or another of the life of Chaucer's day,
+it is in the prologue that is especially found evidence of the close
+connection which existed between different ranks of society. Men and
+women of various classes are there represented as riding together on
+a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Thomas of Canterbury, and beguiling
+the way by telling stories to one another. No baron, indeed, takes
+part in the pilgrimage, and the villein class is represented by the
+reeve, who was himself a person in authority, the mere cultivator of
+the soil being excluded. Yet, within these limits, the whole circle of
+society is admirably represented. The knight, just returned from deeds
+of chivalry, is on the best of terms with the rough-spoken miller and
+the reeve, whilst the clerk of Oxford, who would gladly learn and
+gladly teach, and who followed in his own life those precepts which he
+commended to his parishioners, has no irreconcilable quarrel with the
+begging friar or with the official of the ecclesiastical courts, whose
+only object is to make a gain of godliness.
+
+[Illustration: A gentleman riding out with his hawk: from the Luttrell
+Psalter.]
+
+10. =Chaucer and the Clergy.=--In his representation of the clergy,
+Chaucer shows that, like Langland, he had no reverence for the merely
+official clergy. His "poor parson of a town," indeed, is a model for
+all helpers and teachers. The parson is regardless of his own comfort,
+ever ready to toil with mind and body for his parishioners, and, above
+all, resolved to set them an example, knowing
+
+  That if gold ruste, what schulde yren doo?
+  For if a prest be foul, on whom we truste,
+  No wondur is a lewid man to ruste.[23]
+
+    [Footnote 23: _i.e._, if a priest, who is like gold, allow himself
+    to rust, or fall into sloth or sin, how can he expect the 'lewid
+    man' or layman, who is as iron to him, to be free from these
+    faults?]
+
+The final character given to him is:--
+
+  A bettre preest I trowe ther nowher non is.
+  He waytud after no pompe ne reverence,
+  Ne maked him a spiced conscience;[24]
+  But Cristes lore, and his apostles twelve,
+  He taught, and ferst he folwed[25] it himselve.
+
+    [Footnote 24: A nice conscience; to see offence where there is
+    none.]
+
+    [Footnote 25: Followed.]
+
+The majority amongst Chaucer's clergy are, however, of a very
+different kind. There is the parish clerk, who, when he is waving the
+censer in church thinks more of the pretty women there than of his
+duty; the monk who loves hunting, and hates work and reading; the
+friar who is ready to grant absolution to any one who will give money
+to the friars; who has a word and a jest for every man, and presents
+of knives and pins for the women; who takes a farthing where he cannot
+get a penny, but turns aside from those who have not even a farthing
+to give; the pardoner, who has for sale sham relics--a piece of the
+sail of the ship which carried St. Peter on the sea of Galilee, and a
+glass of pigs' bones, which he was ready to sell as bones of saints,
+if he could thereby extract something even from the poorest widow. He
+would not, he said, work with his hands like the apostles. He wanted
+to have money, wool, cheese, and wheat at other people's expense.
+Though Wycliffe had failed to reform the Church there was evidently
+much room for a reformer.
+
+[Illustration: Carrying corn--a cart going uphill: from the Luttrell
+Psalter.]
+
+11. =Roads and Bridges.=--Such men as these latter did not go on
+pilgrimages through pure religious zeal. Villeins, indeed, were "bound
+to the soil," and lived and died on land which they tilled; but the
+classes above them moved about freely, and took pleasure in a
+pilgrimage, as a modern Englishman takes pleasure in a railway
+excursion. It was considered to be a pious work to make or repair
+roads and bridges, and the existence of many bridges especially was
+owing to the clergy. The most famous bridge in England, London Bridge,
+had been begun in the place of an old wooden one in =1176=--in the
+reign of Henry II.--by a priest, Peter Colechurch, who obtained gifts
+for the purpose from notable people of all kinds. It was completed in
+=1209=, houses being built upon it in order that their rents might pay
+for keeping it in good condition. Local taxes were sometimes levied to
+maintain the roads and bridges, and in default of these, it was held
+to be the duty of the owners of land to keep the communications open.
+
+[Illustration: State carriage of the fourteenth century: from the
+Luttrell Psalter.]
+
+12. =Modes of Conveyance.=--In spite of these precautions, roads were
+often neglected, so that those who were not obliged to go on foot
+travelled almost entirely on horseback, women almost always riding
+astride like men. It was only at the end of the fourteenth century
+that a few ladies rode sideways. Kings and queens and exceedingly
+great people occasionally used lumbering but gorgeously ornamented
+carriages; but this was to enable them to appear in splendour, as this
+way of travelling must, at least in fine weather, have been far less
+agreeable than the ordinary ride. The only other wheeled vehicles in
+existence were the peasants' carts on two wheels, roughly made in the
+form of a square box either of boards or of a lighter framework. It
+was one of the grievances of the peasants that when the king moved
+from one manor to another his purveyors seized their carts to carry
+his property, and that though the purveyors were bound by frequently
+repeated statutes to pay for their hire, these statutes were often
+broken, and the carts sent back without payment for their use. The
+same purveyors often took corn and other agricultural produce, for
+which they paid little or nothing.
+
+13. =Hospitality and Inns.=--When the king arrived in the evening at a
+town his numerous attendants were billeted upon the townsmen, without
+asking leave. Monasteries were always ready to offer hospitality to
+himself or to any great person, and even to provide rougher fare for
+the poorest stranger in a special guest-house provided for the
+purpose. In castles, the owner was usually glad to see a stranger of
+his own rank. The halls were still furnished with movable tables, as
+in the days before the Conquest (see p. 76), and at night mattresses
+were placed for persons of inferior rank on the floor, which was
+strewn with rushes; whilst a stranger of high rank had usually a bed
+in the solar (see p. 245) with the lord of the castle. Travellers of
+the middle class were not thought good enough to be welcomed in
+monasteries and castles, and were not poor enough to be received out
+of charity; and for them inns were provided. These inns provided beds,
+of which there were several in each room, and the guests then bought
+their provisions and fuel from the host, instead of being charged for
+their meals as is now the custom. From a manual of French
+conversation, written at the end of the fourteenth century for the use
+of Englishmen, it appears that cleanliness was not always to be found
+in these inns. "William," one traveller is supposed to say to another,
+"undress and wash your legs, and rub them well for the love of the
+fleas, that they may not leap on your legs; for there is a peck of
+them lying in the dust under the rushes.... Hi! the fleas bite me so,
+and do me great harm, for I have scratched my shoulders till the blood
+flows."
+
+14. =Alehouses.=--By the roadside were alehouses for temporary
+refreshment, known by a bunch of twigs at the end of a pole, from
+which arose the saying that "Good wine needs no bush." The ale of the
+day was made without hops, which were still unknown in England, and
+ale would therefore only keep good for about five days.
+
+15. =Wanderers.=--Besides the better class of travellers the roads
+were frequented by wanderers of all kinds, quack doctors, minstrels,
+jugglers, beggars, and such like. Life in the country was dull, and
+even great lords took pleasure in amusements which are now only to be
+heard of at country fairs. Any one who could play or sing was always
+welcome, and the verses sung were often exceedingly coarse. A tumbler
+who could stand on his head or balance a heavy article at the end of a
+stick balanced on his chin, or the leader of a performing bear, was
+seldom turned away from the door, whilst the pedlar went from place to
+place, supplying the wants which are now satisfied in the shop of the
+village or the neighbouring town.
+
+[Illustration: Bear-baiting: from the Luttrell Psalter.]
+
+16. =Robbers and Criminals.=--The roads, indeed, were not always safe.
+Outlaws who had escaped from the punishment due to their crimes took
+refuge in the broad tracts of forest land which occupied much of the
+soil which has since been cultivated, shot the king's deer, and robbed
+merchants and wealthy travellers, leaving the poor untouched, like the
+legendary Robin Hood of an earlier date. Such robbers were highly
+esteemed by the poor, as the law from which they suffered was cruelly
+harsh, hanging being the penalty for thefts amounting to a shilling.
+Villeins who fled from service could be reclaimed by their masters,
+unless they could succeed in passing a year in a town, and
+consequently were often found amongst vagabonds who had to live as
+best they might, often enough by committing fresh crimes. Prisons, in
+which even persons guilty of no more than harmless vagabondage were
+confined, reeked with disease, and those who were, as wanderers or
+drunkards, put in the stocks, had, if an unpleasant, at least a less
+dangerous experience than the prisoner. One means of escape, indeed,
+was available to some, at least, of these unfortunates. They could
+take refuge in the sanctuaries to be found in churches, from which no
+officer of the law could take them, and, though the Church preserved
+some guilty ones from just punishment, she also saved many who were
+either innocent or who were exposed to punishments far too severe for
+their slight offences.
+
+[Illustration: West end of the nave of Winchester Cathedral: begun by
+Bishop Edington (who built the great window) between 1360 and 1366:
+carried on by Bishop William of Wykeham from 1394 to 1416, and finally
+completed after his death.]
+
+17. =Justices of the Peace.=--Even harshness is less dangerous than
+anarchy, and from time to time measures were taken to provide against
+anarchy. Before the Conquest order had been kept by making either the
+kindred or the township liable to produce offenders, and this system
+was maintained by the Norman kings. In the time of Richard I. all men
+were required to swear to keep the peace, to avoid crime, and to join
+in the hue and cry in pursuit of criminals. In the time of Henry III.
+persons called guardians of the peace were occasionally appointed to
+see that order was kept, and at the accession of Edward III. these
+officials were established for a time by Act of Parliament as
+conservators of the peace. In =1360=, the year of the Treaty of
+Bretigni, they were permanently continued, and the name of Justices of
+the Peace was given to them. They were to keep the peace in each
+county, and their number was to be made up of a lord, three or four
+gentlemen, and a lawyer, who was in those days always a cleric.[26]
+They were to seize and imprison, and even to try persons accused of
+crime. The king named these justices, but he had to name all of them
+except the lawyer from amongst the local landowners. In every way, in
+the fourteenth century, the chief local landowners were becoming
+prominent. The kings attempted to govern with their help, both in
+Parliament and in the counties.
+
+    [Footnote 26: Many clerics took one of the minor orders so as to
+    secure the immunities of the clergy, without any intention of being
+    ordained a deacon or a priest.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+RICHARD II. AND THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION.
+
+1382--1399.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Richard II., 1377--1399
+
+  The impeachment of Suffolk                                      1386
+  The Merciless Parliament                                        1388
+  Richard begins his constitutional government                    1389
+  Richard's coup-d'état                                           1397
+  Deposition of Richard                                           1399
+
+
+1. =Progress of the War with France. 1382--1386.=--In =1382= Richard
+at the early age of fifteen was married to Anne of Bohemia. Though he
+was a young husband he was at all events old enough to be accused of
+disasters which he could not avoid. Not only was the war with France
+not prospering, but English influence was declining in Flanders. In
+=1382= Philip van Arteveldt, who like his father Jacob (see p. 235)
+headed the resistance of Ghent against the Count of Flanders, was
+defeated and slain at Roosebeke by Charles VI., the young king of
+France. In =1383= an English expedition led by Henry Spencer, Bishop
+of Norwich, under the pretext of a crusade against the French as the
+followers of the Pope of Avignon, ended in complete failure, and
+Flanders, the great purchaser of English wool, fell under the control
+of France. In =1385= Richard, indeed, invaded Scotland, ravaged the
+country and burnt Edinburgh, though without producing any permanent
+result. In =1386= a French fleet and army was gathered at Sluys, and
+an invasion of England was threatened.
+
+2. =Richard's growing Unpopularity. 1385--1386.=--When the king
+returned from Scotland in =1385= he made a large creation of peers. He
+raised his two younger uncles to the Dukedoms of York and Gloucester;
+his Chancellor, Michael de la Pole, to the earldom of Suffolk, and his
+favourite, Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford, to the marquisate of
+Dublin, making him not long afterwards Duke of Ireland. Suffolk was an
+able and apparently an honest administrator, who upheld the king's
+prerogative against the encroachments of Parliament. Oxford was a gay
+and heedless companion of Richard's pleasures, who encouraged him in
+unnecessary expense, and thereby provoked to resistance those who
+might have put up with an extension of the royal authority. That
+resistance, however, was to a great extent due to causes not of
+Richard's own making. Though the French in =1386= abandoned their
+attempt at invasion, the preparations to resist them had been costly,
+and Englishmen were in an unreasonable mood. Things, they said, had
+not gone so in the days of Edward III. A cry for reform and
+retrenchment, for more victories and less expense, was loudly raised.
+
+3. =The Impeachment of Suffolk and the Commission of Regency.
+1386.=--The discontented found a leader in Gloucester, the youngest of
+the king's uncles. Wealthy, turbulent, and ambitious, he put himself
+at the head of all who had a grievance against the king. Lancaster had
+just sailed for Spain to prosecute a claim in right of his second wife
+to the throne of Castile, and as York was without ambition, Gloucester
+had it all his own way. Under his guidance a Parliament demanded the
+dismissal of Richard's ministers, and, on his refusal, impeached
+Suffolk. Suffolk, though probably innocent of the charges brought
+against him, was condemned and driven from power, and Commissioners of
+regency were appointed for a year to regulate the realm and the king's
+household, as the Lords Ordainers had done in the days of Edward II.
+(see p. 226).
+
+4. =The Lords Appellant and the Merciless Parliament. 1387--1388.=--In
+one way the Commissioners of regency satisfied the desire of
+Englishmen. In =1387= they sent the Earl of Arundel to sea, and
+Arundel won a splendid victory over a combined fleet of French,
+Flemings, and Spaniards. Richard, on the other hand, fearing that they
+would prolong their power when their year of office was ended,
+consulted upon the legality of the commission with the judges in the
+presence of Suffolk and others of his principal supporters, amongst
+whom was the Duke of Ireland. With one voice the judges declared that
+Parliament might not put the king in tutelage. Richard then made
+preparations to prevent by force the renewal of the commission, and to
+punish as traitors those who had originated it. His intention got
+abroad, and five lords, the Duke of Gloucester, the Earls of Arundel,
+Nottingham, Warwick, and Derby, the latter being the son of the absent
+Lancaster, appeared at the head of an overwhelming force against him.
+The five lords appellant, as they were called, appealed, or accused of
+treason five of Richard's councillors before a Parliament which met at
+Westminster in =1388=, by flinging down their gloves as a token that
+they were ready to prove the truth of their charge in single combat.
+The Duke of Ireland, attempting resistance, was defeated by Derby at
+Radcot Bridge, and finally escaped to Ireland. The Parliament, called
+by its admirers the Wonderful, and by its opponents the Merciless
+Parliament, was entirely subservient to the lords appellant, who,
+instead of meeting their antagonists in single combat, accused them
+before the House of Lords. The Duke of Ireland, Suffolk, Chief Justice
+Tresilian, and Brember, who had been Mayor of London, were condemned
+to be hanged. The two first-named had escaped to the Continent, but
+the others were put to death. The fifth councillor, the Archbishop of
+York, escaped with virtual deprivation by the Pope. Four other
+knights, amongst them Sir Simon Burley, a veteran soldier and trusted
+companion of the Black Prince, were also put to death. Richard was
+allowed nominally to retain the crown, but in reality he was subjected
+to a council in which Gloucester and his adherents were supreme.
+
+5. =Richard's Restoration to Power. 1389.=--Richard's entire
+submission turned the scale in his favour. England had been
+dissatisfied with him, but it had never loved the rule of the great
+feudal lords. Gloucester's council was no more popular than had been
+the Committees named in the Provisions of Oxford in the reign of Henry
+III., or the Lords Ordainers in the reign of Edward II., and it fell
+more easily than any government, before or afterwards. Suddenly, on
+May 3, =1389=, Richard asked his uncle in full council how old he was.
+"Your highness," replied Gloucester, "is in your twenty-second year."
+"Then," said Richard, "I must be old enough to manage my own affairs,
+as every heir is at liberty to do when he is twenty-one." No attempt
+having been made to confute this argument, Richard dismissed the
+council, and ruled once more in person.
+
+6. =Richard's Constitutional Government. 1389--1396.=--This sudden
+blow was followed by seven years of constitutional government. It
+seemed as if Richard had solved the problem of the relations between
+Crown and Parliament, which had perplexed so many generations of
+Englishmen. In =1389= he appointed ministers at his own pleasure, but
+when Parliament met in =1390= he commanded them to lay down their
+offices in order that no one should be deterred from bringing charges
+against them; and it was only upon finding that no one had any
+complaint to bring against them that he restored them to their posts.
+Nor did he show any signs of irritation against those by whom he had
+been outraged. Not only did he forbear to recall Suffolk and his other
+exiled favourites, but after a little time he admitted Gloucester and
+his supporters to sit in council alongside of his own adherents.
+
+7. =Livery and Maintenance. 1390.=--During the fourteenth century the
+importance of the House of Commons had been steadily growing, and the
+king on the one hand and the great nobles on the other had been sorely
+tempted to influence the elections unduly. The means of doing so had
+come with a change in civil relationships, the natural result of that
+change in military relationships which had given a new character to
+the wars of Edward III. (see p. 236). Just as the king now fought with
+paid soldiers of every rank instead of fighting with vassals bound by
+feudal tenure, so the great nobles surrounded themselves with
+retainers instead of vassals. The vassal had been on terms of social
+equality with his lord, and was bound to follow him on fixed terms.
+The retainer was an inferior, who was taken into service and professed
+himself ready to fight for his lord at all times and in all causes. In
+return his lord kept open house for his retainers, supplied them with
+coats, known as liveries, marked with his badge, and undertook to
+maintain them against all men, either by open force or by supporting
+them in their quarrels in the law courts; and this maintenance, as it
+was called, was seldom limited to the mere payment of expenses. The
+lord, by the help of his retainers, could bully witnesses and jurors,
+and wrest justice to the profit of the wrongdoer. As yet, indeed, the
+practice had not attained the proportions which it afterwards assumed,
+but it was sufficiently developed to draw down upon it in =1390= a
+statute prohibiting maintenance and the granting of liveries. Such a
+statute was not merely issued in defence of private persons against
+intimidation; it also helped to protect the Crown against the violence
+of the great lords. The growth of the power of the House of Commons
+was a good thing as long as the House of Commons represented the
+wishes of the community. It would be a bad thing if it merely
+represented knots of armed retainers who either voted in their own
+names according to the orders of their lords, or who frightened away
+those who came to vote for candidates whom their lords opposed.
+
+8. =Richard's Domestic Policy. 1390--1391.=--It was therefore well for
+the community that there should be a strong and wise king capable of
+making head against the ambition of the lords. For some years Richard
+showed himself wise. Not only did he seek, by opening the council to
+his opponents, to win over the lords to take part in the peaceable
+government of the country instead of disturbing it, but he forwarded
+legislation which carried out the general wishes of the country. The
+Statute of Provisors (see p. 258) was re-enacted and strengthened in
+=1390=, the Statute of Mortmain (see p. 212) in =1391=, and the
+Statute of Præmunire (see p. 258) in =1393=.
+
+9. =Richard's Foreign Policy. 1389--1396.=--Richard's foreign policy
+was based upon a French alliance. In =1389= he made a truce with
+France for three years. Negotiations for a permanent peace were
+frustrated because the French would make no peace unless Calais were
+surrendered to them, and English feeling was against the surrender of
+the claims sanctioned by the Treaty of Bretigni. The truce was,
+however, prolonged from time to time, and in =1396=, when Richard, who
+was by that time a widower, married Isabella, the daughter of Charles
+VI., a child of eight, it was prolonged for twenty-eight years. Wise
+as this policy was, it was distasteful to Englishmen, and their
+dissatisfaction rose when they learnt that Richard had surrendered
+Brest and Cherbourg to the French. It was true that these places had
+been pledged to him for money, and that he had only given them up as
+he was bound to do when the money was paid, but his subjects drew no
+fine distinctions, and fancied that he was equally ready to surrender
+Calais and Bordeaux.
+
+10. =Richard's Coup d'État. 1397.=--Richard knew that Gloucester was
+ready to avail himself of any widespread dissatisfaction, and that he
+had recently been allying himself with Lancaster against him. To
+please Lancaster, who had married his mistress, Catherine Swynford, as
+his third wife, Richard had legitimatised the Beauforts, his children
+by her, for all purposes except the succession of the crown, thus
+giving personal offence to Gloucester. Lancaster's son Derby, and
+Nottingham, another of the lords appellant (see p. 279), were now
+favourable to the king, and when rumours reached Richard that
+Gloucester was plotting against him, he resolved to anticipate the
+blow. He arrested the three of the lords appellant whom he still
+distrusted, Gloucester, Warwick, and Arundel, and charged them before
+Parliament, not with recent malpractices, of which he had probably no
+sufficient proof, but with the slaughter of his ministers in the days
+of the Merciless Parliament. Warwick was banished to the Isle of Man,
+Arundel was executed, and Gloucester imprisoned at Calais, where he
+was secretly murdered, as was generally believed by the order of the
+king. Archbishop Arundel, brother of the Earl of Arundel, was also
+banished. In such contradiction was this sudden outburst of violence
+to the prudence of Richard's recent conduct, that it has sometimes
+been supposed that, he had been dissimulating all the time. It is more
+probable that, without being actually insane, his mind had to some
+extent given way. He was always excitable, and in his better days his
+alertness of mind carried him forward to swift decisions, as when he
+met the mob at Smithfield, and when he vindicated his authority from
+the restraint of his uncle. Signs had not been wanting that his native
+energy was no longer balanced by the restraints of prudence. In =1394=
+he had actually struck Arundel in Westminster Abbey. In =1397= there
+was much to goad him to hasty and ill-considered action. The year
+before complaints had been raised against the extravagance of his
+household. The peace which he had given to his country was made the
+subject of bitter reproach against him, and he seems to have believed
+that Gloucester was plotting to bring him back into the servitude to
+which he had been subjected by the Commissioners of regency.
+
+11. =The Parliament of Shrewsbury. 1398.=--Whether Richard was mad or
+not, he at all events acted like a madman. In =1398= he summoned a
+packed Parliament to Shrewsbury, which declared all the acts of the
+Merciless Parliament to be null and void, and announced that no
+restraint could legally be put on the king. It then delegated all
+parliamentary power to a committee of twelve lords and six commoners
+chosen from the king's friends. Richard was thus made an absolute
+ruler unbound by the necessity of gathering a Parliament again. He had
+freed himself not merely from turbulent lords but also from all
+constitutional restraints.
+
+12. =The Banishment of Hereford and Norfolk. 1398.=--Richard had shown
+favour to the two lords appellant who had taken his side. Derby became
+Duke of Hereford, and Nottingham Duke of Norfolk. Before long Hereford
+came to the king with a strange tale. Norfolk, he said, had complained
+to him that the king still distrusted them, and had suggested that
+they should guard themselves against him. Norfolk denied the truth of
+the story, and Richard ordered the two to prove their truthfulness by
+a single combat at Coventry. When the pair met in the lists in full
+armour Richard stopped the fight, and to preserve peace, as he said,
+banished Norfolk for life and Hereford for ten years, a term which was
+soon reduced to six. There was something of the unwise cunning of a
+madman in the proceeding.
+
+13. =Richard's Despotism. 1398--1399.=--Richard, freed from all
+control, was now, in every sense of the word, despotic. He extorted
+money without a semblance of right, and even compelled men to put
+their seals to blank promises to pay, which he could fill up with any
+sum he pleased. He too, like the lords, gathered round him a vast
+horde of retainers, who wore his badge and ill-treated his subjects
+at their pleasure. He threatened the Percies, the Earl of
+Northumberland and his son, Harry Hotspur, with exile, and sent them
+off discontented to their vast possessions in the North. Early in
+=1399= the Duke of Lancaster died. His son, the banished Hereford, was
+now Duke of Lancaster. Richard, however, seized the lands which ought
+to have descended to him from his father. Every man who had property
+to lose felt that Lancaster's cause was his own. Richard at this
+inopportune moment took occasion to sail to Ireland. He had been there
+once before in =1394= in the vain hope of protecting the English
+colonists (see p. 265). His first expedition had been a miserable
+failure: his second expedition was cut short by bad news from England.
+
+[Illustration: Meeting of Henry of Lancaster and Richard II. at Flint:
+from Harl. MS. 1319.]
+
+14. =Henry of Lancaster in England. 1399.=--Lancaster, with a small
+force, landed at Ravenspur, in Yorkshire, a harbour which has now
+disappeared in the sea. At first he gave out that he had come merely
+to demand his own inheritance. Then he alleged that he had come to
+redress the wrongs of the realm. Northumberland brought the Percies to
+his help. Armed men flocked to his support in crowds. The Duke of
+York, who had been left behind by Richard as regent, accepted this
+statement and joined him with all his forces. When Richard heard what
+had happened, he sent the Earl of Salisbury from Ireland to Wales to
+summon the Welshmen to his aid. The Welshmen rallied to Salisbury, but
+the king was long in following, and when Richard landed they had all
+dispersed. Richard found himself almost alone in Conway Castle, whilst
+Lancaster had a whole kingdom at his back.
+
+[Illustration: Henry of Lancaster claiming the throne: from Harl. MS.
+1319.]
+
+15. =The Deposition of Richard and the Enthronement of Henry IV.
+1399.=--By lying promises Lancaster induced Richard to place himself
+in his power at Flint. "My lord," said Lancaster to him, "I have now
+come before you have sent for me. The reason is that your people
+commonly say you have ruled them very rigorously for twenty or two and
+twenty years; but, if it please God, I will help you to govern
+better." The pretence of helping the king to govern was soon
+abandoned. Richard was carried to London and thrown into the Tower. He
+consented, probably not till after he had been threatened with the
+fate of Edward II., to sign his abdication. On the following morning
+the act of abdication was read in Parliament. The throne was empty
+Then Lancaster stepped forward. "In the name," he said, "of the
+Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, I, Henry of Lancaster, challenge this
+realm of England, and the crown with all its members and
+appurtenances, as I am descended by right line of the blood coming
+from the good lord King Henry the Third,[27] and through that right
+God of his grace hath sent me, with help of my kin and of my friends,
+to recover it, the which realm was in point to be undone for default
+of governance and undoing of the good laws." The assent of Parliament
+was given, and Lancaster took his seat in Richard's throne as King
+Henry IV.
+
+    [Footnote 27: Genealogy of the claimants of the throne in 1399:--
+
+                                HENRY III.
+                                1216-1272
+                                    |
+            ---------------------------------
+            |                               |
+        EDWARD I.                         Edmund
+        1272-1307                           |
+            |                  ----------------------
+            |                  |                    |
+       EDWARD II.            Thomas,              Henry,
+        1307-1327        Earl of Lancaster   Earl of Lancaster
+            |                                        |
+       EDWARD III                                    |
+        1327-1377                                    |
+            |                                        |
+           --------------------                      |
+           |                  |              Henry, Duke of Lancaster
+         Edward,            Lionel,                  |
+     the Black Prince   Duke of Clarence          Blanche = John of Gaunt,
+           |                  |                           |   Duke of
+      RICHARD II.         Philippa = Edmund Mortimer,     |  Lancaster
+       1377-1399                   |  Earl of March       |
+                                   |                      |
+                            Roger Mortimer,           HENRY IV.
+                             Earl of March            1399-1413
+                                   |
+                           Edmund Mortimer,
+                             Earl of March]
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of a knight at Clehonger, showing development of
+plate armour. Date, about 1400.]
+
+16. =Nature of the Claim of Henry IV.=--The claim which Henry put
+forward would certainly not bear investigation. It laid stress on
+right of descent, and it has since been thought that Henry intended to
+refer to a popular belief that his ancestor Edmund, the second son of
+Henry III., was in reality the eldest son, but had been set aside in
+favour of his younger brother, Edward I., on account of a supposed
+physical deformity from which he was known as Edmund Crouchback. As a
+matter of fact the whole story was a fable, and the name Crouchback
+had been given to Edmund not because his back was crooked, but because
+he had worn a cross on his back as a crusader (see p. 197). That Henry
+should have thought it necessary to allude to this story, if such was
+really his meaning, shows the hold which the idea of hereditary
+succession had taken on the minds of Englishmen. In no other way could
+he claim hereditary right as a descendant of Henry III. Richard had
+selected as his heir Roger Mortimer, the son of the daughter of
+Lionel, Duke of Clarence, the next son of Edward III., after the Black
+Prince, who lived to be old enough to have children. Roger Mortimer,
+indeed, had recently been killed in Ireland, but he had left a boy,
+Edmund Mortimer, who, on hereditary principles, was heir to the
+kingdom, unless the doctrine announced by Edward III. that a claim to
+the crown descended through females was to be set aside. In fact the
+real importance of the change of kings lay not in what Henry said, but
+in what he avoided saying. It was a reversion to the old right of
+election, and to the precedent set in the deposition of Edward II.
+Henry tacitly announced that in critical times, when the wearer of the
+crown was hopelessly incompetent, the nation, represented by
+Parliament, might step in and change the order of succession. The
+question at issue was not merely a personal one between Richard and
+Henry. It was a question between hereditary succession leading to
+despotism on the one side, and to parliamentary choice, perhaps to
+anarchy, on the other. That there were dangers attending the latter
+solution of the constitutional problem would not be long in appearing.
+
+
+_Books recommended for further study of Part III._
+
+GREEN, J. R. History of the English People. Vol. i. pp. 189-520.
+
+STUBBS, W. (Bishop of Oxford). Constitutional History of England. Vol.
+i. chap. xii. sections 151-155; vol. ii. chaps. ix. and x.
+
+---- The Early Plantagenets, 129-276.
+
+NORGATE, Miss K. England under the Angevin Kings. Vol. ii. p. 390.
+
+MICHELET, J. History of France (Middle Ages). Translated by G. H.
+Smith.
+
+LONGMAN, W. The History of the Life and Times of Edward III.
+
+GAIRDNER, James. The Houses of Lancaster and York, pp. 1-64.
+
+ROGERS, James E. Thorold. A History of Agriculture and Prices in
+England. Vols. i. and ii.
+
+CUNNINGHAM, W. Growth of English Industry and Commerce in the Early
+and Middle Ages, pp. 172-365.
+
+WAKEMAN, H. O. and HASSALL, A. (Editors). Essays Introductory to the
+Study of English Constitutional History.
+
+ASHLEY, W. J. An Introduction to English Economic History and Theory.
+Vol. i.
+
+JUSSERAND, J. J. English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages. Translated
+by Lucy Toulmin Smith (Miss).
+
+BROWNE, M. Chaucer's England.
+
+JESSOPP, A., Dr. The Coming of the Friars, and other Historic Essays.
+
+OMAN, C. W. C. The Art of War in the Middle Ages.
+
+ADAMS, G. B. The Political History of England. Vol. ii. From the
+Norman Conquest to the Death of John (1066-1216).
+
+TOUT, T. F. The Political History of England. Vol. iii. From the
+Accession of Henry III. to the Death of Edward III. (1216-1377).
+
+OMAN, C. The Political History of England. Vol. iv. From the Accession
+of Richard II. to the Death of Richard III. (1377-1485).
+
+
+
+
+PART IV.
+
+_LANCASTER, YORK, AND TUDOR._ =1399--1509.=
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+HENRY IV. AND HENRY V.
+
+HENRY IV., =1399--1413=. HENRY V., =1413--1422=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Accession of Henry IV.                                          1399
+  Statute for the burning of heretics                             1401
+  Battle of Shrewsbury                                            1403
+  Fight at Bramham Moor                                           1408
+  Succession of Henry V.                                          1413
+  Battle of Agincourt                                             1415
+  Treaty of Troyes                                                1420
+  Death of Henry V.                                               1422
+
+
+1. =Henry's First Difficulties. 1399--1400.=--Henry IV. fully
+understood that his only chance of maintaining himself on the throne
+was to rule with due consideration for the wishes of Parliament. His
+main difficulty, like that of his predecessor, was that the great
+lords preferred to hold their own against him individually with the
+help of their armies of retainers, instead of exercising political
+power in Parliament. In his first Parliament an angry brawl arose. The
+lords who in the last reign had taken the side of Gloucester flung
+their gloves on the floor of the House as a challenge to those who had
+supported Richard when he compassed Gloucester's death; and though
+Henry succeeded in keeping the peace for the time, a rebellion broke
+out early in =1400= in the name of Richard. Henry, like the kings
+before him, found his support against the turbulent nobles in the
+townsmen and the yeomen, and he was thus able to suppress the
+rebellion. Some of the noblemen who were caught by the excited
+defenders of the throne were butchered without mercy and without law.
+
+[Illustration: Henry IV. and his queen, Joan of Navarre: from their
+tomb in Canterbury Cathedral.]
+
+2. =Death of Richard II. 1400.=--A few weeks after the suppression of
+this conspiracy it was rumoured that Richard had died in prison at
+Pontefract. According to Henry's account of the matter he had
+voluntarily starved himself to death. Few, however, doubted that he
+had been put to death by Henry's orders. To prove the untruth of this
+story, Henry had the body brought to St. Paul's, where he showed to
+the people only the face of the corpse, as if this could be any
+evidence whatever. After Richard's death, if hereditary succession had
+been regarded, the person having a claim to the crown in preference to
+Henry was the young Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, the descendant of
+Lionel, Duke of Clarence (see p. 287). Henry therefore took care to
+keep the boy under custody during the whole of his reign.
+
+[Illustration: Royal arms as borne by Henry IV. after about 1408, and
+by successive sovereigns down to 1603.]
+
+3. =Henry IV. and the Church.=--Besides seeking the support of the
+commonalty, Henry sought the support of the Church. Since the rise of
+the friars at the beginning of the thirteenth century (see p. 191) the
+Church had produced no new orders of monks or friars. In the
+thirteenth and fourteenth she produced the schoolmen, a succession of
+great thinkers who systematised her moral and religious teaching.
+Imagining that she had no more to learn, she now attempted to
+strengthen herself by persecuting those who disbelieved her teaching,
+and after the suppression of the revolt of the peasants, made common
+cause with the landlords, who feared pecuniary loss from the
+emancipation of the villeins. This conservative alliance against
+social and religious change was the more easily made because many of
+the bishops were now members of noble families, instead of springing,
+as had usually been the case in the better days of the mediæval
+Church, from poor or middle-class parentage. In the reign of Richard
+II. a Courtenay, a kinsman of the Earl of Devonshire, had become first
+Bishop of London (see p. 263), and then Archbishop of Canterbury. He
+was succeeded in his archbishopric by an Arundel, brother of the Earl
+of Arundel who had been executed by Richard, and Archbishop Arundel
+was in the days of Henry IV. the spokesman of the clergy.
+
+[Illustration: Thomas Cranley, Archbishop of Dublin, 1397-1417: from
+his brass at New College, Oxford. Showing the archiepiscopal
+mass-vestments and the cross and pall. Date, about 1400.]
+
+4. =The Statute for the Burning of Heretics. 1401.=--In =1401= the
+clergy cried aloud for new powers. The ecclesiastical courts could
+condemn men as heretics, but had no power to burn them. Bishops and
+abbots formed the majority of the House of Lords, and though the
+Commons had not lost that craving for the wealth of the Church which
+had distinguished John of Gaunt's party, they had no sympathy with
+heresy. Accordingly the statute for the burning of heretics (_De
+hæretico comburendo_), the first English law for the suppression of
+religious opinion, was passed with the ready consent of the king and
+both Houses. The first victim was William Sawtre, a priest who held,
+amongst other things, "that after the words of consecration in the
+Eucharist the bread remains bread, and nothing more." He was burnt by
+a special order from the king and council even before the new law had
+been enacted.
+
+5. =Henry IV. and Owen Glendower. 1400--1402.=--If Henry found it
+difficult to maintain order in England, he found it still more
+difficult to keep the peace on the borders of Wales. In =1400= an
+English nobleman, Lord Grey of Ruthyn, seized on an estate belonging
+to Owen Glendower, a powerful Welsh gentleman. Owen Glendower called
+the Welsh to arms, ravaged Lord Grey's lands, and proclaimed himself
+Prince of Wales. For some years Wales was practically independent.
+English townsmen and yeomen were ready to support Henry against any
+sudden attempt of the nobility to crush him with their retainers, but
+they were unwilling to bear the burden of taxation needed for the
+steady performance of a national task. In the meanwhile Henry was
+constantly exposed to secret plots. In =1401= he found an iron with
+four spikes in his bed. In the autumn of =1402= he led an expedition
+into Wales, but storms of rain and snow forced him back. His English
+followers attributed the disaster to the evil spirits which, as they
+fully believed, were at the command of the wizard Glendower.
+
+6. =The Rebellion of the Percies. 1402--1404.=--The Scots were not
+forgetful of the advantages to be derived from the divisions of
+England. They had amongst them some one--whoever he may have
+been--whom they gave out to be King Richard, and when Henry marched
+against Wales in =1402= they invaded England. They were met by the
+Percies and defeated at Homildon Hill. The Percies had still something
+of the enormous power of the feudal barons of the eleventh century.
+Their family estates stretched over a great part of Northumberland,
+and as they were expected to shield England against Scottish invasions
+they were obliged to keep up a military retinue which might be
+employed against the king as well as in his service. It was mainly
+through their aid that Henry had seated himself on the throne. Their
+chief, the Earl of Northumberland, and his brother, the Earl of
+Worcester, were aged men, but Northumberland's son, Henry Percy--Harry
+Hotspur as he was usually called--was of a fiery temper, and
+disinclined to submit to insult. Hotspur's wife was a Mortimer, and
+her brother, Sir Edmund Mortimer, the uncle of the young Earl of
+March, had been taken prisoner by Glendower. It was noticed that
+Henry, who had ransomed other prisoners, took no steps to ransom
+Mortimer, and it was believed that he was in no hurry to set free one
+whose hereditary claim to the crown, like that of the Earl of March,
+came before his own. Other causes contributed to irritate the Percies,
+and in =1403=, bringing with them as allies the Scottish prisoners
+whom they had taken at Homildon Hill, they marched southwards against
+Henry. Southern England might not be ready adequately to support Henry
+in an invasion of Wales, but it was in no mood to allow him to be
+dethroned by the Percies. It rallied to his side, and enabled him
+signally to defeat the Percies at Shrewsbury. Hotspur was killed in
+the fight, and his uncle, the Earl of Worcester, being captured, was
+beheaded without delay. Northumberland, who was not present at the
+battle, was committed to prison in =1404=, but was pardoned on promise
+of submission.
+
+[Illustration: The battle of Shrewsbury: from the "Life of Richard
+Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick;" drawn by John Rous about 1485.]
+
+7. =The Commons and the Church. 1404.=--After such a deliverance the
+Commons could not but grant some supplies. In the autumn of =1404=,
+however, they pleaded for the confiscation of the revenues of the
+higher clergy, which were sufficient, as they alleged, to support 15
+earls, 1,500 knights, 6,200 esquires, and 100 hospitals as well. The
+king refused to listen to the proposal, and money was voted in the
+ordinary way. It was the first deliberate attempt to meet the growing
+expenditure of the Crown by the confiscation of ecclesiastical
+revenue.
+
+8. =The Capture of the Scottish Prince. 1405.=--Early in =1405= Henry
+was threatened with a fresh attack. Charles VI. of France was now a
+confirmed lunatic, and his authority had mainly fallen into the hands
+of his brother Louis, Duke of Orleans, a profligate and unscrupulous
+man who was regarded by the feudal nobility of France as their leader.
+The Duke of Orleans refused to consider himself bound to Henry by the
+truce which had been made with Richard, and, forming an alliance with
+Owen Glendower, prepared to send a fleet to his aid. When there was
+war between England and France the Scots seldom remained quiet, but
+this time Henry was freed from that danger by an unexpected
+occurrence. The reigning King of Scotland was Robert III., whose
+father, Robert II., had been the first king of the House of Stuart,
+and had ascended the throne after the death of David Bruce, as being
+the son of his sister Margaret.[28] Robert III., weakly in mind and
+body, had committed to the custody of his brother, the Duke of Albany,
+his eldest son, the Duke of Rothesay, who had gained an evil name by
+his scandalous debauchery. Rothesay died in the prison in which his
+uncle had confined him, and popular rumour alleged that Albany had
+murdered him to clear the way to the throne. Robert now sent young
+James, his only surviving son, to be educated in France in order to
+save him from Albany's machinations. On his way the prince was
+captured by an English ship, and delivered to Henry, who kept him
+under guard as a hostage for the peaceful behaviour of his countrymen.
+The prince, he said, should have been sent to him to be educated, as
+he could talk French as well as the king of France. When Robert died
+soon afterwards the captive became King James I.; but he was not
+allowed to return home, and Albany ruled Scotland as regent in his
+name.
+
+    [Footnote 28: Genealogy of the kings of Scotland from Robert Bruce
+    to James I.:--
+
+                ROBERT I., Bruce
+                  (1306-1329)
+                       |
+         ------------------------------
+         |                            |
+      DAVID II.              Margaret = Walter Stewart
+     (1329-1370)                      |
+                             ROBERT II., Stewart or Stuart
+                                 (1370-1390)
+                                      |
+                                      |--------------
+                                      |             |
+                                 ROBERT III.    Robert, Duke
+                                 (1390-1406)     of Albany
+                                      |
+                  --------------------|
+                  |                   |
+                David,             JAMES I.
+           Duke of Rothesay      (1406-1437)]
+
+9. =The Execution of Archbishop Scrope. 1405.=--The capture of such a
+hostage as James was the more valuable to Henry as at that very moment
+there was a fresh rising in the North, in which Scrope, the Archbishop
+of York, took a leading part. The insurgents were soon dispersed, and
+both Archbishop Scrope and Mowbray, the Earl Marshal, were captured.
+Henry had them both beheaded, though neither were tried by their
+peers, and ecclesiastics were not punishable by a secular court.
+Knowing that the insurrection had been contrived by Northumberland,
+Henry gave himself no rest till he had demolished the fortifications
+of his castles of Alnwick, Warkworth, and Prudhoe. Northumberland
+himself escaped to Scotland.
+
+10. =France, Wales, and the North. 1405--1408.=--In =1405=, whilst
+Henry was in the North, a French fleet landed a force in Wales and
+seized Carmarthen. In =1406= the Duke of Orleans attacked the
+possessions still held by the English in Guienne, but though he
+plundered the country he could do no more. Once again fortune relieved
+Henry of a dangerous enemy. The Duke of Orleans had a rival in his
+cousin John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, who, in addition to his
+own duchy and county of Burgundy, was ruler of Flanders through his
+mother. His wise and firm government attached the manufacturing towns
+of Flanders to him, and the example of his government in Flanders won
+him favour in Paris and other French towns, especially in the north of
+France. He was, however, personally brutal and unscrupulous, and
+having entered into a competition for power with the Duke of Orleans,
+he had him murdered in =1407= in the streets of Paris. At once a civil
+war broke out between the Burgundian party, supported by the towns,
+and the Orleans party, which rested on the feudal nobility, and was
+now termed the party of the Armagnacs, from the Count of Armagnac, its
+chief leader after the murder of the Duke of Orleans. Henry had no
+longer to fear invasion from France. In =1408= he was freed from yet
+another enemy. The old Earl of Northumberland, who had wandered from
+Scotland to Wales, now wandered north again to try his fortunes in his
+own country. As he passed through Yorkshire he was met by the sheriff
+of the county, and defeated and slain on Bramham Moor. At the same
+time South Wales fell again under the power of the king, and though
+Owen Glendower still continued to hold out in the mountainous region
+round Snowdon, his power rapidly declined.
+
+[Illustration: Fight in the lists with poleaxes between Richard
+Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, and Sir Pandolf Malatesta, at Verona,
+_temp._ Henry IV.: from the "Life of Richard, Earl of Warwick;" drawn
+by John Rous about 1485.]
+
+11. =Henry, Prince of Wales. 1409--1410.=--No one had been more
+helpful to the king in these wars than his son, Henry, Prince of
+Wales. He had fought at Shrewsbury and in Wales, and had learnt to
+command as well as to fight. Young as he was--in =1409= he was but
+twenty-two--he was already seen to be a man born to have the mastery.
+He took his place in his father's council as well as in his armies in
+the field. He was skilful, resolute, always knowing his own mind,
+prompt to act as each occasion arose. He was, moreover, unfeignedly
+religious. It seemed as if a king as great as Edward I. was about to
+ascend the throne. Yet between the character of Edward I. and the
+character of Prince Henry there was a great difference. Edward I.
+worked for the future as well as for the present. His constructive
+legislation served his country for generations after his death. Even
+his mistaken attempt to unite England and Scotland was, to some extent
+at least, an anticipation of that which was done by the Act of Union
+four hundred years after his death. The young Henry had no such power
+of building for the future. He worked for the present alone, and his
+work crumbled away almost as soon as he was in his grave. His ideas
+were the ordinary ideas of his age, and he never originated any of his
+own. In =1410=, when a heretic, Badby, was led to be burnt, the Prince
+in vain urged him to recant. As the flames blazed up, the poor wretch,
+stung by the torment, cried for mercy. The Prince bade the
+executioners drag away the blazing faggots, and offered Badby support
+for his lifetime if he would abandon his heresy. Badby refused, and
+the Prince sternly ordered the executioners to push the faggots back
+and to finish their cruel work. In that very year the House of
+Commons, which was again urging the king to confiscate the revenues of
+the clergy, even urged him also to soften the laws against the
+Lollards. The king refused, and he had no opposition to fear from the
+Prince of Wales.
+
+[Illustration: Costume of a judge, about 1400: from the brass of Sir
+John Cassy, Chief Baron of the Exchequer, at Deerhurst,
+Gloucestershire.]
+
+12. =The Last Years of Henry IV. 1411--1413.=--It was not long before
+a bitter quarrel broke out between Henry IV. and his son, which lasted
+till the death of the old man. In later times stories were told how
+Prince Henry gave himself up to the society of low and debauched
+companions, how he amused himself by robbing the receivers of his own
+rents, and how, having struck Chief Justice Gascoigne for sitting in
+judgment on one of his unruly followers, he was sent to prison for
+contempt of court. There is no real evidence in support of these
+stories; but there is good reason to believe that, though they were
+certainly exaggerated, they were not altogether without foundation.
+Since =1410= the Prince kept house in the heart of London, and, as a
+young and active man suddenly called from service in the field to live
+in the midst of the temptations of a city, he may very well have
+developed a taste for boisterous amusements, even if he did not fall
+into grosser forms of dissipation. It is certain that during this
+period of his life he ran deeply into debt, and was no longer on good
+terms with his father. Yet even the story about the Chief Justice goes
+on to say that the Prince took his punishment meekly and offered no
+resistance, and that his father thanked God that he had so upright a
+judge and so obedient a son. Political disagreement probably widened
+the breach between the King and the Prince. Henry IV. had grown
+accustomed to live from hand to mouth, and had maintained himself on
+the throne rather because Englishmen needed a king than because he was
+himself a great ruler. In his foreign policy he was swayed by the
+interests of the moment. In =1411= he helped the Burgundians against
+the Armagnacs. In =1412= he helped the Armagnacs against the
+Burgundians. Prince Henry already aimed at a steady alliance with the
+Burgundians, with a view to a policy more thoroughgoing than that of
+keeping a balance between the French parties. The king, too, was
+subject to epileptic attacks, and to a cutaneous disorder which his
+ill-willers branded by the name of leprosy. It has even been said that
+in =1412= the Prince urged his father to abdicate in his favour. If
+so, he had not long to wait for the crown. In =1413= Henry IV. died,
+and Henry V. sat upon his throne.
+
+13. =Henry V. and the Lollards. 1413--1414.=--Henry V. was steadied by
+the duties which now devolved upon him. He indeed dismissed from the
+chancellorship Archbishop Arundel, who had supported his father
+against himself, and gave it to his half-uncle, Henry Beaufort, Bishop
+of Winchester, one of the legitimated sons of John of Gaunt and
+Catherine Swynford (see p. 282), but he allowed no plans of vengeance
+to take possession of his mind. His first thought was to show that he
+had confidence in his own title to the crown. He liberated the Earl of
+March, and transferred the body of Richard II. to a splendid tomb at
+Westminster, as if he had nothing to fear from any competitor. If
+there was one thing on which, as far as England was concerned, his
+heart was set, it was on strengthening the religion of his ancestors.
+He founded three friaries and he set himself to crush the Lollards.
+Sir John Oldcastle, who bore the title of Lord Cobham in right of his
+wife, was looked up to by the Lollards as their chief supporter.
+Oldcastle was brought before Archbishop Arundel. Both judge and
+accused played their several parts with dignity. Arundel without angry
+reviling asserted the necessity of accepting the teaching of the
+Church. Oldcastle with modest firmness maintained the falsity of many
+of its doctrines. In the end he was excommunicated, but before any
+further action could be taken he escaped, and was nowhere to be found.
+His followers were so exasperated as to form a plot against the king's
+life. Early in =1414= Henry fell upon a crowd of them in St. Giles's
+Fields. Most escaped, but of those who were taken the greater part
+were hanged or burnt. The result was a statute giving fresh powers to
+the king for the punishment of the Lollards. Every book written by
+them was to be confiscated. Three years later (=1417=) Oldcastle was
+seized and burnt. He was the last of the Lollards to play an
+historical part. The Lollards continued to exist in secret, especially
+in the towns, but there was never again any one amongst them who
+combined religious fervour with cultivated intelligence.
+
+[Illustration: Henry V.: from an original painting belonging to the
+Society of Antiquaries.]
+
+14. =Henry's Claim to the Throne of France. 1414.=--Henry V. was
+resolved to uphold the old foreign policy of the days of Edward III.
+as well as the old religion. In =1414=, whilst he amused the French
+court by offers of friendship, he was in reality preparing to demand
+the crown of France as the right of the king of England, leaving out
+of sight the consideration that if the claim of Edward III. had been
+worth anything at all, it would have descended to the Earl of March
+and not to himself. Everything seemed to combine to make easy an
+attack on France. Burgundians and Armagnacs were engaged in a
+death-struggle. In =1413= a riotous Burgundian mob had made itself
+master of Paris and the Government. Then the Armagnacs had got the
+upper hand, and the Duke of Burgundy was driven back to his own
+dominions. Henry now made an alliance with the Duke of Burgundy
+against the ruling powers, and prepared to invade the distracted land.
+Thus far he proceeded in imitation of Edward III., who had attacked
+Philip VI. in alliance with the Flemings. With Edward III., however,
+the claim to the French crown had always been a secondary
+consideration. He went to war because French sailors plundered English
+ports and the French king assisted the Scots. Henry had no such reason
+to urge. He went to war because he was young and warlike, because the
+enterprise was easy, and because foreign conquest would unite all
+Englishmen round his throne. When once the war was begun he was
+certain to carry it on in a different spirit from that of Edward III.
+Edward had gone to weaken the plunderers by plundering in return, and
+to fight battles only when they happened to come in his way. Henry
+went with the distinct resolution to conquer France and to place the
+French crown on his own head. Every step which he took was calculated
+with skill for the attainment of this end. Of immediate, perhaps of
+lifelong, success Henry was as nearly certain as it was possible to
+be. Yet, if he had remembered what had been the end of campaigns
+adorned by the brilliant victories of Creçy and Poitiers, he might
+have known that all that he could do would end in ultimate failure,
+and that the day must come when divided France would unite to cast
+out, if not himself, at least his heirs. It was significant that when
+his Chancellor, Beaufort, announced to Parliament the king's
+intention, he took for his text, after the manner of political
+speakers in those days, 'Let us work while it is called to-day.' Henry
+was not inclined, as Edward I. had been, to take thought for a distant
+morrow.
+
+15. =The Invasion of France. 1415.=--In =1415= Henry openly made his
+claim and gathered his army at Southampton. He there detected a
+conspiracy to place the Earl of March on the throne, which had been
+formed by Lord Scrope and Sir Thomas Grey, in combination with March's
+brother-in-law, the Earl of Cambridge, a son of the Duke of York (see
+genealogy at p. 327), the son of Edward III. All three were executed,
+and then Henry sailed for France. He landed at the mouth of the Seine
+and besieged Harfleur. Harfleur fell after an heroic defence, and the
+Seine valley lay open to Henry.[29] Over two-thirds of his army,
+however, had perished from dysentery and fever, and with no more, even
+at the highest calculation, than 15,000 men, he was unable to take
+advantage of the opportunity to march upon Paris. His brother the Duke
+of Clarence, urged him to return to England, but Henry knew that if he
+went back with baffled hopes his throne would hardly stand the shock.
+He resolved to march to Calais. It might be that he would find a Creçy
+on the way.
+
+    [Footnote 29: Havre de Grâce was not yet in existence.]
+
+16. =The March to Agincourt. 1415.=--Not a Frenchman could be found
+who would take seriously Henry's claim to be the true king of France.
+When he reached the Somme he found the bridges over the river broken,
+and he was only able to cross it by ascending it almost to its source.
+Then, bending to the left, he pushed on towards Calais. His own army
+was by this time scarcely more than 10,000 strong, and he soon learnt
+that a mighty French host of at least 50,000 men blocked the way at
+Agincourt. Though his little band was worn with hunger, he joyfully
+prepared for battle. He knew that the Duke of Burgundy had kept aloof,
+and that the Armagnac army opposed to him was a feudal host of the
+same character as that which had been defeated at Creçy. There were no
+recognised commanders, no subordination, no notion of the superior
+military power of the English archers.
+
+17. =The Battle of Agincourt, October 25, 1415.=--In the early
+morning, mass was said in the English army, and Henry's scanty
+followers prayed earnestly that their king's right, as they believed
+it to be, might be shown on that day. Henry's own prayers were long
+and fervid. He was told that it was the hour of prime, the first hour
+of prayer. "Now," he said, "is good time, for all England prayeth for
+us, and, therefore, be of good cheer." He then went forth to marshal
+his army. To a knight who wished that every brave Englishman now at
+home were there, he replied that he would not have one man more. Few
+as they were, they were in the hands of God, who could give them the
+victory. Henry's tactics were those of Creçy. He drew up his archers
+between thick woods which defended their flanks, and with sharp stakes
+planted in the ground to defend them in front, placing his dismounted
+horsemen at intervals between the bodies of archers. The French,
+however, showed no signs of attacking, and Henry, knowing that unless
+he cut his way through his soldiers would starve, threw tactics to
+the winds and ordered his archers to advance. He had judged wisely.
+The French horsemen were on ploughed ground soaked with rain, and when
+at last they charged, the legs of their horses stuck fast in the
+clinging mud. The English arrows played thickly on them. Immovable and
+helpless, they were slaughtered as they stood. In vain their
+dismounted horsemen pushed forward in three columns upon the English
+knights. Their charge was vigorously resisted, and the archers,
+overlapping each column, drew forth the heavy leaden mallets which
+each man carried, and fell upon the helpless rout with blows which
+crashed through the iron headpieces of the Frenchmen. Such as could
+escape fled hastily to the rear, throwing into wild confusion the
+masses of their countrymen who had not as yet been engaged. The battle
+was won, but unfortunately the victory was stained by a cruel deed.
+Some French plunderers had got into the rear to seize upon the
+baggage, and Henry, believing that a fresh enemy was upon him, gave
+orders, which were promptly carried out, to slay the prisoners. The
+loss of the French was enormous, and fell heavily on their nobility,
+always eager to be foremost in fight. Amongst the prisoners who were
+spared was the young Duke of Orleans.
+
+18. =Henry's Diplomacy. 1416--1417.=--If Henry had not yet secured the
+crown of France, he had at least made sure of the crown of England.
+When he landed at Dover he was borne to land on the shoulders of the
+multitude. He entered London amidst wild enthusiasm. There was no fear
+of any fresh conspiracy to place the Earl of March on the throne. In
+=1416= he sent his brother, the Duke of Bedford, to secure Harfleur
+against a French attack, whilst he himself was diplomatically active
+in an attempt to win over to his side the Duke of Burgundy and
+Sigismund, King of the Romans, who actually visited him in England.
+Sigismund promised much, but had little power to fulfil his promises,
+whilst the Duke shifted backwards and forwards, looking out for his
+own advantage and giving no real help to either side. In =1417= the
+quarrels in France reached a head. The Count of Armagnac, getting into
+his possession the Dauphin Charles, a boy of fourteen, established a
+reign of terror in Paris, and the Duke of Burgundy, summoned by the
+frightened citizens to their help, levied war against the Armagnacs
+and marched to Paris.
+
+19. =Henry's Conquest of Normandy. 1417--1419.=--Henry seized the
+opportunity and landed in Normandy. Caen was taken by storm, and in a
+few weeks all Normandy except Rouen had submitted to Henry. There had
+been a terrible butchery when Caen was stormed, but when once
+submission was secured Henry took care that justice and order should
+be enforced, and that his soldiers should abstain from plunder and
+outrage. In Paris affairs were growing worse. The citizens rose
+against the Armagnacs and imprisoned all of them on whom they could
+lay hands. Then the mob burst into the prisons and massacred the
+prisoners, the Count of Armagnac himself being one of the number.
+Henry's army in the meanwhile closed round Rouen. The magistrates, to
+prolong the defence, thrust out the poorer inhabitants. Henry, who
+knew not pity when there was a practical object to be gained, thrust
+them back. During five months the poor wretches wandered about half
+starved, dying off day by day. On Christmas Day, in honour of Christ's
+nativity, Henry sent some food to the few who were left. Famine did
+its work within as well as without the walls, and on January 19,
+=1419=, Rouen, the old ducal capital of the Norman kings, surrendered
+to Henry.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of William Phelip, Lord Bardolf (died 1441),
+with the Garter and Lancastrian collar of SS.: from his tomb at
+Dennington, Suffolk. The type of armour here shown prevailed from
+about 1415 to 1435.]
+
+[Illustration: Marriage of Henry V. and Catherine of France: from the
+'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick,' drawn by John Rous about
+1485.]
+
+20. =The Murder of the Duke of Burgundy and the Treaty of Troyes.
+1419--1420.=--In the summer of =1419= English troops swept the country
+even up to the walls of Paris. Henry, however, gained more by the
+follies and crimes of his enemies than by his own skill. Terrified at
+the prospect of losing all, Burgundians and Armagnacs seemed for a
+moment to forget their quarrel and to be ready to join together in
+defence of their common country; but the hatred in their hearts could
+not be rooted out. At a conference between the Duke of Burgundy and
+the Dauphin on the bridge of Montereau, angry words sprang easily to
+the lips of both. The Duke put his hand on the pommel of his sword,
+and some of the Dauphin's attendants, believing their master's life in
+danger, fell on the Duke and slew him. After this an agreement between
+the factions was no longer possible. The new Duke of Burgundy, Philip
+the Good, at once joined the English against the Dauphin, whom he
+regarded as an accomplice of his father's murderers. Even Queen
+Isabella, the mother of the Dauphin, shared in the outcry against her
+own son, and in =1420= was signed the Treaty of Troyes, by which the
+Dauphin was disinherited in favour of Henry, who was to be king of
+France on the death of Charles VI. In accordance with its terms, Henry
+married Charles's daughter Catherine, and ruled France as regent till
+the time came when he was to rule it as king.
+
+21. =The Close of the Reign of Henry V. 1420--1422.=--The Treaty of
+Troyes was very similar in its stipulations to that which Henry II.
+had made with Stephen at Wallingford (see p. 137). The result was, as
+might have been expected, totally different. Henry II. had the English
+nation behind his back. Henry V. presumed to rule over a foreign
+nation, the leaders of which had only accepted him in a momentary fit
+of passion. He never got the whole of France into his power. He held
+Paris and the North, whilst the Duke of Burgundy held the East. South
+of the Loire the Armagnacs were strong, and that part of France stood
+by the Dauphin, though even here the English possessed a strip of land
+along the sea-coast in Guienne and Gascony, and at one time drew over
+some of the lords to admit Henry's feudal supremacy. In =1420= Henry
+fancied it safe for him to return to England, but, in his absence, in
+the spring of =1421= his brother, the Duke of Clarence, was defeated
+and slain at Baugé by a force of Frenchmen and of Scottish
+auxiliaries. Clarence had forgotten that English victories had been
+due to English archery. He had plunged into the fight with his
+horsemen, and had paid the penalty for his rashness with his life.
+Henry hurried to the rescue of his followers, and drove the French
+over the Loire; though Orleans, on the north bank of that river,
+remained unconquered. Instead of laying siege to it Henry turned
+sharply round northwards to besiege Meaux, the garrison of which was
+plundering the country round Paris in the name of the Dauphin, and
+seemed likely to shake the fidelity to Henry even of Paris itself.
+Meaux held out for many months. When at last it fell, in =1422=, Henry
+was already suffering from a disease which carried him off before the
+end of the year at the age of thirty-five. Henry V. had given his life
+to the restoration of the authority of the Church in England, and to
+the establishment of his dynasty at home by means of the glory of
+foreign conquest. What man could do he did, but he could not achieve
+the impossible.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+HENRY VI. AND THE LOSS OF FRANCE. =1422--1451=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Henry VI., 1422-1461
+
+  The accession of Henry VI.                                      1422
+  The relief of Orleans                                           1429
+  End of the alliance with the Duke of Burgundy                   1435
+  Marriage of Henry VI. with Margaret of Anjou                    1445
+  Murder of the Duke of Suffolk and Jack Cade's rebellion         1450
+  Loss of the last French possessions except Calais               1451
+
+
+1. =Bedford and Gloucester. 1422.=--In England Henry V. was succeeded
+in =1422= by his son, Henry VI., a child of nine months. In the same
+year, in consequence of the death of Charles VI., the infant was
+acknowledged as king of France in the north and east of that country.
+The Dauphin, holding the lands south of the Loire, and some territory
+even to the north of it, claimed to reign over the whole of France by
+hereditary right as Charles VII. Henry V. had appointed his eldest
+surviving brother, John, Duke of Bedford, regent in France, and his
+youngest brother, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, regent in England. In
+England there were no longer any parties banded against the Crown, and
+the title of the Earl of March had not a single supporter; but both
+the Privy Council and the Parliament agreed that the late king could
+not dispose of the regency by will. Holding that Bedford as the elder
+brother had the better claim, they nevertheless, in consequence of his
+absence in France, appointed Gloucester Protector, with the proviso
+that he should give up his authority to Bedford if the latter were to
+return to England. They also imposed limitations upon the authority of
+the Protector, requiring him to act by the advice of the Council.
+
+2. =Bedford's Success in France. 1423--1424.=--The English nation was
+bent upon maintaining its supremacy in France. Bedford was a good
+warrior and an able statesman. In =1423= he prudently married the
+sister of Philip of Burgundy, hoping thereby to secure permanently the
+all-important fidelity of the Duke. His next step was to place
+difficulties in the way of the Scottish auxiliaries who poured into
+France to the help of Charles. Through his influence the captive James
+I. (see p. 295) was liberated and sent home to Scotland, on the
+understanding that he would prevent his subjects from aiding the
+enemies of England. Bedford needed all the support he could find, as
+the French had lately been gaining ground. In =1424=, however, Bedford
+defeated them at Verneuil. In England it was believed that Verneuil
+was a second Agincourt, and that the French resistance would soon be
+at an end.
+
+3. =Gloucester's Invasion of Hainault. 1424.=--Bedford's progress in
+France was checked by the folly of his brother Gloucester, who was as
+unwise and capricious as he was greedy of power. Gloucester had lately
+married Jacqueline, the heiress of Holland and Hainault, though her
+husband, the Duke of Brabant, was still living, on the plea that her
+first marriage was null on the ground of nearness of kin. In =1424=
+Gloucester overran Hainault, which was under the government of the
+Duke of Brabant, thereby giving offence to the Duke of Burgundy, who
+was a cousin and ally of the Duke of Brabant, and who had no wish to
+see the English holding a territory so near to his own county of
+Flanders. The Duke of Brabant recovered Hainault and captured
+Jacqueline, who had already been abandoned by Gloucester. A coolness
+arose between the Duke of Burgundy and the English which was never
+completely removed.
+
+[Illustration: Henry VI.: from an original picture in the National
+Portrait Gallery.]
+
+4. =Gloucester and Beaufort. 1425--1428.=--In England as well as on
+the Continent Gloucester's self-willed restlessness roused enemies,
+the most powerful of them being his uncle, the Chancellor, Henry
+Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester (see pp. 301, 335), a wealthy and
+ambitious prelate not without those statesmanlike qualities which were
+sadly lacking to Gloucester. If Beaufort ruled the Council, Gloucester
+had the art of making himself popular with the multitude, whose
+sympathies were not likely to be given to a bishop of the type of
+Beaufort, who practised no austerities and who had nothing in him to
+appeal to the popular imagination. So bitter was the feud between
+Gloucester and Beaufort that in =1426= Bedford was obliged to visit
+England to keep the peace between them. Before he returned to France
+he persuaded Beaufort to surrender the chancellorship to Kemp, the
+Bishop of London, and to leave England for a time. Moreover, in =1427=
+he himself swore that as long as the king was under age the Council
+and not the Protector was to govern. When Gloucester was asked to take
+the same oath, he signed it, but refused to swear. In =1428=, after
+Bedford had returned to France, Beaufort came back, bringing with him
+from Rome the title of Cardinal, and authority to raise soldiers for a
+crusade against heretics in Bohemia. A storm was at once raised
+against him. A Cardinal, it was said, was a servant of the Roman See,
+and as no man could serve two masters, he ought not to hold an English
+bishopric or to sit in the English Council, far less to send to
+Bohemia English troops which were needed in France. Gloucester fancied
+that the opportunity of overthrowing his rival had come. Beaufort,
+however, was too prudent to press his claims. He absented himself from
+the Council and allowed the men whom he had raised for Bohemia to be
+sent to France instead. Before the end of the year the outcry against
+him died away, and, Cardinal as he was, he resumed his old place in
+the Council.
+
+5. =The Siege of Orleans. 1428--1429.=--The time had arrived when the
+presence of every English soldier was needed in France. Bedford had
+made himself master of almost the whole country north of the Loire
+except Orleans. If he could gain that city it would be easy for him to
+overpower Charles, who kept court at Chinon. In =1428=, therefore, he
+laid siege to Orleans. The city, however, defended itself gallantly,
+though all that the French outside could hope to do was to cut off the
+supplies of the besiegers. In February =1429= they attempted to
+intercept a convoy of herrings coming from Paris for the English
+troops, but were beaten off in what was jocosely styled the Battle of
+the Herrings, and it seemed as though Orleans, and with it France
+itself, were doomed. Frenchmen were indeed weary of the foreign yoke
+and of the arrogant insolence of the rough island soldiers. Yet in
+France all military and civil organisation had hitherto come from the
+kings, and unfortunately for his subjects Charles was easy-tempered
+and entirely incapable either of carrying on war successfully or of
+inspiring that enthusiasm without which the most careful organisation
+is as the twining of ropes of sand. It would need a miracle to inspire
+Frenchmen with the belief that it was possible for them to defeat the
+victors of Agincourt and Verneuil, and yet without such a miracle
+irretrievable ruin was at hand.
+
+6. =Jeanne Darc and the Relief of Orleans. 1429.=--The miracle was
+wrought by a young maiden of seventeen, Jeanne Darc, the daughter of a
+peasant of Domremi, in the duchy of Bar. Her home was at a distance
+from the actual scenes of war, but whilst she was still little more
+than a child, tales of horror, reaching her from afar, had filled her
+with 'pity for the realm of France' and for its young king, whom she
+idealised into the pattern of every virtue. As she brooded over the
+thought of possible deliverance, her warm imagination summoned up
+before her bright and saintly forms, St. Michael, St. Catherine, and
+St. Margaret, who bade her, the chosen of God, to go forth and save
+the king, and conduct him to Reims to be crowned and anointed with the
+holy oil from the vessel which, as men believed, had been brought down
+from heaven in days of old. At last in =1428= her native hamlet was
+burnt down by a Burgundian band. Then the voices of the saints bade
+her go to Vaucouleurs, where she would find a knight, Robert de
+Baudricourt, who would conduct her to Charles. Months passed before
+Baudricourt would do aught but scorn her message, and it was not till
+February =1429=, when the news from Orleans was most depressing, that
+he consented to take her in his train. She found Charles at Chinon,
+and, as the story goes, convinced him of her Divine mission by
+recognising him in disguise in the midst of his courtiers. Soldiers
+and theologians alike distrusted her, but her native good sense, her
+simple and earnest faith, and above all her purity of heart and life
+disarmed all opposition, and she was sent forth to lead an army to the
+relief of Orleans. She rode on horseback clothed in armour as a man,
+with a sword which she had taken from behind the altar of St.
+Catherine by her side, and a consecrated banner in her hand. She
+brought with her hope of victory, enthusiasm built on confidence in
+Divine protection, and wide-reaching patriotism. 'Pity for the realm
+of France' inspired her, and even the rough soldiers who followed her
+forsook for a time their debaucheries that they might be fit to follow
+God's holy maid. Such an army was invincible; but whilst to the French
+the maid was an instrument of the mercy of God, to the English she was
+an emissary of hell and the forerunner of defeat. On May 7 she led the
+storm of one of the English fortified posts by which the town was
+hemmed in. After a sharp attack she planted her standard on the wall.
+The English garrison was slain to a man. The line of the besiegers was
+broken through, and Orleans was saved. On the 12th the English army
+was in full retreat.
+
+[Illustration: Fotheringhay Church, Northamptonshire. The contract for
+building it, between Edward Duke of York, and William Horwod,
+freemason, is dated September 24, 1434.]
+
+7. =The Coronation of Charles VII. and the Capture of the Maid.
+1429--1430.=--The Maid followed up her victory. She had at her side
+brave and skilful warriors, such as La Hire and the Bastard of
+Orleans, the illegitimate son of the murdered Louis of Orleans, and
+with their help she pressed the English hard, driving them northwards
+and defeating them at Patay. She insisted on conducting Charles to
+Reims, and he, indolently resisting at first, was carried away by her
+persistent urgency. Hostile towns opened their gates to her on the
+way, and on July 17 she saw with chastened joy the man whom she had
+saved from destruction crowned in the great cathedral of Reims. For
+her part, she was eager to push on the war, but Charles was slothful,
+and in a hurry to be back to the pleasures of his court. When she led
+the troops to the attack of Paris, she was ordered back by the king,
+and the army sent into winter quarters. In the spring of =1430= the
+Maid was allowed again to attack the English, but she had no longer
+the support which she had once had. Many of the French soldiers were
+meanly jealous of her, and were vexed when they were told that they
+owed their victories to a woman. On the other side the Duke of
+Burgundy was frightened by the French successes into giving real aid
+to Bedford, and on May 23, in a skirmish before Compiègne, her
+countrymen doing nothing to save or to rescue her, the Maid was taken
+by Burgundian soldiers. Before the end of the year her captors sold
+her to the English, who firmly believed her to be a witch.
+
+8. =The Martyrdom at Rouen. 1431.=--The English had no difficulty in
+finding an ecclesiastical court to judge their prisoner. Even the
+French clergy detested the Maid as having appealed to supernatural
+voices which had not been recognised by the Church; and in spite of an
+intelligent and noble defence she was condemned to be burnt. At the
+stake she behaved with heroic simplicity. When the flames curled round
+her she called upon the saints who had befriended her. Her last
+utterance was a cry of "Jesus!" An Englishman who had come to triumph
+hung his head for shame. "We are lost," he said; "we have burnt a
+saint!"
+
+9. =The Last Years of the Duke of Bedford. 1431--1435.=--The English
+gained nothing by their unworthy vengeance. Though the personal
+presence of the Maid was no longer there to encourage her countrymen,
+they had learnt from her to cherish that 'pity for the realm of
+France' which had glowed so brightly in her own bosom. It was in vain
+that towards the end of =1431= Bedford carried the young Henry, now a
+boy of ten years, who had already been crowned in England the year
+before, to be crowned at Nôtre Dame, the cathedral of Paris. The
+Parisians were disgusted by the troop of foreigners which accompanied
+him, and their confidence was shaken when Bedford sent the king back
+to England as not venturing to trust him amongst his French subjects.
+In =1432= the armies of Charles VII. stole forwards step by step, and
+Bedford, who had no money to pay his troops, could do nothing to
+resist them. The English Parliament, which had cheerfully voted
+supplies as long as there seemed a prospect of conquering France, hung
+back from granting them when victories were no longer won. In =1433=
+Bedford was again forced to return to England to oppose the intrigues
+of Gloucester, who, though he had lost the title of Protector when the
+young king was crowned, had thrown the government into confusion by
+his intrigues. When Bedford went back to France in =1434= he found the
+tide running strongly against him. Little more than Paris and Normandy
+were held by the English, and the Duke of Burgundy was inclining more
+and more towards the French. In =1435= a congress was held at Arras,
+under the Duke of Burgundy's presidency, in the hope that peace might
+be made. The congress, however, failed to accomplish anything, and
+soon after the English ambassadors were withdrawn Bedford died at
+Rouen. If so wise a statesman and so skilful a warrior had failed to
+hold down France, no other Englishman was likely to achieve the task.
+
+10. =The Defection of Burgundy. 1435.=--After Bedford's death the Duke
+of Burgundy renounced his alliance with the English and entered into a
+league with Charles VII. In =1430=, by the death of the Duke of
+Brabant, he inherited Brabant, and in =1436= he inherited from the
+faithless Jacqueline Hainault, Holland, Zealand, and Friesland (see p.
+308). He thus, being already Count of Flanders, became ruler over
+well-nigh the whole of the Netherlands in addition to his own
+territories in Burgundy. The vassal of the king of France was now a
+European potentate. England had therefore to count on the enmity of a
+ruler whose power of injuring her was indeed serious.
+
+11. =The Duke of York in France. 1436--1437.=--Bedford's successor was
+the young Richard, Duke of York, whose father was that Earl of
+Cambridge who had been executed at Southampton (see p. 301); whilst
+his mother was Anne Mortimer, the sister of the Earl of March. As the
+Earl of March had died in =1425=, the Duke of York was now, through
+his mother, the heir of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, and thus, if
+hereditary right was to be regarded, heir to the throne. That a man
+with such claims should have been entrusted with such an office shows
+how firmly the victories of Henry V. had established the House of
+Lancaster in England. Disputes in the English Council, however,
+delayed his departure, and in April =1436=, before he could arrive in
+France, Paris was lost, whilst the Duke of Burgundy besieged Calais.
+England, stung by the defection of Burgundy, made an unusual effort.
+One army drove the Burgundians away from before Calais, whilst another
+under the Duke of York himself regained several fortresses in
+Normandy, and in =1437= Lord Talbot drove the Burgundians behind the
+Somme.
+
+12. =The English Lose Ground. 1437--1443.=--Gallant as the Duke of
+York was, he was soon recalled, and in =1437= was succeeded by Richard
+Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick. Warwick, however, failed to do more than
+to hold what his predecessor had gained, and he died in =1439=. Both
+in England and France the suffering was terrible, and England would
+find neither men nor money to support a falling cause. In =1439= a
+peace conference was held at Calais, but the English continued
+arrogantly to claim the crown of France, and peace was not to be had.
+In =1440= York was sent back, and fighting went on till =1443=, in
+which the English lost ground both in Normandy and in Guienne.
+
+[Illustration: Gilt-latten effigy (front view) of Richard Beauchamp,
+Earl of Warwick, died 1439: from his tomb at Warwick. Made by William
+Austen, of London, founder, 1453.]
+
+[Illustration: Gilt-latten effigy (back view) of Richard Beauchamp,
+Earl of Warwick, died 1439: from his tomb at Warwick. Made by William
+Austen, of London, founder, 1453.]
+
+13. =Continued Rivalry of Beaufort and Gloucester. 1439--1441.=--The
+chief advocate in England of the attempt to make peace at Calais in
+=1439= had been Cardinal Beaufort, whose immense wealth gave him
+authority over a Council which was always at its wits' end for money.
+Beaufort was wise enough to see that the attempt to reconquer the lost
+territory, or even to hold Normandy, was hopeless. Such a view,
+however, was not likely to be popular. Nations, like men, often
+refuse openly to acknowledge failure long after they cease to take
+adequate means to avert it. Of the popular feeling Gloucester made
+himself the mouthpiece, and it was by his influence that exorbitant
+pretensions had been put forward at Calais. In =1440= he accused
+Beaufort of using his authority for his own private interests, and
+though Beaufort gave over to the public service a large sum of money
+which he received as the ransom of the Duke of Orleans from a
+captivity which had lasted twenty-four years (see p. 303), Gloucester
+virulently charged him with an unpatriotic concession to the enemy.
+Gloucester's domestic relations, on the other hand, offered an easy
+object of attack. When he deserted Jacqueline he took a mistress,
+Eleanor Cobham, and subsequently married her, which he was able to do
+without difficulty, as his union with Jacqueline was, in the eyes of
+the Church, no marriage at all. The new Duchess of Gloucester being
+aware that if the king should die her husband would be next in order
+of succession to the throne, was anxious to hasten that event. It was
+a superstitious age, and the Duchess consulted an astrologer as to the
+time of the king's death, and employed a reputed witch to make a waxen
+image of the king under the belief that as the wax melted before the
+fire the king's life would waste away. In =1441= these proceedings
+were detected. The astrologer was hanged, the witch was burnt, whilst
+the Duchess escaped with doing public penance and with imprisonment
+for life. Gloucester could not save her, but he did not lose his
+place in the Council, where he continued to advocate a war policy,
+though with less success than before.
+
+[Illustration: Tattershall Castle, Lincolnshire: built of brick by
+Ralph, Lord Cromwell, between 1433 and 1455.]
+
+14. =Beaufort and Somerset. 1442--1443.=--In =1442= Henry was in his
+twenty-first year. Unfeignedly religious and anxious to be at peace
+with all men, his character was far too weak and gentle to fit him for
+governing in those rough times. He had attached himself to Beaufort
+because Beaufort's policy was pacific, and because Gloucester's life
+was scandalous. Beaufort's position was secured at court, but the
+situation was not one in which a pacific statesman could hope for
+success. The French would not consent to make peace till all that they
+had lost had been recovered; yet, hardly bested as the English in
+France were, it was impossible in the teeth of English public opinion
+for any statesman, however pacific, to abandon lands still commanded
+by English garrisons. Every year, however, brought the problem nearer
+to the inevitable solution. In =1442= the French attacked the strip of
+land which was all that the English now held in Guienne and Gascony,
+and with the exception of Bordeaux and Bayonne captured almost every
+fortified town. The command in France was given to Cardinal Beaufort's
+nephew, John Beaufort, Duke of Somerset. Somerset, who was thoroughly
+incompetent, did not even leave England till the autumn of =1443=, and
+when he arrived in France accomplished nothing worthy of his office.
+
+15. =The Angevin Marriage Treaty. 1444--1445.=--Henry now fell under
+the influence of William de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk, a descendant of
+the favourite of Richard II. Suffolk had fought bravely in France, and
+had learnt by sad experience the hopelessness of the English cause. In
+=1444=, with the consent of the king and the Parliament, he negotiated
+at Tours a truce for ten months. In order to make it more lasting
+there was to be a marriage between Henry and Margaret of Anjou. Her
+father, René, the Duke of Anjou, was titular king of Jerusalem and
+Sicily, in neither of which did he possess a foot of ground, whilst
+his duchy of Anjou was almost valueless to him in consequence of the
+forays of the English, who still held posts in Maine. Charles had the
+more readily consented to the truce, because it was understood that
+the surrender of Maine would be a condition of the marriage. In =1445=
+Suffolk led Margaret to England, where her marriage to Henry was
+solemnised. A French queen who brought with her no portion except a
+truce bought by the surrender of territory could hardly fail to be
+unpopular in England.
+
+[Illustration: Part of Wingfield manor-house, Derbyshire: built by
+Ralph, Lord Cromwell, about 1440.]
+
+16. =Deaths of Gloucester and Beaufort. 1447.=--The truce was renewed
+from time to time, and Suffolk's authority seemed firmly established.
+In =1447= Gloucester was charged with high treason in a Parliament
+held at Bury St. Edmunds, but before he had time to answer he was
+found dead in his bed. His death may, with strong probability, be
+ascribed to natural causes, but it was widely believed that he had
+been murdered and that Suffolk was the murderer. A few weeks later
+Gloucester's old rival, Cardinal Beaufort, the last real statesman who
+supported the throne of Henry VI., followed him to the grave, and
+Suffolk was left alone to bear the responsibility of government and
+the disgrace of failure.
+
+[Illustration: The Divinity School, Oxford: built between 1445 and
+1454.]
+
+17. =The Loss of the French Provinces. 1448--1449.=--Suffolk had
+undertaken more than he was able to fulfil. Somerset had died in
+=1444=, and Suffolk being jealous of all authority but his own, he
+sent York to govern Ireland. He could not secure the fulfilment of the
+conditions which he had made with the king of France. The English
+commanders refused to evacuate Maine, and in =1448= a French army
+entered the province and drove out the English. Edmund, the new Duke
+of Somerset, was sent to take the command in Normandy, which had
+formerly been held by his brother. In =1449= an Aragonese captain in
+the English service, who had no pay for his troops, having seized
+Fougères, a place on the frontier of Brittany, for the sake of the
+booty to be gained, Charles made the attack an excuse for the renewal
+of the war. So destitute was the condition in which the English forces
+were left that neither Somerset nor the warlike Talbot (see p. 313),
+who had recently been created Earl of Shrewsbury, was able to resist
+him. Rouen fell in =1450=, and in =1450= the whole of Normandy was
+lost. In =1451= the French attacked Bordeaux and Bayonne, two
+port-towns which, in consequence of their close commercial intercourse
+with England, had no wish to transfer their allegiance to Charles.
+England, however, sent them no succour, and before the end of the year
+they were forced to capitulate. The relics of Guienne and Gascony thus
+passed into the hands of the French, and of all the possessions which
+the kings of England had once held on the Continent Calais alone
+remained.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+THE LATER YEARS OF HENRY VI. =1450--1461=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Henry VI., 1422--1461
+
+  Murder of the Duke of Suffolk and Jack Cade's rebellion         1450
+  First Protectorate of the Duke of York                          1453
+  First Battle of St. Albans and second Protectorate of the
+    Duke of York                                                  1455
+  Battle of Blore Heath and the discomfiture of the Yorkists      1459
+  After a Yorkist victory at Northampton the Duke of York
+    is declared heir to the crown, but is defeated and slain
+    at Wakefield                                                  1460
+  Battles of Mortimer's Cross, St. Albans, and Towton             1461
+  Coronation of Edward IV.                                        1461
+
+
+1. =The Growth of Inclosures.=--Since the insurrection of the peasants
+in =1381= (see p. 268) villeinage had to a great extent been dying
+out, in consequence of the difficulty felt by the lords in enforcing
+their claims. Yet the condition of the classes connected with the land
+was by no means prosperous. The lords of manors indeed abandoned the
+old system of cultivating their own lands by the labour of villeins,
+or by labourers hired with money paid by villeins in commutation for
+bodily service. They began to let out their land to tenants who paid
+rent for it; but even the new system did not bring in anything like
+the old profit. The soil had been exhausted for want of a proper
+system of manuring, and arable land scarcely repaid the expenses of
+its cultivation. For this evil a remedy was found in the inclosure of
+lands for pasturage. This change, which in itself was beneficial by
+increasing the productiveness of the country, and by giving rest to
+the exhausted soil, became oppressive because all the benefit went to
+the lords of the manors, whilst the tenants of the manors were left to
+struggle on as best they might. Not only had they no share in the
+increase of wealth which was brought about by the inclosure of what
+had formerly been the common land of the manors, but the poorer
+amongst them had less employment than before, as it required fewer men
+to look after sheep than to grow corn.
+
+2. =Increasing Power of the Nobility.=--The disproportionate increase
+of the wealth of the landowners threw into their hands a
+disproportionate amount of power. The great landowner especially was
+able to gather bands of retainers and to spread terror around him. The
+evil of liveries and maintenance, which had become prominent in the
+reign of Richard II. (see p. 281), had increased since his deposition.
+It was an evil which the kings were powerless to control. Again and
+again complaints were raised of 'want of governance.' Henry V. had
+abated the mischief for a time by employing the unruly elements in his
+wars in France, but it was a remedy which, when defeat succeeded
+victory, only increased the disease which it was meant to cure. When
+France was lost bands of unruly men accustomed to deeds of violence
+poured back into England, where they became retainers of the great
+landowners, who with their help set king and laws at defiance.
+
+3. =Case of Lord Molynes and John Paston.=--The difficulty of
+obtaining justice may be illustrated by a case which occurred in
+Norfolk. The manor of Gresham belonged to John Paston, a gentleman of
+moderate fortune. It was coveted by Lord Molynes, who had no legal
+claim to it whatever. Lord Molynes, however, took possession of it in
+=1448= with the strong hand. If such a thing had happened at present
+Paston would have gone to law; but to go to law implies the submitting
+of a case to a jury, and in those days a jury was not to be trusted to
+do justice. In the first place it was selected by the sheriff, and the
+sheriff took care to choose such men as would give a verdict pleasing
+to the great men whom he wished to serve, and in the second place,
+supposing that the sheriff did not do this, a juryman who offended
+great men by giving a verdict according to his conscience, but
+contrary to their desire, ran the risk of being knocked on the head
+before he reached home. Paston accordingly, instead of going to law,
+begged Lord Molynes to behave more reasonably. Finding his entreaties
+of no avail, he took possession of a house on the manor. Lord Molynes
+merely waited till Paston was away from home, and then sent a thousand
+men, who drove out Paston's wife and pillaged and wrecked the house.
+Paston ultimately recovered the manor, but redress for the injury done
+him was not to be had.
+
+4. =Suffolk's Impeachment and Murder. 1450.=--A government which was
+too weak to redress injuries was certain to be unpopular. The loss of
+the French possessions made it still more unpopular. The brunt of the
+public displeasure fell on Suffolk, who had just been made a duke, and
+who, through the queen's favour, was all-powerful at court. It was
+believed that he had sold himself to France, and it was known that
+whilst the country was impoverished large grants had been made to
+court favourites. An outcry was raised that the king 'should live of
+his own,' and ask for no more grants from his people. In =1450=
+Suffolk was impeached. Though the charge brought against him was a
+tissue of falsehoods, Henry did not dare to shield him entirely, and
+ordered him into banishment for five years. Suffolk, indeed, embarked
+for the Continent, but a large ship ranged up alongside of the vessel
+in which he was. Having been dragged on board amidst cries of
+"Welcome, traitor!" he was, two days afterwards, transferred to a
+boat, where his head was chopped off with six strokes of a rusty
+sword. His body was flung on the beach at Dover.
+
+5. =Jack Cade's Rebellion. 1450.=--Suffolk's supporters remained in
+office after his death. The men of Kent rose against them, and found a
+leader in an Irish adventurer, Jack Cade, who called himself Mortimer,
+and gave out that he was an illegitimate son of the late Earl of
+March. He established himself on Blackheath at the head of 30,000 men,
+asking that the burdens of the people should be diminished, the Crown
+estates recovered, and the Duke of York recalled from Ireland to take
+the place of the present councillors. Jack Cade's rebellion, in short,
+unlike that of Wat Tyler, was a political, not a social movement. In
+demanding that the government should be placed in the hands of the
+Duke of York, Jack Cade virtually asked that the Duke should step into
+the place, not of the Council, but of the King--that is to say, that a
+ruler who could govern should be substituted for one who could not,
+and in whose name the great families plundered England. It was this
+demand which opened the long struggle which was soon to devastate the
+country. At first it seemed as if Jack Cade would carry all before
+him. London, which had the most to gain by the establishment of a
+strong government, opened its gates to him. When, however, he was
+tested by success, he was found wanting. Striking with his sword the
+old Roman milestone known as London Stone, he cried out, "Now is
+Mortimer lord of this city." His followers gave themselves up to wild
+excesses. They beheaded Lord Say and his son-in-law, the Sheriff of
+Kent, and carried about their heads on pikes. They plundered houses
+and shops. The citizens who had invited them to enter now turned
+against them. After a fight on London Bridge the insurgents agreed to
+go home on the promise of a pardon. Jack Cade himself, attempting to
+gather fresh forces, was chased into Sussex and slain.
+
+6. =Rivalry of York and Somerset. 1450--1453.=--In the summer of
+=1450=, Richard, Duke of York, the real leader of the opposition, came
+back from Ireland. He found that Somerset, who had just returned from
+Normandy after the final loss of that province (see p. 320), had
+succeeded Suffolk in the king's confidence. Somerset, however, was not
+merely the favourite of Henry and the queen. The bulk of the nobility
+was on his side, whilst York was supported by the force of popular
+discontent and by such of the nobility as cherished a personal grudge
+against Somerset and his friends. In =1451= the loss of Guienne and
+Gascony increased the weight of Somerset's unpopularity. In =1452=
+both parties took arms; but, this time, civil war was averted by a
+promise from the king that York should be admitted to the Council, and
+that Somerset should be placed in confinement till he answered the
+charges against him. On this York dismissed his army. Henry, however,
+was not allowed to keep his promise, and Somerset remained in power,
+whilst York was glad to be allowed to retire unhurt. Somerset
+attempted to recover his credit by fresh victories in France, and sent
+the old Earl of Shrewsbury to Bordeaux to reconquer Gascony.
+Shrewsbury was successful for a while, but in =1453= he was defeated
+and slain at Castillon, and the whole enterprise came to nothing.
+
+7. =The First Protectorate of the Duke of York. 1453--1454.=--Henry's
+mind had never been strong, and in =1453= it entirely gave way. His
+insanity was probably inherited from his maternal grandfather, Charles
+VI. The queen bore him a son, named Edward, but though the infant was
+brought to his father, Henry gave no sign of recognising his
+presence. It was necessary to place the government in other hands, and
+in =1454= the Duke of York was named Protector by the House of Lords,
+which, as the majority of its members were at that time ecclesiastics,
+did not always re-echo the sentiments of the great families. If only
+the king had remained permanently insane York might have established
+an orderly government. Henry, however, soon recovered as much sense as
+he ever had, and York's protectorate came to an end.
+
+8. =The First Battle of St. Albans and the Duke of York's Second
+Protectorate.=--The restoration of Henry was in reality the
+restoration of Somerset. In =1455= York, fearing destruction, took
+arms against his rival. A battle was fought at St. Albans, in which
+Somerset was defeated and slain. This was the first battle in the wars
+known as the Wars of the Roses, because a red rose was the badge of
+the House of Lancaster, to which Henry belonged, and a white rose the
+badge of the House of York. After the victory York accompanied the
+king to London. Though the bulk of the nobility was against him, he
+had on his side the powerful family of the Nevills, as he had married
+Cicely Nevill, the sister of the head of that family, the Earl of
+Salisbury. Still more powerful was Salisbury's eldest son, who had
+married the heiress of the Beauchamps, Earls of Warwick, and who held
+the earldom of Warwick in right of his wife.[30] In June =1455= the
+king was again insane, and York was for the second time named
+Protector. This Protectorate, however, did not last long, as early in
+=1456= the king recovered his senses, and York had to resign his post.
+
+    [Footnote 30: Genealogy of the Nevills:--
+
+                                                     John of Gaunt
+                                                           |
+                                             Ralph Nevill, = Joan
+                      Thomas Montague,          Earl of    |
+                      Earl of Salisbury      Westmoreland  |
+                              |                            |
+                              |        ---------------------
+     Richard Beauchamp,       |        |              |
+      Earl of Warwick      Alice = Richard,        Cicely = Richard,
+             |                   |  Earl of                 Duke of
+             |                   | Salisbury,                York,
+             |                   | beheaded at              killed at
+             |                   | Pontefract,              Wakefield,
+             |                   |    1460                    1460
+             |                   |
+             |        -------------------------------------
+             |        |                 |                 |
+           Anne = Richard,            John,            George,
+             Earl of Warwick,       Marquess of       Archbishop
+             the king-maker,         Montague          of York
+             killed at Barnet,
+                 1471]
+
+[Illustration: A sea-fight: from the 'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl
+of Warwick:' drawn by John Rous about 1485.]
+
+9. =Discomfiture of the Yorkists. 1456--1459.=--For two years Henry
+exercised such authority as he was capable of exercising. In =1458= he
+tried his hand at effecting a reconciliation. The chiefs of the two
+parties walked hand in hand in procession to St. Paul's, York himself
+leading the queen. The Yorkists founded masses for the repose of the
+souls of their enemies slain at St. Albans, and paid money to their
+widows. It seemed as if the old practice of the weregild (see p. 32)
+had been unexpectedly revived. The spirit which had made weregild
+possible was, however, no longer to be found. Warwick retired to
+Calais, of which he was governor, and sent out vessels to plunder the
+merchant ships of all nations. When he was summoned to Westminster to
+give account of his actions, a quarrel broke out there between his
+servants and those of the king. Believing his own life to be in
+danger, he made his way back to Calais. The Yorkists spent the winter
+in preparing for war. In the summer of =1459= Lord Audley, sent by the
+queen to seize the Earl of Salisbury, was defeated by him at Blore
+Heath, in Staffordshire. Later in the year the two parties with their
+whole forces prepared for a battle near Ludlow, but the Yorkists found
+themselves no match for their enemies, and, without fighting, York,
+with his second son, the Earl of Rutland, took refuge in Ireland. His
+eldest son Edward, Earl of March, with Salisbury and Warwick, made his
+way to Calais.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of Sir Robert Harcourt, K.G. (died 1471): from
+his tomb at Stanton Harcourt, Oxon; showing armour worn from about
+1445 to 1480.]
+
+10. =The Battle of Northampton and the Duke of York's Claim to the
+Throne. 1460.=--In =1460= the Yorkist Earls of Salisbury, Warwick, and
+March were once more in England. They defeated the royal army at
+Northampton and captured the king. York returned from Ireland, and,
+as soon as Parliament met, took an unexpected step. If hereditary
+descent was to count for anything, his claim to the throne was
+superior to that of Henry himself, as he was the heir of Edward III.
+through his mother Anne, the sister of the last Earl of March.[31] The
+Duke of York now placed his hand on the throne, claiming it in right
+of birth. The Lords decided that Henry, to whom they had sworn oaths
+of fealty, should retain the crown, but that York should succeed him,
+to the exclusion of Henry's son, Edward, Prince of Wales.
+
+    [Footnote 31: Genealogy of the Houses of Lancaster and York:--
+
+                               EDWARD III.
+                               (1307-1377)
+                                    |
+            ------------------------------------------------
+            |                  |              |            |
+         Edward,       Lionel, Duke       John of     Edmund, Duke of
+     the Black Prince   of Clarence          Gaunt       of York
+            |                  |              |            |
+            |            -------              |            ----------------
+            |            |                    |                           |
+       RICHARD II.   Philippa = Edmund     HENRY IV.                      |
+       (1377-1399)            | Mortimer, (1399-1413)                     |
+                              |  Earl of       |                          |
+                              |  March         -----------------          |
+                              |                |               |          |
+                              |          (1) HENRY V.   (2) John, Duke    |
+                              |             (1413-1422)      of Bedford   |
+                              |                |        (3) Thomas, Duke  |
+                     Roger Mortimer,         HENRY VI.       of Clarence  |
+                      Earl of March         (1422-1461) (4) Humphrey,     |
+                              |                             Duke of       |
+                              |                            Gloucester     |
+                              |                                           |
+                  ---------------------        ----------------------------
+                  |                   |        |
+           Edmund Mortimer,          Anne = Richard, Earl of Cambridge
+            Earl of March                 |
+                                      Richard, Duke of York
+                                          |
+                                      Edward, Earl of March,
+                                      afterwards EDWARD IV.]
+
+11. =The Battle of Wakefield. 1460.=--The struggle, which had at first
+been one between two unequal sections of the nobility, each nominally
+acknowledging Henry VI. as their king, thus came to be one between the
+Houses of Lancaster and York. The queen, savage at the wrong done to
+her son, refused to accept the compromise. Withdrawing to the North,
+she summoned to her aid the Earl of Northumberland and the Lancastrian
+lords. The North was always exposed to Scottish invasions, and the
+constant danger kept the inhabitants ready for war, and strengthened
+the authority of the great lords who led them. For the same reason the
+people of the North were ruder and less civilised than their
+fellow-countrymen in the South. Plunder and outrage did not come amiss
+to men who were frequently subjected to plunder and outrage. An army
+composed of 18,000 of these rough warriors placed itself at the
+queen's disposal. With these she routed her enemies at Wakefield. York
+himself was slain. His son, Rutland, was stabbed to death by Lord
+Clifford, whose father had been slain at St. Albans. Salisbury was
+subsequently beheaded by the populace at Pontefract. By command of
+Margaret, York's head was cut off, and, adorned in mockery with a
+paper crown, was fixed with those of Salisbury and Rutland above one
+of the gates of York.
+
+12. =The Battle of Mortimer's Cross and the Second Battle of St.
+Albans. 1461.=--The battle of Wakefield differed in character from the
+earlier battles of the war. They had been but conflicts between bands
+of noblemen and their armed retainers, in which the general population
+took little part, whilst the ordinary business of the country went on
+much as usual. At Wakefield not only were cruel passions developed,
+but a new danger appeared. When Margaret attempted to gain her ends
+with the help of her rude northern followers, she roused against her
+the fears of the wealthier and more prosperous South. The South found
+a leader in York's son, Edward. Though only in his nineteenth year,
+Edward showed that he had the qualities of a commander. Rapid in his
+movements, he fell upon some Lancastrian forces and defeated them on
+February 2, =1461=, at Mortimer's Cross. In the meanwhile Margaret was
+marching with her northern host upon London, plundering and destroying
+as she went. Warwick, carrying the king with him, met her on the way,
+but in the second battle of St. Albans--fought on February 17--was
+driven back, leaving the king behind him.
+
+13. =The Battle of Towton and the Coronation of Edward IV.
+1461.=--With a civilised army at her back, Margaret might have won her
+way into London, and established her authority, at least for a time.
+Her unbridled supporters celebrated their victory by robbery and rape,
+and Margaret was unable to lead them forward. The Londoners steeled
+their hearts against her. Edward was marching to their help, and on
+February 25 he entered London. The men of the neighbouring counties
+flocked in to his support. On March 2 the crown was offered to him at
+Clerkenwell by such lords as happened to be in London. On his
+presenting himself to the multitude in Westminster Hall, he was
+greeted with shouts of "Long live the king!" Edward IV. represented to
+peace-loving England the order which had to be upheld against the
+barbarous host which Margaret and the Lancastrian lords had called to
+their aid. He had yet to justify the choice. The northern host had
+retreated to its own country, and Edward swiftly followed it up. His
+advanced guard was surprised and driven back at Ferry Bridge; but his
+main army pressed on, and on March 29 gained a decisive victory at
+Towton. The slaughter of the defeated side was enormous. Margaret
+escaped with Henry to Scotland, and Edward, returning southwards, was
+crowned at Westminster on June 29.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+THE YORKIST KINGS.
+
+EDWARD IV., =1461--1483=. EDWARD V., =1483=. RICHARD III.,
+=1483--1485=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Coronation of Edward IV.                                        1461
+  Restoration of Henry VI.                                        1470
+  Edward IV. recovers the crown--Battles of Barnet and
+    Tewkesbury                                                    1471
+  Edward V.                                                       1483
+  Richard III. deposes Edward V.                                  1483
+  Richard III. killed at Bosworth                                 1485
+
+
+1. =Edward IV. and the House of Commons. 1461.=--On June 29, =1461=,
+Edward IV. was crowned, and created his two brothers, George and
+Richard, Dukes of Clarence and Gloucester. His first Parliament
+declared the three Lancastrian kings to have been usurpers, and Henry
+VI., his wife, his son, and his chief supporters, to be traitors. At
+the end of the session Edward thanked the Commons for their support,
+and assured them of his resolution to protect them at the hazard of
+his own life. It was the first time that a king had addressed the
+Commons, and his doing so was a sign that a new era had begun, in
+which the wishes of the middle class in town and country were to
+prevail over those of the great nobles. It did not follow that the
+House of Commons would take the control of the government into its own
+hands, as it does at the present day. For a long time the election of
+the members had been carried out under pressure from the local
+nobility. If the great men in a county resolved that certain persons
+should be returned as members, those who came to the place of election
+in support of others would be driven off, and perhaps beaten or
+wounded. Consequently each House of Commons had hitherto represented
+the dominant party, Lancastrian or Yorkist, as the case might be.
+Before there could be a House of Commons capable of governing, the
+interference of the nobles with elections would have to be brought to
+an end, and it was only by a strong king that their power could be
+overthrown. The strengthening of the kingship was the only road to
+future constitutional progress.
+
+[Illustration: Edward IV.: from an original painting belonging to the
+Society of Antiquaries.]
+
+2. =Loss of the Mediæval Ideals.=--Before the end of the 15th century
+the English people had lost all the ideals of the middle ages. The
+attempt of Henry V. to revive the old ecclesiastical feeling had
+broken down through the race for material power opened by his French
+wars, and through the savagery of the wars of the Roses. The new
+religious feeling of Wycliffe and the nobler Lollards had perished
+with Sir John Oldcastle from the same causes. Neither the Church nor
+the opponents of the Church had any longer a sway over men's hearts.
+The clergy continued to perform their part in the services of the
+Church not indeed without belief, but without the spiritual fervour
+which influences the lives of men. The chivalry of the middle ages was
+as dead as its religion. Men spoke of women as coarsely as they spoke
+of their cattle. Human nature indeed could not be entirely crushed.
+John Paston's wife (see p. 321), for instance, was quaintly
+affectionate. "I would," she once wrote to her husband, "ye were at
+home, if it were for your ease ... now liever than a gown, though it
+were of scarlet." But the system of wardship (see p. 116) made
+marriages a matter of bargain and sale. "For very need," wrote a
+certain Stephen Scrope, "I was fain to sell a little daughter I have
+for much less than I should." When Scrope was old he wished to marry
+Paston's young sister, and the girl was willing to take him if she
+were sure that his land was not burdened with debt. She would be glad
+enough to escape from home. Her mother kept her in close confinement
+and beat her once or twice every week, and sometimes twice a day, so
+that her head was broken in two or three places. This low and material
+view of domestic life had led to an equally low and material view of
+political life, and the cruelty which stained the wars of the Roses
+was but the outcome of a state of society in which no man cared much
+for anything except his own greatness and enjoyment. The ideal which
+shaped itself in the minds of the men of the middle class was a king
+acting as a kind of chief constable, who, by keeping great men in
+order, would allow their inferiors to make money in peace.
+
+3. =Fresh Efforts of the Lancastrians. 1462--1465.=--Edward IV. only
+very partially responded to this demand. He was swift in action when a
+crisis came, and was cruel in his revenge, but he was lustful and
+indolent when the crisis was passed, and he had no statesmanlike
+abilities to lay the foundations of a powerful government. The wars
+were not ended by his victory at Towton. In =1462= Queen Margaret
+reappeared in the North, and it was not till =1464= that Warwick's
+brother, Lord Montague, thoroughly defeated her forces at Hedgeley
+Moor and Hexham; for which victories he was rewarded by Edward with
+the earldom of Northumberland, which had been forfeited by the
+Lancastrian head of the House of Percy. Montague's victory was marked
+by the usual butcheries; the Duke of Somerset, a son of the duke who
+had been slain at St. Albans, being amongst those who perished on the
+scaffold. In =1465= Henry himself was taken prisoner and lodged in the
+Tower.
+
+4. =Edward's Marriage. 1464.=--Whilst these battles were being fought
+Edward was lingering in the South courting the young widow of Sir John
+Grey, usually known by her maiden name as Elizabeth Woodville. His
+marriage to her gave offence to his noble supporters, who disdained to
+acknowledge a queen of birth so undistinguished; and their ill-will
+was increased when they found that Edward distributed amongst his
+wife's kindred estates and preferments which they had hoped to gain
+for themselves. The queen's father became Earl Rivers and Lord
+Constable, and her brothers and sisters were enriched by marriages
+with noble wards of the Crown. One of her brothers, a youth of twenty,
+was married to the old Duchess of Norfolk, who was over eighty.
+
+5. =Estrangement of Warwick. 1465--1468.=--No doubt there was as much
+of policy as of affection in the slight shown by Edward to the Yorkist
+nobility. Warwick--the King-maker, as he was called--had special cause
+for ill-humour. He had expected to be a King-ruler as well as a
+King-maker, and he took grave offence when he found Edward slipping
+away from his control. It seemed as if Edward had the settled purpose
+of raising up a new nobility to counterbalance the old. In =1467=
+Warwick's brother, the Archbishop of York, was deprived of the
+chancellorship. In foreign politics, too, Edward and Warwick
+disagreed. Warwick had taken up the old policy of the Beauforts, and
+was anxious for an alliance with the astute Louis XI., who had in
+=1461= succeeded his father, Charles VII., as king of France. Edward,
+perhaps with some thought passing through his head of establishing his
+throne by following in the steps of Henry V., declared for an alliance
+with Burgundy. In =1467= Warwick was allowed to go to France as an
+ambassador, whilst Edward was entertaining Burgundian ambassadors in
+England. In the same year Charles the Rash succeeded his father,
+Philip the Good (see p. 306), as Duke of Burgundy, and in =1468=
+married Edward's sister, Margaret. The Duke of Burgundy, the rival of
+the king of France, was the lord of the seventeen provinces of the
+Netherlands, and his friendship brought with it that peaceful
+intercourse with the manufacturing towns of Flanders which it was
+always the object of English policy to secure.
+
+6. =Warwick's Alliance with Clarence. 1469--1470.=--Warwick, disgusted
+with Edward, found an ally in Edward's brother, Clarence, who, like
+Warwick, was jealous of the Woodvilles. Warwick had no son, and his
+two daughters, Isabel and Anne, would one day share his vast estates
+between them. Warwick gave Isabel in marriage to Clarence, and
+encouraged him to think that it might be possible to seat him--in days
+when everything seemed possible to the strong--on Edward's throne.
+Edward had by this time lost much of his popularity. His extravagant
+and luxurious life made men doubt whether anything had been gained by
+substituting him for Henry, and in =1469= and =1470= there were
+risings fomented by Warwick. In the latter year Edward, with the help
+of his cannon, the importance of which in battles was now great,
+struck such a panic into his enemies at a battle near Stamford that
+the place of action came to be known as Lose-coat Field, from the
+haste with which the fugitives stripped themselves of their armour to
+make their flight the easier. Warwick and Clarence fled across the
+sea. Warwick was governor of Calais, but his own officer there refused
+to admit him, and he was forced to take refuge in France.
+
+[Illustration: A fifteenth-century ship: from Harl. MS. 2278.]
+
+7. =The Restoration of Henry VI. 1470.=--Warwick knew that he had no
+chance of recovering power without the support of the Lancastrian
+party, and, disagreeable as it was to him, he allowed Louis XI. to
+reconcile him to Queen Margaret, the wife of that Henry VI., of whom
+he had been the bitterest enemy. Louis, who dreaded Edward's alliance
+with the Duke of Burgundy, did everything to support Edward's foes,
+and sent Warwick off to England, where he was subsequently to be
+joined by the queen. Edward, who was in his most careless mood, was
+foolish enough to trust Warwick's brother, Montague, from whom he had
+taken away, not only his new earldom of Northumberland to restore it
+to the head of the Percies (see p. 331), but all the lands connected
+with it, and had thought to compensate him with the mere marquisate
+of Montague, unaccompanied by any estate wherewith to support the
+dignity of his rank. Montague turned against him, and Edward, fearing
+for his life, fled to Holland. Warwick became master of England, and
+this time the King-maker drew Henry from the Tower and placed him once
+more on the throne, imbecile as he now was.
+
+8. =Edward IV. recovers the Throne. 1471.=--In the spring of =1471=
+Edward was back in England, landing at Ravenspur, where Henry IV. had
+landed in =1399=. Like Henry IV., he lyingly declared that he had come
+merely to claim his duchy and estates. Like Henry IV., too, he found a
+supporter in an Earl of Northumberland, who was this time the Percy
+who, Lancastrian as he was, had been restored by Edward to his earldom
+at the expense of Montague. Clarence, too--false, fleeting, perjured
+Clarence, as Shakspere truly calls him--had offered to betray Warwick.
+Edward gathered a sufficient force to march unassailed to London,
+where he was enthusiastically received. Taking with him the
+unfortunate Henry he won a complete victory at Barnet. The battle was
+fought in a dense fog, and was decided by a panic caused amongst
+Warwick's men through the firing of one of their divisions into
+another. Warwick and Montague were among the slain. By this time
+Margaret had landed with a fresh army at Weymouth. Edward caught her
+and her army at Tewkesbury, where he inflicted on her a crushing
+defeat. Her son, Edward Prince of Wales, was either slain in the
+battle, or more probably murdered after the fight was over; and the
+Duke of Somerset, the brother of the duke who had been executed after
+the battle of Hexham (see p. 331), the last male heir of the House of
+Beaufort, as well as others, who had taken refuge in the abbey, were
+afterwards put to death, though Edward had solemnly promised them
+their lives. On the night after Edward's return to London Henry VI.
+ended his life in the Tower. There can be no reasonable doubt that he
+was murdered, and that, too, by Edward's directions.
+
+9. =Edward IV. prepares for War with France. 1471--1474.=--Edward IV.
+was now all powerful. He had no competitor to fear. No descendant of
+Henry IV. remained alive. Of the Beauforts, the descendants of John of
+Gaunt by Catherine Swynford (see p. 282), the male line had perished,
+and the only representative was young Henry, Earl of Richmond, whose
+mother, the Lady Margaret, was the daughter of the first Duke of
+Somerset, and the cousin of the two dukes who had been executed after
+the battles of Hexham and Tewkesbury.[32] His father, Edmund Tudor,
+Earl of Richmond, who died before his birth, was the son of a Welsh
+gentleman of no great mark, who had had the luck to marry Catherine of
+France, the widow of Henry V. The young Richmond was, however, an
+exile, and, as he was only fourteen years of age when Edward was
+restored, no serious danger was as yet to be apprehended from that
+side. Moreover, the slaughter amongst both the Yorkist and the
+Lancastrian nobility had, for the time, put an end to all danger of a
+rising. Edward was, therefore, at liberty to carry out his own foreign
+policy. He obtained grants from Parliament to enable him, in alliance
+with Charles of Burgundy, to make war against Louis XI. The grants
+were insufficient, and he supplemented them by a newly invented system
+of benevolences, which were nominally free gifts made to him by the
+well-to-do, but which were in reality exactions, because those from
+whom they were required dared not refuse to pay. The system raised
+little general ill will, partly because the small owners of property
+who were relieved from taxation were not touched by the benevolences,
+and partly because the end which Edward had put to the civil war made
+his government welcome. In some cases his personal charm counted for
+something. One old lady whom he asked for ten pounds replied that for
+the sake of his handsome face she would give him twenty. He kissed her
+and she at once made it forty.
+
+    [Footnote 32: Genealogy of the Beauforts and the Tudors:--
+
+                                  John of Gaunt = Catherine Swynford
+                                      ----------+------------
+                                      |                     |
+                                John Beaufort,     Cardinal Beaufort,
+                               Earl of Somerset,    legitimated by Act
+                             legitimated by Act of   of Parliament
+     Owen Tudor = Catherine,     Parliament
+                | widow of           |
+                | Henry V.           |----------------------
+                |                    |                     |
+                |    John, 1st Duke of Somerset          Edmund,
+                |           |                          2nd Duke of
+                |           |                           Somerset,
+                |           |                           killed at
+                |           |                          St. Albans,
+                |           |                             1455
+                |           |                  ------------+----
+                |           |                  |               |
+          Edmund Tudor = Margaret            Henry,         Edmund,
+     Earl of Richmond, |                  3rd Duke of     4th Duke of
+     d. 1456           |                   Somerset,       Somerset,
+                   HENRY VII.           executed after    executed after
+                   (1485-1509)           the battle of    the battle of
+                                          Hexham, 1464   Tewkesbury, 1471]
+
+10. =The Invasion of France. 1475.=--In =1475= Edward invaded France.
+If he could have secured the steady support of the Duke of Burgundy he
+might have accomplished something, but the Duke's dominions were too
+scattered to enable him to have a settled policy. He was sometimes led
+to attack the king of France, because he had interests as a French
+vassal; whilst at other times he threw all his strength into projects
+for encroachments in Germany, because he had also interests as a
+vassal of the Emperor. When Edward landed Charles was anxious to carry
+on war in Germany, and would give no help to Edward in France. Louis
+XI., who preferred a victory of diplomacy to one of force, wheedled
+Edward into a seven years' truce by a grant of 75,000 crowns, together
+with a yearly pension of 50,000, and by a promise to marry the Dauphin
+Charles to Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of the king of England.
+Louis also made presents to Edward's chief followers, and was
+delighted when the English army turned its back on France. In
+consequence of this understanding Queen Margaret recovered her
+liberty.
+
+11. =Fall and Death of Clarence. 1476--1478.=--Soon after Edward's
+return he became suspicious of his brother Clarence, who took upon
+himself to interfere with the course of justice. In =1477= the Duke of
+Burgundy, Charles the Rash, was slain at Nancy by the Swiss, leaving
+only a daughter, Mary. Ducal Burgundy was at once seized by Louis, as
+forfeited for want of male heirs, but Franche Comté, or the county of
+Burgundy, was a part of the Empire, and therefore beyond his reach;
+and this latter district, together with the provinces of the
+Netherlands, formed a dower splendid enough to attract suitors for
+Mary's hand. Amongst these was Clarence,[33] now a widower. Edward,
+who had no wish to see his brother an independent sovereign, forbade
+him to proceed with his wooing. Other actions of Clarence were
+displeasing to the king, and when Parliament met, =1478=, Edward with
+his own mouth accused his brother of treason. Clarence was condemned
+to death, and perished secretly in the Tower, being, according to
+rumour, drowned in a butt of malmsey.
+
+    [Footnote 33: Mary was the child of an earlier wife of Charles the
+    Bold than Margaret the sister of Edward IV. and Clarence, and the
+    latter was therefore not related to her.]
+
+12. =The Last Years of Edward IV. 1478--1483.=--The remainder of
+Edward's life was spent in quiet, as far as domestic affairs were
+concerned. In foreign affairs he met with a grave disappointment.
+Mary of Burgundy had found a husband in Maximilian, archduke of
+Austria, the son of the Emperor Frederick III. In =1482= she died,
+leaving two children, Philip and Margaret. The men of Ghent set
+Maximilian at naught, and, combining with Louis, forced Maximilian in
+the treaty of Arras to promise the hand of Margaret to the Dauphin,
+and the cession of some Netherlandish territory to France. Edward died
+on April 9, =1483=, and it has been said that the treaty of Arras,
+which extended French influence in the Netherlands, brought about his
+death. It is more reasonable to attribute it to the dissoluteness of
+his life.
+
+13. =Edward V. and the Duke of Gloucester. 1483.=--Edward IV. left two
+sons. The elder, a boy of twelve, was now Edward V., and his younger
+brother, Richard, was Duke of York.[34] The only grown-up man of the
+family was the youngest brother of Edward IV., Richard, Duke of
+Gloucester. Gloucester had shown himself during his brother's reign to
+be possessed of the qualities which fit a man to fulfil the duties of
+a high position. He was not only a good soldier and an able commander,
+but, unlike his brother Clarence, was entirely faithful to Edward,
+though he showed his independence by refusing to take part in Edward's
+treaty with Louis of France. He had a rare power of winning popular
+sympathy, and was most liked in Yorkshire, where he was best known. He
+had, however, grown up in a cruel and unscrupulous age, and had no
+more hesitation in clearing his way by slaughter than had Edward IV.
+or Margaret of Anjou. Though absolute proof is wanting, there is
+strong reason to believe that he took part in cutting down Prince
+Edward after the battle of Tewkesbury, and that he executed his
+brother's orders in providing for the murder of Henry VI. in the
+Tower. He made no remonstrance against, though he took no part in, the
+death of Clarence, with whom he was on bad terms, because Clarence
+claimed the whole of the estates of the King-maker, whose eldest
+daughter Isabel he had married; whereas Gloucester, having married the
+younger daughter Anne, the widow of the slaughtered son of Henry VI.
+put in a claim to half. Gloucester was now to be tried as he had never
+been tried before, his brother having appointed him by will to be the
+guardian of his young nephew and of the kingdom. If the authority thus
+conferred upon him met with general acceptance, he would probably make
+an excellent ruler. If it were questioned he would strike out, and
+show no mercy. In those hard days every man of high position must be
+either hammer or anvil, and Richard was resolved that he would not be
+the anvil.
+
+    [Footnote 34: Genealogy of the Yorkist Kings:--
+
+                               Richard, Duke of York,
+                              killed at Wakefield, 1460
+                                          |
+                    ----------------------------------------------------
+                    |           |                   |                  |
+     Elizabeth = EDWARD IV.  Margaret = Charles,   George = Isabel   RICHARD
+     Woodville | (1461-1483)           the Rash,  Duke of | Nevil     III.,
+               |                       Duke of   Clarence,|          Duke of
+               |                       Burgundy    d. 1478|        Gloucester,
+               |                                          |        afterwards
+               |                                          |        king, m. to
+               |                                          |        Anne Nevill
+               |                                          |        (1483-1485)
+           ---------------------------                    |             |
+           |           |             |                    |             |
+     Elizabeth, m.  EDWARD V.,    Richard,             Edward,          |
+     to Henry VII.  murdered     Duke of York,        Earl of         Edward,
+                     1483        murdered 1483        Warwick,        d. 1484
+                                                     executed 1499]
+
+14. =Fall of the Queen's Relations. 1483.=--The young king was at
+Ludlow, and rode up towards London, guarded by Earl Rivers, his uncle
+on his mother's side, and by his half-brother, Sir Richard Grey.
+Another half-brother, the Marquis of Dorset, was lieutenant of the
+Tower.[35] Gloucester had strong reasons for believing that the Greys
+intended to keep the young king in their hands and, having him crowned
+at once, so as to put an end to his own guardianship, to make
+themselves masters of the kingdom. He therefore struck the first blow.
+Accompanied by his friend and supporter, the Duke of Buckingham, he
+overtook the cavalcade, and sent Rivers and Grey prisoners to
+Pontefract. The queen-mother at once took refuge in the sanctuary at
+Westminster, whence no one could remove her without violating the
+privileges of the Church.
+
+    [Footnote 35: Genealogy of the Woodvilles and Greys:--
+
+                                 Richard, Earl Rivers
+                                          |
+         +--------------------------------+
+         |                                |
+      Anthony    (1) Sir John Grey = Elizabeth Woodville = (2) EDWARD IV.
+     Woodville,                    |                     |
+     Earl Rivers,       +----------+---------+           +-----+
+      executed          |                    |                 |
+        1483         Thomas Grey,     Sir Richard Grey,     EDWARD V.,
+                   Marquis of Dorset   executed 1483      murdered 1483]
+
+[Illustration: Large ship and boat of the fifteenth century. The
+mainsail of the ship has the Beauchamp arms, and the streamer the bear
+and ragged staff. From the 'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of
+Warwick,' by John Rous; drawn about 1485.]
+
+15. =Execution of Lord Hastings.=--The young king arrived in London on
+May 4. The Council acknowledged Gloucester as Protector, and removed
+Edward to the Tower, which in those days was a place of safety rather
+than a prison. Dorset, however, had equipped a fleet, and Gloucester
+was afraid lest a fresh attempt might be made by the queen's party to
+overthrow him. His fears were increased because Lord Hastings, the
+leading member of the Council, who had taken his part against the
+Woodvilles, now turned against him and began to intrigue with the
+queen's supporters. Coming into the council chamber on June 13, he
+laid bare his left arm, which had been withered from his birth, and
+declared that the mischief was the effect of witchcraft, and that the
+witches were the queen and Jane Shore, who had been one of the many
+mistresses of Edward IV., and was now the mistress of Hastings.
+Hastings admitted that the queen and Jane Shore were worthy of
+punishment if they were guilty. "What!" cried Gloucester, "dost thou
+serve me with ifs and with ands? I tell thee they have done it, and
+that I will make good on thy body, traitor." Gloucester struck his
+fist on the table. Armed men rushed in, dragged Hastings out, and cut
+off his head on a log of wood. Jane Shore was compelled to do public
+penance in a white sheet. Of the causes of Hastings' desertion of
+Gloucester it is impossible to speak with certainty. It is a probable
+conjecture that he had discovered that Gloucester entertained the
+thought of making himself more than Protector. Young Edward's
+coronation would make the boy capable, formally at least, of
+exercising royal power, and as it was known that the boy loved his
+mother's relations, it was almost certain that he would place the
+Woodvilles in power. Now that Gloucester had imprisoned Rivers and
+Grey, it was certain that the first thing done by the Woodvilles, if
+they got a chance, would be to send Gloucester to the scaffold, and
+Gloucester was not the man patiently to allow himself to be crushed.
+It is ridiculous to speak of Gloucester as an accomplished dissembler.
+The story of witchcraft served its purpose, but it was the stupid lie
+of a man who had not hitherto been accustomed to lying.
+
+16. =Deposition of Edward V. 1483.=--The execution of Hastings was
+promptly followed by the execution of Rivers and Grey. Dorset saved
+himself by escaping beyond sea. By threats Gloucester got the Duke of
+York into his hands, and lodged him with his brother in the Tower. He
+was now in a temper which would stop at no atrocity. He put up a Dr.
+Shaw to preach a sermon against Edward's claim to the throne. In those
+days if a man and woman made a contract of marriage neither of the
+contracting parties could marry another, though no actual marriage had
+taken place. Shaw declared that Edward IV. had promised marriage to
+one of his mistresses before he met Elizabeth Woodville, and that
+therefore, his marriage with Elizabeth being invalid, all his children
+by her were illegitimate, and Gloucester was the true heir to the
+throne. Further, Shaw declared that Gloucester was the only legitimate
+son of the Duke of York, both Edward IV. and Clarence being the sons
+of their mother by some other man. That Richard should have authorised
+so base an attack upon his mother's honour shows the depth of infamy
+to which he had now sunk. At first it seemed as if he had lowered
+himself to no purpose. The hearers of the sermon, instead of shouting,
+"God save King Richard!" held their peace. At a meeting in the City
+the Duke of Buckingham told the same story as had been told by Shaw,
+and there the servants of the two dukes shouted for 'King Richard,'
+and their voice was taken as the voice of the City. On June 25
+Parliament declared Gloucester to be the lawful heir, and on July 6 he
+was crowned as Richard III. The Woodvilles were not popular, and the
+bloodshed with which Richard had maintained himself against them was
+readily condoned.
+
+[Illustration: Richard III.: from an original painting belonging to
+the Society of Antiquaries.]
+
+17. =Buckingham's Rebellion. 1483.=--Richard's enemies were chiefly to
+be found amongst the nobility. No nobleman could feel his life secure
+if he crossed Richard's path. The first to revolt was Buckingham, who
+had played the part of a king-maker, and who was disappointed because
+Richard did not reward him by conceding his claim to estates so vast
+that if he possessed them he would have been master of England.
+Buckingham, who was descended from Edward III. through his youngest
+son, the Duke of Gloucester, at first thought of challenging a right
+to the throne for himself, but afterwards determined to support the
+claim of the Earl of Richmond, the Tudor heir of the House of
+Lancaster (see p. 334). He was skilfully led from one step to another
+by John Morton, Bishop of Ely, one of the ablest statesmen of the
+day. Richmond was to sail from Brittany, where he was in exile, and
+Buckingham was to raise forces in Wales, where the Welsh Tudors were
+popular, whilst other counties were to rise simultaneously. The
+rebellion came to nothing. Heavy rains caused a flood of the Severn,
+and Buckingham, in Shropshire, was cut off from his army in Wales.
+Buckingham was betrayed to Richard, and on November 2 was beheaded at
+Salisbury.
+
+18. =Murder of the Princes. 1483.=--At some time in the summer or
+autumn the princes in the Tower ceased to live. There had been
+movements in their favour in some counties, and there can be no
+reasonable doubt that Richard had them secretly killed. It was only by
+degrees that the truth leaked out. Wherever it was believed it roused
+indignation. Murders there had been in plenty, but the murdered as yet
+had been grown men. To butcher children was reserved for Richard
+alone.
+
+19. =Richard's Government. 1484--1485.=--As long as the last tale of
+murder was still regarded as doubtful, Richard retained his
+popularity. In a Parliament which met in January =1484= he enacted
+good laws, amongst which was one declaring benevolences illegal. In
+the summer he was welcomed as he moved about, yet he knew that danger
+threatened. Richmond was preparing invasion and the hollow friendship
+of the English nobility was not to be trusted. In vain Richard
+scattered gifts in profusion amongst them. They took the gifts and
+hoped for deliverance. The popular goodwill grew cooler, and in the
+winter Richard, needing money, and not venturing to summon another
+Parliament, raised a forced loan. A loan not being a gift, he did not
+technically break the statute against benevolences though practically
+he set it at naught. Domestic misfortunes came to add to Richard's
+political troubles. His only son, Edward, died in =1484=. His wife,
+Anne, died in =1485=. Richard was now eager, if he had not been eager
+before, to marry his niece, Elizabeth of York, the daughter of Edward
+IV. This monstrous proposal was scouted by his own supporters, and he
+had reluctantly to abandon the scheme. If there could be queens in
+England, Elizabeth was on hereditary principles the heiress of the
+throne, unless, indeed, Richard's argument against her mother's
+marriage (see p. 340) was to be accepted. Richmond was naturally as
+anxious as Richard could be to win her hand, and his promise to marry
+her was the condition on which he obtained the support of those
+Yorkists who were Richard's enemies.
+
+20. =Richard Defeated and Slain at Bosworth. 1485.=--In August =1485=
+Richmond landed at Milford Haven. As he marched on he was joined by
+considerable numbers, but on August 22 he found Richard waiting for
+him near Bosworth, with a host far larger than his own. Richard,
+however, could not count on the fidelity of his own commanders. Lord
+Stanley, who had married Richmond's widowed mother, the Lady Margaret
+(see p. 334), together with his brother, Sir William Stanley, were
+secretly in accord with Richmond, though they had placed themselves on
+Richard's side. When the battle began Stanley openly joined Richmond,
+whilst the Earl of Northumberland who was also nominally on Richard's
+side withdrew his forces and stood aloof. Knowing that defeat was
+certain, Richard, with the crown on his head, rushed into the thick of
+the fight and met a soldier's death. After the battle the fallen crown
+was discovered on a bush, and placed by Stanley, amidst shouts of
+'King Henry!' on Richmond's head.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+HENRY VII. 1485--1509.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Accession of Henry VII.                                         1485
+  The Battle of Stoke                                             1487
+  Poynings' Acts                                                  1494
+  Capture of Perkin Warbeck                                       1497
+  Alliance with Scotland                                          1503
+  Death of Henry VII.                                             1509
+
+
+[Illustration: Henry VII.: from an original picture in the National
+Portrait Gallery.]
+
+1. =The First Measures of Henry VII. 1485--1486.=--Henry VII. owed his
+success not to a general uprising against Richard, but to a
+combination of the nobles who had hitherto taken opposite sides. To
+secure this combination he had promised to marry Elizabeth, the
+heiress of the Yorkist family. Lest an attempt should be made to
+challenge her title, Henry imprisoned in the Tower the Earl of
+Warwick, the son of Clarence, who might possibly maintain that a
+female was incapable of inheriting. He was indeed unwilling to have it
+thought that he derived his title from a wife, and when Parliament met
+on November 7 he obtained from it a recognition of his own right to
+the throne, though it would have puzzled the most acute
+controversialist to discover in what that right consisted. Parliament,
+therefore, contented itself with declaring that the inheritance of the
+crown was to 'be, rest, and abide in King Henry VII. and his heirs,'
+without giving any reasons why it was to be so.[36] As far as the
+House of Lords was concerned the attendance when this declaration was
+made was scanty. Only twenty-nine lay peers were present, not because
+many of the great houses had become extinct, but because some of the
+principal Yorkist peers had been attainted, and others had been left
+without a summons. In the quieter times which followed this slur upon
+them was removed, and the House of Lords was again filled. On January
+18, =1486=, Henry married Elizabeth. This marriage and the blending of
+the white and red rose in the Tudor badge was Henry's way of
+announcing that he intended to be the king of both parties.
+
+    [Footnote 36: Abbreviated genealogy of Henry VII. and his
+    competitors:--
+
+                            EDWARD III.
+                                |
+               +----------------+----------------+
+               |                                 |
+     Lionel, Duke of Clarence             John of Gaunt,
+               :                         Duke of Lancaster
+               :                                 :
+         +-----+-----------+                     :
+         |                 |                     :
+         |               George                  :
+         |            Duke of Clarence           :
+         |                 |                     :
+     EDWARD IV.         Edward,                  :
+         |           Earl of Warwick             :
+      Elizabeth                              HENRY VII.]
+
+[Illustration: Elizabeth of York, queen of Henry VII.: from an
+original picture in the National Portrait Gallery.]
+
+2. =Maintenance and Livery.=--Henry could not maintain himself on the
+throne merely by the support of the nobility. The middle classes, as
+in the days of Edward IV., called out for a strong king, and were
+ready to overlook violence and cruelty if only order could be secured.
+Henry was shrewd enough to know that their aid was indispensable, and,
+Lancastrian as he was, he adopted the policy of the Yorkist kings.
+Economical and patient, he might succeed where Edward IV. had
+partially failed. He had no injuries to avenge, no cruelties to repay.
+He clearly saw that both the throne and the lives and properties of
+the middle classes were rendered insecure by maintenance and
+livery--the support given by the great landowners to their retainers,
+and the granting of badges by which the retainers might recognise one
+another, and thus become as it were a uniformed army ready to serve
+their lords in the field. Against these abuses Richard II. had
+directed a statute, (see p. 281) and that statute had been confirmed
+by Edward IV. These laws had, however, been inoperative; and Henry, in
+his first Parliament, did not venture to do more than to make the
+peers swear to abandon their evil courses.
+
+3. =Lovel's Rising. 1486.=--In =1486= Lord Lovel, who had been one of
+Richard's ministers, rose in arms and seized Worcester. Henry found
+warm support even in Yorkshire, where Richard had been more popular
+than elsewhere. At short warning a 'marvellous great number of
+esquires, gentlemen, and yeomen' gathered round him, and the rebellion
+was easily put down. Lovel escaped to Flanders, where he found a
+protector in Margaret, the dowager Duchess of Burgundy, the sister of
+Edward IV. and Richard III. Before long a new attack upon Henry was
+developed. For the first time an English king had to ward off danger
+from Ireland.
+
+[Illustration: Tudor rose (white and red): from the gates of the
+Chapel of Henry VII.]
+
+4. =Lancaster and York in Ireland. 1399--1485.=--Since the expedition
+of Richard II. no king had visited Ireland, and the English colonists
+were left to defend themselves against the Celtic tribes as best they
+might. In =1449= Richard, Duke of York, who had not at that time
+entered on his rivalry with Henry VI., was sent to Dublin as Lord
+Lieutenant (see p. 319) where he remained till =1450=, and gained
+friends amongst both races by his conciliatory firmness. In =1459=,
+after the break-up of his party at Ludlow (see p. 326), he appeared in
+Ireland in the character of a fugitive seeking for allies. Between him
+and the English colony a bargain was soon struck. They gave him troops
+which fought gallantly for him at Wakefield, and he, claiming to be
+Lord Lieutenant, assented to an act in which they asserted the
+complete legislative independence of the Parliament of the colony. The
+colony, therefore, became distinctly Yorkist. Its leader was the Earl
+of Kildare, the chief of the eastern Fitzgeralds or Geraldines, the
+Earl of Desmond being the chief of the Geraldines of the West. Between
+them was the Earl of Ormond, the chief of the Butlers, the hereditary
+foe of the Geraldines, who, probably merely because his rivals were
+Yorkist, had attached himself to the Lancastrian party. All three were
+of English descent, but all three exercised the tribal authority of an
+Irish chief, and were practically independent of English control.
+Ormond fought at Towton on the Lancastrian side, and was executed
+after the battle. Family quarrels broke out amongst his kindred, and
+for the time Kildare was supreme in the English Pale (see p. 265).
+
+5. =Insurrection of Lambert Simnel. 1487.=--Kildare and the colonists
+had every reason to distrust Henry, but to oppose him they needed a
+pretender. They found one in the son of an Oxford tradesman, a boy of
+ten, named Lambert Simnel, who had been persuaded to give himself out
+as the Earl of Warwick, who, as it was said, had escaped from the
+Tower. In =1487= Simnel landed in Ireland, where he was soon joined by
+Lord Lovel from Flanders, and by the Earl of Lincoln, of the family of
+Pole or De la Pole,[37] whose mother, Elizabeth, was the eldest sister
+of Edward IV., and who had been named by Richard III. as his heir
+after the death of his son (see p. 342). Lincoln and Lovel, after
+crowning Simnel at Dublin, crossed to Lancashire, taking with them the
+pretender, and 2,000 trained German soldiers under Martin Schwarz; as
+well as an Irish force furnished by Kildare. Scarcely an Englishman
+would join them, and on June 16 they were utterly defeated by Henry at
+Stoke, a village between Nottingham and Newark. Lincoln and Schwarz
+were slain. Lovel was either drowned in the Trent or, according to
+legend, was hidden in an underground vault, where he was at last
+starved to death through the neglect of the man whose duty it was to
+provide him with food. Simnel was pardoned, and employed by Henry as
+a turnspit in his kitchen.
+
+    [Footnote 37: Genealogy of the De la Poles and Poles:--
+
+                        Richard, Duke of York
+                                  |
+         +------------------------+--------------------------+
+         |                                                   |
+     Elizabeth= John de la Pole,                        George, Duke
+              | Duke of Suffolk                         of Clarence,
+              |                                         died 1477
+           +--+--------------+----------------------+        |
+           |                 |                      |        |
+     John de la Pole,  Edmund de la Pole,  Sir Richard   Margaret, = Sir Richard
+     Earl of Lincoln,  Earl of Suffolk,    de la Pole,   Countess  |    Pole
+     killed at Stoke,  beheaded 1513       killed at       of      |
+     1487                                  Pavia, 1525   Salisbury |
+                                                                   |
+              +-------------------------------+--------------------+
+              |                               |
+     Henry, Lord Montague,                Reginald Pole,
+     beheaded 1538                        Cardinal and Archbishop
+                                          of Canterbury, died 1558]
+
+6. =The Court of Star Chamber. 1487.=--Nothing could serve Henry
+better than this abortive rising. At Bosworth he had been the leader
+of one party against the other. At Stoke he was the leader of the
+nation against Irishmen and Germans. He felt himself strong enough in
+his second Parliament to secure the passing of an act to ensure the
+execution of the engagements to which the lords had sworn two years
+before (see p. 345). A court was to be erected, consisting of certain
+specified members of the Privy Council and of two judges, empowered to
+punish with fine and imprisonment all who were guilty of interfering
+with justice by force or intrigue. The new court, reviving, to some
+extent, the disused criminal authority of the king's Council, sat in
+the Star Chamber[38] at Westminster. The results of its establishment
+were excellent. Wealthy landowners, the terror of their neighbours,
+who had bribed or bullied juries at their pleasure, and had sent their
+retainers to inflict punishment on those who had displeased them, were
+brought to Westminster to be tried before a court in which neither
+fear nor favour could avail them. It was the greatest merit of the new
+court that it was not dependent on a jury, because in those days
+juries were unable or unwilling to give verdicts according to their
+conscience.
+
+    [Footnote 38: So called either because the roof was decorated with
+    stars or because it was the room in which had formerly been kept
+    Jewish bonds or 'starres.']
+
+7. =Henry VII. and Brittany. 1488--1492.=--Henry VII. was a lover of
+peace by calculation, and would gladly have let France alone if it had
+been possible to do so. France, however, was no longer the divided
+power which it had been in the days of Henry V. When Louis XI. died in
+=1483=, he left to his young son, Charles VIII., a territory the whole
+of which, with the exception of Brittany, was directly governed by the
+king. Charles's sister, Anne of Beaujeu, who governed in his name,
+made it the object of her policy to secure Brittany. She waged war
+successfully against its duke, Francis II., and after he died, in
+=1488=, she continued to wage war against his daughter, the Duchess
+Anne. In England there was a strong feeling against allowing the
+Duchess to be overwhelmed. At the beginning of =1489= Henry, having
+received from Parliament large supplies, sent 6,000 Englishmen to
+Anne's assistance. Maximilian--whose hold on the Netherlands, where he
+ruled in the name of his young son, Philip (see p. 337), was always
+slight--proposed marriage to the young duchess, and in =1490= was
+wedded to her by proxy. He was a restless adventurer, always aiming at
+more than he had the means of accomplishing. Though he could not find
+time to go at once to Brittany to make good his claim, yet in =1491=
+he called on Henry to assist him in asserting it.
+
+8. =Cardinal Morton's Fork. 1491.=--Henry, who knew how unpopular a
+general taxation was, fell back on the system of benevolences (see p.
+335), excusing his conduct on the plea that the statute of Richard
+III. abolishing benevolences (see p. 342) was invalid, because Richard
+himself was a usurper. In gathering the benevolence the Chancellor,
+Cardinal Morton, who had been helpful to Henry in the days of his
+exile (see p. 341), invented a new mode of putting pressure on the
+wealthy, which became known as Cardinal Morton's fork. If he addressed
+himself to one who lived in good style, he told him that his mode of
+living showed that he could afford to give money to the king. If he
+had to do with one who appeared to be economical, he told him that he
+must have saved and could therefore afford to give money to the king.
+Before Henry could put the money thus gained to much use, Anne,
+pressed hard by the French, repudiated her formal marriage with
+Maximilian, who had never taken the trouble to visit her, and gave her
+hand to Charles VIII., who on his part refused to carry out his
+contract to marry Maximilian's daughter Margaret (see p. 337). From
+that time Brittany, the last of the great fiefs to maintain its
+independence, passed under the power of the king of France. Feudality
+was everywhere breaking down, and in France, as in England, a strong
+monarchy was being erected on its ruins.
+
+9. =The Invasion of France. 1492.=--Maximilian's alliance had proved
+but a broken reed, but there was now arising a formidable power in the
+south of Europe, which might possibly give valuable support to the
+enemies of France. The peninsula to the south of the Pyrenees had
+hitherto been divided amongst various states, but in =1469= a marriage
+between Ferdinand, king of Aragon, and Isabella, the heiress of
+Castile, united the greater part under one dominion. Ferdinand and
+Isabella were, for the present, fully occupied with the conquest of
+Granada, the last remnant of the possessions of the Moors in Spain,
+and that city did not surrender till early in =1492=. In the meanwhile
+all England was indignant with the king of France on account of his
+marriage with the heiress of Brittany. Money was voted and men were
+raised, and on October 2, =1492=, Henry crossed to Calais to invade
+France. He was, however, cool enough to discover that both Ferdinand
+and Maximilian wanted to play their own game at his expense, and as
+Anne of Beaujeu was ready to meet him half-way, he concluded a treaty
+with the French king on November 3 at Etaples, receiving large sums of
+money for abandoning a war in which he had nothing to gain. In =1493=
+the Spaniards followed Henry's example, and made a peace with France
+to their own advantage.[39]
+
+    [Footnote 39: Genealogy of the Houses of Spain and Burgundy:--
+
+     Charles the Rash, Duke of Burgundy   Frederick III., Emperor
+                       |                         |
+                       |         +---------------+
+                       |         |
+                      Mary = Maximilian I.    Ferdinand V. = Isabella,
+                           |   Emperor      King of Aragon | Queen of
+                           |                               | Castile
+                           |                               |
+                     +-----+--+        +----------+--------+
+                     |        |        |          |
+                  Margaret  Philip = Juana    Catharine = HENRY VIII.,
+                                   |                    |    King
+                                   |                    | of England
+                 +-----------------+---+                |
+                 |                     |              MARY,
+             Charles V.,          Ferdinand I.,   Queen of England
+              Emperor              Emperor]
+
+10. =Perkin Warbeck. 1491--1494.=--Henry's prudent relinquishment of a
+war of conquest was not likely to bring him popularity in England, and
+his enemies were now on the watch for another pretender to support
+against him. Such a pretender was found in Perkin Warbeck, a Fleming
+of Tournay, who had landed at Cork in the end of =1491= or the
+beginning of =1492=, and who had been pressed by the townsmen to give
+himself some name which would attach him to the Yorkist family. He
+allowed them to call him Richard, Duke of York, the younger of the
+princes who had been murdered in the Tower. He received support from
+Desmond, and probably from Kildare, upon which Henry deprived Kildare
+of the office of Lord Deputy. Perkin crossed to France, and ultimately
+made his way to Flanders, where he was supported by Margaret of
+Burgundy. In =1493= Henry demanded his surrender, and on receiving a
+refusal broke off commercial intercourse between England and Flanders.
+The interruption of trade did more harm to England than to Flanders,
+and gave hopes to the Yorkist party that it might give rise to
+ill-will between the nation and the king. For some time, however, no
+one gave assistance to Perkin, and in =1494= Charles VIII. crossed the
+Alps to invade Italy, and drew the attention of the Continental powers
+away from the affairs of England.
+
+11. =Poynings' Acts. 1494.=--Henry seized the opportunity to bring
+into obedience the English colony in Ireland. He sent over as Lord
+Deputy Sir Edward Poynings, a resolute and able man. At a Parliament
+held by him at Drogheda two acts were passed. By the one it was
+enacted that all English laws in force at that time should be obeyed
+in Ireland; by the other, known for many generations afterwards as
+Poynings' Law, no bill was to be laid before the Irish Parliament
+which had not been previously approved by the king and his Council in
+England. At the same time the greater part of the Statute of Kilkenny
+(see p. 265) was re-enacted; and restricted the authority of the
+Government at Dublin to the English Pale.
+
+12. =Perkin's First Attempt on England. 1495.=--Henry's firm
+government in England had given offence even to men who were not
+Yorkists. Early in =1495= he discovered that Sir William Stanley, who
+had helped him to victory at Bosworth, had turned against him.
+Stanley, who was probably involved in a design for sending Perkin to
+invade England, was tried and executed. In the summer of =1495= Perkin
+actually arrived off Deal. Being no warrior, he sent a party of his
+followers on shore, though he remained himself on shipboard to see
+what would happen. The countrymen fell upon the invaders, who were all
+slain or captured. Then Perkin sailed to Ireland, was repulsed at
+Waterford, and ultimately took refuge in Scotland, where King James
+IV., anxious to distinguish himself in a war with England,
+acknowledged him as the Duke of York, and found him a wife of noble
+birth, Lady Catherine Gordon. It was probably in order to rally even
+the most timid around him, in face of such a danger, that Henry
+obtained the consent of Parliament to an act declaring that no one
+supporting a king in actual possession of the crown could be subjected
+to the penalty of treason in the event of that king's dethronement.
+
+13. =The Intercursus Magnus. 1496.=--The danger of a Scottish invasion
+made Henry anxious to be on good terms with his neighbours. Maximilian
+had become Emperor in =1493= upon his father's death. In the
+Netherlands, however, his influence had declined, as his son, the
+young Archduke Philip, was now growing up, and claimed actually to
+rule the country which he had inherited from his mother, Mary of
+Burgundy (see p. 337), his father having merely the right of
+administering the government of it till he himself came of age. It was
+therefore with Philip, and not with Maximilian, that Henry concluded,
+in =1496=, a treaty known as the _Intercursus Magnus_, for the
+encouragement of trade between England and the Netherlands, each
+party engaging at the same time to give no shelter to each other's
+rebels.
+
+14. =Kildare Restored to the Deputyship. 1496.=--In Ireland also Henry
+was careful to avert danger. The government of Poynings had not been
+entirely successful, and the Geraldines had taken good care to show
+that they could be troublesome in spite of the establishment of
+English government. The Earl of Kildare was at the time in England,
+and a story is told of some one who, having brought a long string of
+charges against him, wound up by saying that all Ireland could not
+govern the Earl, whereupon the king replied that then the Earl should
+govern all Ireland. The story is untrue, but it well represents the
+real situation. In =1496= Henry sent Kildare back as Lord Deputy. A
+bargain seems to have been struck between them. Henry abandoned his
+attempt to govern Ireland from England, and Kildare was allowed to use
+the king's name in any enterprise upon which his heart was set,
+provided that he did not support any more pretenders to the English
+throne.
+
+15. =Perkin's Overthrow. 1496--1497.=--In the autumn of =1496= James
+IV. made an attack on England in Perkin's name, but it was no more
+than a plundering foray. Henry, however, early in =1497=, obtained
+from Parliament a grant of money, to enable him to resist any attempt
+to repeat it. This grant had unexpected consequences. The Cornishmen,
+refusing payment, marched up to Blackheath, where on June 18 they were
+overpowered by the king's troops. James IV., thinking it time to be
+quit of Perkin, sent him off by sea. In July Perkin arrived at Cork,
+but there was no shelter for him there now that Kildare was Lord
+Deputy, and in September he made his way to Cornwall. Followed by
+6,000 Cornishmen he reached Taunton, but the news of the defeat of the
+Cornish at Blackheath depressed him, and the poor coward ran away from
+his army and took sanctuary in Beaulieu Abbey. He was brought to
+London, where he publicly acknowledged himself to be an impostor.
+Henry was too humane to do more than place him in confinement.
+
+[Illustration: Tower of St. Mary's Church, Taunton: built about 1500.]
+
+16. =European Changes. 1494--1499.=--In =1494= Charles VIII. had
+passed through Italy as a conqueror to make good his claims to the
+kingdom of Naples. In =1495= he had returned to France, and in =1496=
+the French army left behind had been entirely destroyed. Yet the
+danger of a renewed attack from France made the other Continental
+powers anxious to unite, and in =1496= the Archduke Philip married
+Juana, the eldest daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, whilst his
+sister was sent to Spain to be married to their only son, Juan. In
+=1497= the death of the young prince led to consequences unexpected
+when the two marriages were arranged. Philip, who held Franche Comté
+and the Netherlands, and who was through his father Maximilian heir to
+the German dominions of the House of Austria, would now, that his wife
+had become the heiress of Spain, be able to transmit to his
+descendants the whole of the Spanish monarchy as well. That monarchy
+was no longer confined to Europe. Portugal at the end of the
+fourteenth century had led the way in maritime adventure, and
+Portuguese navigators discovered a way to India round the Cape of Good
+Hope. Spain was anxious to do as much, and in =1492= Columbus had
+discovered the West Indies, and the kings of Spain became masters of
+the untold wealth produced by the gold and silver mines of the New
+World. It was impossible but that the huge power thus brought into
+existence would one day arouse the jealousy of Europe. For the
+present, however, the danger was less than it would be after the
+deaths of Ferdinand and Isabella, as the actual combination of their
+territories with those which Philip was to inherit from Maximilian had
+not been effected. In =1499= France gave a fresh shock to her
+neighbours. Charles VIII. had died the year before, and his successor,
+Louis XII., invaded Italy and subdued the duchy of Milan, to which he
+had set up a claim. Naturally the powers jealous of France sought to
+have Henry on their side. There had been for some time a negotiation
+for a marriage between Henry's eldest son, Arthur, Prince of Wales,
+and Catherine of Aragon, the youngest daughter of Ferdinand and
+Isabella, but hitherto nothing had been concluded.
+
+17. =Execution of the Earl of Warwick. 1499.=--Perkin had long been
+eager to free himself from prison. In =1498= he was caught attempting
+to escape, but Henry contented himself with putting him in the stocks.
+He was then removed to the Tower, where he persuaded the unhappy Earl
+of Warwick (see p. 343) to join him in flight. It is almost certain
+that Warwick was guilty of no more, but Henry, soured by the repeated
+attempts to dethrone him, resolved to remove him from his path. On
+trumped-up evidence Warwick was convicted and executed, and Perkin
+shared his fate.
+
+[Illustration: King's College Chapel, Cambridge (looking east). Begun
+by Henry VI. in 1441, completed by Henry VII. The screen built between
+1531 and 1535.]
+
+18. =Prince Arthur's Marriage and Death. 1501--1502.=--Warwick's death
+was the one judicial murder of Henry's reign. To the Spaniards it
+appeared to be a prudent action which had cleared away the last of
+Henry's serious competitors. The negotiations for the Spanish
+marriage were pushed on, and in =1501= Catherine, a bride of fifteen,
+gave her hand to Arthur, a bridegroom of fourteen. In =1502= the
+prince died, and the attempt to bind England and Spain together seemed
+to have come to an end.
+
+19. =The Scottish Marriage. 1503.=--Another marriage treaty proved
+ultimately to be of far greater importance. Henry was sufficiently
+above the prejudices of his time to be anxious to be on good terms
+with Scotland. For some time a negotiation had been in progress for a
+marriage between James IV. and Henry's daughter, Margaret. The
+marriage took place in =1503=. To the counsellors who urged that in
+the case of failure of Henry's heirs in the male line England would
+become subject to Scotland Henry shrewdly replied that there was no
+fear of that, as 'the greater would draw the less.'
+
+20. =Maritime Enterprise.=--Henry's chief merit was that he had
+re-established order. Commercial prosperity followed, though the
+commerce was as yet on a small scale. It is probable that the
+population of England was no more than 2,500,000. London contained but
+130,000 inhabitants, whilst Paris contained 400,000. There was no
+royal navy, as there was no royal army, but merchant vessels were
+armed to protect themselves. The company of Merchant Adventurers made
+voyages to the Baltic, and the men of Bristol sent out fleets to the
+Iceland fishery. Henry did what he could to encourage maritime
+enterprise. He had offered to take Columbus into his service before
+the great navigator closed with Spain, and in =1497= he sent the
+Venetian, John Cabot, and his sons across the Atlantic, where they
+landed in Labrador before any Spaniards had set foot on the American
+continent. England however, was as yet too poor to push these
+discoveries farther, and the lands beyond the sea were for the present
+left to Spain.
+
+21. =Growth of the Royal Power.=--The improvement in the general
+well-being of the country had been rendered possible by the extension
+of the royal power, and the price paid for order was the falling into
+abeyance of the constitutional authority of Parliaments. The loss
+indeed was greater in appearance than in reality. In the fifteenth
+century the election of members of the House of Commons depended more
+upon the will of the great lords than upon the political sentiments of
+the community. In the first half of the sixteenth century they
+depended on the will of the king. The peculiarity of the Tudor rule
+was that its growing despotism was exercised without the support of
+the army. It rested on the goodwill of the middle classes. Treading
+cautiously in the steps of Edward IV., Henry VII. recognised that in
+order to have a full treasury it was less dangerous to exact payments
+illegally from the few than to exact them legally from the many. Hence
+his recourse in times of trouble to benevolences. Hence, too, the
+eagerness with which he gathered in fines. The Cornish rebels were
+fined individually. The great lords who persisted in keeping retainers
+were fined. On one occasion the king visited the Earl of Oxford, and
+found, when he went away, a band of retainers drawn up to do him
+honour. "My lord," he said, "I thank you for your entertainment, but
+my attorney must speak with you." If there was a man in England who
+had deserved well of Henry it was Oxford, but Oxford had to pay
+15,000_l._, a sum worth perhaps 180,000_l._ at the present day, to
+atone for his offence. No services rendered to Henry were to excuse
+from obedience to the law.
+
+22. =Empson and Dudley.=--As Henry grew older the gathering of money
+became a passion. His chief instruments were Empson and Dudley, who
+under pretence of enforcing the law established the worst of
+tyrannies. Even false charges were brought for the sake of extracting
+money. At the end of his reign Henry had accumulated a hoard of
+1,800,000_l._, mainly gathered by injustice and oppression. The
+despotism of one man was no doubt better than the despotism of many,
+but the price paid for the change was a heavy one.
+
+23. =Henry and his Daughter-in-law. 1502--1505.=--On the death of
+Prince Arthur in =1502=, Ferdinand and Isabella proposed that their
+daughter Catharine should marry her brother-in-law, Henry, the only
+surviving son of the king of England, though the boy was six years
+younger than herself. They had already paid half their daughter's
+marriage portion, and they believed, probably with truth, that they
+had little chance of recovering it from Henry VII., and that it would
+therefore be more economical to re-marry their daughter where they
+would get off with no more expense than the payment of the other half.
+Henry on the other hand feared lest the repayment of the first half
+might be demanded of him, and consequently welcomed the proposal. In
+=1503= a dispensation for the marriage was obtained from Pope Julius
+II., but in =1505=, when the time for the betrothal arrived, the young
+Henry protested, no doubt at his father's instigation, that he would
+proceed no farther.
+
+24. =The Last Years of Henry VII. 1505--1509.=--Circumstances were
+changed by the death of Isabella in =1504=, when her son-in-law, the
+Archduke Philip, claimed to be sovereign of Castile in right of his
+wife Juana. Philip, sailing from the Netherlands to Spain in =1506=,
+was driven into Weymouth by a storm, and Henry seized the opportunity
+of wringing from him commercial concessions as well as the surrender
+of Edmund de la Pole, a brother of the Earl of Lincoln who perished at
+Stoke, and a nephew of Edward IV. Henry was himself now a widower on
+the look-out for a rich wife, and Philip promised him the hand of his
+sister, Margaret, who had formerly been betrothed to Charles VIII.
+(see p. 337). Once more, however, the conditions of the game changed.
+Philip died a few months after his arrival in Spain, leaving a mad
+widow, and as Ferdinand then regained his authority Catharine's
+marriage was again discussed. Other schemes were also proposed,
+amongst them one for marrying Catharine, not to the young prince, but
+to her old father-in-law, the king. In =1509=, before any of these
+plans could take effect, Henry VII. died. He deserves to be reckoned
+amongst the kings who have accomplished much for England. If he was
+not chivalrous or imaginative, neither was the age in which he lived.
+His contemporaries needed a chief constable to keep order, and he gave
+them what they needed.
+
+25. =Architectural Changes and the Printing Press.=--Architecture,
+which in England, as upon the Continent, had been the one great art of
+the Middle Ages, was already, though still instinct with beauty,
+giving signs in its over-elaboration of approaching decadence. To the
+tower of Fotheringhay Church (see p. 311) had succeeded the tower of
+St. Mary's, Taunton. To the roof of the nave of Winchester Cathedral
+(see p. 276) had succeeded the roof of the Divinity School at Oxford
+(see p. 319), and of the chapel of King's College, Cambridge (see p.
+355). Art in this direction could go no farther. The new conditions in
+which the following age was to move were indicated by the discovery of
+America and the invention of printing. New objects of knowledge
+presented themselves, and a new mode of spreading knowledge was at
+hand. In the reign of Edward IV., Caxton, the earliest English
+printer, set up his press at Westminster, and the king and his nobles
+came to gaze at it as at some new toy, little knowing how profoundly
+it was to modify their methods of government. Henry VII. had enough to
+do without troubling himself with such matters. It was his part to
+close an epoch of English history, not to open a fresh one.
+
+
+_Books recommended for further study of Part IV._
+
+GREEN, J. R. History of the English People. Vol. i. p. 521-Vol. ii. p.
+77.
+
+STUBBS, W. (Bishop of Oxford). Constitutional History of England. Vol.
+ii. from p. 441, and Vol. iii.
+
+HALLAM, H. Constitutional History of England. Vol. i. pp. 1-15.
+
+ROGERS, J. E. THOROLD. History of Agriculture and Prices. Vols. iii.
+and iv.
+
+CUNNINGHAM, W. The Growth of English Industry and Commerce. Vol. i.
+pp. 335-449.
+
+WYLIE, J. H. History of England under Henry IV.
+
+GAIRDNER, JAMES. Lancaster and York.
+
+-------- Richard III.
+
+-------- Henry VII.
+
+RAMSAY, SIR JAMES. Lancaster and York.
+
+OMAN, C. The Political History of England. Vol. iv. From the Accession
+of Richard II. to the Death of Richard III. (1377-1485).
+
+FISHER, H. A. L. The Political History of England. Vol. v. From the
+Accession of Henry VII. to the Death of Henry VIII. (1485-1547).
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+TO
+
+THE FIRST VOLUME
+
+
+  Aaron, martyrdom of, 23.
+
+  Aclea, battle of, 57.
+
+  Acre, captured by the Crusaders, 161;
+    Edward I. at, 204.
+
+  Adrian IV. grants Ireland to Henry II., 152.
+
+  Adulterine castles, 137.
+
+  Aedan, king of the Scots, is defeated at Degsastan, 42.
+
+  Ælfgar, earl of the Mercians, 90.
+
+  Ælfgifu, wife of Eadwig, 65, 66.
+
+  Ælfheah, Archbishop, murdered by the Danes, 82.
+
+  Ælfred, his struggle with the Danes, 58;
+    his position after the Treaty of Wedmore, 59;
+    gains London, _ib._;
+    character of his work, 60.
+
+  Ælfred the Ætheling, murder of, 85, 86.
+
+  Ælfthryth, wife of Eadgar, 78.
+
+  Ælla, king of Deira, slave-boys from his kingdom found at Rome, 38.
+
+  Æscesdun, battle of, 58.
+
+  Æthelbald, king of the Mercians, 53.
+
+  Æthelbald, king of the West Saxons, 57.
+
+  Æthelberht, king of Kent, his supremacy, 38;
+    becomes a Christian, 39;
+    helps Augustine to set up bishoprics, 40;
+    death of, 41.
+
+  Æthelberht, king of the West Saxons, 57.
+
+  Æthelflæd, the Lady of the Mercians, 62.
+
+  Æthelfrith, king of North-humberland, his struggle with the northern
+      Welsh, 41;
+    defeats the Scots at Degsastan, 42;
+    and the Kymry near Chester, 43;
+    is defeated and slain by Eadwine, _ib._
+
+  Æthelred, ealdorman of Mercia, 60.
+
+  Æthelred, king of the West Saxons, his struggle with the
+    Danes, 58, 62.
+
+  Æthelred the Unready, his relations with the Danes, 79;
+    and with the Normans, 80;
+    orders a massacre of the Danes, 81;
+    flies to Normandy, 82;
+    returns and dies, 83.
+
+  Æthelric unites North-humberland, 41.
+
+  Æthelstan, reign of, 63.
+
+  Æthelstan, the Half-King, 73.
+
+  Æthelwold drives secular canons from Winchester, 68.
+
+  Æthelwulf defeats the Northmen, 57.
+
+  Aëtius refuses help to the Britons, 26.
+
+  Agincourt, battle of, 302.
+
+  Agricola, campaigns of, 16;
+    forts built by, 17.
+
+  Agriculture in Eadgar's time, 75.
+
+  Aidan establishes himself in Holy Island, 47;
+    his relations with Oswald, _ib._;
+    and with Oswine, _ib._
+
+  Alban, martyrdom of, 23.
+
+  Albany, the Duke of, suspected of the murder of the Duke of
+      Rothesay, 295;
+    is regent of Scotland, 296.
+
+  Albigeois, the, crusade against, 193.
+
+  Albin, probable Iberian derivation of the name, 6.
+
+  Albion, _see_ Albin.
+
+  Alcluyd (Dumbarton), the capital of Strathclyde, 43.
+
+  Alexander, bishop of Lincoln, 134.
+
+  Alexander III., king of Scotland, death of, 214.
+
+  Alexander III., Pope, shrinks from supporting Archbishop
+    Thomas, 145.
+
+  Alexander IV., Pope, confirms a grant of Sicily to Edmund
+    Crouchback, 197.
+
+  Allectus asserts a claim to the Empire, 22.
+
+  Alnwick, Malcolm Canmore slain at, 119;
+    William the Lion captured at, 154;
+    dismantled, 296.
+
+  Ambresbyrig (Amesbury) named from Ambrosius, 34.
+
+  Ambrosius fights with the West Saxons, 34.
+
+  Ambrosius Aurelianus, fights with the Jutes, 27.
+
+  Amiens, the mise of, 200.
+
+  Anderida destroyed by the South Saxons, 28.
+
+  Andred's Wood covers the Weald, 27.
+
+  Angevin kings, Church and State under, 165;
+    growth of learning under, 167;
+    growth of commerce under, 168;
+    architectural changes under, 170.
+
+  Angles ravage Roman Britain, 24;
+    settle in Britain, 28;
+    advance gradually, 36;
+    _see_ Bernicia, Deira, East Anglia, Mercia, North-humberland.
+
+  Anglesea, _see_ Mona.
+
+  Anjou, Geoffrey, Count of, 131;
+    united with Normandy, 137;
+    declares for Arthur, 174;
+    conquered by Philip II., 176;
+    English forays in, 317.
+
+  Anne of Beaujeu, policy of, 348.
+
+  Anne of Bohemia marries Richard II., 278.
+
+  Anne of Brittany is married to Maximilian by proxy, 349;
+    married to Charles VIII., 349.
+
+  Anselm acknowledges Ælfheah to be a martyr, 82;
+    character of, 117;
+    becomes Archbishop of Canterbury, 118;
+    quarrels with William II., _ib._;
+    his relations with Henry I., 125.
+
+  Antoninus Pius, wall of, 17.
+
+  Appellant, the Lords, 279.
+
+  Aquitaine, Duchy of, passes to Henry II. by his marriage, 137;
+    is given to Richard, 155;
+    divided in language and character from the North of France, 176;
+    intrigues of Philip IV. in, 218;
+    efforts of Philip VI. to gain, 234;
+    ceded to Edward III., 253;
+    the Black Prince made Duke of, 254;
+    resistance to the Black Prince in, 256;
+    almost wholly lost, 257;
+    complete loss of, 320.
+
+  Aquæ Sulis (Bath) subdued by the West Saxons, 35.
+
+  Archers employed at Senlac, 96;
+    armed with the long bow at Falkirk, 221;
+    improperly employed at Bannockburn, 226;
+    effect of, at Halidon Hill, 234;
+    drawn from the yeomen, 236;
+    win the battle of Creçy, 242;
+    are successful at Poitiers, 251.
+
+  Architecture before the Conquest, 51;
+    Norman, 89;
+    under the Angevins, 170;
+    Early English style of, 207;
+    Decorated and Perpendicular styles of, 247;
+    later development of, 358.
+
+  Arles, Council of, 23.
+
+  Armagnac, the Count of, establishes a reign of terror, 303;
+    murder of, 304.
+
+  Armagnacs, party of the, oppose the Burgundians, 296;
+    relations of Henry IV. with, 299;
+    make war with the Burgundians, 301;
+    insurrection of the Parisians against, 304.
+
+  Army, the, the folk-moot in arms, 33;
+    Ælfred's organisation of, 60;
+    under William I., 104, 106;
+    reorganised by Henry II., 141;
+    its condition under Edward III., 236.
+
+  Arras, congress at, 313;
+    Treaty of, 337.
+
+  Arteveldt, Jacob van, 235.
+
+  Arteveldt, Philip van, 278.
+
+  Arthur, legend of, 33.
+
+  Arthur, nephew of John, descent of, 173;
+    murder of, 174.
+
+  Arthur, Prince of Wales, marriage and death of, 356.
+
+  Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury, banished, 282;
+    his position under Henry IV., 292;
+    deprived of the Chancellorship, 299;
+    Oldcastle tried before, 300.
+
+  Arundel, the Earl of, opposes Richard II., 279;
+    executed, 282.
+
+  Aryans, the, 5.
+
+  Assandun, battle of, 83.
+
+  Asser, life of Ælfred by, 61.
+
+  Assize of Arms, 154.
+
+  Assize of Clarendon, _see_ Clarendon.
+
+  Athelney, Ælfred takes refuge in, 58.
+
+  Augustine preaches to the men of Kent, 39;
+    becomes Archbishop of Canterbury and founds other bishoprics, 40;
+    fails to obtain the co-operation of the Welsh bishops, 41.
+
+  Aumale, Earl of, surrenders his castles to Hubert de Burgh, 187.
+
+  Austria, imprisonment of Richard I. in, 161.
+
+  Avice of Gloucester divorced by John, 174.
+
+  Avignon, the Popes at, 257.
+
+
+  Badby burnt as a heretic, 298.
+
+  Badon, Mount, _see_ Mount Badon.
+
+  Balliol, Edward, wins and loses the crown of Scotland, 232, 233.
+
+  Balliol, John, descent of, 215;
+    declared King of Scotland, 216;
+    is defeated and surrenders the crown, 219.
+
+  Bamborough, Ida's fortress at, 36;
+    Mowbray besieged in, 120.
+
+  Bangor-iscoed, monastery at, 42;
+    slaughter of the monks of, 43.
+
+  Bannockburn, battle of, 226.
+
+  Barnet, battle of, 334.
+
+  Basques, the, Iberian descent of, 5.
+
+  Bath, _see_ Aquæ Sulis.
+
+  Battle Abbey, site of, 96.
+
+  Baugé, battle of, 306.
+
+  Bayeux Tapestry, the, 98.
+
+  Bayonne taken by the French, 320.
+
+  Bears, performing, 275.
+
+  Beaufort, Henry, Bishop of Winchester, becomes Chancellor, 299;
+    invites Parliament to support Henry V., 301;
+    opposes Gloucester, 308;
+    becomes a cardinal, 309;
+    continues his opposition to Gloucester, 314;
+    policy of, 317;
+    death of, 318.
+
+  Bec, Abbey of, 89, 117.
+
+  Becket, _see_ Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury.
+
+  Bede, Ecclesiastical History of, 52.
+
+  Bedford, West Saxon victory at, 35;
+    castle of Faukes de Breauté at, 187.
+
+  Bedford, John, Duke of, brother of Henry V., sent to secure
+      Harfleur, 303;
+    Regent of France, 307;
+    marries the Duke of Burgundy's sister, _ib._;
+    defeats the French at Verneuil, 308;
+    returns to England, 312;
+    death of, 313.
+
+  Belgians land in Britain, 8.
+
+  Bellême, _see_ Robert of Bellême.
+
+  Benedict of Nursia establishes the Benedictine rule, 40.
+
+  Benedictines, monasteries of the, 128.
+
+  Benevolences invented by Edward IV., 335;
+    abolished by Richard III., 342.
+
+  Bensington, Mercian victory at, 53.
+
+  Berengaria marries Richard I., 161.
+
+  Bernard du Guesclin, _see_ Du Guesclin.
+
+  Bernicia, formation of the kingdom of, 36;
+    is merged for a time in North-humberland, 41;
+    is untouched by the preaching of Paulinus, 46;
+    is finally merged in North-humberland, 48;
+    maintains its independence after the Danish conquest, 59.
+
+  Bertha obtains from Æthelberht a disused church, 38.
+
+  Bigod, Hugh, appointed justiciar by the barons, 199.
+
+  Bigod, Roger, Earl of Norfolk, resists Edward I., 220.
+
+  Black Death, the, 248, 259.
+
+  Black Prince, the, fights at Creçy, 242;
+    ravages the south of France, and defeats the French at
+      Poitiers, 251;
+    his courtesy to King John, 252;
+    is sent to Aquitaine, 254;
+    his expedition into Spain, 255;
+    taxes Aquitaine, 256;
+    loses Aquitaine, 257;
+    leads the Good Parliament, and dies, 262.
+
+  Blanche Tache, ford of, 240.
+
+  Blore Heath, battle of, 326.
+
+  Boadicea, insurrection of, 15.
+
+  Bohun, Humfrey, Earl of Hereford, resists Edward I., 220.
+
+  Boniface VIII., 220.
+
+  Boniface of Savoy, Archbishop of Canterbury, 197.
+
+  Bordeaux taken by the French, 320.
+
+  Boroughbridge, defeat of Thomas of Lancaster at, 228.
+
+  Bosworth, battle of, 343.
+
+  Bouvines, battle of, 181.
+
+  Brabant, the Duke of, captures Jacqueline of Hainault, 308.
+
+  Bradford-on-Avon, early stone church at, 51.
+
+  Bramham Moor, defeat of Northumberland on, 296.
+
+  Brember hanged, 280.
+
+  Bretigni, Treaty of, 253.
+
+  Bretwalda, title of, 44.
+
+  Bridgenorth, Robert of Bellême's castle at, 121;
+    besieged by Henry I., 124.
+
+  Bridges, making and repair of, 272, 273.
+
+  Brigantes, the, conquest of, 16.
+
+  Brihtnoth slain at Maldon, 79.
+
+  Bristol garrisoned by Robert of Gloucester, 134.
+
+  Britain, its name derived from the Britons, 6;
+    tin trade opened to, 8;
+    Gauls and Belgians in, _ib._;
+    Cæsar's invasion of, 11;
+    trade of Gaul with, 12;
+    beginning of the Roman conquest of, 13-17;
+    condition of the Roman province of, 19-22;
+    emperors specially connected with, 22;
+    Christianity in, 23;
+    ravaged by the Picts and Scots, 23;
+    and by the Saxons, 24;
+    military divisions of, _ib._;
+    end of the Roman government of, 25, 26;
+    is deserted by the Romans, 26;
+    its organisation after the departure of the Romans, _ib._;
+    the English conquest of, 27-29.
+
+  Britons, the, succeed the Goidels, 6;
+    languages spoken by the descendants of, 7;
+    habits of, 9;
+    religion of, 10;
+    introduction of Roman manners amongst, 13;
+    increased civilisation of, 21;
+    non-existence of a national feeling amongst, 22;
+    ask Honorius in vain for help, 25;
+    the groans of the, 26;
+    treatment of, by the English conquerors, 29;
+    are better treated in the West, 31;
+    slight modification of English language by them, 31;
+    _see_ Kymry.
+
+  Brittany, its relation with Henry II., 155;
+    Edward III. sends forces to, 240;
+    annexed to France, 349.
+
+  Bruce, Edward, invades Ireland, 264.
+
+  Bruce, Robert, claims the crown of Scotland, 215.
+
+  Bruce, Robert, grandson of the preceding, _see_ Robert I.
+
+  Brunanburh, battle of, 63.
+
+  Brut, Layamon's, 207.
+
+  Brythons, _see_ Britons.
+
+  Buchan, Countess of, imprisoned, 224.
+
+  Buckingham, Edward Stafford, Duke of, supports
+      Richard III., 338, 341;
+    executed as a rebel, 342.
+
+  Burford, West Saxon victory at, 53.
+
+  Burgundians, party of the, opposed to the Armagnacs, 296, 299;
+    are friendly to Henry V., 301.
+
+  Burgundy, Charles the Rash, Duke of, marries the sister of
+      Edward IV., 332;
+    policy of, 336;
+    is slain at Nancy, _ib._
+
+  Burgundy, John the Fearless, Duke of, has the Duke of Orleans
+      murdered, 296;
+    allies himself with Henry V., 301;
+    holds aloof in the campaign of Agincourt, 302;
+    makes war upon the Armagnacs, 303;
+    murder of, 305.
+
+  Burgundy, Philip the Good, Duke of, joins the English against
+      the Dauphin, 306;
+    allies himself with the Duke of Bedford, 307;
+    forms a league with Charles VII., 313;
+    inherits territories in the Netherlands, _ib._
+
+  Burhs erected by Eadward the Elder, 62.
+
+  Burley, Sir Simon, executed, 280.
+
+  Bury St. Edmunds, foundation of the monastery at, 58;
+    death of Svend at, 82;
+    meeting of barons at, 181.
+
+
+  CADE, JACK, rebellion of, 322.
+
+  Cædmon, poetry of, 52.
+
+  Cædwalla, allied with Penda, 46;
+    is defeated by Oswald, 47.
+
+  Caen, burial of William I. at, 114;
+    stormed by Henry V., 303.
+
+  Caerleon upon Usk, _see_ Isca Silurum.
+
+  Cæsar, Gaius Julius, makes war in Gaul and Germany, 10;
+    twice invades Britain, 11.
+
+  Caint, the, occupied by the Cantii, 8.
+
+  Calais taken by Edward III., 243;
+    besieged by the Duke of Burgundy, 313.
+
+  Caledonians, the, wars of Agricola with, 16.
+
+  Cambridge, the Earl of, execution of, 301.
+
+  Camulodunum, Cunobelin's headquarters at, 12;
+    Roman colony of, 13;
+    captured by Boadicea, 15.
+
+  Cannon, first use of, 242.
+
+  Canterbury, Æthelberht's residence at, 38;
+    Augustine preaches at, 39;
+    foundation of the archbishopric of, 40;
+    murder of Archbishop Thomas at, 150;
+    Henry II. does penance at, 153;
+    architecture of the choir of, 171;
+    disputed election of the Archbishop of, 177.
+
+  _Canterbury Tales_, the, 270.
+
+  Caractacus, defeat and flight of, 13;
+    capture of, 14.
+
+  Carausius claims to be emperor, 22.
+
+  Carham, battle of, 84.
+
+  Carlisle fortified by William II., 119.
+
+  Carnarvon, Edward I. builds a castle at, 210.
+
+  Carriages and carts, 273.
+
+  Carucage substituted for Danegeld, 162.
+
+  Cashel, synod at, 152.
+
+  Cassel, battle of, 235.
+
+  Cassiterides, the geographical position of, 8.
+
+  Cassivelaunus, resistance to Cæsar by, 11.
+
+  Castile, intervention of the Black Prince in, 255;
+    united with Aragon, 349.
+
+  Catherine of Aragon married to Prince Arthur, 356;
+    marriages proposed for, 357.
+
+  Catherine of France marries Henry V., 306;
+    marries Owen Tudor, 335.
+
+  Catuvellauni, the, position of, 9;
+    attacked by Cæsar, 11;
+    subsequent history of, 12.
+
+  Caxton, William, establishes a printing press at Westminster, 358.
+
+  Ceawlin overruns the Severn Valley, 35;
+    defeated at Wanborough, 36.
+
+  Celibacy of the clergy, early opinion in favour of, 65;
+    inculcated at Cluny, 67.
+
+  Celtic Christianity, influence of, 47, 49.
+
+  Celts, the, succeed the Iberians in Western Europe, 5;
+    are divided into two stocks, 7;
+    know their conquerors as Saxons, 29.
+
+  Ceorls, distinguished from Eorls, 29;
+    are the tillers of the soil, 30.
+
+  Chancellor, the official position of, 127;
+    becomes a judge, 260.
+
+  Charles Martel defeats the Mohammedans, 54.
+
+  Charles the Great, Emperor, 55, 63.
+
+  Charles the Simple, king of the West Franks, 63;
+    cedes Normandy to Hrolf, 80.
+
+  Charles IV., king of France, death of, 232.
+
+  Charles V., king of France, opposes the English in Spain, 255;
+    summons the Black Prince to Paris, 256;
+    renews the war against the English, _ib._;
+    avoids a battle, 257.
+
+  Charles VI., king of France, defeats the Flemings, 278;
+    allies himself with Richard II., 282;
+    loses his senses, 295;
+    disinherits the Dauphin, 306;
+    dies, 307.
+
+  Charles VII., king of France, as Dauphin, falls into the hands
+      of the Armagnacs, 303;
+    is present at the murder of John, Duke of Burgundy, 305;
+    is disinherited, 306;
+    claims to succeed to the crown at his father's death, 307;
+    his weakness, 309;
+    is helped by the Maid of Orleans, 310;
+    is crowned, 311;
+    consents to a truce, 317;
+    renews the war, 320.
+
+  Charles VIII., king of France, succeeds to the crown, 348;
+    invades Italy, 352;
+    death of, 354.
+
+  Château Gaillard built by Richard I., 165;
+    lost by John, 354.
+
+  Chaucer, Geoffrey, his _Canterbury Tales_, 270.
+
+  Chester (_see_ Deva) submits to William I., 103.
+
+  Chinon, Henry II. dies at, 157.
+
+  Chivalry, 235.
+
+  Christ Church, at Canterbury, privileges of, 177;
+    expulsion of the monks of, 178.
+
+  Christianity introduced into Britain, 23;
+    into England, 39;
+    character of early English, _see_ England, the Church of.
+
+  Chronicle, the, begun under Ælfred, 61;
+    continued at Worcester, 68, 129;
+    completed at Peterborough, 129.
+
+  Church of England, _see_ England, the Church of.
+
+  Cinque Ports, the, 218.
+
+  Cirencester, _see_ Corinium.
+
+  Cistercians, the, introduced into England, 129;
+    decline of asceticism amongst, 167;
+    are fined by John, 179.
+
+  Clare, Gilbert de, _see_ Gloucester, Earl of.
+
+  Clare, Richard de, _see_ Strongbow.
+
+  Clare, Richard de, _see_ Gloucester, Earl of.
+
+  Clarence, Lionel, Duke of, sent to Ireland, 265.
+
+  Clarence, George, Duke of, brother of Edward IV., created a
+      duke, 329;
+    marries Warwick's daughter, and quarrels with Edward IV., 332;
+    put to death, 336.
+
+  Clarence, Thomas, Duke of, brother of Henry IV., killed at
+    Baugé, 306.
+
+  Clarendon, the Constitutions of, 144;
+    the assize of, 146.
+
+  Claudius, the Emperor, plans the conquest of Britain, 13.
+
+  Clergy, the, _see_ Ecclesiastical Courts, England, Church of.
+
+  _Clericis Laicos_, the Bull named, 220.
+
+  Clifford, Lord, stabs the Earl of Rutland, 328.
+
+  Cluny, clerical celibacy inculcated at, 67;
+    reforms originated at, 107.
+
+  Cnut, reign of, 83-85.
+
+  Cobham, Eleanor, mistress and wife of the Duke of Gloucester, 315;
+    does penance for witchcraft, 316.
+
+  Colleges, first foundation of, at Oxford, 207.
+
+  Colman disputes with Wilfrid, 50.
+
+  Columba founds a monastery at Iona, 47.
+
+  Columbus discovers the West Indies, 354.
+
+  Commerce between Britain and Gaul, 8, 12;
+    between England and Gaul, 38;
+    under the Angevin kings, 168;
+    under Edward I., 211;
+    under Edward III., 235, 236;
+    under Henry VII., 351.
+
+  Common Pleas, establishment of a separate Court of, 212.
+
+  Commons, the House of (_see_ Parliament), finally separated
+      from the Lords, 243;
+    struggle of, against unparliamentary taxation, 244;
+    importance of the constitution of, 245;
+    supported by the Black Prince, 261;
+    influence over the elections of, 281;
+    proposes to confiscate Church property, 294;
+    addressed by Edward IV., 329.
+
+  Compurgation, system of, 32;
+    set aside by Henry II., 146, 147.
+
+  Comyn, John (the Red), slain by Bruce, 224.
+
+  _Confirmatio Cartarum_, 221.
+
+  Conrad III., Emperor, takes part in the second Crusade, 157.
+
+  Constance of Brittany marries Geoffrey, 155.
+
+  Constantine takes an army from Britain, 25.
+
+  Constantine, king of the Scots, allies himself with Eadward, 63.
+
+  Constantine the Great becomes sole Emperor, 22;
+    acknowledges Christianity as the religion of the Empire, 23.
+
+  Constantius, the Emperor, 22.
+
+  Constitutions of Clarendon, 144;
+    renounced by Henry II., 153.
+
+  Convocations of the clergy vote money, 219.
+
+  Conway, Edward I. builds a castle at, 210.
+
+  Corinium (Cirencester), West Saxon conquest of, 35.
+
+  Cornish, the, derivation of the old language of, 7;
+    submit to Ecgberht, 55.
+
+  Cotentin, the, sold to Henry, 119.
+
+  County courts derived from the shire-moots, 141.
+
+  Courtenay, Bishop of London, supported by the citizens against
+    Lancaster, 263.
+
+  Creçy, battle of, 241, 242.
+
+  Cressingham, Sir Hugh, governs Scotland in the name of
+    Edward I., 219.
+
+  Crown, the, _see_ King.
+
+  Crusade, the first, 120;
+    the second, 157;
+    the third, 161;
+    against the Albigeois, 193;
+    the seventh, 204.
+
+  Cumberland, origin of the name of, 37;
+    annexed by William II., 119;
+    left to David I., 133;
+    regained by Henry II., 140.
+
+  Cunedda, extensive rule of, 37.
+
+  Cunobelin, government of, 12.
+
+  _Curia Regis_, the, organised under Henry I., 127;
+    strengthened by Henry II., 141;
+    powers assigned by the Constitutions of Clarendon to, 145;
+    orders the appointment of recognitors, 147;
+    divided into three courts, 212.
+
+  Customs on imports and exports under Edward I., 211, 221.
+
+  Cutha, 35.
+
+  Cymbeline, original of Shakspere's, 12.
+
+  Cynric captures Sorbiodunum, 34.
+
+
+  Danegeld, levy of, 81; abolition of, 143.
+
+  Danelaw, the, formation of, 59.
+
+  Danes, the, invade England, 58;
+    make peace with Ælfred, 59;
+    extent of the settlements of, 62;
+    are amalgamated with the English, 64;
+    relations of Dunstan with, 67;
+    reappear as invaders, 79;
+    conquer England, 81-83;
+    settle in Ireland, 152.
+
+  Darc, Jeanne, delivers Orleans, 310;
+    conducts Charles VII. to Rheims, 311;
+    martyrdom of, 312.
+
+  David I., king of the Scots, invades England, 131.
+
+  David II. (Bruce), king of Scotland, 232;
+    takes refuge with Philip VI., 234;
+    restoration of, 240;
+    taken prisoner at Nevill's Cross, 242;
+    restored by Edward III., 252.
+
+  David, brother of Llewelyn, executed, 140.
+
+  David, Earl of Huntingdon, 215.
+
+  David, St., piety of, 42.
+
+  Decorated style, the, 247.
+
+  Degsastan, Æthelfrith's victory at, 42.
+
+  Deira, formation of the kingdom of, 36;
+    is merged for a time in North-humberland, 41;
+    accepts Christianity, 46;
+    is finally merged in North-humberland, 48;
+    Danish kingdom of, 62, 63.
+
+  Deorham, battle of, 35.
+
+  Derby, Earl of (son of John of Gaunt), opposes Richard II., 279;
+    defeats the Duke of Ireland, 280;
+    becomes Duke of Hereford, and is banished, 283;
+    succeeds to the Duchy of Lancaster, 284;
+    and forces Richard II. to abdicate, 285;
+    _see_ Henry IV.
+
+  Dermot invites Strongbow to Ireland, 152.
+
+  Despensers, the, 228, 229.
+
+  Deva, Roman colony of, 14, 19.
+
+  Devizes, surrender of the castle of, 134.
+
+  _Dialogus de Scaccario_, 167.
+
+  Diocletian reorganises the Empire, 22.
+
+  Domesday Book, 111.
+
+  Domestic life in Eadgar's time, 75.
+
+  Domfront occupied by Henry, 119.
+
+  Dominic, St., 190.
+
+  Dominicans arrive in England, 191.
+
+  Donald Bane made king of the Scots by the Celts, 119.
+
+  Dorchester, abandonment of the see of, 107.
+
+  Dorset, Marquis of, his relations with Richard III., 338.
+
+  Druids, character of the, 10;
+    resist Suetonius, 14.
+
+  Dublin, Danish settlement in, 152.
+
+  Du Châtel, Tannegui, murders the Duke of Burgundy, 305.
+
+  Du Guesclin, Bernard, supports Henry of Trastamara, 255;
+    his mode of fighting with the English, 256.
+
+  Dunbar, Balliol defeated at, 219.
+
+  Duncan II., king of the Scots, 120.
+
+  Dunstan, character and work of, 65;
+    banished by Eadwig, 67;
+    becomes Eadgar's Minister, _ib._;
+    his attitude towards the monks, 68;
+    supports Eadward's succession, 78;
+    death of, 79.
+
+  Dupplin, Edward Balliol's victory at, 234.
+
+  Durham, architecture of the choir and galilee of, 171.
+
+
+  Eadgar, reign of, 67.
+
+  Eadgar, king of the Scots, 121.
+
+  Eadgar the Ætheling, early years of, 90;
+    chosen king, 98;
+    is abandoned, 100.
+
+  Eadgyth married to Eadward the Confessor, 87.
+
+  Eadgyth married to Henry I., 122;
+    is known as Matilda, 124.
+
+  Eadmund Ironside, 83.
+
+  Eadmund, king of East Anglia, killed by the Danes, 58.
+
+  Eadmund, king of the English, 63.
+
+  Eadred, king of the English, 64.
+
+  Eadward the Confessor, his life in Normandy, 85;
+    is chosen king, 86;
+    his relations with Godwine, 87;
+    makes William his heir, 88;
+    dies, 91.
+
+  Eadward the Elder, reign of, 62;
+    his relations with the Scots, 63.
+
+  Eadward the Ætheling, death of, 90.
+
+  Eadward the Martyr, 78.
+
+  Eadwig, reign of, 64;
+    his quarrel with the clergy, 65;
+    his marriage and death, 67.
+
+  Eadwine, king of North-humberland, greatness of, 43;
+    marries Æthelburh, 44;
+    is converted and slain, 46.
+
+  Eadwine, son of Ælfgar, becomes Earl of the Mercians, 90;
+    is present at Eadgar's election, 98;
+    submits to William, 102;
+    is murdered, 103.
+
+  Eadwinesburh, _see_ Edinburgh.
+
+  Ealdhelm as a builder and teacher, 51.
+
+  Ealdormen, the, are the leaders of the English conquerors, 30;
+    preside over the folk-moot, 33;
+    growing power of, 73;
+    their position under Æthelred the Unready, 79.
+
+  Ealdred, Archbishop of York, crowns William I., 100.
+
+  Earl, title of, derivation of, 64.
+
+  Earldoms under Cnut, 83;
+    diminished after the Norman Conquest, 105.
+
+  Early English architecture, 171.
+
+  East Anglia, first settlement of, 28;
+    growth of, 36;
+    comparative weakness of, 41;
+    its relations with Ecgberht, 55;
+    overrun by the Danes, 58.
+
+  East Saxons establish themselves to the north of the Thames, 28;
+    capture London, 35;
+    _see_ Essex.
+
+  Easter, dispute on the mode of keeping, 50.
+
+  Ebbsfleet, landing of the Jutes at, 27;
+    landing of Augustine at, 39.
+
+  Ecclesiastical courts, jurisdiction of, 106;
+    conflict of Henry II. with, 142.
+
+  Ecgberht, at the court of Charles the Great, 53;
+    becomes king of the West Saxons, and over-lord of the other
+      kingdoms, 55.
+
+  Edinburgh, Eadwine builds the castle of, 43;
+    occupied by the Scots, 68.
+
+  Edmund Crouchback, second son of Henry III., named king of
+      Sicily and Naples, 196;
+    supposed primogeniture of, 286.
+
+  Education in the time of Ælfred, 61;
+    in the time of Dunstan, 65;
+    carried on at Oxford, 167, 207.
+
+  Edward I., appeal of the Knights Bachelors to, 199;
+    taken prisoner at Lewes, 201;
+    defeats Earl Simon at Evesham, 203;
+    takes part in the seventh Crusade 204;
+    becomes king, 208;
+    constitutional position of, 209;
+    his dealings with Wales, 210;
+    finance of, 211;
+    judicial reforms and legislation of, 212;
+    arranges for a personal union between England and Scotland, 214;
+    erects the Eleanor crosses, 215;
+    awards the Scottish crown to John Balliol, 216;
+    his relations with Philip IV., 218;
+    summons the Model Parliament, 218;
+    his first conquest of Scotland, 219;
+    grants the _Confirmatio Cartarum_, 220;
+    his second conquest of Scotland, 221;
+    incorporates Scotland with England, 222;
+    his third conquest of Scotland, and death, 224.
+
+  Edward II., birth of, 210;
+    succeeds to the crown, 224;
+    marriage of, 225;
+    resistance of the barons to, _ib._;
+    defeated at Bannockburn, 226;
+    overthrows Lancaster and effects a constitutional settlement, 228;
+    deposed and murdered, 229.
+
+  Edward III., accession and marriage of, 231;
+    does homage to Philip VI., 232;
+    sets up Edward Balliol in Scotland and begins war with
+      France, 234;
+    allies himself with the Emperor and the cities of Flanders, 235;
+    encourages trade, 236;
+    is named Imperial Vicar, 237;
+    claims the crown of France, 239;
+    wins the battle of Sluys, _ib._;
+    marches through the north of France, 240;
+    wins the battle of Creçy, 241, 242;
+    takes Calais, 243;
+    constitutional progress under, _ib._;
+    restores David Bruce, 252;
+    makes peace with France, 253;
+    enters on a fresh war with France, 256.
+
+  Edward IV., as Earl of March, takes part in the battle of
+      Northampton, 326;
+    wins the battle of Mortimer's Cross,
+      and is acknowledged by the Londoners as king, 328;
+    wins the battle of Towton, and is crowned, 329;
+    marries Elizabeth Woodville, and promotes her kindred, 331;
+    allies himself with Burgundy, 332;
+    loses and recovers the crown, 334;
+    invents benevolences, 335;
+    invades France, 336;
+    puts Clarence to death, 336;
+    death of, 337.
+
+  Edward V. succeeds to the throne, 337;
+    lodged in the Tower, 340;
+    deposed, 341;
+    murdered, 342.
+
+  Edward, Prince of Wales, _see_ Black Prince, the.
+
+  Edward, Prince of Wales, son of Henry VI., birth of, 323;
+    slain at Tewkesbury, 334.
+
+  Edward, Prince of Wales, son of Richard III., death of, 342.
+
+  Eleanor of Aquitaine marries Henry II., 137;
+    imprisonment of, 155;
+    takes part with John against Arthur, 174.
+
+  Eleanor of Castile, wife of Edward I., accompanies her husband
+      on the Crusade, 204;
+    death of, 214.
+
+  Eleanor of Provence marries Henry III., 192.
+
+  Eleanor, sister of Henry III., marries Simon de Montfort, 193.
+
+  Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., proposed marriage of the
+      Dauphin to, 336;
+    proposed marriage of Richard III. to, 342;
+    marries Henry VII., 345.
+
+  Elmet conquered by Eadwine, 43.
+
+  Emma marries Æthelred, 81.
+
+  Empire, the Western, revived by Charles the Great, 55.
+
+  Empson and Dudley, exactions of, 357.
+
+  England, early social and political institutions of, 29-32;
+    contrasted with Gaul, 37;
+    commerce with Gaul renewed by, 38;
+    Christianity introduced into, 39;
+    growing power of three kingdoms in, 41;
+    character of the later conquests in, 44;
+    political changes in, 45;
+    spread of Christianity in, 49;
+    influence of Church Councils on the political unity of, 52;
+    Ecgberht's over-lordship in, 55;
+    attacks of the Northmen and Danes on, 56;
+    its condition under Ælfred, 60;
+    its relations with Scotland, 63, 68;
+    development of the institutions of, 69;
+    Danish conquest of, 79-83;
+    Norman conquest of, 96-103;
+    Norman constitution of, 113;
+    civil war in, 134;
+    pacification of, 137;
+    administrative reforms of Henry II. in, 140;
+    made tributary to the Papacy, 180;
+    military reforms in, 154;
+    effect of the reign of Henry II. on, 158;
+    constitutional result of the administration of Hubert Walter
+      in, 163;
+    growth of learning in, 167;
+    growth of commerce in, 168;
+    architectural changes in, 170;
+    the Barons' Wars in, 200-203;
+    architectural and literary growth in, 206, 207;
+    complete national unity of, 208;
+    completion of the Parliamentary constitution of, 218, 220, 228, 243;
+    relieved of tribute to the Papacy, 258;
+    social and moral condition of, during the Wars of the Roses, 330.
+
+  England, the Church of, Wilfrid's influence on, 50;
+    parochial organisation of, _ib._;
+    its close connection with the State, 52;
+    councils of, _ib._;
+    organisation of, after the Norman Conquest, 106;
+    its relations with Stephen, 134;
+    and with Henry II., 149;
+    result of the Angevin reigns on, 166;
+    Papal exactions resisted by, 194;
+    payments exacted from, 197;
+    temporary Parliamentary representation of the clergy of, 219;
+    taxation resisted by the clergy of, 220;
+    social condition of, 236;
+    supports Henry IV., 291;
+    members of noble families in the episcopate of, _ib._;
+    procures a statute for burning heretics, 292;
+    proposal to confiscate the property of, 294.
+
+  English, the, origin of the name of, 28;
+    nature of their conquest of Britain, 29;
+    village settlements of, _ib._;
+    division of ranks among, _ib._;
+    effect of the conquest of Britain on the language of, 31;
+    early political organisation of, _ib._;
+    early judicial system of, 32;
+    position of, under William I., 104;
+    support William II., 115;
+    support Henry I. 124;
+    cease to be distinguished from Normans, 155;
+    reappearance of their language in literature, 207;
+    predominance of their language, 258.
+
+  Eorls, distinguished from Ceorls, 29;
+    their relation to Gesiths, 30.
+
+  Erse, a Goidelic language, 7.
+
+  Eskimos, compared with palæolithic men, 3.
+
+  Essex, Saxon settlement in, 28;
+    is dependent on Kent, and accepts Christianity, 40;
+    relapses into heathenism, 41;
+    comparative weakness of, _ib._
+
+  Eustace, Count of Boulogne, visits Eadward the Confessor, 87.
+
+  Eustace, son of Stephen, death of, 137.
+
+  Evesham, battle of, 203.
+
+  Exchequer, the, organised by Roger of Salisbury, 127;
+    disorganised under Stephen, 134;
+    reorganised under Henry II., 140;
+    establishment of a separate Court of, 212.
+
+  Exeter taken by William I., 102.
+
+
+  Faddiley, battle of, 35.
+
+  Falaise, Treaty of, 154;
+    abandoned by Richard I., 159.
+
+  Falkirk, Wallace defeated at, 222.
+
+  Faukes de Breauté, banishment of, 187.
+
+  Ferdinand V., king of Aragon, marries Isabella of Castile, 349.
+
+  Ferry Bridge, skirmish at, 429.
+
+  Feudality, early forms of, 81;
+    after the Norman Conquest, 104;
+    organised by William I., 113;
+    Flambard's further organisation of, 116;
+    ideas of Edward I. on, 214.
+
+  Fitz-Osbern, William, oppresses the English, 102.
+
+  Five Boroughs, the, 62.
+
+  Flambard, Ranulf, tyranny of, 116;
+    imprisonment of, 122;
+    escapes, 124.
+
+  Flanders, commercial intercourse with, 211;
+    Edward I. in, 221;
+    alliance of Edward III. with, 235;
+    falls under the control of France, 278.
+
+  Flemings emigrate to Wales, 128;
+    introduced as weavers by Edward III., 236.
+
+  Folk-moot, functions of the, 33.
+
+  Fountains Abbey, 129.
+
+  France, social condition of, 235;
+    miserable state of, 251, 252;
+    friendship of Richard II. with, 282.
+
+  Francis of Assisi, St., 190.
+
+  Franciscans, the, constitution of, 190;
+    arrive in England, 191.
+
+  Frederick I., Barbarossa, Emperor, supports an anti-pope, 145.
+
+  Frederick II., Emperor, excommunication of, 194;
+    death of, 195.
+
+  Freemen, gradual disappearance of, 69.
+
+  French, the, Dukes of, 63;
+    Hugh Capet, king of, 80.
+
+  Friars, the, orders of, 190;
+    arrive in England, 191.
+
+  Fyrd, the, a general army of the villagers, 30;
+    Ælfred reforms, 60;
+    comparative disuse of, 69;
+    retained after the Norman Conquest, 106;
+    _see_ Assize of Arms.
+
+
+  Gaelic a Goidelic language, 7.
+
+  Gainas, the, settlements of, 28.
+
+  Gainsborough, origin of the name of, 28.
+
+  Garter, the order of the, institution of, 246.
+
+  Gascoigne, Chief Justice, 299.
+
+  Gaul, trade of Britain with, 8, 12;
+    persistency of Roman civilisation in, 37;
+    renewal of trade with, 38.
+
+  Gauls arrive in Britain, 8.
+
+  Gaveston, Piers, favoured by Edward II., 224;
+    execution of, 226.
+
+  Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, marries the Empress Matilda, 131;
+    conquers Normandy, 136.
+
+  Geoffrey Fitz-Peter, Justiciar, 163.
+
+  Geoffrey, son of Henry II., marries the heiress of Brittany, 155;
+    dies, 156.
+
+  Gesiths, the, personal devotion of, 30;
+    their relation to the Ceorls, _ib._;
+    their name changed to that of Thegns, 31.
+
+  Gewissas, the, combine with Jutes, 28;
+    _see_ West Saxons.
+
+  Ghent, Jacob van Arteveldt at, 235;
+    Philip van Arteveldt at, 278.
+
+  Giraldus Cambrensis, 167.
+
+  Glanvile, Ranulf de, captures William the Lion, 154;
+    writes the first English law-book, 167.
+
+  Glastonbury, Dunstan, abbot of, 65;
+    proceedings of Dunstan at, 106.
+
+  Glendower, Owen, heads the Welsh, 293;
+    decline of the power of, 296.
+
+  Glevum (Gloucester), Saxon conquest of, 35.
+
+  Gloucester, Duke of (brother of Edward IV.), _see_ Richard III.
+
+  Gloucester, Duke of, Humphrey (brother of Henry V.), appointed
+      Protector, 307;
+    marries Jacqueline of Hainault, 308;
+    quarrels with Cardinal Beaufort, 309, 314;
+    his relations with Eleanor Cobham, 315;
+    advocates a war policy, 317;
+    death of, 318.
+
+  Gloucester, Duke of, Thomas, son of Edward III., heads the
+      opposition to Richard II., 279;
+    driven from power, 280;
+    murdered, 282.
+
+  Gloucester, Earl of (Gilbert de Clare), allies himself with Earl
+      Simon, 200;
+    becomes one of the three Electors, 201;
+    joins Edward against Simon at Evesham, 203.
+
+  Gloucester, Earl of, _see_ Robert.
+
+  Gloucester, Earl of (Richard de Clare), quarrels with Earl
+      Simon, 199;
+    joins Earl Simon, and dies, 200.
+
+  Gloucester, _see_ Glevum.
+
+  Godfrey of Bouillon, 121.
+
+  Godwine becomes Earl of the West Saxons, 84;
+    supports Harthacnut, 85;
+    charged with the murder of Ælfred, 86;
+    governs under Eadward, 87;
+    outlawed, 88;
+    return and death of, 89.
+
+  Goidels, the, a branch of the Celts, 6;
+    languages spoken by the descendants of, 7.
+
+  Good Parliament, the, 262.
+
+  Granada, conquest of, 349.
+
+  Graupian Hill, the, battle of, 17.
+
+  Great Council, the, composition of, 113;
+    urges William to name an archbishop, 117;
+    summoned to Rockingham, 118;
+    becomes unimportant under Henry I., 126;
+    frequently consulted by Henry II., 141;
+    meets at Clarendon, 144;
+    remonstrates with Henry III., 188, 192;
+    refuses money to Henry III., 194;
+    begins to be known as Parliament, 195;
+    _see_ Parliament.
+
+  Gregory I., Pope, finds English slave-boys at Rome, 28;
+    sends Augustine to England, 39.
+
+  Gregory VII., Pope, his relations with William I., 107.
+
+  Gregory IX., Pope, demands money from England, 194.
+
+  Grey, John de, nominated Archbishop of Canterbury by John, 177;
+    unpopularity of, 178.
+
+  Grey, family of, favoured by Edward IV., 331.
+
+  Grey, Sir Thomas, execution of, 301.
+
+  Grossetête, Robert, Bishop of Lincoln, opposes Henry III., 194, 195;
+    death of, 197.
+
+  Gualo, legate of Honorius III., 185.
+
+  Guthrum defeats Ælfred, 58;
+    makes peace at Wedmore, 59;
+    cedes London to Ælfred, _ib._;
+    extent of the kingdom of, 62.
+
+  Gwledig, British title of, 26;
+    title thought to have been assumed by Eadwine, 44.
+
+  Gwynnedd under Cædwalla, 46.
+
+  Gyrth, Earl of East Anglia, 89.
+
+
+  Hadrian, the Emperor, wall of, 17.
+
+  Halidon Hill, the Scots defeated at, 234.
+
+  Harfleur taken by Henry V., 302;
+    secured by the Duke of Bedford, 303.
+
+  Harold Hardrada invades England, 94;
+    is slain at Stamford Bridge, 96.
+
+  Harold, son of Cnut, chosen king by the Mercians, 85;
+    death of, 86.
+
+  Harold, son of Godwine, earl of the West Saxons, 89;
+    rules England under Eadward, 90;
+    chosen king, 91;
+    his oath to William, 93;
+    marches into the North, 94;
+    defeats Harold Hardrada at Stamford Bridge, 95;
+    defeated and slain at Senlac, 98.
+
+  Harthacnut, chosen king of the West Saxons, 85;
+    comes to England, and dies, 86.
+
+  Hastings, battle of, _see_ Senlac.
+
+  Hastings, John, claims a third of Scotland, 215.
+
+  Hastings, Lord, turns against Richard III., 339;
+    execution of, 340.
+
+  Heathfield, battle of, 46.
+
+  Heavenfield, battle of, 47.
+
+  Hedgeley Moor, battle of, 331.
+
+  Helie de la Flêche opposes William II., 121.
+
+  Hengist, traditional leader of the Jutes, 27.
+
+  Henry I. receives no land at his father's death, 114;
+    his wars with his brothers, 119;
+    accession and marriage of, 122;
+    puts down insurrections, 124;
+    conquers Normandy, 125;
+    his dispute with Anselm, _ib._;
+    judicial reforms of, 127;
+    makes war in Normandy, 129;
+    loses his only son, 130;
+    death of, 131.
+
+  Henry II., early career of, 136;
+    marries Eleanor, 137;
+    character of, 138;
+    advances Thomas of London, 140;
+    administrative system of, 140-142;
+    appoints Thomas archbishop, and quarrels with him, 143;
+    draws up the Constitutions of Clarendon, 144;
+    persecutes Thomas, 145;
+    issues the Assize of Clarendon, 146;
+    renews the itinerant justices, and inquires into the conduct
+      of the sheriffs, 148;
+    has young Henry crowned, 149;
+    uses strong language against Thomas, 150;
+    goes to Ireland, 151;
+    renounces the Constitutions of Clarendon, 153;
+    does penance, 154;
+    issues the Assize of Arms, _ib._;
+    his domestic troubles, 155;
+    takes the cross and dies, 157;
+    his weakness on the Continent and strength in England, 158;
+    literary vigour under, 167.
+
+  Henry III., minority of, 185;
+    favours Poitevins under the influence of Peter des Roches, 187;
+    marries Eleanor of Provence and favours Provençals, 192;
+    frequently renews the Great Charter, 192;
+    quarrels with Simon de Montfort, 193;
+    surrenders Poitou, 194;
+    is opposed by Parliament, 195;
+    hopes to make his second son King of Sicily, 196;
+    misgovernment of, 197;
+    consents to the Provisions of Oxford, 198;
+    recovers power, 200;
+    taken prisoner at Lewes, 201;
+    last years of, 204;
+    progress of the country in the reign of, 206.
+
+  Henry IV., (_see_ Derby) Earl of, claims the throne, 286;
+    meets with difficulties, 289;
+    leans on the Church, 291;
+    rebellion of the Percies against, 293;
+    keeps James I. as a hostage, 295;
+    suppresses a rebellion in the North, 296;
+    quarrels with the Prince of Wales, 298;
+    death of, 299.
+
+  Henry IV., Emperor, resists Gregory VII., 108.
+
+  Henry V., career of, as Prince of Wales, 297-299;
+    domestic policy of, 299;
+    claims the crown of France, 300;
+    defeats the French at Agincourt, 302;
+    conquers Normandy, 303;
+    forms an alliance with the Duke of Burgundy, and is declared
+      heir to the French throne, 306;
+    marriage and death of, _ib._
+
+  Henry V., Emperor, marries Matilda, 131.
+
+  Henry VI., accession of, 307;
+    crowned at Westminster and Paris, 312;
+    marriage of, 317;
+    supports Somerset, 323;
+    insanity of, _ib._;
+    recovery and renewed insanity of, 324;
+    second recovery of, _ib._;
+    attempts to reconcile the parties, 325;
+    declared a traitor by Edward IV., 329;
+    restoration of, 333;
+    murder of, 334.
+
+  Henry VI., Emperor, his relations with Richard I., 161, 162.
+
+  Henry VII., as Earl of Richmond, genealogy of, 334;
+    invades England, 343;
+    defeats Richard III. and becomes king, _ib._;
+    supported by the middle classes, 345;
+    suppresses Lord Lovel's rising, 346;
+    his relations with Brittany and France, 348;
+    assailed by Perkin Warbeck, 350;
+    sends Poynings to Ireland, 352;
+    restores Kildare to the Deputyship, 352;
+    secures Warbeck, _ib._;
+    effects an alliance with Scotland, 356;
+    encourages maritime enterprise, 356;
+    fills his treasury, 357;
+    his alliance with the Archduke Philip, 358;
+    last years and death of, 358.
+
+  Henry of Blois, Bishop of Winchester, 131;
+    declares against Stephen, 134.
+
+  Henry of Trastamara, 255.
+
+  Henry, son of Henry II., coronation of, 149;
+    rebellion of, 153;
+    death of, 156.
+
+  Henry the Fowler, his mode of warfare, 79.
+
+  Hereford, Duke of, _see_ Derby, Earl of.
+
+  Hereford, Earl of, _see_ Bohun, Humfrey.
+
+  Heretics, Statute for burning, 292.
+
+  Hereward, rising of, 103.
+
+  Herrings, battle of the, 309.
+
+  Hexham, battle of, 331.
+
+  Hii, _see_ Iona.
+
+  Hlaford, _see_ Lord.
+
+  Homildon Hill, battle of, 293.
+
+  Honorius III., Pope, protects Henry III., 185.
+
+  Horsa, a traditional leader of the Jutes, 27.
+
+  Horses used to carry warriors to battle, 75.
+
+  House-carls, 83, 93.
+
+  Hrolf, Duke of the Normans, 80.
+
+  Hubert, Walter, administration of, 163;
+    death of, 177.
+
+  Hubert de Burgh holds Dover Castle, 185;
+    administration of, 186-188.
+
+  Hugh Capet, 80.
+
+  Hugh of Lusignan rises against John, 174.
+
+  Hugh the Great, Duke of the French, 63.
+
+  Hundreds, early political organisation of the, 31.
+
+  Hundred Years' War, the, 234.
+
+  Hundred-moot, the, organisation of, 31;
+    judicial functions of, 32;
+    gradual decay of, 72.
+
+  Huntingdon, David I. holds the earldom of, 132.
+
+  Hwiccas, the, split off from the West Saxons, 36.
+
+
+  Iberians, the, 5.
+
+  Iceni, the geographical position of, 8;
+    take part with the Romans, 13;
+    roused to insurrection by Boadicea, 15.
+
+  Ictis, probably identified with Thanet, 8.
+
+  Ida becomes king of Bernicia, 36.
+
+  Idle, the, Eadwine's victory on, 43.
+
+  Impeachment of Latimer and Lyons, 262;
+    of Suffolk, 322.
+
+  Inclosures, growth of, 320.
+
+  Ine, his rule in Wessex, 53.
+
+  Innocent III., Pope, influences the election of Stephen
+      Langton, 177;
+    puts England under an interdict, and reduces John to
+      submission, 178-180;
+    declares against the barons, 181-184;
+    establishes the Friars, 190.
+
+  Innocent IV. becomes Pope, 195;
+    wins over Henry III., 196.
+
+  Inquisition of the Sheriffs, the, 148.
+
+  _Intercursus Magnus_, the, 351.
+
+  Interdict, England under, 178.
+
+  Investiture, William I. claims the right of granting, 108;
+    Anselm's position with regard to, 125;
+    compromise on, 126.
+
+  Iona, missionaries sent forth from, 47.
+
+  Ireland, ancient language of, 7;
+    Druids in, 10;
+    Christianity introduced into, 47;
+    state of civilisation in, 151;
+    partially conquered by Henry II., 152;
+    results of the conquest of, 264;
+    weakness of the English colony in, 265;
+    under Lancaster and York, 346;
+    under Henry VII., 350, 351.
+
+  Ireland, Duke of (_see_ Oxford, Earl of), supports Richard II., 279;
+    is condemned to death, but escapes, 280.
+
+  Isabella of Angoulême marries John, 174.
+
+  Isabella of Bavaria, Queen of France, takes part against her
+    son, 306.
+
+  Isabella of France marries Edward II., 225;
+    obtains the deposition of her husband, 229;
+    gives power to Mortimer, 231;
+    is placed in seclusion, 232.
+
+  Isca Silurum, Roman colony of, 14;
+    martyrdom of Aaron at, 23.
+
+  Isle of Wight, Jutish settlements in, 28;
+    plundered by the French, 234.
+
+  Itinerant justices under Henry I., 127;
+    under Henry II., 148.
+
+
+  Jacquerie, the, 252.
+
+  Jacqueline of Hainault, marriage of, 308.
+
+  James I., king of Scotland, kept in custody by Henry IV., 295;
+    liberation of, 307.
+
+  James IV., king of Scotland, invades England, 352;
+    marries the daughter of Henry VII., 356.
+
+  Jerusalem captured by the Crusaders, 121;
+    captured by Saladin, 157;
+    Richard I. refuses to look at, 161.
+
+  Jews, the, encouraged by William II., 115;
+    protected by Henry I., 128;
+    massacre of, 160;
+    persecuted by John, 179;
+    banished by Edward I., 212.
+
+  Jews' House, the so-called, 170.
+
+  John, king of England, his misconduct in Ireland, 156;
+    leads the opposition to William of Longchamps, 161;
+    joins Philip II. against Richard, 162;
+    accession of, 173;
+    loses Normandy and Anjou, 174;
+    appoints an Archbishop of Canterbury, 177;
+    quarrels with the Pope, 178;
+    submits to the Pope, 180;
+    quarrels with the barons, 181;
+    confirms _Magna Carta_, 182;
+    makes war with the barons, 184;
+    dies, 185.
+
+  John, king of France, defeated at Poitiers, 251;
+    brought to England, 252;
+    is liberated, but returns to England and dies, 254.
+
+  John Ball, 268.
+
+  Judicial system of the early English, 31;
+    of Eadgar, 72;
+    of William I., 107;
+    of Henry I., 127;
+    of Henry II., 146.
+
+  Judith accuses Waltheof, 110.
+
+  Jury of presentment, 147.
+
+  Jury system, the, germ of, 147;
+    completed, 321.
+
+  Justices of the peace, the, origin of, 277.
+
+  Justiciar, institution of the office of, 116;
+    his position under Henry I., 127.
+
+  Jutes, probably ravage Roman Britain, 24;
+    subdue Kent, 27;
+    settle in the Isle of Wight and the mainland opposite, 28.
+
+
+  Kemp, Bishop of London, becomes Lord Chancellor, 309.
+
+  Kenilworth, Earl, Simon's castle at, 199.
+
+  Kenneth, king of the Scots, receives Lothian from Eadgar, 68.
+
+  Kenneth MacAlpin unites the Scots and Picts, 63.
+
+  Kent, foundation of the Jutish kingdom of, 27;
+    its inhabitants driven back by the West Saxons, 35;
+    Gaulish traders in, 38;
+    accepts Christianity, 39;
+    is kept by Lawrence from relapsing, 41;
+    comparative weakness of, _ib._
+
+  Kent, Earl of (brother of Edward II.), execution of, 231.
+
+  Kildare, Earl of, supports the Yorkists, 347;
+    supports Lambert Simnel, _ib._;
+    is deprived of the Deputyship for supporting Warbeck, 350;
+    restored to the Deputyship, 352.
+
+  Kilkenny, Statute of, 265.
+
+  King, authority of the, origin of, 33;
+    effect of the enlargement of the kingdoms on, 45;
+    increased importance of, 69;
+    limitations imposed by _Magna Carta_ on, 182;
+    proposed administrative restrictions on, 195;
+    effect of the revolution of 1399 upon, 289.
+
+  King's Bench, Court of, 212.
+
+  Knights Bachelors, the, appeal to Edward, 199.
+
+  Knights of the shire first admitted to Parliament, 196;
+    later elections of, 200, 201;
+    importance of their conjunction with borough members, 245.
+
+  Kymry, the, origin of the name, 37;
+    share in the defeat of the Scots at Degsastan, 42;
+    are defeated by Æthelfrith near Chester, 43;
+    geographical dismemberment of, _ib._;
+    in alliance with Penda, 46;
+    weakness of, 49;
+    _see_ Welsh.
+
+
+  Labourers, Statute of, 248, 268.
+
+  Lambeth, ford over the Thames at, 20.
+
+  Lancaster, Duke of (John of Gaunt), makes unsuccessful war
+      in France, 257;
+    heads the anti-clerical party, 260;
+    opposes the Black Prince, 262;
+    reverses the proceedings of the Good Parliament, _ib._;
+    supports Wycliffe, 263;
+    takes the lead at the accession of Richard II., 266;
+    goes to Spain, 279;
+    marries Catherine Swynford, 282.
+
+  Lancaster, Earl of (Thomas), opposes Edward II., 225;
+    execution of, 228.
+
+  Lanfranc trusted by William I., 88;
+    becomes Archbishop of Canterbury, 106;
+    crowns William II., 114;
+    death of, 117.
+
+  Langland, William, 259.
+
+  Langton, Stephen, chosen Archbishop of Canterbury at Rome, 177;
+    allowed by John to come to England, 180;
+    produces a charter of Henry I., 181;
+    his part in obtaining the Great Charter, 182.
+
+  Latimer, Lord, impeached, 262.
+
+  Lawrence, Archbishop of Canterbury, keeps Kent Christian, 41.
+
+  Layamon's Brut, 207.
+
+  Leicester, Anglian settlement at, 36;
+    earldom of, inherited by Simon de Montfort, 193.
+
+  Leicester, Earl of, shares the Justiciar's office with Richard
+    de Lucy, 140.
+
+  Le Mans, sieges of, 121.
+
+  Leo IX., Papacy of, 88.
+
+  Leofric, Earl of the Mercians, 85, 90.
+
+  Leofwine, Earl of the Mercians, 84.
+
+  Leofwine, son of Godwine, earl of the shires about the Thames, 90.
+
+  Leopold, Duke of Austria, imprisons Richard I., 161.
+
+  Lewes, battle of, 201.
+
+  Lewis III. (the Bavarian), Emperor, supports Edward III., 235.
+
+  Lilla gives his life for his lord, 44.
+
+  Limoges taken by the Black Prince, 257.
+
+  Lincoln (_see_ Lindum), settlement of the Lindiswaras round, 28;
+    establishment of the see of, 107;
+    Stephen taken prisoner at, 135;
+    cathedral at, 171, 207.
+
+  Lincoln, Earl of, killed at Stoke, 347.
+
+  Lindiswaras, settlement of, 28;
+    possible advance of, 36.
+
+  Lindum, Roman city at, 20;
+    Anglian settlers round, 28.
+
+  Liveries, _see_ Maintenance and Livery.
+
+  Llewelyn, career of, 140.
+
+  Loidis conquered by Eadwine, 43.
+
+  Lollards, the, rise of, 269;
+    Oldcastle's leadership of, 300.
+
+  Londinium, _see_ London.
+
+  London, early importance of the position of, 20;
+    foundation of the bishopric of, 40;
+    its commercial position under the kings of Essex, _ib._;
+    acquired and fortified by Ælfred, 62, 63;
+    attacked by Olaf Trygvasson and Svend, 79;
+    after the Conquest, 127;
+    supports Stephen, 131, 134;
+    submits for a time to Matilda, 135;
+    municipal organisation of, 169;
+    sends troops to the battle of Lewes, 201;
+    Wat Tyler in, 269;
+    Jack Cade in, 323;
+    Edward IV. in, 328.
+
+  London Bridge, building of, 272.
+
+  Long bow, the, _see_ Archers.
+
+  Longchamps, William of, appointed a justiciar in the absence
+      of Richard I., 159;
+    is banished, 161.
+
+  Lord, devotion of Gesiths to their, 30;
+    is expected to marry, _ib._;
+    growth of his jurisdiction, 72.
+
+  Lords, House of, names the Duke of York Protector, 324;
+    decides on his claim to the crown, 329.
+
+  Lose-coat Field, 332.
+
+  Lothian, cession of, to Scotland, 68, 84.
+
+  Louis VI., king of France, makes war with Henry I., 129.
+
+  Louis VII., king of France, divorces Eleanor of Aquitaine, 137;
+    supports young Henry's rebellion, 153;
+    takes part in the second Crusade, 157.
+
+  Louis (afterwards Louis VIII., king of France) opposes John, 184;
+    expelled from England, 185.
+
+  Louis IX., Saint, king of France, surrenders territory to
+      Henry III., 200;
+    mediates between Henry III. and the barons, _ib._
+
+  Louis X., king of France, succeeded by his brother, 232.
+
+  Louis XI., king of France, succeeds his father, 332;
+    buys off Edward IV., 336.
+
+  Louis XII., king of France, invades Italy, 354.
+
+  Lovel, Lord, insurrection of, 345;
+    supports Simnel, and is defeated at Stoke, 346, 347.
+
+  Lucy, Richard de, joint justiciar with the Earl of Leicester, 140;
+    makes head against young Henry's rebellion, 153.
+
+  Ludlow, break-up of the Yorkists at, 326.
+
+  Lynn supports Stephen, 134.
+
+  Lyons, Richard, impeached, 262.
+
+
+  Mad Parliament, the, 198.
+
+  _Magna Carta_, 182;
+    partially renewed at the accession of Henry III., 185;
+    attitude of Edward I. to, 288.
+
+  Magnus, king of Norway, 85.
+
+  Maiden Castle, 4.
+
+  Maine conquered by William I., 91;
+    failures of William II. in, 121;
+    conquered by Philip II., 176;
+    surrendered to René by Henry VI., 317;
+    the English driven out of, 319.
+
+  Maintenance and livery, Statute against, 281;
+    increase of, 321;
+    measures of Henry VII. against, 345.
+
+  Malcolm, king of the Scots, his alliance with Eadmund, 64.
+
+  Malcolm III., Canmore, ravages England, 103;
+    submits to William I., 104;
+    death of, 119.
+
+  Malcolm IV. loses North-humberland and Cumberland, 140.
+
+  Man, Isle of, subdued by Eadwine, 43.
+
+  Manfred, king of Sicily and Naples, 195, 197.
+
+  Manor courts, 141.
+
+  Mantes burnt by William I., 114.
+
+  Manx, a Goidelic language, 7.
+
+  March, Earl of, _see_ Edward IV.
+
+  March, Edmund Mortimer, Earl of, his claim to the crown, 287;
+    imprisoned by Henry IV., 291;
+    freed by Henry V., 299.
+
+  March, Roger, Earl of, grandson of the Duke of Clarence, named
+    heir by Richard II., 287.
+
+  Margaret, daughter of Henry VII., married to James IV., 356.
+
+  Margaret of Anjou marries Henry VI., 317;
+    gives birth to a son, 323;
+    puts herself at the head of the Northern forces, 326;
+    defeats the Duke of York at Wakefield, and Warwick at the
+      second battle of St. Albans, 328;
+    is defeated at Towton, 329;
+    is defeated at Hedgeley Moor and Hexham, 331;
+    reconciled to Warwick, 333;
+    defeated at Tewkesbury, 334.
+
+  Margaret, sister of Edward IV., married to Charles the Rash, 332;
+    protects Lord Lovel, 346.
+
+  Margaret, the Lady, 334.
+
+  Margaret, the Maid of Norway, 214.
+
+  Margaret, first wife of Malcolm Canmore, 119.
+
+  Marlborough, Statute of, 204.
+
+  Marriages of heiresses arranged by the lord, 117.
+
+  Marshal, Richard the, 188, 189.
+
+  Marshal, William, the, guardian of Henry III., 185.
+
+  Martin, Master, his exactions, 195.
+
+  Mary, heiress of Burgundy, 336;
+    marries the Archduke Maximilian, and dies, 337.
+
+  Maserfield, Oswald slain at, 48.
+
+  Massalia, tin-trade of, 8.
+
+  Matilda, daughter of Henry I., married to the Emperor Henry V.,
+      and to Geoffrey of Anjou, 131;
+    claims the crown, 134;
+    fails to maintain her claim, 135.
+
+  Matilda, wife of Henry I., _see_ Eadgyth.
+
+  Maximilian I., Emperor, as Archduke, marries Mary of Burgundy, 337;
+    marries Anne of Brittany by proxy, 348.
+
+  Maximus leads an army out of Britain, 25.
+
+  Meaux besieged by Henry V., 306.
+
+  Mercenaries employed on the Continent by Henry II., 142;
+    temporarily brought to England, 153, 155;
+    employed by John, 182.
+
+  Merchant Adventurers, the, 356.
+
+  Merchant Gild, the, 169.
+
+  Mercia, first settlement of, 36;
+    comparative smallness of, 41;
+    unites with other districts under Penda, 46;
+    accepts Christianity, and rejects the supremacy of
+      North-humberland, 48;
+    its relations with Ecgberht, 55;
+    its relations with Ælfred, 60;
+    under Leofwine, 84;
+    under Leofric, 85, 87;
+    under Ælfgar and Eadwine, 90.
+
+  Mercians, the, distinguished from the Middle English, 36.
+
+  Merciless Parliament, the, 280.
+
+  Merton College, foundation of, 207.
+
+  Middle English, the, first settlements of, 36.
+
+  Middle Saxons a branch of the East Saxons, 35.
+
+  Middlesex, Saxon settlement in, 35.
+
+  Ministerial responsibility, proposal to establish, 195.
+
+  Mirebeau, Eleanor besieged in, 174.
+
+  Mise of Amiens, the, 200.
+
+  Mohammedanism, origin and spread of, 54.
+
+  Molynes, Lord, ill-treats John Paston, 321.
+
+  Mona (Anglesey) conquered by Suetonius, 14.
+
+  Monasticism, character of early, 39;
+    converts made in England by, 40;
+    character of Irish, 47;
+    Benedictine, 128.
+
+  Monks contrasted with Friars, 191.
+
+  Montague, Lord, made Earl of North-humberland, 331;
+    is deprived of the earldom, 333;
+    turns against Edward IV., and is killed at Barnet, 332.
+
+  Montfort, de, _see_ Simon de Montfort.
+
+  Morkere, becomes Earl of North-humberland, 90;
+    is present at Eadgar's election, 98;
+    submits to William, 102;
+    is banished, 103.
+
+  Mortimer, Edmund, _see_ March, Earl of.
+
+  Mortimer, Roger, paramour of Queen Isabella, 229;
+    governs in the name of Edward III., 231;
+    is hanged, 232.
+
+  Mortimer, Sir Edmund, imprisoned by Glendower, 293.
+
+  Mortimer's Cross, battle of, 328.
+
+  Mortmain, Statute of, 212.
+
+  Morton, Thomas, Bishop of Ely, afterwards Cardinal and Archbishop
+      of Canterbury, gives advice to Buckingham, 341, 342;
+    his 'fork,' 349.
+
+  Mount Badon, British victory at, 28.
+
+  Mowbray, Robert of, rebellion of, 120.
+
+
+  Navarrete, battle of, 255.
+
+  Navy, Ælfred's, 60.
+
+  Neolithic man, 3.
+
+  Nevill, influence of the family of, 324.
+
+  Nevill, George, Archbishop of York, deprived of the
+    Chancellorship, 332.
+
+  Nevill's Cross, battle of, 242.
+
+  Newark, death of John at, 185.
+
+  Newcastle-on-Tyne, foundation of, 120.
+
+  New Forest, the, making of, 110;
+    death of William II. in, 122.
+
+  Nigel, Bishop of Ely, Treasurer of Henry I., Stephen's attack on, 134;
+    is reappointed Treasurer, 140.
+
+  Norfolk, origin of the name of, 28.
+
+  Norfolk, Duke of, banished by Richard II., 283.
+
+  Norfolk, Earl of, _see_ Bigod, Roger.
+
+  Norham, award of the crown of Scotland at, 216.
+
+  Norman Conquest, the, 96-103.
+
+  Normandy, early dukes of, 80;
+    institutions of, 81;
+    its condition under Robert, 118;
+    pledged to William II., 121;
+    recovered by Robert, 124;
+    conquered by Henry I., 125;
+    conquered by Geoffrey, 136;
+    Henry, Duke of, 137;
+    conquered by Philip II., 174, 176;
+    invaded by Edward III., 240;
+    conquered by Henry V., 303;
+    reconquered by the French, 320.
+
+  Normans favoured by Eadward, 87;
+    their style of architecture, 89.
+
+  Northampton, Archbishop Thomas called to account at, 145;
+    battle of, 326.
+
+  North-humberland, component parts of, 36;
+    united by Æthelric, 41;
+    divided by Penda, and re-united under Oswald, 47;
+    is again divided, but re-united under Oswiu, 48;
+    its relations with Ecgberht, 55;
+    overrun by the Danes, 58;
+    Danish kingdom in, 62, 63;
+    is amalgamated with England, 64;
+    its condition under Cnut, 84;
+    under Siward, 84, 87.
+
+  Northmen, their attacks on England, 56;
+    religion of, 57;
+    _see_ Danes.
+
+  Northumberland invaded by Malcolm Canmore, 119;
+    given to Henry, son of David I. 133;
+    recovered by Henry II., 140.
+
+  Northumberland, the Earl of, assists Henry IV., 284;
+    quarrels with Henry IV., 293;
+    imprisoned and pardoned, 294;
+    defeated and slain, 296.
+
+  Norwich, establishment of the see of, 107.
+
+  Nottingham, Anglian settlement at, 56;
+    seizure of Mortimer at, 232.
+
+  Nottingham, Earl of, opposes Richard II., 279;
+    is made Duke of Norfolk and banished, 283.
+
+
+  Oda, Archbishop, advocates the celibacy of the clergy, 65;
+    separates Eadwig and Ælfgifu, 67.
+
+  Odo oppresses the English, 102;
+    is banished by William II., 115.
+
+  Offa, king of the Mercians, defeats the West Saxons at Bensington, 53;
+    his dyke, 54.
+
+  Olaf Trygvasson, 79, 80.
+
+  Oldcastle, Sir John, burnt as a Lollard, 300.
+
+  Old Sarum, earthworks of Sorbiodunum at, 34.
+
+  Ordainers, the Lords, 226.
+
+  Ordeal, system of, 32;
+    continued by Henry II., 146.
+
+  Ordovices, the, resist the Romans, 14.
+
+  Orleans, siege of, 309.
+
+  Orleans, Duke of, Charles, captured at Agincourt, 303;
+    ransomed, 315.
+
+  Orleans, Duke of, Louis, makes an alliance with Glendower, 295;
+    murdered, 296.
+
+  Ormond, Earl of, supports the Lancastrians, 346.
+
+  Osric governs Deira, 48.
+
+  Ostorius Scapula arrives in Britain, 13;
+    conquests of, 14.
+
+  Oswald, bishop of Worcester, 68.
+
+  Oswald, King of North-humberland, his greatness and piety, 47;
+    is slain at Maserfield, 48.
+
+  Oswini, his relations with Aidan, 48;
+    is murdered, _ib._
+
+  Oswiu unites North-humberland, 48;
+    defeats Penda, _ib._;
+    decides for Wilfrid against Colman, 50.
+
+  Otho, Cardinal, legate of Gregory IX., 194.
+
+  Otto I., Emperor, 63.
+
+  Otto IV., Emperor, supports John, 179;
+    defeated at Bouvines, 181.
+
+  Over-lordship, character of, 38.
+
+  Oxford, growth of the University of, 167;
+    the so-called Mad Parliament meets at, 198;
+    thronged with scholars, 207.
+
+  Oxford, Earl of (Robert de Vere), made Duke of Ireland, 278;
+    _see_ Ireland, Duke of.
+
+
+  Palæolithic man, 1.
+
+  Pandulf receives John's submission, 180.
+
+  Papacy, influence of, in the time of Gregory I., 39;
+    strength of, in the eleventh century, 88;
+    its position in the time of Gregory VII., 107;
+    in the time of Innocent III., 178;
+    Babylonian captivity of, 257;
+    England relieved of tribute to, 258;
+    great schism of, 266.
+
+  Paris, the capital of Hugh Capet's duchy, 80;
+    rising against the Armagnacs in, 304;
+    Henry VI. crowned at, 312;
+    lost to the English, 313.
+
+  Parliament (_see_ Great Council, the), germ of representation in, 180;
+    first use of the name of, 195;
+    scheme of administrative reform proposed in, _ib._;
+    knights of the shire elected to, 196;
+    relations between the clergy and the barons, 197;
+    insists on the Provisions of Oxford, 197;
+    representatives of towns admitted by Earl Simon to, 201;
+    growth of, under Edward I., 210, 218;
+    Scottish representatives in, 222;
+    acknowledgment of the legislative power of the Commons in, 228;
+    finally separated into two Houses, 244;
+    opposition to the clergy in, 259;
+    Richard II. invites complaints in, 280.
+
+  Paston, John, attacked by Lord Molynes, 321;
+    domestic life of, 330.
+
+  Patay, battle of, 311.
+
+  Patrick, St., introduces Christianity into Ireland, 47.
+
+  Paulinus effects conversions in Deira, 46.
+
+  Peasants' Revolt, the, 268.
+
+  Pedro the Cruel, 255.
+
+  Pembroke, Earl of, _see_ William the Marshal.
+
+  Penda defeats Eadwine at Heathfield, 46;
+    splits up North-humberland, 47;
+    is defeated and slain, 48.
+
+  Penitential system, the, introduced by Theodore, 50.
+
+  Percies, the, territorial influence of, 293.
+
+  Percy, Henry (Hotspur), 293, 294.
+
+  Perpendicular style, the, 247.
+
+  Perrers, Alice, 260, 262.
+
+  Peter des Roches influences Henry III., 188;
+    is dismissed, 189.
+
+  Peter the Hermit, 120.
+
+  Pevensey, landing of William at, 96.
+
+  Philip I., king of France, makes war with William I., 114.
+
+  Philip II., king of France, stirs up enmity between Henry II.
+      and his sons, 156;
+    quarrels with Richard I., 161;
+    stirs up John against Richard, 162;
+    supports Arthur against John, 174;
+    wins Normandy and Anjou from John, 175;
+    prepares an invasion of England, 179;
+    wins a victory at Bouvines, 181.
+
+  Philip IV., king of France, his relations with Edward I. and
+    with Scotland, 218.
+
+  Philip V., king of France, succeeds in virtue of the so-called
+    Salic law, 232.
+
+  Philip VI., king of France, succeeds in virtue of the so-called
+      Salic law, and receives the homage of Edward III., 232;
+    protects David Bruce, 234;
+    defeats the Flemings at Cassel, 235;
+    avoids fighting the English, 239;
+    is defeated at Creçy, 242;
+    death of, 251.
+
+  Philip, the Archduke, birth of, 337;
+    marries Juana, 352;
+    dies, 358.
+
+  Philippa of Hainault marries Edward III., 231;
+    begs the lives of the burgesses of Calais, 243.
+
+  Phoenicians, the, supposed visits to Britain of, 7.
+
+  Picts, the, ravages of, 23, 26;
+    unite with the Scots, 63.
+
+  _Piers the Plowman_, 259.
+
+  Pippin becomes king of the Franks, 54.
+
+  Plautius, Aulus, subdues south east Britain, 13.
+
+  Poitevins, favour of Henry III. to, 187, 194.
+
+  Poitiers, battle of, 251.
+
+  Poitou, John's attack on the barons of, 174;
+    submission to Philip II. of part of, 176;
+    John attempts to recover, 180;
+    Henry III. surrenders, 194.
+
+  Poll-taxes, 267, 268.
+
+  Poor priests sent out by Wycliffe, 268.
+
+  Posidonius visits Britain, 8.
+
+  Poynings' Acts, 350.
+
+  Præmunire, Statute of, 258;
+    re-enacted, 282.
+
+  Printing press, the, 358.
+
+  Prisons, condition of, 275.
+
+  Provençals favoured by Henry III., 192.
+
+  Provisions of Oxford, the, 198.
+
+  Provisors, Statute of, 258;
+    re-enacted, 282.
+
+  Puiset, Hugh de, appointed a justiciar in the absence of
+    Richard I., 159.
+
+  Punishments, early English, 32;
+    mediæval, 275.
+
+  Purveyors, 274.
+
+  Pytheas opens a trade-route to Britain, 8.
+
+
+  _Quia emptores_, Statute of, 212.
+
+
+  Radcot Bridge, the Duke of Ireland defeated at, 280.
+
+  Rædwald, king of East Anglia, 41;
+    Eadwine takes refuge with, 43.
+
+  Ralph de Diceto, 167.
+
+  Ralph of Wader takes part in the Rising of the Earls, 110.
+
+  Ranulph Flambard, _see_ Flambard.
+
+  Recognitions, 147.
+
+  Reginald elected Archbishop of Canterbury by the monks, 177.
+
+  Regni, the, join Aulus Plautius, 13.
+
+  Regular clergy, the, 65.
+
+  Rent, land let for, 321.
+
+  Representative institutions, _see_ Parliament.
+
+  Retainers substituted for vassals, 281;
+    increase of the number of, 321.
+
+  Rich, Edmund, Archbishop of Canterbury, 189.
+
+  Richard I., as Duke of Aquitaine, 155;
+    takes the cross, 157;
+    becomes King of England, 159;
+    sells the homage of Scotland, _ib._;
+    his Crusade and imprisonment, 161;
+    is liberated, 162;
+    his short visit to England, _ib._;
+    death of, 165.
+
+  Richard II., proposal to set aside, 261;
+    his minority, 266;
+    meets the insurgents, 268;
+    offers to head them, 269;
+    marries Anne of Bohemia, 278;
+    his favouritism, _ib._;
+    superseded in his authority by a Commission of Regency, 279;
+    regains power and governs constitutionally, 280;
+    makes an alliance with France, and marries Isabella, 282;
+    makes himself absolute, _ib._;
+    banishes Norfolk and Hereford, 283;
+    goes to Ireland, 284;
+    forced to abdicate, 285;
+    murdered, 291;
+    alleged reappearance of, 293;
+    buried at Westminster, 299.
+
+  Richard III. (_see_ Duke of Gloucester) is created a duke, 329;
+    character of, 337;
+    becomes Protector, 338;
+    has Hastings executed, 340;
+    is crowned king, 341;
+    his government, 342;
+    defeated and slain, 343.
+
+  Richard, Earl of Cornwall, leads the barons against Henry III., 192;
+    deserts the barons, 195;
+    takes part in summoning knights of the shire to Parliament, 196;
+    is chosen king of the Romans, 198;
+    hides himself after the battle of Lewes, 201.
+
+  Richard Fitz-Nigel writes the _Dialogus de Scaccario_, 167.
+
+  Richard the Fearless, Duke of the Normans, 80.
+
+  Richard the Good, Duke of the Normans, 81.
+
+  Richmond, Earl of, _see_ Henry VII.
+
+  Riding on horseback, 273.
+
+  Ripon, architecture of the choir of, 171.
+
+  Rising of the Earls, the, 110.
+
+  Rivers, Earl, becomes Lord Constable, 331;
+    imprisoned, 338;
+    executed, 340.
+
+  Roads, making and repair of, 272, 273.
+
+  Robert I. (Bruce), king of Scotland, allied with Edward I., 223;
+    slays Comyn, and is crowned King of Scotland, 224;
+    defeats Edward II. at Bannockburn, 226;
+    leprosy of, 231;
+    death of, 232.
+
+  Robert II., king of Scotland, 295.
+
+  Robert III., king of Scotland, 295.
+
+  Robert, Earl of Gloucester, his power in the West of England, 133;
+    declares for Matilda, 134;
+    taken prisoner, and exchanged for Stephen, 135;
+    death of, _ib._
+
+  Robert, Duke of the Normans (father of William the Conqueror), 88.
+
+  Robert, Duke of the Normans (son of William the Conqueror),
+      incapacity of, 114;
+    rebellion in England in favour of, 115;
+    goes on the first Crusade, 121;
+    fails to overthrow Henry I., 124;
+    defeat, imprisonment, and death of, 125.
+
+  Robert of Bellême, cruelty of, 119;
+    becomes Earl of Shrewsbury, 121;
+    expelled by Henry I., 124;
+    imprisonment of, 125.
+
+  Robert of Jumièges, Archbishop of Canterbury, 87.
+
+  Robin Hood, legend of, 275.
+
+  Rochester, foundation of the bishopric of, 40;
+    Odo besieged in, 115.
+
+  Rockingham, Council at, 118.
+
+  Roger, Archbishop of York, crowns the young Henry, 149.
+
+  Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, Minister of Henry I., 126;
+    quarrels with Stephen, 134.
+
+  Roger, Earl of Hereford, takes part in the Rising of the Earls, 110.
+
+  Roger of Hoveden, 167.
+
+  Roger, son of Roger of Salisbury, 134.
+
+  Roman Empire, the establishment of, 12;
+    continuance of, in the East after its destruction in the West, 27.
+
+  Romans, the, invasion of Gaul by, 10;
+    invasion of Britain by, 11;
+    commencement of the conquest of Britain by, 12;
+    massacre of, 15;
+    complete conquest of the greater part of Britain by, 17;
+    civilisation introduced into Britain by, 21;
+    end of their rule in Britain, 26;
+    persistency of their civilisation in Gaul, 37.
+
+  Romney Marsh divides Jutes from South Saxons, 27.
+
+  Roosebeke, battle of, 278.
+
+  Roses, Wars of the, _see_ Wars of the Roses.
+
+  Rothesay, Duke of, death of, 295.
+
+  Rouen occupied by Hrolf, 80;
+    surrenders to Henry V., 304;
+    retaken by the French, 320.
+
+  Rutland, Earl of (son of the Duke of York), accompanies his
+      father to Ireland, 326;
+    murdered, 328.
+
+
+  St. Albans (_see_ Verulam), architecture of the nave of the
+      abbey of, 171;
+    meeting of a national jury at, 180;
+    the first battle of, 324;
+    the second battle of, 328.
+
+  St. John, Knights of, 157.
+
+  St. Michael's Mount, Henry besieged at, 119.
+
+  Saladin takes Jerusalem, 157.
+
+  Saladin tithe, the, 157.
+
+  Salic law, the so-called, 232.
+
+  Salisbury, great Gemot at, 113;
+    cathedral at, 207.
+
+  Salisbury, Richard, Earl of, his connection with the Duke of York, 324;
+    takes part in the battles of Blore Heath and Northampton, 326;
+    beheaded, 328.
+
+  Sarum, Old, 34.
+
+  Savoy, the, burnt, 269.
+
+  Saxon shore, the defence of, 25;
+    over run by the Jutes, 27.
+
+  Saxons, the (_see_ East Saxons, South Saxons, West Saxons), ravage
+      Roman Britain, 24;
+    settle in Britain, 27;
+    merge their name in that of English, 28;
+    are known by the Celts as Saxons, 29.
+
+  Sawtre, William, burnt as a heretic, 292.
+
+  Say, Lord, beheaded by Jack Cade, 323.
+
+  Schwartz, Martin, defeated at Stoke, 347.
+
+  Scotland, kingdom of, formed by a union of Scots and Picts, 63;
+    its relations with England under Eadmund, 64;
+    its relations with Cnut, 84;
+    with William I., 104;
+    with William II., 119;
+    with Stephen, 133;
+    with Henry II., 154;
+    with Richard I., 159;
+    disputed succession in, 214;
+    Edward I. acknowledged Lord Paramount of, 216;
+    its league with France, 218;
+    twice conquered by Edward I., 219, 221;
+    incorporated with England, 222;
+    conquered a third time by Edward I., 224;
+    independence of, 226;
+    first war of Edward III. with, 231;
+    struggle between Edward Balliol and David Bruce in, 233, 234;
+    accession of the Stuarts to the throne of, 295;
+    assists France in its wars with England, 307.
+
+  Scots, the ravages of, 23;
+    abode of, in Ireland, 23;
+    renewed ravages of, 26;
+    settle in Argyle, and are defeated at Degsastan, 42;
+    their relations with Eadward the Elder, 63;
+    _see_ Scotland.
+
+  Scrope, Archbishop of York, executed, 296.
+
+  Scrope, Lord, execution of, 301.
+
+  Scutage, 141.
+
+  Secular clergy, the, 67.
+
+  Selsey, landing of the South Saxons near, 27.
+
+  Senlac, battle of, 96.
+
+  Serfs, _see_ Villeins.
+
+  Severn, West Saxon conquest of the Valley of, 35.
+
+  Severus fails in conquering the Caledonians, 19.
+
+  Sheriffs, their position in Eadgar's reign, 73;
+    weakened by Henry II., 148.
+
+  Shires, origin of, 73.
+
+  Shire-moot, the, 73;
+    _see_ County Courts.
+
+  Shore, Jane, penance of, 340.
+
+  Shrewsbury, Earl of, _see_ Talbot, Lord.
+
+  Shrewsbury, Parliament of, 283;
+    battle of, 294.
+
+  Silchester, Roman church at, 23.
+
+  Simnel, Lambert, insurrection in favour of, 347.
+
+  Simon de Montfort, early career of, 193;
+    takes the side of the barons, 195;
+    employed in Gascony, 196;
+    executes the Provisions of Oxford, 199;
+    heads the baronial party, 200;
+    wins the battle of Lewes, 201;
+    constitutional scheme of, _ib._;
+    killed at Evesham, 203;
+    compared with Archbishop Thomas, 204.
+
+  Siward, Earl of North-humberland, 84, 87.
+
+  Slaves preserved alive at the English conquest, 30.
+
+  Sluys, battle of, 239.
+
+  Somerset, Welsh driven out of, 53.
+
+  Somerset, Edmund Beaufort, second Duke of, commands in Normandy, 320;
+    supported by Henry VI., 323;
+    slain at St. Albans, 324.
+
+  Somerset, Edmund Beaufort, fourth Duke of, executed, 334.
+
+  Somerset, John Beaufort, first Duke of, commands in France, 317;
+    kept from court by Suffolk, 318;
+    dies, 320.
+
+  Somerset, Henry Beaufort, third Duke of, executed, 331.
+
+  Sorbiodunum (_Old Sarum_), the stronghold of Ambrosius, 34.
+
+  South Saxons, the, first conquests of, 27;
+    destroy Anderida, 28.
+
+  Spain, union of the kingdoms of, 349;
+    growth of the monarchy of, 354.
+
+  Spencer, Henry, bishop of Norwich, leads an expedition to
+    Flanders, 278.
+
+  Stamford Bridge, battle of, 95.
+
+  Standard, battle of the, 133.
+
+  Stanley, Lord, joins Henry VII., 343.
+
+  Stanley, Sir William, deserts Richard III., 343;
+    execution of, 351.
+
+  Star Chamber, Court of, organisation of, 348.
+
+  States-General, the French, meet during John's captivity, 252.
+
+  Statute of Wales, 210.
+
+  Stephen, accession of, 131;
+    makes peace with the Scots, 133;
+    quarrels with the barons, _ib._;
+    quarrels with the clergy, 134;
+    death of, 135.
+
+  Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury, 89.
+
+  Stirling, Wallace's victory at, 221.
+
+  Stoke, battle of, 347.
+
+  Stone implements, 1-4.
+
+  Strathclyde, formation of the kingdom of, 43;
+    is not dependent on Ecgberht, 55;
+    its relations with Eadmund, 64.
+
+  Strongbow in Ireland, 152.
+
+  Stuart, family of, inherit the throne of Scotland, 295.
+
+  Suetonius Paullinus, campaigns of, 14-16.
+
+  Suffolk, origin of the name of, 28.
+
+  Suffolk, Michael de la Pole, Earl of, Chancellor of Richard II., 278;
+    driven from power, 279;
+    condemned to death, 280.
+
+  Suffolk, William de la Pole, Earl of, arranges a truce with
+      France, 317;
+    presides over the government of England, 318;
+    impeached and murdered, 322.
+
+  Surrey, Earl of, governs Scotland in the name of Edward I., 219.
+
+  Sussex, conquest of, 27, 28;
+    weakness of, 41;
+    accepts Christianity, 49.
+
+  Svend attacks London, 79;
+    returns to Denmark, 80;
+    invades England, 81;
+    death of, 83.
+
+  Swegen, son of Godwine, misconduct of, 87;
+    death of, 88.
+
+  Swynford, Catherine, marries John of Gaunt, 282.
+
+
+  Talbot, Lord, defeats the Burgundians, 313;
+    becomes Earl of Shrewsbury, 320;
+    defeated and slain, 323.
+
+  Tallages levied by Edward I., 221;
+    abolished by Edward III., 243.
+
+  Taxation, _see_ Danegeld, Customs.
+
+  Templars, the Knights, 157.
+
+  Tewkesbury, battle of, 334.
+
+  Thames, the, early ferry over, 20.
+
+  Thanet, probable identification of Ictis with, 8;
+    Jutes established in, 27.
+
+  Thegns, how distinguished from Gesiths, 31;
+    their devotion to their lord, 44;
+    growing military importance of, 69.
+
+  Theodore, Archbishop, his influence on the Church of England, 50;
+    assembles the first Church Council, 52.
+
+  Thetford, removal of the see from, 107.
+
+  Thomas of London (Becket), Chancellor, 140;
+    being appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, resists Henry II., 143;
+    takes refuge in France, 145;
+    returns to England, 149;
+    is murdered, 150.
+
+  Thurstan, Archbishop, leads the levies at the Battle of the
+    Standard, 132.
+
+  Tiberias, battle of, 157.
+
+  Tin, Phoenician and Greek trade in, 8.
+
+  Tinchebrai, battle of, 125.
+
+  Tintern Abbey, 129.
+
+  Togidumnus, death of, 13.
+
+  Tostig, Earl of North-humberland, 89;
+    driven from his earldom, 90;
+    allied to Harold Hardrada, 94;
+    killed at Stamford Bridge, 96.
+
+  Touraine conquered by Philip II., 176.
+
+  Towns, growth of, 62, 72, 168;
+    condition of the outskirts of, 191.
+
+  Townships, early political organisation of, 31.
+
+  Towton, battle of, 329.
+
+  Trade, _see_ Commerce.
+
+  Transition from round-arched to Pointed architecture, 171.
+
+  Travelling modes of, 273.
+
+  Treasons, Statute of, 250.
+
+  Trent, the Anglian occupation of the Valley of, 36.
+
+  Tresilian, Chief Justice, hanged, 280.
+
+  Trinobantes, the geographical position of, 8;
+    side with Cæsar, 11;
+    submit to Cunobelin, 12.
+
+  Troyes, the Treaty of, 306.
+
+  Tudor, Owen, marries the widow of Henry V., 335.
+
+  Tumblers, 275.
+
+  Tyre in danger, 157.
+
+
+  Universities, growth of, 167.
+
+  Urban II., Pope, supported by Lanfranc, 118;
+    preaches a Crusade, 120.
+
+  Uriconium, _see_ Viriconium.
+
+
+  Valence, William de, resists the Provisions of Oxford, 199.
+
+  Val-ès-dunes, battle of, 88.
+
+  Verneuil, battle of, 308.
+
+  Verulamium, Roman city at, 19;
+    martyrdom of St. Alban at, 23.
+
+  Vicar, meaning of the term, 129.
+
+  Villages, arrangements of, 75.
+
+  Villeins, the, uncertain origin of, 31;
+    increase of, 69;
+    position of, after the Norman conquest, 102;
+    partial commutation of the services of, 168;
+    effect of the Black Death upon, 248;
+    insurrection of, 268;
+    take refuge in towns, 275;
+    land ceases to be cultivated by, 320, 321.
+
+  Viriconium, Roman colony at, 14.
+
+  Vortigern establishes Jutes in Thanet, 27.
+
+
+  Wakefield, battle of, 328.
+
+  Wales reduced by Harold, 90;
+    Flemish settlement in, 128;
+    conquered by Edward I., 210;
+    marches of, _ib._;
+    supports Richard II., 285.
+
+  Wallace, William, rises against Edward I., 221;
+    execution of, 222.
+
+  Wallingford, Treaty of, 137.
+
+  Walls, the Roman, 17.
+
+  Walter Map, 167.
+
+  Waltheof, Earl of Northamptonshire and Huntingdonshire, 90;
+    is beheaded, 110.
+
+  Wanborough, Ceawlin defeated at, 36.
+
+  War-band, the, composed of Gesiths, 30.
+
+  Warbeck, Perkin, insurrection of, 350-352;
+    execution of, 354.
+
+  Wardship, nature of the lord's claim to, 116;
+    results of the system, 330.
+
+  Wars of the Roses, origin of the name of, 324;
+    state of society during, 330.
+
+  Warwick, Earl of, opposes Richard II., 279;
+    banishment of, 282.
+
+  Warwick, Earl of (son of the Duke of Clarence), imprisonment of, 343;
+    execution of, 354.
+
+  Warwick, Richard Beauchamp, Earl of, regent in France, 313.
+
+  Warwick, Richard Nevill, Earl of (the King-maker), influence of, 324;
+    retires to Calais, and comes back and defeats the Lancastrians
+      at Northampton, 326;
+    estranged from Edward IV., 332;
+    is reconciled to Queen Margaret, 333;
+    restores Henry VI., and is defeated and slain at Barnet, 334.
+
+  Wat Tyler, insurrection of, 268, 269.
+
+  Wedmore, Peace of (the so-called), 59.
+
+  Welsh, the, speak a language derived from that of the Britons, 7;
+    origin of their name, 31;
+    adopt the name Kymry, 37;
+    defeated by Æthelfrith near Chester, 43;
+    split up into three divisions, _ib._;
+    driven out of Somerset, 53;
+    their relations with Ecgberht, 56;
+    _see_ Wales.
+
+  Weregild, system of, 32.
+
+  Wessex, gradual formation of, 28, 34, 35;
+    is weakened by internal quarrels, 41;
+    accepts Christianity, 48;
+    growing unity of, 53;
+    causes of the supremacy of, 55;
+    an earldom under Godwine and Harold, 84, 89.
+
+  West Saxons, the, first conquests of, 28;
+    defeated at Mount Badon, _ib._;
+    occupy Salisbury Plain, 34;
+    wage war with the men of Kent and with the Britons of the
+      Severn Valley, 35;
+    are defeated at Faddiley, _ib._;
+    _see_ Wessex.
+
+  West Wales split off from other Welsh territory, 42.
+
+  Westminster Abbey, consecration of, 91;
+    coronation of William I. in, 100.
+
+  White Ship, the, wreck of, 129.
+
+  Wilfrid supports Papal authority, 50.
+
+  William I. (the Conqueror) declared heir of Eadward the
+      Confessor, 88;
+    his rule in Normandy, _ib._;
+    claims the crown from Harold, 91;
+    lands at Pevensey, and defeats Harold at Senlac, 96-98;
+    crowned at Westminster, 100;
+    progress of his conquest, 101-103;
+    devastates the Vale of York, 103;
+    subdues Hereward, and receives Malcolm's submission, 104;
+    his method of keeping English and Normans in subjection, 104-106;
+    his relations with the Church, 106-110;
+    suppresses the Rising of the Earls, 110;
+    lays waste the New Forest, _ib._;
+    has Domesday Book prepared, 111;
+    receives oaths at Salisbury, 113;
+    death of, 114.
+
+  William II. (Rufus) is crowned King of England, 114;
+    is supported by the English against Robert, 115;
+    character of, _ib._;
+    his treatment of Anselm, 117;
+    his quarrels with his brothers, 118;
+    his relations with Scotland, 119;
+    suppresses Mowbray's rebellion, 120;
+    last years of, 121;
+    is murdered, 122.
+
+  William, son of Henry I., wrecked, 129.
+
+  William Clito, son of Robert, 129.
+
+  William Longbeard, 169, 170.
+
+  William of Malmesbury, 129.
+
+  William of Newburgh, 167.
+
+  William the Lion, king of Scotland, acknowledges himself to be
+      a vassal of Henry II., 154;
+    frees himself from vassalage, 159.
+
+  Winchelsey, Archbishop, 221.
+
+  Winchester, secular canons driven out of 68;
+    burial of William II. at, 122;
+    Stephen chosen king at, 131.
+
+  Winwæd, the battle of, 48.
+
+  Witenagemot, the, constitution of, 45;
+    discussion on the acceptance of Christianity in, 46;
+    constitutional powers of, 74;
+    becomes the Great Council, 113;
+    _see_ Great Council, the.
+
+  Women, education of, in the Middle Ages, 65.
+
+  Wonderful Parliament, the, 280.
+
+  Worcester, secular canons driven from, 68.
+
+  Wroxeter, _see_ Viriconium.
+
+  Wulfhere maintains the independence of Mercia, 48.
+
+  Wycliffe, John, his doctrines, 261;
+    summoned before an ecclesiastical court at St. Paul's, 262;
+    sends out 'poor priests,' and renounces transubstantiation, 266;
+    retires, and dies, 269.
+
+  Wykeham, William of, deprived of the Chancellorship, 260;
+    restored to the Council, and again dismissed, 262.
+
+
+  Yarmouth supports Stephen, 134.
+
+  York (_see_ Eboracum) submits to Harold Hardrada, 95;
+    taken by William I., 102;
+    devastation of the Vale of, 103;
+    massacre of Jews at, 160.
+
+  York Archbishop of, his right to crown a king questioned, 149.
+
+  York, Archbishopric of, founded, 46.
+
+  York, Duke of Edmund (son of Edward III.), joins Henry IV., 285.
+
+  York, Richard, Duke of, (father of Edward IV.), is regent in
+      France, 313;
+    governs Ireland, 319;
+    first Protectorate of, 323;
+    second Protectorate of, 324;
+    driven to Ireland, 326;
+    claims the throne, 327;
+    defeated and slain, 328.
+
+  York, Richard, Duke of (son of Edward IV.), lodged in the Tower, 341;
+    murdered, 342.
+
+
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Student's History of England, v. 1 (of 3), 
+by  Samuel Rawson Gardiner
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Student's History of England, v. 1 (of 3)
+       From the earliest times to the Death of King Edward VII
+
+Author: Samuel Rawson Gardiner
+
+Release Date: February 23, 2009 [EBook #28157]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ENGLAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Darren Izzard, Christine P. Travers and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="tn">
+<p>Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected, all
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling
+has been maintained.</p>
+
+<p>Each page of the original book had a side note stating the time span
+treated on that page. Those side notes have been deleted.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h1><span class="smaller">STUDENT'S</span><br>
+HISTORY OF ENGLAND</h1>
+
+<p class="p2 center"><i>FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE DEATH
+OF KING EDWARD VII</i></p>
+
+<p class="p2 center smaller">BY</p>
+
+<h2>SAMUEL R. GARDINER, D.C.L., LL.D.<br>
+<span class="small">LATE FELLOW OF MERTON COLLEGE, OXFORD<br> ETC.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="p4 center">VOL. I.<br>
+<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 55&mdash;<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1509</p>
+
+<p class="p4 center smaller"><i>NEW IMPRESSION (1915)</i><br>
+REISSUE</p>
+
+<p class="p4 center smaller">LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.<br>
+  39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON<br>
+  <span class="smcap">FOURTH AVENUE &amp; 30th STREET, NEW YORK</span><br>
+  BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, AND MADRAS<br>
+  1916</p>
+
+<p class="p2 center small"><i>All rights reserved</i></p>
+
+<h3>WORKS<br>
+BY<br>
+SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER.</h3>
+
+<div class="books">
+<p><span class="min2em">HISTORY OF ENGLAND,</span> from the Accession of James I. to the Outbreak of
+the Civil War, 1603-1642. With Maps. 10 vols. crown 8vo. 5<i>s.</i> net
+each.</p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em">A HISTORY OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR,</span> 1642-1649. With Maps. 4 vols. crown
+8vo. 5<i>s.</i> net each.</p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em">A HISTORY OF THE COMMONWEALTH AND THE PROTECTORATE,</span> 1649-1656. With
+Maps. 4 vols. crown 8vo. 5<i>s.</i> net each.</p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em">THE LAST YEARS OF THE PROTECTORATE,</span> 1656-1658. By <span class="smcap">Charles Harding
+Firth</span>, M.A., Regius Professor of Modern History in the University of
+Oxford. With 3 Plans. 2 vols. 8vo. 24<i>s.</i> net.</p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em">A STUDENT'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND.</span> From the Earliest Times to the Death
+of King Edward VII.</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Vol. I. <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 55-<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1509. With 173 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 4<i>s.</i></li>
+<li>Vol. II. 1509-1689. With 96 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 4<i>s.</i></li>
+<li>Vol. III. 1689-1910. With 112 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 4<i>s.</i></li>
+<li>&#8258; <i>Complete in One Volume, with 381 Illustrations, crown 8vo. 12s.</i></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><span class="min2em">PREPARATORY QUESTIONS ON S. R. GARDINER'S STUDENT'S HISTORY OF
+ENGLAND.</span> By <span class="smcap">R. Somervell, M.A.</span> Crown 8vo. 1<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em">SUMMARY OF ENGLISH HISTORY,</span> based on S. R. Gardiner's 'Outline of
+English History.' Brought down to the Accession of Edward VII. By <span class="smcap">W.
+Reep</span>. Fcp. 8vo. 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em">A SCHOOL ATLAS OF ENGLISH HISTORY.</span> Edited by <span class="smcap">Samuel Rawson Gardiner</span>,
+D.C.L., LL.D. With 66 Coloured Maps and 22 Plans of Battles and
+Sieges. Fcp. 4to. 5<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em">LONGMANS' ELEMENTARY HISTORICAL ATLAS,</span> abridged from S. R. Gardiner's
+'School Atlas of English History.' Post 4to. 1<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em">CROMWELL'S PLACE IN HISTORY.</span> Founded on Six Lectures delivered at
+Oxford. Crown 8vo. 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em">OLIVER CROMWELL.</span> With Portrait. Crown 8vo. 5<i>s.</i> net.</p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em">THE FIRST TWO STUARTS AND THE PURITAN REVOLUTION,</span> 1603-1660. 4 Maps.
+Fcp. 8vo. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em">THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR,</span> 1618-1648. With a Map. Fcp. 8vo. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em">OUTLINE OF ENGLISH HISTORY,</span> <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 55-<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1910. With 67 Woodcuts and 17
+Maps. Fcp. 8vo. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="small">
+
+<p><span class="min2em">THE FRENCH REVOLUTION,</span> 1789-1795. By Mrs. <span class="smcap">S. R. Gardiner</span>. With 7 Maps.
+Fcp. 8vo. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="small">
+
+<p><span class="min2em">LONGMANS, GREEN, &amp; CO.,</span> 39 Paternoster Row, London, New York, Bombay,
+Calcutta, and Madras.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="pageiii" name="pageiii"></a>(p. iii)</span> PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION</h3>
+
+<p>The present work is intended for such students as have already an
+elementary knowledge of the main facts of English history, and aims at
+meeting their needs by the use of plain language on the one hand, and
+by the avoidance, on the other hand, of that multiplicity of details
+which is apt to overburden the memory.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the book I have treated the last eleven years, 1874 to
+1885, in a manner which precludes all expression of my own views,
+either on the characters of the actors or on the value of the work
+performed by them; and something of the same reticence will be
+observed in the pages dealing with the years immediately preceding
+1874. We have not the material before us for the formation of a final
+judgment on many points arising in the course of the narrative, and it
+is therefore better to abstain from the expression of decided opinion,
+except on matters so completely before the public as to leave no room
+for hesitation. Especially is this rule to be observed in a book
+addressed to those who are not yet at an age when independent
+investigation is possible.</p>
+
+<p>I hope it will be understood that in my mention of various authors I
+have had no intention of writing a history of literature, however
+brief. My object has been throughout to exhibit <span class="pagenum"><a id="pageiv" name="pageiv"></a>(p. iv)</span> that side of
+literature which connects itself with the general political or
+intellectual movement of the country, and to leave unnoticed the
+purely literary or scientific qualities of the writers mentioned. This
+will explain, for instance, the total omission of the name of Roger
+Bacon, and the brief and, if regarded from a different point of view,
+the very unsatisfactory treatment of writers like Dickens and
+Thackeray.</p>
+
+<p>Those of my readers who have complained that no maps were to be found
+in the book may now be referred to a 'School Atlas of English
+History,' recently edited by me for Messrs. Longmans &amp; Co. To include
+an adequate number of maps in this volume would have increased its
+size beyond all fitting limits.</p>
+
+<p>In the spelling of Indian names I have not adopted the modern and
+improved system of transliteration. Admirable as it is when used by
+those who are able to give the right sound to each letter, it only
+leads to mispronunciation in the mouths of those who are, as most of
+the readers of this volume will be, entirely in the dark on this
+point. The old rough method of our fathers at least ensures a fair
+approximation to the true pronunciation.</p>
+
+<p>My warmest thanks are due to Mr. <span class="smcap">George Nutt</span>, of Rugby, and to the
+Rev. <span class="smcap">W. Hunt</span>. Mr. <span class="smcap">Nutt</span> not only looked over the proof-sheets up to the
+death of Edward I. with excellent results, but gave me most valuable
+advice as to the general arrangement of the book, founded on his own
+long experience of scholastic teaching. The Rev. <span class="smcap">W. Hunt</span> looked over a
+considerable portion of the remaining proof-sheets, and called my
+attention to several errors and omissions which had escaped my eye.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations have been selected by Mr. <span class="smcap">W. H. St. John <span class="pagenum"><a id="pagev" name="pagev"></a>(p. v)</span>
+Hope</span>, Assistant-Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries. He wishes to
+acknowledge much valuable assistance given to him in the choice of
+portraits by <span class="smcap">George Scharf</span>, Esq., C.B., F.S.A., who is recognised as
+the highest authority on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>I am indebted to Her Majesty the <span class="smcap">Queen</span> for permission to engrave two
+of the portraits appearing in the following pages&mdash;viz., those of
+Bishop Fisher, on p. 393, and the Duke of Norfolk, on p.
+410&mdash;the originals in both cases being at Windsor Castle.</p>
+
+<p>I have to thank
+Earl <span class="smcap">Spencer</span> for permission to engrave the portrait on p. 362;
+the Earl of <span class="smcap">Essex</span> for that on p. 476; the Earl of <span class="smcap">Warwick</span> for
+that on p. 403; the Earl of <span class="smcap">Carlisle</span> for that on p. 459; the
+Viscount <span class="smcap">Dillon</span>, F.S.A., for that on p. 376; the Hon Sir <span class="smcap">Spencer
+Ponsonby-Fane</span>, K.C.B., for that on p. 365; Sir <span class="smcap">John Farnaby Lennard</span>,
+Bart., for that on p. 463; Dr. <span class="smcap">Evans</span> for those on pp. <a href="#page002">2</a>, <a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page006">6</a>; <span class="smcap">Edward
+Huth</span>, Esq., for that on p. 387; Mrs. <span class="smcap">Dent</span>, of Sudeley, for that on p.
+395; <span class="smcap">H. Hucks Gibbs</span>, Esq., for that on p. 419; <span class="smcap">T. A. Hope</span>, Esq., for
+that on p. 487; <span class="smcap">E. B. Nicholson</span>, Esq., for the portrait of Lord
+Burghley in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, engraved at p. 479; the
+authorities of the University of Cambridge for that on p. 477; of
+Jesus College, Cambridge, for that on p.  414; and of Sidney Sussex
+College, Cambridge, for that on p. 567; and the Treasurer of Christ's
+Hospital, London, for the portrait of Charles II. on p. 579. I have
+also to thank Mr. <span class="smcap">John Murray</span> for permission to engrave the figures on
+pp. <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a>, <a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page177">177</a>, <a href="#page188">188</a>, <a href="#page260">260</a>; Messrs. <span class="smcap">Parker &amp; Co.</span>, Oxford,
+for those on pp. <a href="#page019">19</a>, <a href="#page051">51</a>, <a href="#page075">75</a>, <a href="#page091">91</a>, <a href="#page107">107</a>, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href="#page170">170</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a>,
+<a href="#page246">246</a>, <a href="#page247">247</a>, <a href="#page253">253</a>, 409, 451; Mr. <span class="smcap">W. Nives</span> for those at pp. 381, 409, 451;
+Mr. <span class="smcap">J. G. Waller</span> for those on pp. <a href="#page219">219</a>, <a href="#page229">229</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a>, 515; Mr. <span class="smcap">Bruce</span>
+for those on pp. <a href="#page017">17</a>, <a href="#page017">18</a>, <a href="#page021">21</a>; Messrs. <span class="smcap">Poulton &amp; Sons</span>, Lee, for those on
+pp. <a href="#page007">7</a>, <span class="pagenum"><a id="pagevi" name="pagevi"></a>(p. vi)</span> <a href="#page132">132</a>; Mr. <span class="smcap">G. A. Nichols</span>, Stamford, for those on pp.
+<a href="#page311">311</a>, <a href="#page316">316</a>, Mr. <span class="smcap">G. T. Clarke</span>, for that on p. <a href="#page074">74</a>; Messrs. <span class="smcap">Carl Norman &amp;
+Co.</span>, Tunbridge Wells, for that on p. <a href="#page171">171</a>; Mr. <span class="smcap">R. Keene</span>, Derby, for
+that on p. <a href="#page318">318</a>; the Rev. <span class="smcap">H. H. Henson</span>, Vicar of Barking, Essex, for
+the photograph of the monument of Sir Charles Montague on p. 507; the
+Science and Art Department for those on pp. 371, 440, 518, 612; Mr. <span class="smcap">W.
+H. Wheeler</span>, of Oxford, for those on pp. <a href="#page319">319</a>, 384; Messrs. <span class="smcap">Valentine &amp;
+Sons</span>, Dundee, for those on pp. <a href="#page108">109</a>, <a href="#page206">206</a>, <a href="#page213">213</a>, <a href="#page237">238</a>, <a href="#page244">244</a>, <a href="#page275">276</a>, <a href="#page354">355</a>, 378,
+485, 662, 666, 668, 683, 907, 919, 937, 942; and Mr. <span class="smcap">R. Keene</span>, Derby,
+for those on pp. 466, 467, 469, 471.</p>
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagevii" name="pagevii"></a>(p. vii)</span> CONTENTS<br>
+<span class="smaller">OF</span><br>
+THE FIRST VOLUME</h2>
+
+<a id="toc" name="toc"></a>
+<p class="p2 center">PART I.<br>
+<i>ENGLAND BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST.</i></p>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap1">CHAPTER I.</a><br>
+PREHISTORIC AND ROMAN BRITAIN.</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>&nbsp;<span class="ralign">PAGE</span></li>
+</ul>
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>Palæolithic Man of the River-Drift    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec1">1</a></span></li>
+<li>Cave-dwelling Palæolithic Man <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec2">2</a></span></li>
+<li>Neolithic Man   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec3">3</a></span></li>
+<li>Celts and Iberians  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec4">5</a></span></li>
+<li>The Celts in Britain  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec5">6</a></span></li>
+<li>Goidels and Britons  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec6">6</a></span></li>
+<li>Ph&oelig;nicians and Greeks  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec7">7</a></span></li>
+<li>Gauls and Belgians in Britain  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec8">8</a></span></li>
+<li>Culture and War  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec9">9</a></span></li>
+<li>Religion of the Britons <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec10">10</a></span></li>
+<li>The Romans in Gaul <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 55 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec11">10</a></span></li>
+<li>Cæsar's First Invasion. <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 55  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec12">11</a></span></li>
+<li>Cæsar's Second Invasion. <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 54  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec13">11</a></span></li>
+<li>South-eastern Britain after Cæsar's Departure.
+  <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 54&mdash;<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 43 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec14">12</a></span></li>
+<li>The Roman Empire  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec15">12</a></span></li>
+<li>The Invasion of Aulus Plautius. <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 43 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec16">12</a></span></li>
+<li>The Colony of Camulodunum <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec17">13</a></span></li>
+<li>The Conquests of Ostorius Scapula   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec18">14</a></span></li>
+<li>Government of Suetonius Paullinus. 58  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec19">14</a></span></li>
+<li>Boadicea's Insurrection. 61 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec20">15</a></span></li>
+<li>The Vengeance of Suetonius <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec21">15</a></span></li>
+<li>Agricola in Britain. 78&mdash;84 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec22">16</a></span></li>
+<li>Agricola's Conquests in the North  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec23">16</a></span></li>
+<li>The Roman Walls  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec24">17</a></span></li>
+<li>The Roman Province of Britain  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec25">19</a></span></li>
+<li>Extinction of Tribal Antagonism   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec26">21</a></span></li>
+<li>Want of National Feeling   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec27">22</a></span></li>
+<li>Carausius and Allectus. 288&mdash;296  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec28">22</a></span></li>
+<li>Constantius and Constantine. 296&mdash;337   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec29">22</a></span></li>
+<li>Christianity in Britain <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec30">23</a></span></li>
+<li>Weakness of the Empire  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec31">23</a></span></li>
+<li>The Picts and Scots  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec32">23</a></span></li>
+<li>The Saxons  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec33">24</a></span></li>
+<li>Origin of the Saxons  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec34">24</a></span></li>
+<li>The Roman Defence  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec35">24</a></span></li>
+<li>End of the Roman Government. 383&mdash;410  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap1sec36">25</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><span class="pagenum"><a id="pageviii" name="pageviii"></a>(p. viii)</span> <a href="#chap2">CHAPTER II.</a><br>
+THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>Britain after the Departure of the Romans.
+  410&mdash;449?       <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec1">26</a></span></li>
+<li>The Groans of the Britons   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec2">26</a></span></li>
+<li>The Conquest of Kent. 449?   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec3">27</a></span></li>
+<li>The South Saxons. 477   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec4">27</a></span></li>
+<li>The West Saxons and the East Saxons    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec5">28</a></span></li>
+<li>The Anglian Settlements    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec6">28</a></span></li>
+<li>Nature of the Conquest    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec7">28</a></span></li>
+<li>The Cultivators of the Soil   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec8">29</a></span></li>
+<li>Eorls, Ceorls, Gesiths     <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec9">29</a></span></li>
+<li>The Gesiths and the Villagers     <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec10">30</a></span></li>
+<li>English and Welsh      <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec11">31</a></span></li>
+<li>The Township and the Hundred     <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec12">31</a></span></li>
+<li>Weregild      <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec13">32</a></span></li>
+<li>Compurgation and Ordeal   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec14">32</a></span></li>
+<li>Punishments     <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec15">32</a></span></li>
+<li>The Folk-moot      <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec16">33</a></span></li>
+<li>The Kingship    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec17">33</a></span></li>
+<li>The Legend of Arthur    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec18">33</a></span></li>
+<li>The West Saxon Advance    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec19">34</a></span></li>
+<li>Repulse of the West Saxons    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec20">35</a></span></li>
+<li>The Advance of the Angles     <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec21">36</a></span></li>
+<li>The Kymry        <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec22">36</a></span></li>
+<li>Britain at the End of the Sixth Century   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap2sec23">37</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap3">CHAPTER III.</a><br>
+THE STRIFE OF THE ENGLISH KINGDOMS.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>England and the Continent  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec1">37</a></span></li>
+<li>Æthelberht's Supremacy <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec2">38</a></span></li>
+<li>Gregory and the English <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec3">38</a></span></li>
+<li>Augustine's Mission. 597  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec4">39</a></span></li>
+<li>Monastic Christianity   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec5">39</a></span></li>
+<li>The Archbishopric of Canterbury  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec6">40</a></span></li>
+<li>Death of Æthelberht. 616   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec7">41</a></span></li>
+<li>The Three Kingdoms opposed to the Welsh  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec8">41</a></span></li>
+<li>Æthelfrith and the Kymry  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec9">41</a></span></li>
+<li>Æthelfrith's Victories   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec10">42</a></span></li>
+<li>The Greatness of Eadwine  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec11">43</a></span></li>
+<li>Eadwine's Supremacy   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec12">44</a></span></li>
+<li>Character of the later Conquests   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec13">44</a></span></li>
+<li>Political Changes   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec14">45</a></span></li>
+<li>Eadwine's Conversion and Fall   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec15">46</a></span></li>
+<li>Oswald's Victory at Heavenfield    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec16">47</a></span></li>
+<li>Oswald and Aidan   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec17">47</a></span></li>
+<li>Oswald's Greatness and Overthrow  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec18">47</a></span></li>
+<li>Penda's Overthrow   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec19">48</a></span></li>
+<li>The Three Kingdoms and the Welsh   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec20">48</a></span></li>
+<li>The English Missionaries   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec21">49</a></span></li>
+<li>Dispute between Wilfrid and Colman. 664   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec22">49</a></span></li>
+<li>Archbishop Theodore and the Penitential System   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec23">50</a></span></li>
+<li>Ealdhelm and Cædmon  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec24">51</a></span></li>
+<li>Bede. 673&mdash;735   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec25">52</a></span></li>
+<li>Church Councils  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec26">52</a></span></li>
+<li>Struggle between Mercia and Wessex  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec27">52</a></span></li>
+<li>Mohammedanism and the Carolingian Empire   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec28">54</a></span></li>
+<li>Ecgberht's Rule. 802&mdash;839   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap3sec29">54</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap4">CHAPTER IV.</a><br>
+THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP AND THE STRUGGLE WITH THE DANES.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>The West Saxon Supremacy        <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec1">55</a></span></li>
+<li>The Coming of the Northmen    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec2">56</a></span></li>
+<li>The English Coast Plundered   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec3">57</a></span></li>
+<li>The Danes in the North     <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec4">57</a></span></li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a id="pageix" name="pageix"></a>(p. ix)</span> Ælfred's Struggle in Wessex. 871&mdash;878 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec5">58</a></span></li>
+<li>The Treaty of Chippenham, and its Results. 878 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec6">59</a></span></li>
+<li>Ælfred's Military Work <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec7">60</a></span></li>
+<li>His Laws and Scholarship   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec8">60</a></span></li>
+<li>Eadward the Elder. 899&mdash;925   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec9">62</a></span></li>
+<li>Eadward's Conquests   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec10">62</a></span></li>
+<li>Eadward and the Scots   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec11">63</a></span></li>
+<li>Æthelstan. 925&mdash;940  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec12">63</a></span></li>
+<li>Eadmund (940&mdash;946) and Eadred (946&mdash;955)   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec13">63</a></span></li>
+<li>Danes and English   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec14">64</a></span></li>
+<li>Eadwig. 955&mdash;959    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec15">64</a></span></li>
+<li>Dunstan    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec16">65</a></span></li>
+<li>Archbishop Oda    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec17">65</a></span></li>
+<li>Eadwig's Marriage  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap4sec18">67</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap5">CHAPTER V.</a><br>
+EADGAR'S ENGLAND.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>Eadgar and Dunstan. 959&mdash;975   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap5sec1">67</a></span></li>
+<li>The Cession of Lothian <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap5sec2">68</a></span></li>
+<li>Changes in English Institutions  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap5sec3">69</a></span></li>
+<li>Growth of the King's Power   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap5sec4">69</a></span></li>
+<li>Conversion of the Freemen into Serfs   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap5sec5">69</a></span></li>
+<li>The Hundred-moot and the Lord's Court  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap5sec6">72</a></span></li>
+<li>The Towns    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap5sec7">72</a></span></li>
+<li>The Origin of the Shires  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap5sec8">73</a></span></li>
+<li>The Shire-moot   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap5sec9">73</a></span></li>
+<li>The Ealdormen and the Witenagemot  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap5sec10">73</a></span></li>
+<li>The Land  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap5sec11">75</a></span></li>
+<li>Domestic Life   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap5sec12">75</a></span></li>
+<li>Food and Drink   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap5sec13">75</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap6">CHAPTER VI.</a><br>
+ENGLAND AND NORMANDY.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>Eadward the Martyr. 975&mdash;979    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec1">78</a></span></li>
+<li>Æthelred's Early Years. 979&mdash;988 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec2">79</a></span></li>
+<li>The Return of the Danes. 984  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec3">79</a></span></li>
+<li>The Norman Dukes. 912&mdash;1002  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec4">80</a></span></li>
+<li>Political Contrast between Normandy and England <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec5">81</a></span></li>
+<li>Svend's Conquest. 1002&mdash;1013   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec6">81</a></span></li>
+<li>Æthelred Restored. 1014&mdash;1016   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec7">82</a></span></li>
+<li>Eadmund Ironside. 1016   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec8">83</a></span></li>
+<li>Cnut and the Earldoms. 1016&mdash;1035   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec9">83</a></span></li>
+<li>Cnut's Empire   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec10">84</a></span></li>
+<li>Cnut's Government  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec11">84</a></span></li>
+<li>The Sons of Cnut. 1035&mdash;1042  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec12">85</a></span></li>
+<li>Eadward the Confessor and Earl Godwine.
+  1042&mdash;1051    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec13">86</a></span></li>
+<li>The Banishment of Godwine. 1051  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec14">87</a></span></li>
+<li>Visit of Duke William. 1051 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec15">88</a></span></li>
+<li>William and the Norman Church <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec16">88</a></span></li>
+<li>The Return and Death of Godwine. 1052&mdash;1053  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec17">89</a></span></li>
+<li>Harold's Greatness. 1053&mdash;1066 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec18">89</a></span></li>
+<li>Harold and Eadward. 1057&mdash;1065  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec19">90</a></span></li>
+<li>Death of Eadward. 1066  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec20">90</a></span></li>
+<li>Harold and William. 1066  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec21">91</a></span></li>
+<li>Stamford Bridge. 1066   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec22">93</a></span></li>
+<li>The Landing of William. 1066   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec23">96</a></span></li>
+<li>The Battle of Senlac. 1066   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec24">96</a></span></li>
+<li>William's Coronation. 1066   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap6sec25">98</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagex" name="pagex"></a>(p. x)</span> PART II.<br>
+<i>THE NORMAN AND ANGEVIN KINGS.</i></p>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap7">CHAPTER VII.</a><br>
+WILLIAM I. 1066&mdash;1087.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>The First Months of the Conquest. 1066&mdash;1067        <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap7sec1">101</a></span></li>
+<li>The Conquest of the West and North. 1067&mdash;1069  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap7sec2">102</a></span></li>
+<li>The Completion of the Conquest. 1070  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap7sec3">103</a></span></li>
+<li>Hereward's Revolt and the Homage of Malcolm.
+  1070&mdash;1072   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap7sec4">103</a></span></li>
+<li>How William kept down the English  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap7sec5">104</a></span></li>
+<li>How William kept down the Normans  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap7sec6">105</a></span></li>
+<li>Ecclesiastical Organisation.   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap7sec7">106</a></span></li>
+<li>Pope Gregory VII.  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap7sec8">107</a></span></li>
+<li>William and Gregory VII.  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap7sec9">108</a></span></li>
+<li>The Rising of the Earls. 1075  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap7sec10">110</a></span></li>
+<li>The New Forest   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap7sec11">110</a></span></li>
+<li>Domesday Book. 1085&mdash;1086  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap7sec12">111</a></span></li>
+<li>William's Great Councils <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap7sec13">112</a></span></li>
+<li>The Gemot at Salisbury. 1086  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap7sec14">113</a></span></li>
+<li>William's Death. 1087  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap7sec15">114</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap8">CHAPTER VIII.</a><br>
+WILLIAM II. 1087&mdash;1100.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>The Accession of the Red King. 1087   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap8sec1">114</a></span></li>
+<li>The Wickedness of the Red King  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap8sec2">115</a></span></li>
+<li>Ranulf Flambard  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap8sec3">116</a></span></li>
+<li>Feudal Dues <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap8sec4">116</a></span></li>
+<li>Archbishop Anselm  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap8sec5">117</a></span></li>
+<li>The Council of Rockingham. 1095 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap8sec6">118</a></span></li>
+<li>William II. and his Brothers  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap8sec7">118</a></span></li>
+<li>William and Scotland. 1093&mdash;1094  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap8sec8">119</a></span></li>
+<li>Mowbray's Rebellion. 1095  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap8sec9">120</a></span></li>
+<li>The First Crusade. 1095&mdash;1099   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap8sec10">120</a></span></li>
+<li>Normandy in Pledge. 1096  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap8sec11">121</a></span></li>
+<li>The Last Years of the Red King  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap8sec12">121</a></span></li>
+<li>The Death of the Red King. 1100 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap8sec13">122</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap9">CHAPTER IX.</a><br>
+HENRY I. AND STEPHEN.<br>
+HENRY I., 1100&mdash;1135. STEPHEN, 1135&mdash;1154.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>The Accession of Henry I. 1100  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec1">122</a></span></li>
+<li>Invasion of Robert. 1101  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec2">124</a></span></li>
+<li>Revolt of Robert of Bellême. 1102 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec3">124</a></span></li>
+<li>The Battle of Tinchebrai. 1106  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec4">124</a></span></li>
+<li>Henry and Anselm. 1100&mdash;1107   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec5">125</a></span></li>
+<li>Roger of Salisbury  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec6">126</a></span></li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexi" name="pagexi"></a>(p. xi)</span> Growth of Trade   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec7">127</a></span></li>
+<li>The Benedictines  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec8">128</a></span></li>
+<li>The Cistercians  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec9">129</a></span></li>
+<li>The White Ship    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec10">129</a></span></li>
+<li>The Last Years of Henry I. <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec11">131</a></span></li>
+<li>Stephen's Accession. 1135   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec12">131</a></span></li>
+<li>Civil War   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec13">133</a></span></li>
+<li>Stephen's Quarrel with the Clergy. 1139  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec14">134</a></span></li>
+<li>Anarchy. 1139   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec15">134</a></span></li>
+<li>The End of the War. 1141&mdash;1148  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec16">135</a></span></li>
+<li>Henry, Duke of the Normans. 1149  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec17">136</a></span></li>
+<li>The Last Days of Stephen. 1153&mdash;1154  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap9sec18">137</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap10">CHAPTER X.</a><br>
+HENRY II. 1154&mdash;1189.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>Henry's Accession. 1154   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec1">138</a></span></li>
+<li>Pacification of England  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec2">138</a></span></li>
+<li>Henry and Feudality  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec3">140</a></span></li>
+<li>The Great Council and the Curia Regis  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec4">141</a></span></li>
+<li>Scutage   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec5">141</a></span></li>
+<li>Archbishop Thomas. 1162   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec6">142</a></span></li>
+<li>Breach between Henry and Thomas  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec7">143</a></span></li>
+<li>The Constitutions of Clarendon. 1164  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec8">143</a></span></li>
+<li>The Persecution of Archbishop Thomas. 1164 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec9">145</a></span></li>
+<li>The Assize of Clarendon. 1166   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec10">146</a></span></li>
+<li>Recognitions   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec11">147</a></span></li>
+<li>The Germ of the Jury   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec12">147</a></span></li>
+<li>The Itinerant Justices Revived <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec13">148</a></span></li>
+<li>The Inquisition of the Sheriffs. 1170   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec14">148</a></span></li>
+<li>The Nobles and the Church  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec15">149</a></span></li>
+<li>The Coronation of Young Henry. 1170  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec16">149</a></span></li>
+<li>The Return of Archbishop Thomas. 1170  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec17">149</a></span></li>
+<li>Murder of Archbishop Thomas. 1170  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec18">149</a></span></li>
+<li>Popular Indignation. 1171  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec19">151</a></span></li>
+<li>State of Ireland   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec20">151</a></span></li>
+<li>Partial Conquest of Ireland. 1166&mdash;1172  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec21">152</a></span></li>
+<li>Young Henry's Coronation and the Revolt of
+  the Barons. 1172&mdash;1174  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec22">153</a></span></li>
+<li>The Assize of Arms. 1181  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec23">154</a></span></li>
+<li>Henry II. and his Sons  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec24">155</a></span></li>
+<li>The Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. 1187  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec25">156</a></span></li>
+<li>The Last Years of Henry II. 1188&mdash;1189  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec26">157</a></span></li>
+<li>The Work of Henry II.  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap10sec27">157</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap11">CHAPTER XI.</a><br>
+RICHARD I. 1189&mdash;1199.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>Richard in England. 1189   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap11sec1">159</a></span></li>
+<li>William of Longchamps. 1189&mdash;1191   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap11sec2">159</a></span></li>
+<li>The Third Crusade. 1189&mdash;1192   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap11sec3">161</a></span></li>
+<li>The Return of Richard. 1192&mdash;1194   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap11sec4">161</a></span></li>
+<li>Heavy Taxation    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap11sec5">162</a></span></li>
+<li>The Administration of Hubert Walter. 1194&mdash;1198 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap11sec6">163</a></span></li>
+<li>Death of Richard. 1199  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap11sec7">165</a></span></li>
+<li>Church and State under the Angevin Kings  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap11sec8">165</a></span></li>
+<li>Growth of Learning  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap11sec9">167</a></span></li>
+<li>The University of Oxford   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap11sec10">167</a></span></li>
+<li>Country and Town  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap11sec11">168</a></span></li>
+<li>Condition of London   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap11sec12">169</a></span></li>
+<li>Architectural Changes    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap11sec13">170</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexii" name="pagexii"></a>(p. xii)</span> PART III<br>
+<i>THE GROWTH OF THE PARLIAMENTARY CONSTITUTION.</i> 1199-1399.</p>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap12">CHAPTER XII.</a><br>
+JOHN. 1199-1216.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>The Accession of John. 1199    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec1">173</a></span></li>
+<li>John's First War with Philip II. 1199-1200  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec2">173</a></span></li>
+<li>John's Misconduct in Poitou 1200-1201  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec3">174</a></span></li>
+<li>The Loss of Normandy and Anjou. 1202-1204  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec4">174</a></span></li>
+<li>Causes of Philip's Success   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec5">176</a></span></li>
+<li>The Election of Stephen Langton to the
+  Archbishopric of Canterbury. 1205  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec6">176</a></span></li>
+<li>Innocent III. and Stephen Langton. 1206  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec7">177</a></span></li>
+<li>John's Quarrel with the Church. 1206-1208  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec8">178</a></span></li>
+<li>England under an Interdict. 1208  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec9">178</a></span></li>
+<li>John Excommunicated. 1209  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec10">178</a></span></li>
+<li>The Pope threatens John with Deposition.
+  1212-1213  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec11">179</a></span></li>
+<li>John's Submission. 1213  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec12">180</a></span></li>
+<li>The Resistance of the Barons and Clergy. 1213 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec13">180</a></span></li>
+<li>The Battle of Bouvines. 1214 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec14">181</a></span></li>
+<li>The Struggle between John and the Barons.
+  1214-1215   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec15">181</a></span></li>
+<li>Magna Carta. 1215 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec16">182</a></span></li>
+<li>War between John and the Barons. 1215-1216  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec17">184</a></span></li>
+<li>Conflict between Louis and John. 1216   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap12sec18">184</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap13">CHAPTER XIII.</a><br>
+HENRY III. 1216-1272.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>Henry III. and Louis. 1216-1217    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec1">185</a></span></li>
+<li>The Renewal of the Great Charter. 1216-1217 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec2">185</a></span></li>
+<li>Administration of Hubert de Burgh. 1219-1232 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec3">186</a></span></li>
+<li>Administration of Peter des Roches. 1232-1234  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec4">188</a></span></li>
+<li>Francis of Assisi  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec5">190</a></span></li>
+<li>St. Dominic  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec6">190</a></span></li>
+<li>The Coming of the Friars. 1220-1224   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec7">191</a></span></li>
+<li>Monks and Friars   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec8">191</a></span></li>
+<li>The King's Marriage. 1236  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec9">192</a></span></li>
+<li>The Early Career of Simon de Montfort.
+  1231-1243  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec10">193</a></span></li>
+<li>Papal Exactions. 1237-1243  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec11">194</a></span></li>
+<li>A Weak Parliamentary Opposition. 1244  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec12">194</a></span></li>
+<li>Growing Discontent. 1244-1254  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec13">195</a></span></li>
+<li>The Knights of the Shire in Parliament. 1254  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec14">196</a></span></li>
+<li>Fresh Exactions. 1254-1257   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec15">196</a></span></li>
+<li>The Provisions of Oxford. 1258   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec16">198</a></span></li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexiii" name="pagexiii"></a>(p. xiii)</span> The Expulsion of the Foreigners. 1258  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec17">199</a></span></li>
+<li>Edward and the Barons. 1259  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec18">199</a></span></li>
+<li>The Breach amongst the Barons. 1259&mdash;1261  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec19">199</a></span></li>
+<li>Royalist Reaction and Civil War. 1261   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec20">200</a></span></li>
+<li>The Mise of Amiens. 1264   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec21">200</a></span></li>
+<li>The Battle of Lewes. 1264  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec22">201</a></span></li>
+<li>Earl Simon's Government. 1264&mdash;1265 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec23">201</a></span></li>
+<li>The Battle of Evesham. 1265  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec24">203</a></span></li>
+<li>The Last Years of Henry III. 1265&mdash;1272 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec25">204</a></span></li>
+<li>General Progress of the Country  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap13sec26">206</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap14">CHAPTER XIV.</a><br>
+EDWARD I. AND EDWARD II.<br>
+EDWARD I., 1272&mdash;1307. EDWARD II., 1307&mdash;1327.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>The First Years of Edward I. 1272&mdash;1279   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec1">208</a></span></li>
+<li>Edward I. and Wales. 1276&mdash;1284 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec2">210</a></span></li>
+<li>Customs Duties. 1275  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec3">210</a></span></li>
+<li>Edward's Judicial Reforms. 1274&mdash;1290  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec4">212</a></span></li>
+<li>Edward's Legislation. 1279&mdash;1290  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec5">212</a></span></li>
+<li>Edward as a National and as a Feudal Ruler  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec6">212</a></span></li>
+<li>The Scottish Succession. 1285&mdash;1290   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec7">214</a></span></li>
+<li>Death of Eleanor of Castile. 1290   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec8">214</a></span></li>
+<li>The Award of Norham. 1291&mdash;1292   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec9">215</a></span></li>
+<li>Disputes with Scotland and France. 1293&mdash;1295  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec10">216</a></span></li>
+<li>The Model Parliament. 1295  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec11">218</a></span></li>
+<li>The First Conquest of Scotland. 1296  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec12">219</a></span></li>
+<li>The Resistance of Archbishop Winchelsey.
+  1296&mdash;1297   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec13">220</a></span></li>
+<li>The 'Confirmatio Cartarum.' 1297 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec14">220</a></span></li>
+<li>Wallace's Rising. 1297&mdash;1304   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec15">221</a></span></li>
+<li>The Second Conquest of Scotland. 1298&mdash;1304  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec16">221</a></span></li>
+<li>The Incorporation of Scotland with England.
+  1305   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec17">222</a></span></li>
+<li>Character of Edward's Dealings with Scotland  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec18">222</a></span></li>
+<li>Robert Bruce. 1306  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec19">223</a></span></li>
+<li>Edward's Third Conquest of Scotland and Death.
+  1306&mdash;1307     <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec20">224</a></span></li>
+<li>Edward II. and Piers Gaveston. 1307&mdash;1312  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec21">224</a></span></li>
+<li>Success of Robert Bruce. 1307&mdash;1314  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec22">226</a></span></li>
+<li>Lancaster's Government. 1314&mdash;1322   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec23">228</a></span></li>
+<li>A Constitutional Settlement. 1322   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec24">228</a></span></li>
+<li>The Rule of the Despensers. 1322&mdash;1326   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec25">228</a></span></li>
+<li>The Deposition and Murder of Edward II. 1327  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap14sec26">229</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap15">CHAPTER XV.</a><br>
+FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD III. TO THE TREATY OF BRETIGNI.<br>
+1327&mdash;1360.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>Mortimer's Government. 1327&mdash;1330   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec1">231</a></span></li>
+<li>The French Succession. 1328&mdash;1331  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec2">232</a></span></li>
+<li>Troubles in Scotland. 1331&mdash;1336  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec3">232</a></span></li>
+<li>Dispute with France. 1336&mdash;1337  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec4">234</a></span></li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexiv" name="pagexiv"></a>(p. xiv)</span> Edward's Allies. 1337&mdash;1338   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec5">235</a></span></li>
+<li>Chivalry and War  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec6">235</a></span></li>
+<li>Commerce and War  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec7">236</a></span></li>
+<li>Attacks on the North of France. 1338&mdash;1340  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec8">237</a></span></li>
+<li>Battle of Sluys. 1340    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec9">239</a></span></li>
+<li>Attacks on the West of France. 1341&mdash;1345  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec10">240</a></span></li>
+<li>The Campaign of Creçy. 1346   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec11">240</a></span></li>
+<li>The Tactics of Creçy. 1346   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec12">241</a></span></li>
+<li>The Battle of Creçy. August 26, 1346  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec13">242</a></span></li>
+<li>Battle of Nevill's Cross, and the Siege of
+  Calais. 1346&mdash;1347    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec14">242</a></span></li>
+<li>Constitutional Progress. 1337&mdash;1347  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec15">243</a></span></li>
+<li>Edward's Triumph. 1347   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec16">246</a></span></li>
+<li>The Black Death. 1348    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec17">248</a></span></li>
+<li>The Statute of Labourers. 1351    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec18">248</a></span></li>
+<li>The Statute of Treasons. 1352  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec19">250</a></span></li>
+<li>The Black Prince in the South of France. 1355  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec20">251</a></span></li>
+<li>The Battle of Poitiers. 1356  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec21">251</a></span></li>
+<li>The Courtesy of the Black Prince  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec22">252</a></span></li>
+<li>Misery of France. 1356&mdash;1359  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec23">252</a></span></li>
+<li>Edward's Last Invasion. 1359&mdash;1360   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec24">252</a></span></li>
+<li>The Treaty of Bretigni. 1360   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap15sec25">253</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap16">CHAPTER XVI.</a><br>
+REIGN OF EDWARD III. AFTER THE TREATY OF BRETIGNI.<br>
+1360&mdash;1377.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>The First Years of Peace. 1360&mdash;1364 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap16sec1">254</a></span></li>
+<li>The Spanish Troubles. 1364&mdash;1368  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap16sec2">254</a></span></li>
+<li>The Taxation of Aquitaine. 1368&mdash;1369  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap16sec3">256</a></span></li>
+<li>The Renewed War. 1369&mdash;1375  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap16sec4">256</a></span></li>
+<li>Anti-Papal Legislation. 1351&mdash;1366  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap16sec5">257</a></span></li>
+<li>Predominance of the English Language   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap16sec6">258</a></span></li>
+<li>Piers the Plowman. 1362  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap16sec7">258</a></span></li>
+<li>The Anti-Clerical Party. 1371   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap16sec8">259</a></span></li>
+<li>The Duke of Lancaster. 1374&mdash;1376   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap16sec9">260</a></span></li>
+<li>John Wycliffe. 1366&mdash;1376  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap16sec10">261</a></span></li>
+<li>Lancaster and the Black Prince. 1376  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap16sec11">261</a></span></li>
+<li>The Good Parliament. 1376  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap16sec12">262</a></span></li>
+<li>The Last Year of Edward III. 1376&mdash;1377  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap16sec13">262</a></span></li>
+<li>Ireland from the Reign of John to that of
+  Edward II.   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap16sec14">264</a></span></li>
+<li>The Statute of Kilkenny. 1367  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap16sec15">265</a></span></li>
+<li>Weakness of the English Colony. 1367&mdash;1377 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap16sec16">265</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap17">CHAPTER XVII.</a><br>
+RICHARD II. AND THE SOCIAL REVOLUTION.<br>
+1377&mdash;1381.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>The First Years of Richard II. 1377&mdash;1378    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap17sec1">266</a></span></li>
+<li>Wycliffe and the Great Schism. 1378&mdash;1381  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap17sec2">266</a></span></li>
+<li>The Poll Taxes. 1379&mdash;1381  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap17sec3">267</a></span></li>
+<li>The Peasants' Grievances   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap17sec4">268</a></span></li>
+<li>The Peasants' Revolt. 1381   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap17sec5">268</a></span></li>
+<li>The Suppression of the Revolt  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap17sec6">269</a></span></li>
+<li>Results of the Peasants' Revolt  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap17sec7">269</a></span></li>
+<li>Chaucer's 'Canterbury Tales'   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap17sec8">270</a></span></li>
+<li>The Prologue of the 'Canterbury Tales'   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap17sec9">270</a></span></li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexv" name="pagexv"></a>(p. xv)</span> Chaucer and the Clergy   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap17sec10">271</a></span></li>
+<li>Roads and Bridges  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap17sec11">272</a></span></li>
+<li>Modes of Conveyance   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap17sec12">273</a></span></li>
+<li>Hospitality and Inns  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap17sec13">274</a></span></li>
+<li>Alehouses  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap17sec14">274</a></span></li>
+<li>Wanderers    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap17sec15">274</a></span></li>
+<li>Robbers and Criminals  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap17sec16">275</a></span></li>
+<li>Justices of the Peace  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap17sec17">277</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap18">CHAPTER XVIII.</a><br>
+RICHARD II. AND THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION.<br>
+1382&mdash;1399.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>Progress of the War with France. 1382&mdash;1386  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap18sec1">278</a></span></li>
+<li>Richard's Growing Unpopularity. 1385&mdash;1386   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap18sec2">278</a></span></li>
+<li>The Impeachment of Suffolk and the Commission
+  of Regency. 1386    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap18sec3">279</a></span></li>
+<li>The Lords Appellant and the Merciless Parliament.
+  1387&mdash;1388     <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap18sec4">279</a></span></li>
+<li>Richard's Restoration to Power. 1389  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap18sec5">280</a></span></li>
+<li>Richard's Constitutional Government. 1389&mdash;1396 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap18sec6">280</a></span></li>
+<li>Livery and Maintenance. 1390  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap18sec7">281</a></span></li>
+<li>Richard's Domestic Policy. 1390&mdash;1391  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap18sec8">281</a></span></li>
+<li>Richard's Foreign Policy. 1389&mdash;1396  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap18sec9">282</a></span></li>
+<li>Richard's Coup d'État. 1397   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap18sec10">282</a></span></li>
+<li>The Parliament of Shrewsbury. 1398  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap18sec11">283</a></span></li>
+<li>The Banishment of Hereford and Norfolk. 1398  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap18sec12">283</a></span></li>
+<li>Richard's Despotism. 1398&mdash;1399   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap18sec13">283</a></span></li>
+<li>Henry of Lancaster in England. 1399   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap18sec14">284</a></span></li>
+<li>The Deposition of Richard and the Enthronement
+  of Henry IV. 1399   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap18sec15">285</a></span></li>
+<li>Nature of the Claim of Henry IV. <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap18sec16">286</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18">PART IV.<br>
+<i>LANCASTER, YORK, AND TUDOR.</i> 1399&mdash;1509.</p>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap19">CHAPTER XIX.</a><br>
+HENRY IV. AND HENRY V.<br>
+HENRY IV., 1399&mdash;1413. HENRY V., 1413&mdash;1422.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>Henry's First Difficulties. 1399&mdash;1400    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec1">289</a></span></li>
+<li>Death of Richard II. 1400   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec2">291</a></span></li>
+<li>Henry IV. and the Church   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec3">291</a></span></li>
+<li>The Statute for the Burning of Heretics. 1401  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec4">292</a></span></li>
+<li>Henry IV. and Owen Glendower. 1400&mdash;1402  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec5">292</a></span></li>
+<li>The Rebellion of the Percies. 1402&mdash;1404  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec6">293</a></span></li>
+<li>The Commons and the Church. 1404  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec7">294</a></span></li>
+<li>The Capture of the Scottish Prince. 1405   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec8">295</a></span></li>
+<li>The Execution of Archbishop Scrope. 1405  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec9">296</a></span></li>
+<li>France, Wales, and the North. 1405&mdash;1408   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec10">296</a></span></li>
+<li>Henry, Prince of Wales. 1409&mdash;1410   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec11">297</a></span></li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexvi" name="pagexvi"></a>(p. xvi)</span> The Last Years of Henry IV. 1411-1413  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec12">298</a></span></li>
+<li>Henry V. and the Lollards. 1413-1414  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec13">299</a></span></li>
+<li>Henry's Claim to the Throne of France. 1414   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec14">300</a></span></li>
+<li>The Invasion of France. 1415  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec15">301</a></span></li>
+<li>The March to Agincourt. 1415   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec16">302</a></span></li>
+<li>The Battle of Agincourt, October 25, 1415  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec17">302</a></span></li>
+<li>Henry's Diplomacy. 1416-1417   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec18">303</a></span></li>
+<li>Henry's Conquest of Normandy. 1417-1419  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec19">303</a></span></li>
+<li>The Murder of the Duke of Burgundy and the
+  Treaty of Troyes. 1419-1420    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec20">304</a></span></li>
+<li>The Close of the Reign of Henry V. 1420-1422  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap19sec21">306</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap20">CHAPTER XX.</a><br>
+HENRY VI. AND THE LOSS OF FRANCE. 1422-1451.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>Bedford and Gloucester. 1422   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap20sec1">307</a></span></li>
+<li>Bedford's Success in France. 1423-1424  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap20sec2">307</a></span></li>
+<li>Gloucester's Invasion of Hainault. 1424  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap20sec3">308</a></span></li>
+<li>Gloucester and Beaufort. 1425-1428  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap20sec4">308</a></span></li>
+<li>The Siege of Orleans. 1428-1429   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap20sec5">309</a></span></li>
+<li>Jeanne Darc and the Relief of Orleans. 1429   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap20sec6">310</a></span></li>
+<li>The Coronation of Charles VII. and the Capture
+  of the Maid. 1429-1430     <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap20sec7">311</a></span></li>
+<li>The Martyrdom at Rouen. 1431    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap20sec8">312</a></span></li>
+<li>The Last Years of the Duke of Bedford. 1431-1435  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap20sec9">312</a></span></li>
+<li>The Defection of Burgundy. 1435    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap20sec10">313</a></span></li>
+<li>The Duke of York in France. 1436-1437   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap20sec11">313</a></span></li>
+<li>The English Lose Ground. 1437-1443  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap20sec12">313</a></span></li>
+<li>Continued Rivalry of Beaufort and Gloucester.
+  1439-1441  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap20sec13">314</a></span></li>
+<li>Beaufort and Somerset. 1442-1443   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap20sec14">317</a></span></li>
+<li>The Angevin Marriage Treaty. 1444-1445   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap20sec15">317</a></span></li>
+<li>Deaths of Gloucester and Beaufort. 1447   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap20sec16">318</a></span></li>
+<li>The Loss of the French Provinces. 1448-1449  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap20sec17">318</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap21">CHAPTER XXI.</a><br>
+THE LATER YEARS OF HENRY VI. 1450-1461.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>The Growth of Inclosures       <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap21sec1">320</a></span></li>
+<li>Increasing Power of the Nobility  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap21sec2">321</a></span></li>
+<li>Case of Lord Molynes and John Paston   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap21sec3">321</a></span></li>
+<li>Suffolk's Impeachment and Murder. 1450  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap21sec4">322</a></span></li>
+<li>Jack Cade's Rebellion. 1450   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap21sec5">322</a></span></li>
+<li>Rivalry of York and Somerset. 1450-1453  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap21sec6">323</a></span></li>
+<li>The First Protectorate of the Duke of York.
+  1453-1454   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap21sec7">323</a></span></li>
+<li>The First Battle of St. Albans and the Duke
+  of York's Second Protectorate   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap21sec8">324</a></span></li>
+<li>Discomfiture of the Yorkists. 1456-1459  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap21sec9">325</a></span></li>
+<li>The Battle of Northampton and the Duke of
+  York's Claim to the Throne. 1460  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap21sec10">326</a></span></li>
+<li>The Battle of Wakefield. 1460 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap21sec11">327</a></span></li>
+<li>The Battle of Mortimer's Cross and the Second
+  Battle of St. Albans. 1461  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap21sec12">328</a></span></li>
+<li>The Battle of Towton and the Coronation of
+  Edward IV. 1461 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap21sec13">328</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexvii" name="pagexvii"></a>(p. xvii)</span> <a href="#chap22">CHAPTER XXII.</a><br>
+THE YORKIST KINGS.<br>
+1461&mdash;1485.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>Edward IV. and the House of Commons. 1461  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec1">329</a></span></li>
+<li>Loss of the Mediæval Ideals <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec2">330</a></span></li>
+<li>Fresh Efforts of the Lancastrians. 1462&mdash;1465  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec3">331</a></span></li>
+<li>Edward's Marriage. 1464  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec4">331</a></span></li>
+<li>Estrangement of Warwick. 1465&mdash;1468  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec5">332</a></span></li>
+<li>Warwick's Alliance with Clarence. 1469&mdash;1470  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec6">332</a></span></li>
+<li>The Restoration of Henry VI. 1470  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec7">333</a></span></li>
+<li>Edward IV. recovers the Throne. 1471   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec8">334</a></span></li>
+<li>Edward IV. prepares for War with France.
+  1471&mdash;1474   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec9">334</a></span></li>
+<li>The Invasion of France. 1475  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec10">336</a></span></li>
+<li>Fall and Death of Clarence. 1476&mdash;1478  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec11">336</a></span></li>
+<li>The Last Years of Edward IV. 1478&mdash;1483  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec12">336</a></span></li>
+<li>Edward V. and the Duke of Gloucester. 1483 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec13">337</a></span></li>
+<li>Fall of the Queen's Relations. 1483  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec14">338</a></span></li>
+<li>Execution of Lord Hastings   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec15">338</a></span></li>
+<li>Deposition of Edward V. 1483  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec16">340</a></span></li>
+<li>Buckingham's Rebellion. 1483  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec17">341</a></span></li>
+<li>Murder of the Princes. 1483  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec18">342</a></span></li>
+<li>Richard's Government. 1484&mdash;1485   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec19">342</a></span></li>
+<li>Richard Defeated and Slain at Bosworth. 1485  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap22sec20">343</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p2 center line18"><a href="#chap23">CHAPTER XXIII.</a><br>
+HENRY VII. 1485&mdash;1509.</p>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>The First Measures of Henry VII. 1485&mdash;1486   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec1">343</a></span></li>
+<li>Maintenance and Livery    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec2">345</a></span></li>
+<li>Lovel's Rising. 1486   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec3">346</a></span></li>
+<li>Lancaster and York in Ireland. 1399&mdash;1485   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec4">346</a></span></li>
+<li>Insurrection of Lambert Simnel. 1487   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec5">347</a></span></li>
+<li>The Court of Star Chamber. 1487   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec6">348</a></span></li>
+<li>Henry VII. and Brittany. 1488&mdash;1492  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec7">348</a></span></li>
+<li>Cardinal Morton's Fork. 1491  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec8">349</a></span></li>
+<li>The Invasion of France. 1492  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec9">349</a></span></li>
+<li>Perkin Warbeck. 1491&mdash;1494    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec10">350</a></span></li>
+<li>Poynings' Acts. 1494    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec11">350</a></span></li>
+<li>Perkin's First Attempt on England. 1495  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec12">351</a></span></li>
+<li>The Intercursus Magnus. 1496  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec13">351</a></span></li>
+<li>Kildare Restored to the Deputyship. 1496  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec14">352</a></span></li>
+<li>Perkin's Overthrow. 1496&mdash;1497 <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec15">352</a></span></li>
+<li>European Changes. 1494&mdash;1499  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec16">352</a></span></li>
+<li>Execution of the Earl of Warwick. 1499   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec17">354</a></span></li>
+<li>Prince Arthur's Marriage and Death. 1501&mdash;1502  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec18">354</a></span></li>
+<li>The Scottish Marriage. 1503    <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec19">356</a></span></li>
+<li>Maritime Enterprise   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec20">356</a></span></li>
+<li>Growth of the Royal Power  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec21">356</a></span></li>
+<li>Empson and Dudley  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec22">357</a></span></li>
+<li>Henry and his Daughter-in-law. 1502&mdash;1505   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec23">357</a></span></li>
+<li>The Last Years of Henry VII. 1505&mdash;1509   <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec24">357</a></span></li>
+<li>Architectural Changes and the Printing Press  <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap23sec25">358</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexix" name="pagexix"></a>(p. xix)</span> LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>FIG.     <span class="ralign">Page</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="decimal">
+<li>Palæolithic flint scraper from Icklingham, Suffolk  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img001">2</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Palæolithic flint implement from Hoxne, Suffolk   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img002">2</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From Evans's</i> 'Ancient Stone Implements')</li>
+
+<li>Engraved bone from Cresswell Crags, Derbyshire   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img003">3</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From the original in the British Museum</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Neolithic flint arrow-head from Rudstone, Yorks  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img004">3</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Neolithic celt or cutting instrument from Guernsey  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img005">3</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Neolithic axe from Winterbourn Steepleton, Dorset   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img006">4</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From Evans's</i> 'Ancient Stone Implements')</li>
+
+<li>Example of early British pottery    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img007">4</a></span></li>
+
+<li> 9. Examples of early British pottery        <span class="ralign"><a href="#img008">5</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From Greenwell's</i> 'British Barrows')</li>
+
+<li value="10">Bronze celt from the Isle of Harty, Kent  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img009">6</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Bronze lance-head found in Ireland  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img010">6</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Bronze caldron found in Ireland    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img011">6</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From Evans's</i> 'Ancient Bronze Implements')</li>
+
+<li>View of Stonehenge        <span class="ralign"><a href="#img012">7</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From a photograph</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Part of a British gold corselet found at Mold, now
+  in the British Museum     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img013">9</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From the</i> 'Archæologia')</li>
+
+<li>Bust of Julius Cæsar            <span class="ralign"><a href="#img014">10</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From the original in the British Museum</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Commemorative tablet of the Second Legion found at
+  Halton Chesters on the Roman Wall  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img015">17</a></span></li>
+
+<li>View of part of the Roman Wall      <span class="ralign"><a href="#img016">18</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Ruins of a mile-castle on the Roman Wall    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img017">18</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From Bruce's</i> 'Handbook to the Roman Wall,' 2nd edition)</li>
+
+<li>Part of the Roman Wall at Leicester     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img018">19</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From Rickman's</i> 'Gothic Architecture,' 6th edition,
+  by J. H. Parker)</li>
+
+<li>Pediment of a Roman temple found at Bath   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img019">20</a></span><br>
+  (<i>Reduced from the</i> 'Archæologia')</li>
+
+<li>Roman altar from Rutchester       <span class="ralign"><a href="#img020">21</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From Bruce's</i> 'Handbook to the Roman Wall', 2nd edition)</li>
+
+<li>Plan of the city of Old Sarum    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img021">34</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From the Ordnance Survey Plan</i>)</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexx" name="pagexx"></a>(p. xx)</span> View of Old Sarum           <span class="ralign"><a href="#img022">35</a></span><br>
+  (<i>Reduced from Sir R. C. Hoare's</i> 'History of
+  Modern Wiltshire. Old and New Sarum')</li>
+
+<li>Saxon church at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img023">51</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From Rickman's</i> 'Gothic Architecture,' 6th edition,
+  by J. H. Parker)</li>
+
+<li>Saxon horsemen   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img024">53</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Group of Saxon warriors      <span class="ralign"><a href="#img025">53</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From</i> Harl. MS. 603)</li>
+
+<li>Remains of a viking ship from Gokstad   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img026">56</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From a photograph of the original at Christiania</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Gold ring of Æthelwulf    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img027">57</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Gold jewel of Ælfred found at Athelney    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img028">59</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From</i> 'Archæological Journal')</li>
+
+<li>An English vessel  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img029">60</a></span></li>
+
+<li>A Saxon house           <span class="ralign"><a href="#img030">61</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From</i> Harl. MS. 603)</li>
+
+<li>A monk driven out of the King's presence  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img031">66</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From a drawing belonging to the Society of
+  Antiquaries</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Rural life in the eleventh century. January to June <span class="ralign"><a href="#img032">70</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Rural life in the eleventh century. July to December <span class="ralign"><a href="#img038">71</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From</i> Cott. MS. Julius A. vi.)</li>
+
+<li>Plan and section of a burh of the eleventh century
+  at Laughton-en-le-Morthen, Yorks    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img044">74</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From G. T. Clark's</i> 'Mediæval Military Architecture')</li>
+
+<li value="37">Glass tumbler     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img045">76</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Drinking-glass     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img046">76</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Comb and case of Scandinavian type found at York  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img047">77</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From the originals in the British Museum</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Martyrdom of St. Edmund by the Danes  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img048">82</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From a drawing belonging to the Society of
+  Antiquaries</i>)</li>
+
+<li>First Great Seal of Eadward the Confessor (obverse) <span class="ralign"><a href="#img049">86</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From an original impression</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Hunting. (From the Bayeux Tapestry)   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img050">87</a></span><br>
+  (<i>Reduced from</i> 'Vetusta Monumenta,' vol. vi.)</li>
+
+<li>Tower in the earlier style, church at Earl's Barton  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img051">91</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Tower in the earlier style, St. Benet's church,
+  Cambridge     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img052">91</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From Rickman's</i> 'Gothic Architecture,' 6th edition,
+  by J. H. Parker)</li>
+
+<li>Building a church in the later style     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img053">92</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From a drawing belonging to the Society of
+  Antiquaries</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Normans feasting; with Odo, bishop of Bayeux,
+  saying grace.        <span class="ralign"><a href="#img054">93</a></span><br>
+  (From the Bayeux Tapestry)</li>
+
+<li>Harold swearing upon the Relics.  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img055">94</a></span><br>
+  (From the Bayeux Tapestry)</li>
+
+<li>A Norman ship. (From the Bayeux Tapestry)   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img056">95</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Norman soldiers mounted. (From the Bayeux Tapestry)  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img057">95</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Group of archers on foot. (From the Bayeux Tapestry) <span class="ralign"><a href="#img058">96</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Men fighting with axes. (From the Bayeux Tapestry)  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img059">97</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Death of Harold. (From the Bayeux Tapestry)   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img060">98</a></span><br>
+  (<i>Reduced from</i> 'Vetusta Monumenta,' vol. vi.)</li>
+
+<li>Coronation of a king, <i>temp.</i> William the Conqueror   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img061">99</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From a drawing belonging to the Society of Antiquaries</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Silver penny of William the Conqueror, struck at
+  Romney        <span class="ralign"><a href="#img062">101</a></span><br>
+  (<i>From an original specimen</i>)</li>
+
+<li value="54"><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexxi" name="pagexxi"></a>(p. xxi)</span> Silver penny of William the Conqueror, struck at Romney    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img062">101</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From an original specimen</i>)</li>
+
+<li>East end of Darenth church, Kent    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img063">107</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Rickman's</i> 'Gothic Architecture,' 6th edition, by J. H. Parker)</li>
+
+<li>Part of the nave of St. Alban's abbey church     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img064">109</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a photograph by Valentine &amp; Sons, Dundee</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Facsimile of a part of Domesday Book relating to Berkshire   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img065">112</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From the original MS. in the Public Record Office</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Henry I. and his queen Matilda       <span class="ralign"><a href="#img066">123</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Hollis's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>Seal of Milo of Gloucester, showing mounted armed
+  figure in the reign of Henry I.       <span class="ralign"><a href="#img067">125</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From an original impression</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Monument of Roger, bishop of Salisbury, died 1139  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img068">127</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Stothard's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>Porchester church, Hampshire, built about 1135   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img069">128</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Rickman's</i> 'Gothic Architecture,' 7th edition, by J. H. Parker)</li>
+
+<li>Part of the nave of Durham cathedral, built about 1130  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img070">130</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Scott's</i> 'Mediæval Architecture,' London, J. Murray)</li>
+
+<li>Keep of Rochester castle, built between 1126 and 1139   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img071">132</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a photograph by Poulton &amp; Sons, Lee</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Keep of Castle Rising, built about 1140-50  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img072">133</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a photograph</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Tower of Castor church, Northamptonshire, built about 1145   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img073">136</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Britton's</i> 'Architectural Antiquities')</li>
+
+<li>Effigies of Henry II. and queen Eleanor      <span class="ralign"><a href="#img074">139</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Stothard's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>Ecclesiastical costume in the twelfth century   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img075">142</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From</i> Cott. MS. Nero C. iv. f. 37)</li>
+
+<li>A bishop ordaining a priest   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img076">144</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Small ship of the latter part of the twelfth century  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img077">146</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From</i> 'Harley Roll,' Y. 6)</li>
+
+<li>Part of the choir of Canterbury cathedral, in building 1175-1184  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img078">150</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Scott's</i> 'Mediæval Architecture,' London, J. Murray)</li>
+
+<li>Mitre of archbishop Thomas of Canterbury, preserved at Sens  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img079">153</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Shaw's</i> 'Dresses and Decorations')</li>
+
+<li>Military and civil costume of the latter part of the twelfth century  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img080">154</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From</i> 'Harley Roll,' Y. 6)</li>
+
+<li>Royal Arms of England from Richard I. to Edward III.  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img081">159</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From the wall arcade, south aisle of nave, Westminster Abbey</i>)</li>
+
+<li>The Galilee or Lady chapel, Durham cathedral,
+  built by bishop Hugh of Puiset, between 1180 and 1197   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img082">160</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Scott's</i> 'Mediæval Architecture,' London, J. Murray)</li>
+
+<li>Effigy of a knight in the Temple church, London,
+  showing armour of the end of the twelfth century        <span class="ralign"><a href="#img083">162</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Hollis's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>Effigies of Richard I. and queen Berengaria      <span class="ralign"><a href="#img084">164</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Stothard's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>Part of the choir of Ripon cathedral, built during
+  the last quarter of the twelfth century       <span class="ralign"><a href="#img085">166</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Scott's</i> 'Mediæval Architecture,' London, J. Murray)</li>
+
+<li>Lay costumes in the twelfth century    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img086">168</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Costume of shepherds in the twelfth century     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img087">168</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From</i> Cott. MS. Nero C. iv. ff. 11 and 16)</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexxii" name="pagexxii"></a>(p. xxii)</span> Hall of Oakham castle, Rutland, built about 1185      <span class="ralign"><a href="#img088">170</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Hudson Turner's</i> 'Domestic Architecture')</li>
+
+<li>Norman house at Lincoln, called the Jews' House   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img089">171</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a photograph by Carl Norman, Tunbridge Wells</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Effigies of king John and queen Isabella      <span class="ralign"><a href="#img090">175</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Stothard's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>Effigy of bishop Marshall of Exeter, died 1206   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img091">177</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Murray's</i> 'Handbook to the Southern Cathedrals')</li>
+
+<li>Parsonage house of early thirteenth-century date at West Dean, Sussex   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img092">179</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Hudson Turner's</i> 'Domestic Architecture')</li>
+
+<li>Effigy of a knight in the Temple church, London,
+  showing armour worn between 1190 and 1225        <span class="ralign"><a href="#img093">182</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Stothard's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>Silver penny of John, struck at Dublin  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img094">184</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From an original example</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Effigy of Henry III. (From his tomb at Westminster)  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img095">186</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Effigy of William Longespée, earl of Salisbury,
+  died 1227, from his tomb at Salisbury, showing armour
+  worn from about 1225 to 1250            <span class="ralign"><a href="#img096">187</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Stothard's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>Effigy of Simon, bishop of Exeter, died 1223   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img097">188</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Murray's</i> 'Handbook to the Southern Cathedrals')</li>
+
+<li>Beverley Minster, Yorkshire, the south transept;
+  built about 1220&mdash;1230                      <span class="ralign"><a href="#img098">189</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Britton's</i> 'Architectural Antiquities')</li>
+
+<li>Longthorpe manor house, Northamptonshire, built about 1235   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img099">192</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Hudson Turner's</i> 'Domestic Architecture')</li>
+
+<li>A ship in the reign of Henry III.  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img100">193</a></span></li>
+
+<li>A bed in the reign of Henry III.     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img101">196</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From</i> Cott. MS. Nero D. i. ff. 21 and 22 <i>b</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Barn of thirteenth-century date at Raunds, Northamptonshire   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img102">197</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Hudson Turner's</i> 'Domestic Architecture')</li>
+
+<li>A fight between armed and mounted knights of the time of Henry III. <span class="ralign"><a href="#img103">201</a></span><br>
+        (<i>From</i> Cott. MS. Nero D. i. f. 4)</li>
+
+<li>Seal of Robert Fitzwalter, showing a mounted knight
+  in complete mail armour; date about 1265  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img104">202</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From an original impression</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Effigy of a knight at Gosperton, showing armour worn
+  from about 1250 to 1300; date about 1270      <span class="ralign"><a href="#img105">203</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Stothard's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>Building operations in the reign of Henry III., with
+  the king giving directions to the architect     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img106">204</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From</i> Cott. MS. Nero D. i. f. 23 <i>b</i>)</li>
+
+<li>East end of Westminster abbey church; begun by Henry III. in 1245  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img107">205</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a photograph</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Nave of Salisbury cathedral church, looking west;
+  date, between 1240 and 1250        <span class="ralign"><a href="#img108">206</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a photograph by Valentine &amp; Sons, Dundee</i>)</li>
+
+<li>A king and labourers in the reign of Henry III.   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img109">207</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From</i> Cott. MS. Nero D. i. f. 21 <i>b</i>)</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexxiii" name="pagexxiii"></a>(p. xxiii)</span> Great Seal of Edward I. (slightly reduced)  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img110">209</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From an original impression</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Group of armed knights and a king in ordinary
+  dress; date, <i>temp.</i> Edward I.     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img111">211</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From</i> Arundel MS. 83, f. 132)</li>
+
+<li>Nave of Lichfield cathedral church, looking east; built about 1280 <span class="ralign"><a href="#img112">213</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a photograph by Valentine &amp; Sons, Dundee</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Effigy of Eleanor of Castile, queen of Edward I.,
+  in Westminster abbey  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img113">215</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Stothard's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>Cross erected near Northampton by Edward I. in memory
+  of queen Eleanor    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img114">217</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a photograph</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Sir John d'Abernoun, died 1277, from his brass at
+  Stoke Dabernon; showing armour worn from about 1250 to 1300  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img115">219</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Waller's</i> 'Monumental Brasses')</li>
+
+<li>Edward II. from his monument in Gloucester cathedral  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img116">225</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Stothard's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>Lincoln cathedral, the central tower; built about 1310  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img117">227</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Britton's</i> 'Architectural Antiquities')</li>
+
+<li>Sir John de Creke, from his brass at Westley
+  Waterless, Cambridgeshire; showing armour worn between
+  1300 and 1335 or 1340; date, about 1325    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img118">229</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Waller's</i> 'Monumental Brasses')</li>
+
+<li>Howden church, Yorkshire, the west front     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img119">230</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Rickman's</i> 'Gothic Architecture,' 7th edition, by J. H. Parker)</li>
+
+<li>Effigies of Edward III. and queen Philippa, from
+  their tombs in Westminster abbey   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img120">233</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Blore's</i> 'Monumental Remains')</li>
+
+<li>A knight&mdash;Sir Geoffrey Luttrell, who died
+  1345&mdash;receiving his helm and pennon from his wife;
+  another lady holds his shield   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img121">236</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From the Luttrell Psalter</i>, 'Vetusta Monumenta')</li>
+
+<li>William of Hatfield, second son of Edward III.,
+  from his tomb in York Minster    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img122">237</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Stothard's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>York Minster, the nave, looking west   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img123">238</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a photograph by Valentine &amp; Sons, Dundee</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Royal Arms of Edward III., from his tomb   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img124">239</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a photograph</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Shooting at the butts with the long bow   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img125">241</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Contemporary view of a fourteenth-century walled town   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img126">243</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From the Luttrell Psalter</i>, 'Vetusta Monumenta')</li>
+
+<li>Gloucester cathedral church, the choir, looking east    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img127">244</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a photograph by Valentine &amp; Sons, Dundee</i>)</li>
+
+<li>The lord's upper chamber or solar at Sutton Courtenay
+  manor-house; date, about 1350  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img128">245</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Interior of the hall at Penshurst, Kent; built about 1340  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img129">246</a></span></li>
+
+<li>A small house or cottage at Meare, Somerset; built about 1350 <span class="ralign"><a href="#img130">247</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Norborough Hall, Northamptonshire; built about 1350    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img131">247</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Hudson Turner's</i> 'Domestic Architecture')</li>
+
+<li>Ploughing   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img132">248</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Harrowing; and a boy slinging stones at the birds  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img133">248</a></span></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexxiv" name="pagexxiv"></a>(p. xxiv)</span> Breaking the clods with mallets  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img134">249</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Cutting weeds  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img135">249</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Reaping  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img136">249</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Stacking corn   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img137">250</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Threshing corn with a flail  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img138">250</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From the Luttrell Psalter</i>, 'Vetusta Monumenta')</li>
+
+<li>West front of Edington church, Wilts; built about 1360 <span class="ralign"><a href="#img139">253</a></span><br>
+      (<i>From Rickman's</i> 'Gothic Architecture,' 7th edition, by J. H. Parker)</li>
+
+<li>Gold noble of Edward III.    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img140">255</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From an original example</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Effigy of Edward the Black Prince; from his tomb at Canterbury  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img141">256</a></span><br>
+      (<i>From Stothard's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>William of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester
+  1367-1404; from his tomb at Winchester  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img142">260</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Murray's</i> 'Handbook to the Southern Cathedrals')</li>
+
+<li>Tomb of Edward III. in Westminster abbey    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img143">263</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Blore's</i> 'Monumental Remains')</li>
+
+<li>Figures of Edward the Black Prince and Lionel
+  duke of Clarence; from the tomb of Edward III. <span class="ralign"><a href="#img144">264</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Hollis's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>Richard II. and his first queen, Anne of Bohemia;
+  from their tomb in Westminster abbey    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img145">267</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Hollis's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>Portrait of Geoffrey Chaucer     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img146">270</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Harl MS. 4866</i>)</li>
+
+<li>A gentleman riding out with his hawk   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img147">271</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Carrying corn, a cart going uphill       <span class="ralign"><a href="#img148">272</a></span></li>
+
+<li>State carriage of the fourteenth century  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img149">273</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Bear-baiting         <span class="ralign"><a href="#img150">275</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From the Luttrell Psalter</i>, 'Vetusta Monumenta')</li>
+
+<li>West end of the nave of Winchester cathedral church  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img151">276</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a photograph by Valentine &amp; Sons, Dundee</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Meeting of Henry of Lancaster and Richard II. at Flint  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img152">284</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Henry of Lancaster claiming the throne   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img153">285</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Harl MS. 1319</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Effigy of a knight at Clehonger, showing development
+  of plate armour; date about 1400    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img154">287</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Hollis's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>Henry IV. and his queen Joan of Navarre; from their
+  tomb in Canterbury cathedral church   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img155">290</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Stothard's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>Royal arms as borne from about 1408 to 1603   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img156">291</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a fifteenth-century seal</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Thomas Cranley, archbishop of Dublin; from his
+  brass at New College, Oxford, showing the archiepiscopal
+  costume       <span class="ralign"><a href="#img157">292</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Waller's</i> 'Monumental Brasses')</li>
+
+<li>The Battle of Shrewsbury     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img158">294</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Fight in the lists with poleaxes    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img159">297</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From</i> Cott. MS. Julius E. iv. ff. 4 and 7)</li>
+
+<li>Costume of a judge about 1400; from a brass at Deerhurst    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img160">298</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Waller's</i> 'Monumental Brasses')</li>
+
+<li>Henry V.     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img161">300</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From an original portrait belonging to the Society of Antiquaries</i>)</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexxv" name="pagexxv"></a>(p. xxv)</span> 154. Effigy of William Phelip, lord Bardolph; from
+  his tomb at Dennington, Suffolk    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img162">304</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Stothard's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>Marriage of Henry V. and Catherine of France   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img163">305</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From</i> Cott. MS. Julius E. iv. f. 22)</li>
+
+<li>Henry VI.       <span class="ralign"><a href="#img164">308</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From an original picture in the National Portrait Gallery</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Fotheringay church, Northamptonshire; begun in 1434  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img165">311</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a photograph by G. A. Nichols, Stamford</i>)</li>
+
+<li>159. Front and back views of the gilt-latten
+  effigy of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, died
+  1439; from his tomb at Warwick    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img166">314</a>, <a href="#img167">315</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Stothard's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li value="160">Tattershall castle, Lincolnshire; built between 1433 and 1455  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img168">316</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a photograph by G. A. Nichols, Stamford</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Part of Winfield manor-house, Derbyshire; built about 1440  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img169">318</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a photograph by R. Keene, Derby</i>)</li>
+
+<li>The Divinity School, Oxford; built between 1445 and 1454   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img170">319</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a photograph by W. H. Wheeler, Oxford</i>)</li>
+
+<li>A sea-fight          <span class="ralign"><a href="#img171">325</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From</i> Cott. MS. Julius E. iv. f. 18 <i>b</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Effigy of Sir Robert Harcourt, K.G., showing
+  armour worn from about 1445 to 1480     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img172">326</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Stothard's</i> 'Monumental Effigies')</li>
+
+<li>Edward IV.        <span class="ralign"><a href="#img173">330</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From an original portrait belonging to the Society of Antiquaries</i>)</li>
+
+<li>A fifteenth-century ship     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img174">333</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From</i> Harl. MS. 2278, f. 16)</li>
+
+<li>Large ship and boat of the fifteenth century   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img175">339</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From</i> Cott. MS. Julius E. iv. f. 5)</li>
+
+<li>Richard III.          <span class="ralign"><a href="#img176">341</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From an original portrait belonging to the Society of Antiquaries</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Henry VII.     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img177">344</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Elizabeth of York, queen of Henry VII.     <span class="ralign"><a href="#img178">345</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From original pictures in the National Portrait Gallery</i>)</li>
+
+<li>Tudor Rose; from the chapel of Henry VII., Westminster  <span class="ralign"><a href="#img179">346</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Tower of St. Mary's church, Taunton; built about 1500    <span class="ralign"><a href="#img180">353</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From Britton's</i> 'Architectural Antiquities')</li>
+
+<li>King's College Chapel, Cambridge; interior, looking east   <span class="ralign"><a href="#img181">355</a></span><br>
+       (<i>From a photograph by Valentine &amp; Sons, Dundee</i>)</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexxvii" name="pagexxvii"></a>(p. xxvii)</span> GENEALOGICAL TABLES</h2>
+
+<h3>I<br>
+<i>ENGLISH KINGS FROM ECGBERHT TO HENRY I.</i></h3>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="center"><span class="smcap">Ecgberht</span><br>802-839</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="center"><span class="smcap">Æthelwulf</span><br>839-858</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Æthelbald</span><br>858-860</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Æthelberht</span><br>860-866</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Æthelred</span><br>866-871</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Ælfred</span><br>871-901</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="13" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="13" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Eadward</span><br>the Elder<br>899-924</td>
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Æthelflæd</span><br>(the Lady of the Mercians)</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Æthelred</span><br>Ealdorman of the Mercians</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Æthelstan</span><br>924-940</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Eadmund</span><br>940-946</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Eadred</span><br>946-955</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="12">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="12">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Eadwig</span><br>955-959</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">Æthelflæd</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Eadgar</span><br>959-975</td>
+<td class="right">=</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">Ælfthryth</td>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">Richard I.<br>Duke of Normandy</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">Svend</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Eadward</span><br>the Martyr<br>975-979</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">Ælfled</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Æthelred the Unready</span><br>979-1016</td>
+<td class="right">=</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Emma</span></td>
+<td class="left" colspan="2">=</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Cnut</span><br>1016-1035</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Eadmund</span><br>Ironside<br>1016</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Harold</span><br>1036-1039</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Harthacnut</span><br>1039-1042</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Godwine</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Eadmund</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Eadward<br>the Ætheling</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Ælfred<br>the Ætheling</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center"><span class="smcap">Eadward</span><br>the Confessor<br>1042-1066</td>
+<td class="center">=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Eadgyth</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="center"><span class="smcap">Harold</span><br>1066</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="14">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="11">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="11">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Eadgar<br>the Ætheling</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Margaret</td>
+<td class="right">=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Malcolm Canmore</td>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="11" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Eadgyth<br>(Matilda)</td>
+<td class="center">=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry</span> I.<br>1100-1135</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexxviii" name="pagexxviii"></a>(p. xxviii)</span> II<br>
+<i>GENEALOGY OF THE NORMAN DUKES AND OF THE KINGS OF ENGLAND FROM THE
+CONQUEST TO HENRY VII.</i></h3>
+
+<table  border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="16" class="center">Hrolf<br>912-927 (?)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="16" class="center">William Longsword<br>927 (?)-943</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="16" class="center">Richard I., the Fearless<br>943-996</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Richard II., the Good<br>996-1026</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Emma</td>
+<td class="right">=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">(1) Æthelred<br>the Unready</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Richard III.<br>1026-1028</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Robert<br>1028-1035</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Eadward</span><br>the Confessor</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right_dot">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right_dot">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">William I</span><br>1035-1087<br>
+  King of England<br>1066-1087</td>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Robert<br>Duke of Normandy<br>1087-1106</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">William II</span><br>1087-1100</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry I.</span><br>1100-1135</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">Adela</td>
+<td class="right">=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Stephen<br>Count of Blois</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Henry V.<br>Emperor</td>
+<td class="right">=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Matilda</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Geoffrey<br>Count of Anjou</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Stephen</span><br>1135-1154</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="16" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry II.</span><br>1154-1189</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Henry</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Geoffrey</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Richard I.</span><br>1189-1199</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">John</span><br>1199-1216</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="14" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="13">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry III.</span><br>1216-1272</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="16" class="center"><span class="smcap">Edward I.</span><br>1272-1307</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="16" class="center"><span class="smcap">Edward II.</span><br>1307-1327</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="16" class="center"><span class="smcap">Edward III</span><br>1327-1377</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edward<br>the Black Prince</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Lionel<br>Duke of Clarence</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">John of Gaunt<br>Duke of Lancaster</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edmund<br>Duke of York</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Richard II.</span><br>1377-1399</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Philippa</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edmund<br>Mortimer<br>Earl of March</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry IV.</span><br>1399-1412</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry V.</span><br>1413-1422</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Roger, Earl of March</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry VI.</span><br>1422-1461</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edmund<br>Earl of March</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Anne</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Richard<br>Earl of Cambridge</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Richard,<br>Duke of York</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Edward IV.</span><br>1461-1483</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Richard III.</span><br>1483-1485</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Edward V.</span><br>1483</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Elizabeth</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry VII.</span><br>1485-1509<br>
+  (Descended from John of Gaunt by Catherine Swynford)</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexxx" name="pagexxx"></a>(p. xxx)</span> III<br>
+<i>GENEALOGY OF THE KINGS OF SCOTLAND FROM DUNCAN I. TO JAMES IV.</i></h3>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">Duncan I.</span><br>(died 1057)</td>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Margaret<br>sister of Edgar Ætheling</td>
+<td class="right">=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Malcolm III.</span><br>Canmore<br>1057-1093</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_bottom_dot">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Donald Bane</span><br>1093-1094,<br>restored<br>1095-1098</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right_dot">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Duncan II.</span><br>1094-1095</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Edgar</span><br>1098-1107</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Alexander I.</span><br>1107-1124</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">David I.</span><br>1124-1153</td>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Henry</td>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Malcolm IV.</span><br>1153-1165</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">William</span><br>the Lion<br>1165-1214</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">David<br>Earl of Huntingdon</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Alexander II.</span><br>1214-1249</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Margaret</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Isabella</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Devorguilla</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">John Balliol</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Robert Bruce</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">Alexander III.</span><br>1249-1285</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">John Balliol</span><br>1292-1296</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Robert Bruce</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="11" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Margaret</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Eric,<br>King of Norway</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Robert Bruce</span><br>1306-1329</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Margaret<br>(the Maid of Norway)</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">David II.</span><br>1329-1370</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Margaret</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="center">Walter</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">Robert II.</span>, Stewart or Stuart<br>1370-1390</td>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">Robert III.</span><br>1390-1406</td>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">James I.</span><br>1406-1437</td>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">James II.</span><br>1437-1460</td>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">James III.</span><br>1460-1488</td>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">James IV.</span><br>1488-1513</td>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexxxi" name="pagexxxi"></a>(p. xxxi)</span> IV<br>
+<i>GENEALOGY OF THE KINGS OF FRANCE FROM HUGH CAPET TO LOUIS XII.</i></h3>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="center">Hugh the Great<br>(died 956)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="center"><span class="smcap">Hugh Capet</span><br>987-996</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="center"><span class="smcap">Robert</span><br>996-1031</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry I.</span><br>1031-1060</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="center"><span class="smcap">Philip I.</span><br>1060-1108</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="center"><span class="smcap">Louis VI.</span><br>1108-1137</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="center"><span class="smcap">Louis VII.</span><br>1137-1180</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="center"><span class="smcap">Philip II.</span><br>1180-1223</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="center"><span class="smcap">Louis VIII.</span><br>1223-1226</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="center">(St.) <span class="smcap">Louis IX</span><br>1226-1270</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="center"><span class="smcap">Philip III.</span><br>1270-1285</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Philip IV.</span><br>1283-1314</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Charles of Valois</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Louis X.</span><br>1314-1316</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Philip V.</span><br>1316-1322</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Charles IV.</span><br>1322-1328</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Isabella<br><i>m.</i> Edward II.</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Philip VI</span><br>1328-1350</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Jeanne </td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">John</span><br>(died seven days old)</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Two daughters</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edward III.</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">John</span><br>1350-1364</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Charles V.</span><br>1364-1380</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><i>Dukes of Burgundy</i><br>Philip</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">Charles VI.</span><br>1380-1422</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Louis<br>Duke of Orleans</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">John</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">Charles VII.</span><br>1422-1461</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Charles<br>Duke of Orleans</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Philip</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">Louis XI.</span><br>1461-1483</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Louis XII.<br>1498-1519</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Charles</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="15">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">Charles VIII.</span><br>1483-1498</td>
+<td colspan="13">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexxxii" name="pagexxxii"></a>(p. xxxii)</span> <i>SHORTER AND SOMETIMES MORE DETAILED GENEALOGIES<br> will be
+found in the following pages.</i></h3>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>&nbsp;<span class="ralign">PAGE</span></li>
+<li>Genealogy of the principal Northumbrian kings        <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote2">41</a></span></li>
+<li class="add3em"><span class="spaced3em">" "</span><span class="add2em">English</span> kings from Ecgberht to Eadgar    <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote3">56</a></span></li>
+<li class="add3em"><span class="spaced3em">" "</span><span class="add2em">English</span> kings from Eadgar to Eadgar the Ætheling   <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote4">78</a></span></li>
+<li class="add3em"><span class="spaced3em">" "</span><span class="add2em">Danish</span> kings      <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote5">83</a></span></li>
+<li>Genealogical connection between the Houses of England and Normandy    <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote6">84</a></span></li>
+<li>Genealogy of the Mercian Earls        <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote7">85</a></span></li>
+<li class="add3em"><span class="spaced3em">" "</span><span class="add2em">family</span> of Godwine       <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote8">89</a></span></li>
+<li class="add3em"><span class="spaced3em">" "</span><span class="add2em">Conqueror's</span> sons and children    <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote9">131</a></span></li>
+<li class="add3em"><span class="spaced3em">" "</span><span class="add2em">sons</span> and grandchildren of Henry II.  <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote12">156</a></span></li>
+<li class="add3em"><span class="spaced3em">" "</span><span class="add2em">John's</span> sons and grandsons     <span class="ralign"><a href="#page208">208</a></span></li>
+<li class="add3em"><span class="spaced3em">" "</span><span class="add2em">claimants</span> of the Scottish throne    <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote15">216</a></span></li>
+<li class="add3em"><span class="spaced3em">" "</span><span class="add2em">more</span> important sons of Edward III.   <span class="ralign"><a href="#page265">265</a></span></li>
+<li class="add3em"><span class="spaced3em">" "</span><span class="add2em">claimants</span> of the throne in 1399    <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote27">286</a></span></li>
+<li class="add3em"><span class="spaced3em">" "</span><span class="add2em">kings</span> of Scotland from Robert Bruce to James I.  <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote28">295</a></span></li>
+<li class="add3em"><span class="spaced3em">" "</span><span class="add2em">Nevills</span>        <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote30">324</a></span></li>
+<li class="add3em"><span class="spaced3em">" "</span><span class="add2em">Houses</span> of Lancaster and York   <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote31">327</a></span></li>
+<li class="add3em"><span class="spaced3em">" "</span><span class="add2em">Beauforts</span> and Tudors    <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote32">335</a></span></li>
+<li class="add3em"><span class="spaced3em">" "</span><span class="add2em">House</span> of York    <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote34">337</a></span></li>
+<li class="add3em"><span class="spaced3em">" "</span><span class="add2em">Woodvilles</span> and Greys  <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote35">338</a></span></li>
+<li>Abbreviated genealogy of Henry VII. and his competitors   <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote36">344</a></span></li>
+<li>Genealogy of the Houses of Spain and Burgundy     <span class="ralign"><a href="#footnote39">349</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<h1><span class="pagenum"><a id="page001" name="page001"></a>(p. 001)</span> HISTORY OF ENGLAND.</h1>
+
+<h2>PART I.<br>
+<i>ENGLAND BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST.</i></h2>
+
+<a id="chap1" name="chap1"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER I.<br>
+PREHISTORIC AND ROMAN BRITAIN.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Cæsar's first invasion       <span class="right10"><span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 55</span></li>
+<li>Invasion of Aulus Plautius   <span class="right10"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 43</span></li>
+<li>Recall of Agricola           <span class="right10">84</span></li>
+<li>Severus in Britain           <span class="right10">208</span></li>
+<li>End of the Roman Government         <span class="right10">410</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="img001" name="img001"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img001.jpg" width="250" height="268" alt="" title="">
+<p>Palæolithic flint scraper from Icklingham, Suffolk.
+(Evans.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap1sec1" name="chap1sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>Palæolithic Man of the River-Drift.</b>&mdash;Countless ages ago, there was
+a period of time to which geologists have given the name of the
+Pleistocene Age. The part of the earth's surface afterwards called
+Britain was then attached to the Continent, so that animals could pass
+over on dry land. The climate was much colder than it is now, and it
+is known from the bones which have been dug up that the country was
+inhabited by wolves, bears, mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses, and other
+creatures now extinct. No human remains have been found amongst these
+bones, but there is no doubt that men existed contemporaneously with
+their deposit, because, in the river drift, or gravel washed down by
+rivers, there have been discovered flints sharpened by chipping, which
+can only have been produced by the hand of man. The men who used them
+are known as Palæolithic, or the men of ancient stone, because these
+stone implements are rougher and therefore older than others which
+have <span class="pagenum"><a id="page002" name="page002"></a>(p. 002)</span> been discovered. These Palæolithic men of the river
+drift were a race of stunted savages who did not cultivate the ground,
+but lived on the animals which they killed, and must have had great
+difficulty in procuring food, as they did not know how to make handles
+for their sharpened flints, and must therefore have had to hold them
+in their hands.</p>
+
+<p class="clear">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a id="img002" name="img002"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img002.jpg" width="250" height="375" alt="" title="">
+<p>Palæolithic flint implement from Hoxne, Suffolk.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap1sec2" name="chap1sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>Cave-dwelling Palæolithic Man.</b>&mdash;This race was succeeded by another
+which dwelt in caves. They, as well as their predecessors, are known
+as Palæolithic men, as their weapons were still very rude. As,
+however, they had learnt to make handles for them, they could
+construct arrows, harpoons, and javelins. They also made awls and
+needles of stone; and, what is more remarkable, they possessed a
+decided artistic power, which enabled them to indicate by a few
+vigorous scratches the forms of horses, mammoths, reindeer, and other
+animals. Vast heaps of rubbish still exist in various parts of Europe,
+which are found to consist of the bones, shells, and other refuse
+thrown out by these later Palæolithic men, who had no reverence for
+the dead, casting out the bodies of their relations to decay with as
+little thought as they threw away oyster-shells or <span class="pagenum"><a id="page003" name="page003"></a>(p. 003)</span>
+reindeer-bones. Traces of Palæolithic men of this type have been found
+as far north as Derbyshire. Their descendants are no longer be met
+with in these islands. The Eskimos of the extreme north of America,
+however, have the same artistic faculty and the same disregard for the
+dead, and it has therefore been supposed that the cave-dwelling men
+were of the race to which the modern Eskimos belong.</p>
+
+
+<a id="img003" name="img003"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img003.jpg" width="500" height="171" alt="" title="">
+<p>Engraved bone from Cresswell Crags, Derbyshire, now in
+the British Museum (full size).</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="img004" name="img004"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img004.jpg" width="250" height="257" alt="" title="">
+<p>Neolithic flint arrow-head from Rudstone, Yorks.
+(Evans.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="img005" name="img005"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img005.jpg" width="250" height="259" alt="" title="">
+<p>Neolithic celt or cutting instrument from Guernsey.
+(Evans.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="clear">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a id="img006" name="img006"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img006.jpg" width="300" height="180" alt="" title="">
+<p>Neolithic axe from Winterbourn Steepleton, Dorset.
+(Evans.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap1sec3" name="chap1sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>Neolithic Man.</b>&mdash;Ages passed away during which the climate became
+more temperate, and the earth's surface in these regions sank to a
+lower level. The seas afterwards known as the North Sea and the
+English Channel flowed over the depression; and an island was thus
+formed out of land which had once been part of the continent. After
+this process had taken place, a third race appeared, which must have
+crossed the sea in rafts or canoes, and which took the place of the
+Palæolithic men. They are known as Neolithic, or men of the new stone
+age, because their stone implements were of a newer kind, being
+polished and more efficient than those of their predecessors. They
+had, therefore, the advantage of superior <span class="pagenum"><a id="page004" name="page004"></a>(p. 004)</span> weapons, and
+perhaps of superior strength, and were able to overpower those whom
+they found in the island. With their stone axes they made clearings in
+the woods in which to place their settlements. They brought with them
+domestic animals, sheep and goats, dogs and pigs. They spun thread
+with spindle and distaff, and wove it into cloth upon a loom. They
+grew corn and manufactured a rude kind of pottery. Each tribe lived in
+a state of war with its neighbours. A tribe when attacked in force
+took shelter on the hills in places of refuge, which were surrounded
+by lofty mounds and ditches. Many of these places of refuge are still
+to be seen, as, for instance, the one which bears the name of Maiden
+Castle, near Dorchester. On the open hills, too, are still to be found
+the long barrows which the Neolithic men raised over the dead. There
+is little doubt that these men, whose way of life was so superior to
+that of their Eskimo-like predecessors, were of the race now known
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page005" name="page005"></a>(p. 005)</span> as Iberian, which at one time inhabited a great part of
+Western Europe, but which has since mingled with other races. The
+Basques of the Pyrenees are the only Iberians who still preserve
+anything like purity of descent, though even the Basques have in them
+blood the origin of which is not Iberian.</p>
+
+<a id="img007" name="img007"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img007.jpg" width="500" height="383" alt="" title="">
+<p>Early British Pottery.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="img008" name="img008"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img008.jpg" width="250" height="624" alt="" title="">
+<p>Early British Pottery.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap1sec4" name="chap1sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>Celts and Iberians.</b>&mdash;The Iberians were followed by a swarm of
+new-comers called Celts. The Celts belong to a group of races
+sometimes known as the Aryan group, to which also belong Teutons,
+Slavonians, Italians, Greeks, and the chief ancient races of Persia
+and India. The Celts were the first to arrive in the West, where they
+seized upon lands in Spain, in Gaul, and in Britain, which the
+Iberians had occupied before them. They did not, however, destroy the
+Iberians altogether. However careful a conquering tribe maybe to
+preserve the purity of its blood, it rarely succeeds in doing so. The
+conquerors <span class="pagenum"><a id="page006" name="page006"></a>(p. 006)</span> are sure to preserve some of the men of the
+conquered race as slaves, and a still larger number of young and
+comely women who become the mothers of their children. In time the
+slaves and the children learn to speak the language of their masters
+or fathers. Thus every European population is derived from many races.</p>
+
+<a id="img009" name="img009"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 130px;">
+<img src="images/img009.jpg" width="120" height="333" alt="" title="">
+<p>Bronze celt from the Isle of Harty, Kent (&frac12;).</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap1sec5" name="chap1sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>The Celts in Britain.</b>&mdash;The Celts were fair-haired and taller than
+the Iberians, whom they conquered or displaced. They had the advantage
+of being possessed of weapons of bronze, for which even the polished
+stone weapons of the Iberians were no match. They burned instead of
+burying their dead, and raised over the ashes those round barrows
+which are still to be found intermingled with the long barrows of the
+Iberians.</p>
+
+<a id="img010" name="img010"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 130px;">
+<img src="images/img010.jpg" width="120" height="369" alt="" title="">
+<p>Bronze lance-head found in Ireland.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="img011" name="img011"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 410px;">
+<img src="images/img011.jpg" width="400" height="273" alt="" title="">
+<p>Bronze caldron found in Ireland.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap1sec6" name="chap1sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>Goidels and Britons.</b>&mdash;The earliest known name given to this island
+was Albion. It is uncertain whether the word is of Celtic or of
+Iberian origin. The later name Britain is derived from a second swarm
+of Celts called Brythons or Britons, who after a long interval
+followed the first Celtic immigration. The descendants of these first
+immigrants are distinguished from the new-comers by the name of
+Goidels, and it is probable that they were at one time settled in
+Britain as well as in Ireland, and that they were pushed across the
+sea into Ireland by the stronger and more civilised Britons. At all
+events, when history begins Goidels were only to be found in Ireland,
+though at a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page007" name="page007"></a>(p. 007)</span> later time they colonised a part of what is now
+known as Scotland, and sent some offshoots into Wales. At present the
+languages derived from that of the Goidels are the Gaelic of the
+Highlands, the Manx of the Isle of Man, and the Erse of Ireland. The
+only language now spoken in the British Isles which is derived from
+that of the Britons is the Welsh; but the old Cornish language, which
+was spoken nearly up to the close of the eighteenth century, came from
+the same stock. It is therefore likely that the Britons pushed the
+Goidels northward and westward, as the Goidels had formerly pushed the
+Iberians in the same directions. It was most likely that the Britons
+erected the huge stone circle of Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain, though
+it is not possible to speak with certainty. That of Avebury is of an
+earlier date and uncertain origin. Both were probably intended to
+serve as monuments of the dead, though it is sometimes supposed that
+they were also used as temples.</p>
+
+<p class="clear">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a id="img012" name="img012"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img012.jpg" width="500" height="376" alt="" title="">
+<p>View of Stonehenge. (From a photograph.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap1sec7" name="chap1sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>Ph&oelig;nicians and Greeks.</b>&mdash;The most civilised nations of the
+ancient world were those which dwelt round the Mediterranean Sea. It
+was long supposed that the Ph&oelig;nicians came to Britain <span class="pagenum"><a id="page008" name="page008"></a>(p. 008)</span>
+from the coast of Syria, or from their colonies at Carthage and in the
+south of Spain, for the tin which they needed for the manufacture of
+bronze. The peninsula of Devon and Cornwall is the only part of the
+island which produces tin, and it has therefore been thought that the
+Cassiterides, or tin islands, which the Ph&oelig;nicians visited, were to
+be found in that region. It has, however, been recently shown that the
+Cassiterides were most probably off the coast of Galicia, in Spain,
+and the belief that Ph&oelig;nicians visited Britain for tin must
+therefore be considered to be very doubtful. The first educated
+visitor who reached Britain was Pytheas, a Greek, who was sent by the
+merchants of the Greek colony of Massalia (<i>Marseilles</i>) about <b>330</b>
+<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> to make discoveries which might lead to the opening across Gaul
+of a trade-route between Britain and their city. It was probably in
+consequence of the information which he carried to Massalia on his
+return that there sprang up a trade in British tin. Another Greek,
+Posidonius, who came to Britain about two centuries after Pytheas,
+found this trade in full working order. The tin was brought by land
+from the present Devon or Cornwall to an island called Ictis, which
+was only accessible on foot after the tide had ebbed. This island was
+probably Thanet, which was in those days cut off from the mainland by
+an arm of the sea which could be crossed on foot at low water. From
+Thanet the tin was carried into Gaul across the straits, and was then
+conveyed in waggons to the Rhone to be floated down to the
+Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec8" name="chap1sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>Gauls and Belgians in Britain.</b>&mdash;During the time when this trade was
+being carried on, tribes of Gauls and Belgians landed in Britain. The
+Gauls were certainly, and the Belgians probably, of the same Celtic
+race as that which already occupied the island. The Gauls settled on
+the east coast as far as the Fens and the Wash, whilst the Belgians
+occupied the south coast, and pushed northwards towards the Somerset
+Avon. Nothing is known of the relations between the new-comers and the
+older Celtic inhabitants. Most likely those who arrived last contented
+themselves with mastering those whom they defeated, without attempting
+to exterminate them. At all events, states of some extent were formed
+by the conquerors. Thus the Cantii occupied the open ground to the
+north of the great forest which then filled the valley between the
+chalk ranges of the North and South Downs; the Trinobantes dwelt
+between the Lea and the Essex Stour; the Iceni occupied the peninsula
+between the Fens and the sea which was afterwards known as East Anglia
+(<i>Norfolk</i> and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page009" name="page009"></a>(p. 009)</span> <i>Suffolk</i>); and the Catuvellauni dwelt to the
+west of the Trinobantes, spreading over the modern Hertfordshire and
+the neighbouring districts.</p>
+
+<a id="img013" name="img013"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img013.jpg" width="500" height="339" alt="" title="">
+<p>Part of a British gold corselet found at Mold.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap1sec9" name="chap1sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>Culture and War.</b>&mdash;Though there were other states in Britain, the
+tribes which have been named had the advantage of being situated on
+the south-eastern part of the island, and therefore of being in
+commercial communication with the continental Gauls of their own race
+and language. Trade increased, and brought with it the introduction of
+some things which the Britons would not have invented for themselves.
+For instance, the inhabitants of the south-east of Britain began to
+use gold coins and decorations in imitation of those which were then
+common in Gaul. Yet, in spite of these improvements, even the most
+civilised Britons were still in a rude and barbarous condition. They
+had no towns, but dwelt in scattered huts. When they were hard pressed
+by an enemy they took refuge in an open space cleared in the woods,
+and surrounded by a high earthwork crowned by a palisade and guarded
+by felled trees. When they went out to battle they dyed their faces in
+order to terrify their enemies. Their warriors made use of chariots,
+dashing in them along the front of the enemy's line till they espied
+an opening in his ranks. They then leapt down and charged on foot into
+the gap. Their charioteers in the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page010" name="page010"></a>(p. 010)</span> meanwhile drove off the
+horses to a safe distance, so as to be ready to take up their comrades
+if the battle went against them.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec10" name="chap1sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>Religion of the Britons.</b>&mdash;The Celtic races worshipped many gods.
+In Gaul, the Druids, who were the ministers of religion, taught the
+doctrine of the transmigration of souls, and even gave moral
+instruction to the young. In Ireland, and perhaps in Britain, they
+were conjurers and wizards. Both in Gaul and Britain they kept up the
+traditional belief which had once been prevalent in all parts of the
+world, that the gods could only be appeased by human sacrifices. It
+was supposed that they needed either to drink human blood or to be
+supplied with human slaves, and that the only way to give them what
+they wanted was to despatch as many human beings as possible into the
+other world. The favourite way of doing this was to construct a huge
+wicker basket in the shape of a man, to cram it with men and women,
+and to set it on fire. At other times a Druid would cut open a single
+human victim, and would imagine that he could foretell the future by
+inspecting the size and appearance of the entrails.</p>
+
+<a id="img014" name="img014"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img014.jpg" width="300" height="489" alt="" title="">
+<p>Julius Cæsar. (From a bust in the British Museum.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap1sec11" name="chap1sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>The Romans in Gaul.</b> <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> <b>55</b>.&mdash;In the year <b>55</b> <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> the Celts of
+south-eastern Britain first came in contact with a Roman army. The
+Romans were a civilised people, and had been engaged for some
+centuries in conquering the peoples living round the Mediterranean.
+They possessed disciplined armies, and a regular government. By the
+beginning of the year the Roman general, Gaius Julius Cæsar, had made
+himself master of Gaul. Then, after driving back with enormous
+slaughter two German tribes which had invaded Gaul, he crossed the
+Rhine, not because he wished to conquer Germany, but because he wished
+to strike <span class="pagenum"><a id="page011" name="page011"></a>(p. 011)</span> terror into the Germans in order to render them
+unwilling to renew their attack. This march into Germany seems to have
+suggested to Cæsar the idea of invading Britain. It is most unlikely
+that he thought of conquering the island, as he had quite enough to do
+in Gaul. What he really wanted was to prevent the Britons from coming
+to the help of their kindred whom he had just subdued, and he would
+accomplish this object best by landing on their shores and showing
+them how formidable a Roman army was.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec12" name="chap1sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>Cæsar's First Invasion.</b> <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> <b>55</b>.&mdash;Accordingly, towards the end of
+August, Cæsar crossed the straits with about 10,000 men. There is some
+uncertainty about the place of his landing, but he probably first
+appeared off the spot at which Dover now stands, and then, being
+alarmed at the number of the Britons who had crowded to defend the
+coast, made his way by sea to the site of the modern Deal. There, too,
+his landing was opposed, but he managed to reach the shore with his
+army. He soon found, however, that the season was too advanced to
+enable him to accomplish anything. A storm having damaged his shipping
+and driven off the transports on which was embarked his cavalry, he
+returned to Gaul.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec13" name="chap1sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>Cæsar's Second Invasion.</b> <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> <b>54</b>&mdash;Cæsar had hitherto failed to
+strike terror into the Britons. In the following year he started in
+July, so as to have many weeks of fine weather before him, taking with
+him as many as 25,000 foot and 2,000 horse. After effecting a landing
+he pushed inland to the Kentish Stour, where he defeated the natives
+and captured one of their stockades. Good soldiers as the Romans were,
+they were never quite at home on the sea, and Cæsar was recalled to
+the coast by the news that the waves had dashed to pieces a large
+number of his ships. As soon as he had repaired the damage he resumed
+his march. His principal opponent was Cassivelaunus, the chief of the
+tribe of the Catuvellauni, who had subdued many of the neighbouring
+tribes, and whose stronghold was a stockade near the modern St.
+Albans. This chief and his followers harassed the march of the Romans
+with the rush of their chariots. If Cassivelaunus could have counted
+upon the continued support of all his warriors, he might perhaps have
+succeeded in forcing Cæsar to retreat, as the country was covered with
+wood and difficult to penetrate. Many of the tribes, however, which
+now served under him longed to free themselves from his rule. First,
+the Trinobantes and then four other tribes broke away from him and
+sought the protection of Cæsar. Cæsar, thus encouraged, dashed at his
+stockade and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page012" name="page012"></a>(p. 012)</span> carried it by storm. Cassivelaunus abandoned
+the struggle, gave hostages to Cæsar, and promised to pay a yearly
+tribute. On this Cæsar returned to Gaul. Though the tribute was never
+paid, he had gained his object. He had sufficiently frightened the
+British tribes to make it unlikely that they would give him any
+annoyance in Gaul.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec14" name="chap1sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>South-eastern Britain after Cæsar's Departure.</b> <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> <b>54</b>&mdash;<span class="smcap">A.D.</span>
+<b>43</b>.&mdash;For nearly a century after Cæsar's departure Britain was left to
+itself. The Catuvellauni recovered the predominance which they had
+lost. Their chieftain, Cunobelin, the original of Shakspere's
+Cymbeline, is thought to have been a grandson of Cassivelaunus. He
+established his power over the Trinobantes as well as over his own
+people, and made Camulodunum, the modern Colchester, his headquarters.
+Other tribes submitted to him as they had submitted to his
+grandfather. The prosperity of the inhabitants of south-eastern
+Britain increased more rapidly than the prosperity of their ancestors
+had increased before Cæsar's invasion. Traders continued to flock over
+from Gaul, bringing with them a knowledge of the arts and refinements
+of civilised life, and those arts and refinements were far greater now
+that Gaul was under Roman rule than they had been when its Celtic
+tribes were still independent. Yet, in spite of the growth of trade,
+Britain was still a rude and barbarous country. Its exports were but
+cattle and hides, corn, slaves, and hunting dogs, together with a few
+dusky pearls.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec15" name="chap1sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>The Roman Empire.</b>&mdash;The Roman state was now a monarchy. The Emperor
+was the head of the army, as well as the head of the state. Though he
+was often a cruel oppressor of the wealthy personages who lived in
+Rome itself, and whose rivalry he feared, he, for the most part,
+sought to establish his power by giving justice to the provinces which
+had once been conquered by Rome, but were now admitted to share in the
+advantages of good government which the Empire had to give. One
+consequence of the conquest of nations by Rome was that there was now
+an end to cruel wars between hostile tribes. An army was stationed on
+the frontier of the Empire to defend it against barbarian attacks. In
+the interior the Roman peace, as it was called, prevailed, and there
+was hardly any need of soldiers to keep order and to maintain
+obedience.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec16" name="chap1sec16"></a>
+<p>16. <b>The Invasion of Aulus Plautius.</b> <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> <b>43</b>.&mdash;One question which each
+Emperor had to ask himself was whether he would attempt to enlarge the
+limits of the Empire or not. For a time each Emperor had resolved to
+be content with the frontier which Cæsar <span class="pagenum"><a id="page013" name="page013"></a>(p. 013)</span> had left. There had
+consequently for many years been no thought of again invading Britain.
+At last the Emperor Claudius reversed this policy. There is reason to
+suppose that some of the British chiefs had made an attack upon the
+coasts of Gaul. However this may have been, Claudius in <b>43</b> sent Aulus
+Plautius against Togidumnus and Caratacus, the sons of Cunobelin, who
+were now ruling in their father's stead. Where one tribe has gained
+supremacy over others, it is always easy for a civilised power to gain
+allies amongst the tribes which have been subdued. Cæsar had
+overpowered Cassivelaunus by enlisting on his side the revolted
+Trinobantes, and Aulus Plautius now enlisted on his side the Regni,
+who dwelt in the present Sussex, and the Iceni, who dwelt in the
+present Norfolk and Suffolk. With their aid, Aulus Plautius, at the
+head of 40,000 men, defeated the sons of Cunobelin. Togidumnus was
+slain, and Caratacus driven into exile. The Romans then took
+possession of their lands, and, stepping into their place, established
+over the tribes chieftains who were now dependent on the Emperor
+instead of on Togidumnus and Caratacus. Claudius himself came for a
+brief visit to receive the congratulations of the army on the victory
+which his lieutenant had won. Aulus Plautius remained in Britain till
+<b>47</b>. Before he left it the whole of the country to the south of a line
+drawn from the Wash to some point on the Severn had been subjugated.
+The mines of the Mendips and of the western peninsula were too
+tempting to be left unconquered, and it is probably their attraction
+which explains the extension of Roman power at so early a date over
+the hilly country in the west.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec17" name="chap1sec17"></a>
+<p>17. <b>The Colony of Camulodunum.</b>&mdash;In <b>47</b> Aulus Plautius was succeeded by
+Ostorius Scapula. He disarmed the tribes dwelling to the west of the
+Trent, whilst he attempted to establish the Roman authority more
+firmly over those whose territory lay to the east of that river.
+Amongst these later were the Iceni, who had been hitherto allowed to
+preserve their native government in dependence on the Roman power. The
+consequence was that they rose in arms. Ostorius overpowered them, and
+then sought to strengthen his hold upon the south-east of Britain by
+founding (<b>51</b>) a Roman colony at Camulodunum, which had formerly been
+the headquarters of Cunobelin. Roman settlers&mdash;for the most part
+discharged soldiers&mdash;established themselves in the new city, bringing
+with them all that belonged to Roman life with all its conveniences
+and luxuries. Roman temples, theatres, and baths quickly rose, and
+Ostorius might fairly expect that in Britain, as in Gaul, the native
+chiefs <span class="pagenum"><a id="page014" name="page014"></a>(p. 014)</span> would learn to copy the easy life of the new
+citizens, and would settle their quarrels in Roman courts of law
+instead of taking arms on their own behalf.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec18" name="chap1sec18"></a>
+<p>18. <b>The Conquests of Ostorius Scapula.</b>&mdash;Ostorius, however, was soon
+involved in fresh troubles. Nothing is more difficult for a civilised
+power than to guard a frontier against barbarous tribes. Such tribes
+are accustomed to plunder one another, and they are quick to perceive
+that the order and peace which a civilised power establishes offers
+them a richer booty than is to be found elsewhere. The tribes beyond
+the line which Ostorius held were constantly breaking through to
+plunder the Roman territory, and he soon found that he must either
+allow the lands of Roman subjects to be plundered, or must carry war
+amongst the hostile tribes. He naturally chose the latter alternative,
+and the last years of his government were spent in wars with the
+Ordovices of Central Wales, and with the Silures of Southern Wales.
+The Silures were not only a most warlike people, but they were led by
+Caratacus, who had taken refuge with them after his defeat by Aulus
+Plautius in the east. The mountainous region which these two tribes
+defended made it difficult to subdue them, and though Caratacus was
+defeated (<b>50</b>), and ultimately captured and sent as a prisoner to Rome,
+Ostorius did not succeed in effectually mastering his hardy followers.
+The proof of his comparative failure lies in the fact that he
+established strong garrison towns along the frontier of the hilly
+region, which he would not have done unless he had considered it
+necessary to have a large number of soldiers ready to check any
+possible rising. At the northern end of the line was Deva (<i>Chester</i>),
+at the southern was Isca Silurum (<i>Caerleon upon Usk</i>) and in each of
+which was placed a whole legion, about 5,000 men. Between them was the
+smaller post of Uriconium, or more properly Viriconium (<i>Wroxeter</i>),
+the city of the Wrekin.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec19" name="chap1sec19"></a>
+<p>19. <b>Government of Suetonius Paullinus.</b> <b>58.</b>&mdash;When Suetonius Paullinus
+arrived to take up the government, he resolved to complete the
+conquest of the west by an attack on Mona (<i>Anglesey</i>). In Mona was a
+sacred place of the Druids, who gave encouragement to the still
+independent Britons by their murderous sacrifices and their
+soothsayings. When Suetonius attempted to land (<b>61</b>), a rabble of
+women, waving torches and shrieking defiance, rushed to meet him on
+the shore. Behind them the Druids stood calling down on the intruders
+the vengeance of the gods. At first the soldiers were terrified and
+shrunk back. Then they recovered courage, and put to the sword or
+thrust into the flames the priests <span class="pagenum"><a id="page015" name="page015"></a>(p. 015)</span> and their female rout.
+The Romans were tolerant of the religion of the peoples whom they
+subdued, but they could not put up with the continuance of a cruel
+superstition whose upholders preached resistance to the Roman
+government.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec20" name="chap1sec20"></a>
+<p>20. <b>Boadicea's Insurrection.</b> <b>61.</b>&mdash;At the very moment of success
+Suetonius was recalled hurriedly to the east. Roman officers and
+traders had misused the power which had been given them by the valour
+of Roman soldiers. Might had been taken for right, and the natives
+were stripped of their lands and property at the caprice of the
+conquerors. Those of the natives to whom anything was left were called
+upon to pay a taxation far too heavy for their means. When money was
+not to be found to satisfy the tax-gatherer, a Roman usurer was always
+at hand to proffer the required sum at enormous interest, after which
+the unhappy borrower who accepted the proposal soon found himself
+unable to pay the debt, and was stripped of all that he possessed to
+satisfy the cravings of the lender. Those who resisted this oppression
+were treated as the meanest criminals. Boadicea, the widow of
+Prasutagus, who had been the chief of the Iceni, was publicly flogged,
+and her two daughters were subjected to the vilest outrage. She called
+upon the whole Celtic population of the east and south to rise against
+the foreign tyrants. Thousands answered to her call, and the angry
+host rushed to take vengeance upon the colonists of Camulodunum. The
+colonists had neglected to fortify their city, and the insurgents,
+bursting in, slew by the sword or by torture men and women alike. The
+massacre spread wherever Romans were to be found. A Roman legion
+hastening to the rescue was routed, and the small force of cavalry
+attached to it alone succeeded in making its escape. Every one of the
+foot soldiers was slaughtered on the spot. It is said that 70,000
+Romans perished in the course of a few days.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec21" name="chap1sec21"></a>
+<p>21. <b>The Vengeance of Suetonius.</b>&mdash;Suetonius was no mean general, and he
+hastened back to the scene of destruction. He called on the commander
+of the legion at Isca Silurum to come to his help. Cowardice was rare
+in a Roman army, but this officer was so unnerved by terror that he
+refused to obey the orders of his general, and Suetonius had to march
+without him. He won a decisive victory at some unknown spot, probably
+not far from Camulodunum, and 80,000 Britons are reported to have been
+slain by the triumphant soldiery. Boadicea committed suicide by
+poison. The commander of the legion at Isca Silurum also put an end to
+his own life, in order to escape the punishment which he deserved.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page016" name="page016"></a>(p. 016)</span> Suetonius had restored the Roman authority in Britain, but
+it was to his failure to control his subordinates that the
+insurrection had been due, and he was therefore promptly recalled by
+the Emperor Nero. From that time no more is heard of the injustice of
+the Roman government.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec22" name="chap1sec22"></a>
+<p>22. <b>Agricola in Britain.</b> <b>78&mdash;84.</b>&mdash;Agricola, who arrived as governor in
+<b>78</b>, took care to deal fairly with all sorts of men, and to make the
+natives thoroughly satisfied with his rule. He completed the conquest
+of the country afterwards known as Wales, and thereby pushed the
+western frontier of Roman Britain to the sea. Yet from the fact that
+he found it necessary still to leave garrisons at Deva and Isca
+Silurum, it may be gathered that the tribes occupying the hill country
+were not so thoroughly subdued as to cease to be dangerous. Although
+the idea entertained by Ostorius of making a frontier on land towards
+the west had thus been abandoned, it was still necessary to provide a
+frontier towards the north. Even before Agricola arrived it had been
+shown to be impossible to stop at the line between the Mersey and the
+Humber. Beyond that line was the territory of the Brigantes, who had
+for some time occupied the position which in the first years of the
+Roman conquest had been occupied by the Iceni&mdash;that is to say, they
+were in friendly dependence upon Rome, without being actually
+controlled by Roman authority. Before Agricola's coming disputes had
+arisen with them, and Roman soldiers had occupied their territory.
+Agricola finished the work of conquest. He now governed the whole of
+the country as far north as to the Solway and the Tyne, and he made
+Eboracum, the name of which changed in course of time into York, the
+centre of Roman power in the northern districts. A garrison was
+established there to watch for any danger which might come from the
+extreme north, as the garrisons of Deva and Isca Silurum watched for
+dangers which might come from the west.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec23" name="chap1sec23"></a>
+<p>23. <b>Agricola's Conquests in the North.</b>&mdash;Agricola thought that there
+would be no real peace unless the whole island was subdued. For seven
+years he carried on warfare with this object before him. He had
+comparatively little difficulty in reducing to obedience the country
+south of the narrow isthmus which separates the estuary of the Clyde
+from the estuary of the Forth. Before proceeding further he drew a
+line of forts across that isthmus to guard the conquered country from
+attack during his absence. He then made his way to the Tay, but he had
+not marched far up the valley of that river before he reached the edge
+of the Highlands. The Caledonians, as the Romans then called the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page017" name="page017"></a>(p. 017)</span> inhabitants of those northern regions, were a savage race,
+and the mountains in the recesses of which they dwelt were rugged and
+inaccessible, offering but little means of support to a Roman army. In
+<b>84</b> the Caledonians, who, like all barbarians when they first come in
+contact with a civilised people, were ignorant of the strength of a
+disciplined army, came down from their fortresses in the mountains
+into the lower ground. A battle was fought near the Graupian Hill,
+which seems to have been situated at the junction of the Isla and the
+Tay. Agricola gained a complete victory, but he was unable to follow
+the fugitives into their narrow glens, and he contented himself with
+sending his fleet to circumnavigate the northern shores of the island,
+so as to mark out the limits of the land which he still hoped to
+conquer. Before the fleet returned, however, he was recalled by the
+Emperor Domitian. It has often been said that Domitian was jealous of
+his success; but it is possible that the Emperor really thought that
+the advantage to be gained by the conquest of rugged mountains would
+be more than counterbalanced by the losses which would certainly be
+incurred in consequence of the enormous difficulty of the task.</p>
+
+<a id="img015" name="img015"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img015.jpg" width="300" height="201" alt="" title="">
+<p>Commemorative tablet of the Second Legion found at
+Halton Chesters on the Roman Wall.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap1sec24" name="chap1sec24"></a>
+<p>24. <b>The Roman Walls.</b>&mdash;Agricola, in addition to his line of forts
+between the Forth and the Clyde, had erected detached forts at the
+mouth of the valleys which issue from the Highlands, in order to
+hinder the Caledonians from plundering the lower country. In <b>119</b> the
+Emperor Hadrian visited Britain. He was more disposed to defend the
+Empire than to extend it, and though he did not abandon Agricola's
+forts, he also built further south a continuous stone wall between the
+Solway and the Tyne. This wall, which, together with an earthwork of
+earlier date, formed a far stronger line of defence than the more
+northern forts, was intended to serve as a second barrier to keep out
+the wild Caledonians if they succeeded in breaking through the first.
+At a later time a lieutenant of the Emperor, Antoninus Pius, who
+afterwards <span class="pagenum"><a id="page019" name="page019"></a>(p. 019)</span> became Emperor himself, connected Agricola's
+forts between the Forth and Clyde by a continuous earthwork. In <b>208</b>
+the Emperor Severus arrived in Britain, and after strengthening still
+further the earthwork between the Forth and Clyde, he attempted to
+carry out the plans of Agricola by conquering the land of the
+Caledonians. Severus, however, failed as completely as Agricola had
+failed before him, and he died soon after his return to Eboracum.</p>
+
+<a id="img016" name="img016"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img016.jpg" width="500" height="299" alt="" title="">
+<p>View of part of the Roman Wall.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="img017" name="img017"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img017.jpg" width="500" height="334" alt="" title="">
+<p>Ruins of a Turret on the Roman Wall.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="img018" name="img018"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img018.jpg" width="400" height="320" alt="" title="">
+<p>Part of the Roman Wall at Leicester.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="img019" name="img019"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img019.jpg" width="400" height="405" alt="" title="">
+<p>Pediment of a Roman temple found at Bath.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap1sec25" name="chap1sec25"></a>
+<p>25. <b>The Roman Province of Britain.</b>&mdash;Very little is known of the
+history of the Roman province of Britain, except that it made
+considerable progress in civilisation. The Romans were great
+road-makers, and though their first object was to enable their
+soldiers to march easily from one part of the country to another, they
+thereby encouraged commercial intercourse. Forests were to some extent
+cleared away by the sides of the new roads, and fresh ground was
+thrown open to tillage. Mines were worked and country houses built,
+the remains of which are in some places still to be seen, and bear
+testimony to the increased well-being of a population which, excepting
+in the south-eastern part of the island, had at the arrival of the
+Romans been little removed from savagery. Cities sprang up in great
+numbers. Some of them were at first garrison towns, like Eboracum,
+Deva, and Isca Silurum. Others, like Verulamium, near the present St.
+Albans, occupied the sites of the old stockades once used as places of
+refuge by the Celts, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page020" name="page020"></a>(p. 020)</span> or, like Lindum, on the top of the hill
+on which Lincoln Cathedral now stands, were placed in strongly
+defensible positions. Aquæ Sulis, the modern Bath, owes its existence
+to its warm medicinal springs. The chief port of commerce was
+Londinium, the modern London. Attempts which have been made to explain
+its name by the Celtic language have failed, and it is therefore
+possible that an inhabited post existed there even before the Celts
+arrived. Its importance was, however, owing to its position, and that
+importance was not of a kind to tell before a settled system of
+commercial intercourse sprang up. London was situated on the hill on
+which St. Paul's now stands. There first, after the Thames narrowed
+into a river, the merchant found close to the stream hard ground on
+which he could land his goods. The valley for some distance above and
+below it was then filled with a wide marsh or an expanse of water. An
+old track raised above the marsh crossed the river by a ford at
+Lambeth, but, as London grew in importance, a ferry was established
+where London Bridge now stands, and the Romans, in course of time,
+superseded the ferry by a bridge. It is, therefore, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page021" name="page021"></a>(p. 021)</span> no
+wonder that the Roman roads both from the north and from the south
+converged upon London. Just as Eboracum was a fitting centre for
+military operations directed to the defence of the northern frontier,
+London was the fitting centre of a trade carried on with the
+Continent, and the place would increase in importance in proportion to
+the increase of that trade.</p>
+
+<a id="img020" name="img020"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 210px;">
+<img src="images/img020.jpg" width="200" height="390" alt="" title="">
+<p>Roman altar from Rutchester.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap1sec26" name="chap1sec26"></a>
+<p>26. <b>Extinction of Tribal Antagonism.</b>&mdash;The improvement of
+communications and the growth of trade and industry could not fail to
+influence the mind of the population. Wars between tribes, which
+before the coming of the Romans had been the main employment of the
+young and hardy, were now things of the past. The mutual hatred which
+had grown out of them had died away, and even the very names of
+Trinobantes and Brigantes were almost forgotten. Men who lived in the
+valley of the Severn came to look upon themselves as belonging to the
+same people as men who lived in the valleys of the Trent or the
+Thames. The active and enterprising young men were attracted to the
+cities, at first by the novelty of the luxurious habits in which they
+were taught to indulge, but afterwards because they were allowed to
+take part in the management of local business. In the time of the
+Emperor Caracalla, the son of Severus, every freeman born in the
+Empire was declared to be a Roman citizen, and long before that a
+large number of natives had been admitted to citizenship. In each
+district a council was formed of the wealthier and more prominent
+inhabitants, and this council had to provide for the building of
+temples, the holding of festivals, the erection of fortifications, and
+the laying out of streets. Justice was done between man and man
+according to the Roman law, which was the best law that the world had
+seen, and the higher Roman officials, who were appointed by the
+Emperor, took care that justice was done between city and city. No one
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page022" name="page022"></a>(p. 022)</span> therefore, wished to oppose the Roman government or to bring
+back the old times of barbarism.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec27" name="chap1sec27"></a>
+<p>27. <b>Want of National Feeling.</b>&mdash;Great as was the progress made, there
+was something still wanting. A people is never at its best unless
+those who compose it have some object for which they can sacrifice
+themselves, and for which, if necessary, they will die. The Briton had
+ceased to be called upon to die for his tribe, and he was not expected
+to die for Britain. Britain had become a more comfortable country to
+live in, but it was not the business of its own inhabitants to guard
+it. It was a mere part of the vast Roman Empire, and it was the duty
+of the Emperors to see that the frontier was safely kept. They were so
+much afraid lest any particular province should wish to set up for
+itself and to break away from the Empire, that they took care not to
+employ soldiers born in that province for its protection. They sent
+British recruits to guard the Danube or the Euphrates, and Gauls,
+Spaniards, or Africans to guard the wall between the Solway and the
+Tyne, and the entrenchment between the Forth and the Clyde. Britons,
+therefore, looked on their own defence as something to be done for
+them by the Emperors, not as something to be done by themselves. They
+lived on friendly terms with one another, but they had nothing of what
+we now call patriotism.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec28" name="chap1sec28"></a>
+<p>28. <b>Carausius and Allectus.</b> <b>288&mdash;296.</b>&mdash;In <b>288</b> Carausius, with the help
+of some pirates, seized on the government of Britain and threw off the
+authority of the Emperor. He was succeeded by Allectus, yet neither
+Carausius nor Allectus thought of making himself the head of a British
+nation. They called themselves Emperors and ruled over Britain alone,
+merely because they could not get more to rule over.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec29" name="chap1sec29"></a>
+<p>29. <b>Constantius and Constantine.</b> <b>296&mdash;337.</b>&mdash;Allectus was overthrown
+and slain by Constantius, who, however, did not rule, as Carausius and
+Allectus had done, by mere right of military superiority. The Emperor
+Diocletian (<b>285&mdash;305</b>) discovered that the whole Empire, stretching
+from the Euphrates to the Atlantic, was too extensive for one man to
+govern, and he therefore decreed that there should in future be four
+governors, two principal ones named Emperors (<i>Augusti</i>), and two
+subordinate ones named Cæsars. Constantius was first a Cæsar and
+afterwards an Emperor. He was set to govern Spain, Gaul, and Britain,
+but he afterwards became Emperor himself, and for some time
+established himself at Eboracum (<i>York</i>). Upon his death (<b>306</b>), his
+son Constantine, after much fighting, made himself sole Emperor (<b>325</b>),
+overthrowing the system of Diocletian. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page023" name="page023"></a>(p. 023)</span> Yet in one respect he
+kept up Diocletian's arrangements. He placed Spain, Gaul, and Britain
+together under a great officer called a Vicar, who received orders
+from himself and who gave orders to the officers who governed each of
+the three countries. Under the new system, as under the old, Britain
+was not treated as an independent country. It had still to look for
+protection to an officer who lived on the Continent, and was therefore
+apt to be more interested in Gaul and Spain than he was in Britain.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec30" name="chap1sec30"></a>
+<p>30. <b>Christianity in Britain.</b>&mdash;When the Romans put down the Druids and
+their bloody sacrifices, they called the old Celtic gods by Roman
+names, but made no further alteration in religious usages. Gradually,
+however, Christianity spread amongst the Romans on the Continent, and
+merchants or soldiers who came from the Continent introduced it into
+Britain. Scarcely anything is known of its progress in the island.
+Alban is said to have been martyred at Verulamium, and Julius and
+Aaron at Isca Silurum. In <b>314</b> three British bishops attended a council
+held at Arles in Gaul. Little more than these few facts have been
+handed down, but there is no doubt that there was a settled Church
+established in the island. The Emperor Constantine acknowledged
+Christianity as the religion of the whole Empire. The remains of a
+church of this period have recently been discovered at Silchester.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec31" name="chap1sec31"></a>
+<p>31. <b>Weakness of the Empire.</b>&mdash;The Roman Empire in the time of
+Constantine had the appearance rather than the reality of strength.
+Its taxation was very heavy, and there was no national enthusiasm to
+lead men to sacrifice themselves in its defence. Roman citizens became
+more and more unwilling to become soldiers at all, and the Roman
+armies were now mostly composed of barbarians. At the same time the
+barbarians outside the Empire were growing stronger, as the tribes
+often coalesced into wide confederacies for the purpose of attacking
+the Empire.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec32" name="chap1sec32"></a>
+<p>32. <b>The Picts and Scots.</b>&mdash;The assailants of Britain on the north and
+the west were the Picts and Scots. The Picts were the same as the
+Caledonians of the time of Agricola. We do not know why they had
+ceased to be called Caledonians. The usual derivation of their name
+from the Latin <i>Pictus</i>, said to have been given them because they
+painted their bodies, is inaccurate. Opinions differ whether they were
+Goidels with a strong Iberian strain, or Iberians with a Goidelic
+admixture. They were probably Iberians, and at all events they were
+more savage than the Britons had been before they were influenced by
+Roman civilisation. The Scots, who afterwards settled in what is
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page024" name="page024"></a>(p. 024)</span> now known as Scotland, at that time dwelt in Ireland. Whilst
+the Picts, therefore, assailed the Roman province by land, and strove,
+not always unsuccessfully, to break through the walls which defended
+its northern frontier, the Scots crossed the Irish Sea in light boats
+to plunder and slay before armed assistance could arrive.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec33" name="chap1sec33"></a>
+<p>33. <b>The Saxons.</b>&mdash;The Saxons, who were no less deadly enemies of the
+Roman government, were as fierce and restless as the Picts and Scots,
+and were better equipped and better armed. At a later time they
+established themselves in Britain as conquerors and settlers, and
+became the founders of the English nation; but at first they were only
+known as cruel and merciless pirates. In their long flat-bottomed
+vessels they swooped down upon some undefended part of the coast and
+carried off not only the property of wealthy Romans, but even men and
+women to be sold in the slave-market. The provincials who escaped
+related with peculiar horror how the Saxons were accustomed to torture
+to death one out of every ten of their captives as a sacrifice to
+their gods.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec34" name="chap1sec34"></a>
+<p>34. <b>Origin of the Saxons.</b>&mdash;The Saxons were the more dangerous because
+it was impossible for the Romans to reach them in their homes. They
+were men of Teutonic race, speaking one of the languages, afterwards
+known as Low German, which were once spoken in the whole of North
+Germany. The Saxon pirates were probably drawn from the whole of the
+sea coast stretching from the north of the peninsula of Jutland to the
+mouth of the Ems, and if so, there were amongst them Jutes, whose
+homes were in Jutland itself; Angles, who inhabited Schleswig and
+Holstein; and Saxons, properly so called, who dwelt about the mouth of
+the Elbe and further to the west. All these peoples afterwards took
+part in the conquest of southern Britain, and it is not unlikely that
+they all shared in the original piratical attacks. Whether this was
+the case or not, the pirates came from creeks and inlets outside the
+Roman Empire, whose boundary was the Rhine, and they could therefore
+only be successfully repressed by a power with a good fleet, able to
+seek out the aggressors in their own homes and to stop the mischief at
+its source.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec35" name="chap1sec35"></a>
+<p>35. <b>The Roman Defence.</b>&mdash;The Romans had always been weak at sea, and
+they were weaker now than they had been in earlier days. They were
+therefore obliged to content themselves with standing on the
+defensive. Since the time of Severus, Britain had been divided, for
+purposes of defence, into Upper and Lower Britain. Though there is no
+absolute certainty about the matter, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page025" name="page025"></a>(p. 025)</span> it is probable that
+Upper Britain comprised the hill country of the west and north, and
+that Lower Britain was the south-eastern part of the island, marked
+off by a line drawn irregularly from the Humber to the Severn.<a id="footnotetag1" name="footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1" title="Go to footnote 1"><span class="small">[1]</span></a>
+Lower Britain in the early days of the Roman conquest had been in no
+special need of military protection. In the fourth century it was
+exposed more than the rest of the island to the attacks of the Saxon
+pirates. Fortresses were erected between the Wash and Beachy Head at
+every point at which an inlet of the sea afforded an opening to an
+invader. The whole of this part of the coast became known as the Saxon
+Shore, because it was subjected to attacks from the Saxons, and a
+special officer known as the Count of the Saxon Shore was appointed to
+take charge of it. An officer known as the Duke of the Britains (<i>Dux
+Britanniarum</i>) commanded the armies of Upper Britain; whilst a third,
+who was a civilian, and superior in rank over the other two, was the
+Count of Britain, and had a general supervision of the whole country.</p>
+
+<a id="chap1sec36" name="chap1sec36"></a>
+<p>36. <b>End of the Roman Government.</b> <b>383&mdash;410.</b>&mdash;In <b>383</b> Maximus, who was
+probably the Duke of the Britains, was proclaimed Emperor by his
+soldiers. If he could have contented himself with defending Britain,
+it would have mattered little whether he chose to call himself an
+Emperor or a Duke. Unhappily for the inhabitants of the island, not
+only did every successful soldier want to be an Emperor, but every
+Emperor wanted to govern the whole Empire. Maximus, therefore, instead
+of remaining in Britain, carried a great part of his army across the
+sea to attempt a conquest of Gaul and Spain. Neither he nor his
+soldiers ever returned, and in consequence the Roman garrison in the
+island was deplorably weakened. Early in the fifth century an
+irruption of barbarians gave full employment to the army which
+defended Gaul, so that it was impossible to replace the forces which
+had followed Maximus by fresh troops from the Continent. The Roman
+Empire was in fact breaking up. The defence of Britain was left to the
+soldiers who remained in the island, and in <b>409</b> they proclaimed a
+certain Constantine Emperor. Constantine, like Maximus, carried his
+soldiers across the Channel in pursuit of a wider empire than he could
+find in Britain. He was himself murdered, and his soldiers, like those
+of Maximus, did not return. In <b>410</b> the Britons implored the Emperor
+Honorius to send them help. Honorius had enough <span class="pagenum"><a id="page026" name="page026"></a>(p. 026)</span> to do to
+ward off the attacks of barbarians nearer Rome, and announced to the
+Britons that they must provide for their own defence. From this time
+Britain ceased to form part of the Roman Empire.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap2" name="chap2"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER II.<br>
+THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Landing of the Jutes in Thanet           <span class="right10"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 449?</span></li>
+<li>The West Saxons defeated at Mount Badon      <span class="right10">520</span></li>
+<li>The West Saxons take Sorbiodunum             <span class="right10">552</span></li>
+<li>Battle of Deorham                            <span class="right10">577</span></li>
+<li>The West Saxons defeated at Faddiley         <span class="right10">584</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap2sec1" name="chap2sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>Britain after the Departure of the Romans.</b> <b>410&mdash;449</b>?&mdash;After the
+departure of the Romans, the Picts from the north and the Scots from
+Ireland continued their ravages, but though they caused terrible
+misery by slaughtering or dragging into slavery the inhabitants of
+many parts of the country, they did not succeed in making any
+permanent conquests. The Britons were not without a government and an
+armed force; and their later history shows that they were capable of
+carrying on war for a long time against enemies more formidable than
+the Picts and Scots. Their rulers were known by the British title
+Gwledig, and probably held power in different parts of the island as
+the successors of the Roman Duke of the Britains and of the Roman
+Count of the Saxon Shore. Their power of resistance to the Picts and
+the Scots was, however, weakened by the impossibility of turning their
+undivided attention to these marauders, as at the same time that they
+had, to defend the Roman Wall and the western coast against the Picts
+and Scots, they were exposed on the eastern coast to the attacks of
+the Saxon pirates.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec2" name="chap2sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>The Groans of the Britons.</b>&mdash;In their misery the thoughts of the
+Britons turned to those Roman legions who had defended their fathers
+so well. In <b>446</b> they appealed to Aëtius, the commander of the Roman
+armies, to deliver them from their destroyers. "The groans of the
+Britons" was the title which they gave to their appeal to him. "The
+barbarians," they wrote, "drive us to the sea; the sea drives us back
+to the barbarians; between them we are <span class="pagenum"><a id="page027" name="page027"></a>(p. 027)</span> exposed to two sorts
+of death: we are either slain or drowned." Aëtius had no men to spare,
+and he sent no help to the Britons. Before long the whole of Western
+Europe was overrun by barbarian tribes, the title of Emperor being
+retained only by the Roman Emperor who ruled from Constantinople over
+the East, his authority over the barbarians of the West being no more
+than nominal.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec3" name="chap2sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>The Conquest of Kent.</b> <b>449</b>?&mdash;It had been the custom of the Roman
+Empire to employ barbarians as soldiers in their armies, and
+Vortigern, the British ruler, now followed that bad example. In or
+about <b>449</b> a band of Jutish sea-rovers landed at Ebbsfleet, in the Isle
+of Thanet. According to tradition their leaders were Hengist and
+Horsa, names signifying the horse and the mare, which were not very
+likely to have been borne by real warriors. Whatever may have been the
+names of the chiefs, Vortigern took them into his service against the
+Picts, giving them the Isle of Thanet as a dwelling-place for
+themselves. With their help he defeated the Picts, but afterwards
+found himself unable to defend himself against his fierce auxiliaries.
+Thanet was still cut off from the mainland by an arm of the sea, and
+the Jutes were strong enough to hold it against all assailants. Their
+numbers rapidly increased as shiploads of their fellows landed, and
+they crossed the strait to win fresh lands from the Britons on the
+mainland of Kent. In several battles Vortigern was overpowered. His
+rival and successor, Ambrosius Aurelianus, whose name makes it
+probable that he was an upholder of the old Roman discipline, drove
+back the Jutes in turn. He did not long keep the upper hand, and in
+<b>465</b> he was routed utterly. The defeat of the British army was followed
+by an attack upon the great fortresses which had been erected along
+the Saxon Shore in the Roman times. The Jutes had no means of carrying
+them by assault, but they starved them out one by one, and some
+twenty-three years after their first landing, the whole of the coast
+of Kent was in their hands.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec4" name="chap2sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>The South Saxons.</b> <b>477.</b>&mdash;The conquests of the Jutes stopped at the
+inlet of the sea now filled by Romney Marsh. To the south and west was
+the impenetrable Andred's Wood, which covered what is now known as the
+Weald. At its eastern extremity stood by the sea the strong fortified
+town of Anderida, which gave its name to the wood, the most westerly
+of the fortresses of the Saxon Shore still unconquered by the Jutes.
+It was at last endangered by a fresh pirate band&mdash;not of Jutes but of
+Saxons&mdash;which landed near Selsey, and fought its way eastwards,
+conquering the South Downs and the flat land between the South Downs
+and the sea, till it reached <span class="pagenum"><a id="page028" name="page028"></a>(p. 028)</span> Anderida. Anderida was starved
+out after a long blockade, and the Saxons, bursting in, 'slew all that
+dwelt therein, nor was there henceforth one Briton left.' To this day
+the Roman walls of Anderida stand round the site of the desolated city
+near the modern Pevensey. Its Saxon conquerors came to be known as the
+South Saxons, and their land as Sussex.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec5" name="chap2sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>The West Saxons and the East Saxons.</b>&mdash;Another swarm also of Saxons,
+called Gewissas, landed on the shore of Southampton Water. After a
+time they were reinforced by a body of Jutes, and though the Jutes
+formed settlements of their own in the Isle of Wight and on the
+mainland, the difference of race and language between them and the
+Gewissas was not enough to prevent the two tribes from coalescing.
+Ultimately Gewissas and Jutes became known as West Saxons, and
+established themselves in a district roughly corresponding with the
+modern Hampshire. Then, having attempted to penetrate further west,
+they were defeated at Mount Badon, probably Badbury Rings in
+Dorsetshire. Their overthrow was so complete as to check their advance
+for more than thirty years. Whilst the coast line from the inlet of
+the sea now filled by Romney Marsh to the western edge of Hampshire
+had thus been mastered by Saxons, others of the same stock, known as
+East Saxons, seized upon the low coast to the north of the Thames.
+From them the land was called Essex. Neither Saxons nor Jutes,
+however, were as yet able to penetrate far up the valley of the
+Thames, as the Roman settlement of London, surrounded by marshes,
+still blocked the way.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec6" name="chap2sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>The Anglian Settlements.</b>&mdash;The coast-line to the north of the East
+Saxons was seized at some unascertained dates by different groups of
+Angles. The land between the Stour and the great fen which in those
+days stretched far inland from the Wash was occupied by two of these
+groups, known as the North folk and the South folk. They gave their
+names to Norfolk and Suffolk, and at some later time combined under
+the name of East Anglians. North of the Wash were the Lindiswara&mdash;that
+is to say, the settlers about the Roman Lindum, the modern Lincoln,
+and beyond them, stretching to the Humber, were the Gainas, from whom
+is derived the name of the modern Gainsborough. To the north of the
+Humber the coast was fringed by Angle settlements which had not yet
+coalesced into one.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec7" name="chap2sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>Nature of the Conquest.</b>&mdash;The three peoples who effected this
+conquest were afterwards known amongst themselves by the common name
+of English, a name which was originally equivalent <span class="pagenum"><a id="page029" name="page029"></a>(p. 029)</span> to Angle,
+whilst amongst the whole of the remaining Celtic population they were
+only known as Saxons. The mode in which the English treated the
+Britons was very different from that of the Romans, who were a
+civilised people and aimed at governing a conquered race. The
+new-comers drove out the Britons in order to find homes for
+themselves, and they preferred to settle in the country rather than in
+a town. No Englishman had ever lived in a town in his German home, or
+was able to appreciate the advantages of the commerce and manufacture
+by which towns are supported. Nor were they inclined to allow the
+inhabitants of the Roman towns to remain unmolested in their midst.
+When Anderida was captured not a Briton escaped alive, and there is
+good reason to believe that many of the other towns fared no better,
+especially as the remains of some of them still show marks of the fire
+by which they were consumed. What took place in the country cannot be
+certainly known. Many of the British were no doubt killed. Many took
+refuge in fens or woods, or fled to those portions of the island in
+which their countrymen were still independent. It is difficult to
+decide to what extent the men who remained behind were spared, but it
+is impossible to doubt that a considerable number of women were
+preserved from slaughter. The conquerors, at their landing, must have
+been for the most part young men, and when they wanted wives, it would
+be far easier for them to seize the daughters of slain Britons than to
+fetch women from the banks of the Elbe.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec8" name="chap2sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>The Cultivators of the Soil.</b>&mdash;When the new-comers planted
+themselves on British soil, each group of families united by kinship
+fixed its home in a separate village or township, to which was given
+the name of the kindred followed by 'ham' or 'tun,' the first word
+meaning the home or dwelling, the second the earthen mound which
+formed the defence of the community. Thus Wokingham is the home of the
+Wokings, and Wellington the 'tun' of the Wellings. Each man had a
+homestead of his own, with a strip or strips of arable land in an open
+field. Beyond the arable land was pasture and wood, common to the
+whole township, every villager being entitled to drive his cattle or
+pigs into them according to rules laid down by the whole township.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec9" name="chap2sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>Eorls, Ceorls, Gesiths.</b>&mdash;The population was divided into Eorls and
+Ceorls. The Eorl was hereditarily distinguished by birth, and the
+Ceorl was a simple freeman without any such distinction. How the
+difference arose we do not know, but we do know that the Eorl had
+privileges which the Ceorl had not. Below <span class="pagenum"><a id="page030" name="page030"></a>(p. 030)</span> the Ceorls were
+slaves taken in war or condemned to slavery as criminals. There were
+also men known as Gesiths, a word which means 'followers,' who were
+the followers of the chiefs or Ealdormen (<i>Eldermen</i>) who led the
+conquerors. The Gesiths formed the war-band of the chief. They were
+probably all of them Eorls, so that though every settler was either an
+Eorl or a Ceorl, some Eorls were also Gesiths. This war-band of
+Gesiths was composed of young men who attached themselves to the chief
+by a tie of personal devotion. It was the highest glory of the Gesith
+to die to save his chief's life. Of one Gesith it is told that, when
+he saw a murderer aiming a dagger at his chief, he, not having time to
+seize the assassin, threw his body between the blow and his chief, and
+perished rather than allow him to be killed. It was even held to be
+disgraceful for a Gesith to return from battle alive if his chief had
+been slain. The word by which the chief was known was Hlaford
+(<i>Lord</i>), which means a giver of bread, because the Gesiths ate his
+bread. They not only ate his bread, but they shared in the booty which
+he brought home. They slept in his hall, and were clothed in the
+garments woven by his wife and her maidens. A continental writer tells
+how a body of Gesiths once approached their lord with a petition that
+he should take a wife, because as long as he remained unmarried there
+was no one to make new clothes for them or to mend their old ones.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec10" name="chap2sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>The Gesiths and the Villagers.</b>&mdash;At the time of the English
+settlement, therefore, there were two sorts of warriors amongst the
+invaders. The Ceorls, having been accustomed to till land at home,
+were quite ready to till the lands which they had newly acquired in
+Britain. They were, however, ready to defend themselves and their
+lands if they were attacked, and they were under the obligation of
+appearing in arms when needed for defence. This general army of the
+villagers was called the Fyrd. On the other hand, the Gesiths had not
+been accustomed to till land at home, but had made fighting their
+business. War, in short, which was an unwelcome accident to the Ceorl,
+was the business of life to the Gesith. The exact relationship between
+the Gesiths and the Ceorls cannot be ascertained with certainty. It is
+not improbable that the Gesiths, being the best warriors amongst their
+countrymen, sometimes obtained land granted them by their chiefs, and
+were expected in consequence to be specially ready to serve the chief
+whom they had followed from their home. It was from their relation to
+their chief that they were called Gesiths, a name gradually abandoned
+for that of Thegns, or servants, when they&mdash;as was soon the
+case&mdash;ceased <span class="pagenum"><a id="page031" name="page031"></a>(p. 031)</span> to live with their chief and had houses and
+lands of their own, though they were still bound to military service.
+How these Thegns cultivated their lands is a question to which there
+is no certain answer. In later days they made use of a class of men
+known as bondmen or villeins. These bondmen were not, like slaves, the
+property of their masters. They had land of their own which they were
+allowed to cultivate for themselves on condition of spending part of
+their time in cultivating the land of their lords. It has been
+supposed by some writers that the Thegns employed bondmen from the
+earliest times of the conquest. If, however, this was the case, there
+arises a further question whether the bondmen were Englishmen or
+Britons. The whole subject is under investigation, and the evidence
+which exists is excessively scanty. It is at least certain that the
+further the conquest progressed westwards, the greater was the number
+of Britons preserved alive.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec11" name="chap2sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>English and Welsh.</b>&mdash;The bulk of the population on the eastern and
+southern coasts was undoubtedly English. English institutions and
+English language took firm root. The conquerors looked on the Britons
+with the utmost contempt, naming them Welsh, a name which no Briton
+thought of giving to himself, but which Germans had been in the habit
+of applying somewhat contemptuously to the Celts on the Continent. So
+far as British words have entered into the English language at all,
+they have been words such as <i>gown</i> or <i>curd</i>, which are likely to
+have been used by women, or words such as <i>cart</i> or <i>pony</i>, which are
+likely to have been used by agricultural labourers, and the evidence
+of language may therefore be adduced in favour of the view that many
+women and many agricultural labourers were spared by the conquerors.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec12" name="chap2sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>The Township and the Hundred.</b>&mdash;The smallest political community of
+the new settlers was the village, or, as it is commonly called, the
+township, which is still represented by the parish, the parish being
+merely a township in which ecclesiastical institutions have been
+maintained whilst political institutions have ceased to exist. The
+freemen of the township met to settle small questions between
+themselves, under the presidency of their reeve or headman. More
+important cases were brought before the hundred-moot, or meeting of
+the hundred, a district which had been inhabited, or was supposed to
+have been inhabited, either by a hundred kindred groups of the
+original settlers or by the families of a hundred warriors. This
+hundred-moot was held once a month, and was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page032" name="page032"></a>(p. 032)</span> attended by four
+men and the reeve from every township, and also by the Eorls and
+Thegns living in the hundred. It not only settled disputes about
+property, but gave judgment in criminal cases as well.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec13" name="chap2sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>Weregild.</b>&mdash;In early days, long before the English had left their
+lands beyond the sea, it was not considered to be the business of the
+community to punish crime. If any one was murdered, it was the duty of
+the kinsmen of the slain man to put to death the murderer. In course
+of time men got tired of the continual slaughter produced by this
+arrangement, and there sprang up a system according to which the
+murderer might offer to the kinsmen a sum of money known as weregild,
+or the value of a man, and if this money was accepted, then peace was
+made and all thought of vengeance was at an end. At a later time, at
+all events after the arrival of the English in this country, charges
+of murder were brought before the hundred-moot whenever the alleged
+murderer and his victim lived in the same hundred. If the accused
+person did not dispute the fact the moot sentenced him to pay a
+weregild, the amount of which differed in proportion to the rank of
+the slain man, not in proportion to the heinousness of the offence. As
+there was a weregild for murder, so there was also a graduated scale
+of payments for lesser offences. One who struck off a hand or a foot
+could buy off vengeance at a fixed rate.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec14" name="chap2sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>Compurgation and Ordeal.</b>&mdash;A new difficulty was introduced when a
+person who was charged with crime denied his guilt. As there were no
+trained lawyers and there was no knowledge of the principles of
+evidence, the accused person was required to bring twelve men to be
+his compurgators&mdash;that is to say, to hear him swear to his own
+innocence, and then to swear in turn that his oath was true. If he
+could not find men willing to be his compurgators he could appeal to
+the judgment of the gods, which was known as the Ordeal. If he could
+walk blindfold over red-hot ploughshares, or plunge his arm into
+boiling water, and show at the end of a fixed number of days that he
+had received no harm, it was thought that the gods bore witness to his
+innocency and had as it were become his compurgators when men had
+failed him. It is quite possible that all or most of those who tried
+the ordeal failed, but as nobody would try the ordeal who could get
+compurgators, those who did not succeed must have been regarded as
+persons of bad character, so that no surprise would be expressed at
+their failure.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec15" name="chap2sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>Punishments.</b>&mdash;When a man had failed in the ordeal there was a
+choice of punishments. If his offence was a slight one, a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page033" name="page033"></a>(p. 033)</span>
+fine was deemed sufficient. If it was a very disgraceful one, such as
+secret murder, he was put to death or was degraded to slavery, in most
+cases he was declared to be a 'wolf's-head'&mdash;that is to say, he was
+outlawed and driven into the woods, where, as the protection of the
+community was withdrawn from him, anyone might kill him without fear
+of punishment.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec16" name="chap2sec16"></a>
+<p>16. <b>The Folk-moot.</b>&mdash;As the hundred-moot did justice between those who
+lived in the hundred, so the folk-moot did justice between those who
+lived in different hundreds, or were too important to be judged in the
+hundred-moot. The folk-moot was the meeting of the whole folk or
+tribe, which consisted of several hundreds. It was attended, like the
+hundred-moot, by four men and the reeve from each township, and it met
+twice a year, and was presided over by the chief or Ealdorman. The
+folk-moot met in arms, because it was a muster as well as a council
+and a court. The vote as to war and peace was taken in it, and while
+the chief alone spoke, the warriors signified their assent by clashing
+their swords against their shields.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec17" name="chap2sec17"></a>
+<p>17. <b>The Kingship.</b>&mdash;How many folks or tribes settled in the island it
+is impossible to say, but there is little doubt that many of them soon
+combined. The resistance of the Britons was desperate, and it was only
+by joining together that the settlers could hope to overcome it. The
+causes which produced this amalgamation of the folks produced the
+king. It was necessary to find a man always ready to take the command
+of the united folks, and this man was called King, a name which
+signifies the man of the kinship or race at the head of which he
+stood. His authority was greater than the Ealdorman's, and his
+warriors were more numerous than those which the Ealdorman had led. He
+must come of a royal family&mdash;that is, of one supposed to be descended
+from the god Woden. As it was necessary that he should be capable of
+leading an army, it was impossible that a child could be king, and
+therefore no law of hereditary succession prevailed. On the death of a
+king the folk-moot chose his successor out of the kingly family. If
+his eldest son was a grown man of repute, the choice would almost
+certainly fall upon him. If he was a child or an invalid, some other
+kinsman of the late king would be selected.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec18" name="chap2sec18"></a>
+<p>18. <b>The Legend of Arthur.</b>&mdash;Thirty-two years passed away after the
+defeat of the West Saxons at Mount Badon in <b>520</b> (see p. <a href="#page028">28</a>)
+before they made any further conquests. Welsh legends represent
+this period as that of the reign of Arthur. Some modern inquirers have
+argued that Arthur's kingdom was in the north, whilst others have
+argued that it was in the south. It is quite <span class="pagenum"><a id="page034" name="page034"></a>(p. 034)</span> possible that
+the name was given by legend to more than one champion; at all events,
+there was a time when an Ambrosius, probably a descendant of Ambrosius
+Aurelianus (see p. <a href="#page027">27</a>), protected the southern
+Britons. This stronghold was at Sorbiodunum, the hill fort now a
+grassy space known as Old Sarum, and his great church and monastery,
+where Christian priests encouraged the Christian Britons in their
+struggle against the heathen Saxons, was at the neighbouring
+Ambresbyrig (<i>the fortress of Ambrosius</i>), now modernised into
+Amesbury. Thirty-two years after the battle of Mount Badon the kingdom
+of Ambrosius had been divided amongst his successors, who were plunged
+in vice and were quarrelling with one another.</p>
+
+<a id="img021" name="img021"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img021.jpg" width="500" height="436" alt="" title="">
+<p>Plan of the city of Old Sarum, the ancient <i>Sorbiodunum</i>. The
+Cathedral is of later date.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap2sec19" name="chap2sec19"></a>
+<p>19. <b>The West Saxon Advance.</b>&mdash;In <b>552</b> Cynric, the West Saxon king,
+attacked the divided Britons, captured Sorbiodunum, and made himself
+master of Salisbury Plain. Step by step he fought his way to the
+valley of the Thames, and when he had reached it, he turned eastwards
+to descend the river to its mouth. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page035" name="page035"></a>(p. 035)</span> Here, however, he found
+himself anticipated by the East Saxons, who had captured London, and
+had settled a branch of their people under the name of the Middle
+Saxons in Middlesex. The Jutes of Kent had pushed westwards through
+the Surrey hills, but in <b>568</b> the West Saxons defeated them and drove
+them back. After this battle, the first in which the conquerors strove
+with one another, the West Saxons turned northwards, defeated the
+Britons in <b>571</b> at Bedford, and occupied the valleys of the Thame and
+Cherwell and the upper valley of the Ouse. They are next heard of much
+further west, and it has been supposed that they turned in that
+direction because they found the lower Ouse already held by Angle
+tribes. However this may have been, they crossed the Cotswolds in <b>577</b>
+under two brothers, Ceawlin and Cutha, and at Deorham defeated and
+slew three kings who ruled over the cities of Glevum (<i>Gloucester</i>),
+Corinium (<i>Cirencester</i>), and Aquæ Sulis (<i>Bath</i>). They seized on the
+fertile valley of the Severn, and during the next few years they
+pressed gradually northwards. In <b>584</b> they destroyed and sacked the old
+Roman station of Viriconium. This was their last victory for many a
+year. They attempted to reach Chester, but were defeated at Faddiley
+by the Britons, who slew Cutha in the battle.</p>
+
+<a id="img022" name="img022"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img022.jpg" width="500" height="332" alt="" title="">
+<p>Old Sarum from an engraving published in 1843, showing
+mound. (It is now obscured by trees from this point of view.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap2sec20" name="chap2sec20"></a>
+<p>20. <b>Repulse of the West Saxons.</b>&mdash;After the defeat at Faddiley the West
+Saxons split up into two peoples. Those of them who <span class="pagenum"><a id="page036" name="page036"></a>(p. 036)</span> settled
+in the lower Severn valley took the name of Hwiccan, and joined the
+Britons against their own kindred. This alliance could hardly have
+taken place if the Hwiccan, in settling in the Severn valley, had
+destroyed the whole, or even a considerable part, of the Celtic
+population, though there can be little doubt that there was still
+slaughter when a battle was fought or a town taken by storm; as it is
+known that the magnificent Roman buildings at Bath were standing in
+ruins and the city untenanted many years after the capture of the
+city. At all events, the Britons, now allied with the Hwiccan,
+defeated Ceawlin at Wanborough. After this disaster, though the West
+Saxon kingdom retained its independence, it was independent within
+smaller limits than those which Ceawlin had wished to give to it. If
+he had seized Chester he would have been on the way to gain the
+mastery over all England, but he had tried to do too much in a short
+time. His people can hardly have been numerous enough to occupy in
+force a territory reaching from Southampton Water to Bedford on one
+side and to Chester on another.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec21" name="chap2sec21"></a>
+<p>21. <b>The Advance of the Angles.</b>&mdash;Whilst the West Saxons were enlarging
+their boundaries in the south, the Angles were gradually spreading in
+the centre and the north. The East Anglians were stopped on their way
+to the west by the great fen, but either a branch of the Lindiswara or
+some new-comers made their way up the Trent, and established
+themselves first at Nottingham and then at Leicester, and called
+themselves the Middle English. Another body, known as the Mercians, or
+men of the mark or border-land, seized on the upper valley of the
+Trent. North of the Humber the advance was still slower. In <b>547</b>, five
+years before the West Saxons attacked Sorbiodunum, Ida, a chieftain of
+one of the scattered settlements on the coast, was accepted as king by
+all those which lay between the Tees and the Forth. His new kingdom
+was called Bernicia, and his principal fortress was on a rock by the
+sea at Bamborough. During the next fifty years he and his successors
+enlarged their borders till they reached that central ridge of
+moorland hill which is sometimes known as the Pennine range. The
+Angles between the Tees and the Humber called their country Deira, but
+though they also united under a king, their progress was as slow as
+that of the Bernicians. Bernicia and Deira together were known as
+North-humberland, the land north of the Humber, a much larger
+territory than that of the modern county of Northumberland.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec22" name="chap2sec22"></a>
+<p>22. <b>The Kymry.</b>&mdash;It is probable that the cause of the slow advance of
+the northern Angles lay in the existence of a strong <span class="pagenum"><a id="page037" name="page037"></a>(p. 037)</span> Celtic
+state in front. Welsh tradition speaks of a ruler named Cunedda, who
+after the departure of the Roman legions governed the territory from
+the Clyde to the south of Wales, which formed the greater part of what
+had once been known as Upper Britain. (See p. <a href="#page025">25</a>.) This
+territory was inhabited by a mixed population of Britons and Goidels,
+with an isolated body of Picts in Galloway. A common danger from the
+English fused them together, and as a sign of the wearing out of old
+distinctions, they took the name of Kymry, or Comrades, the name by
+which the Welsh are known amongst one another to this day, and which
+is also preserved in the name of Cumberland, though the Celtic
+language is no longer spoken there.</p>
+
+<a id="chap2sec23" name="chap2sec23"></a>
+<p>23. <b>Britain at the End of the Sixth Century.</b>&mdash;During the sixth century
+the Kymry ceased to be governed by one ruler, but the chieftains of
+the various territories all acknowledged the supremacy of a descendant
+of Cunedda. For purposes of war they combined together, and as the
+country which they occupied was hilly and easily defended, the
+northern English discovered that they too must unite amongst
+themselves if they were to overpower the united resistance of the
+Kymry.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap3" name="chap3"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER III.<br>
+THE STRIFE OF THE ENGLISH KINGDOMS.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Augustine's mission                         <span class="right10">597</span></li>
+<li>Æthelfrith's victory at Chester             <span class="right10">613</span></li>
+<li>Penda defeats Eadwine at Heathfield         <span class="right10">633</span></li>
+<li>Penda's defeat at Winwæd                    <span class="right10">655</span></li>
+<li>Theodore Archbishop of Canterbury           <span class="right10">668</span></li>
+<li>Offa defeats the West Saxons at Bensington  <span class="right10">779</span></li>
+<li>Ecgberht returns to England                 <span class="right10">800</span></li>
+<li>Death of Ecgberht                           <span class="right10">839</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap3sec1" name="chap3sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>England and the Continent.</b>&mdash;Whatever may be the exact truth about
+the numbers of Britons saved alive by the English conquerors, there
+can be no doubt that English speech and English customs prevailed
+wherever the English settled. In Gaul, where the German Franks made
+themselves masters of the country, a different state of things
+prevailed. Roman officials continued to govern the country under
+Frankish kings, Roman bishops converted <span class="pagenum"><a id="page038" name="page038"></a>(p. 038)</span> the conquerors to
+Christianity, and Roman cities maintained, as far as they could, the
+old standard of civilisation. All commercial intercourse between Gaul,
+still comparatively rich and prosperous, and Britain was for some time
+cut off by the irruption of the English, who were at first too rude
+and too much engaged in fighting to need the products of a more
+advanced race. Gradually, however, as the English settled down into
+peaceful industry along the south-eastern shores of the island, trade
+again sprang up, as it had sprung up in the wild times preceding the
+landing of Cæsar. The Gaulish merchants who crossed the straits found
+themselves in Kent, and during the years in which the West Saxon
+Ceawlin was struggling with the Britons the communications between
+Kent and the Continent had become so friendly that in <b>584</b>, or a little
+later, Æthelberht, king of Kent, took to wife Bertha, the daughter of
+a Frankish king, Charibert. Bertha was a Christian, and brought with
+her a Christian bishop. She begged of her husband a forsaken Roman
+church for her own use. This church, now known as St. Martin's, stood
+outside the walls of the deserted city of Durovernum, the buildings of
+which were in ruins, except where a group of rude dwellings rose in a
+corner of the old fortifications. In these dwellings Æthelberht and
+his followers lived, and to them had been given the new name of
+Cantwarabyrig or Canterbury (<i>the dwelling of the men of Kent</i>). The
+English were heathen, but their heathenism was not intolerant.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec2" name="chap3sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>Æthelberht's Supremacy.</b>&mdash;Æthelberht's authority reached far beyond
+his native Kent. Within a few years after his marriage he had gained a
+supremacy over most of the other kings to the south of the Humber.
+There is no tradition of any war between Æthelberht and these kings,
+and he certainly did not thrust them out from the leadership of their
+own peoples. The exact nature of his supremacy is, however, unknown to
+us, though it is possible that they were bound to follow him if he
+went to war with peoples not acknowledging his supremacy, in which
+case his position towards them was something of the same kind as that
+of a lord to his gesiths.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec3" name="chap3sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>Gregory and the English.</b>&mdash;Æthelberht's position as the over-lord of
+so many kings and as the husband of a Christian wife drew upon him the
+attention of Gregory, the Bishop of Rome, or Pope. Many years before,
+as a deacon, he had been attracted by the fair faces of some boys from
+Deira exposed for sale in the Roman slave-market. He was told that the
+children were Angles. "Not Angles, but angels," he replied. "Who," he
+asked, "is their <span class="pagenum"><a id="page039" name="page039"></a>(p. 039)</span> king?" Hearing that his name was Ælla, he
+continued to play upon the words. "Alleluia," he said, "shall be sung
+in the land of Ælla." Busy years kept him from seeking to fulfil his
+hopes, but at last the time came when he could do something to carry
+out his intentions, not in the land of Ælla, but in the land of
+Æthelberht. He became Pope. In those days the Pope had far less
+authority over the Churches of Western Europe than he afterwards
+acquired, but he offered the only centre round which they could rally,
+now that the Empire had broken up into many states ruled over by
+different barbarian kings. The general habit of looking to Rome for
+authority, which had been diffused over the whole Empire whilst Rome
+was still the seat of the Emperors, made men look to the Roman Bishop
+for advice and help as they had once looked to the Roman Emperor.
+Gregory, who united to the tenderheartedness of the Christian the
+strength of will and firmness of purpose which had marked out the best
+of the Emperors, now sent Augustine to England as the leader of a band
+of missionaries.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec4" name="chap3sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>Augustine's Mission. 597.</b>&mdash;Augustine with his companions landed at
+Ebbsfleet, in Thanet, where Æthelberht's forefathers had landed nearly
+a century and a half before. After a while Æthelberht arrived. Singing
+a litany, and bearing aloft a painting of the Saviour, the
+missionaries appeared before him. He had already learned from his
+Christian wife to respect Christians, but he was not prepared to
+forsake his own religion. He welcomed the new-comers, and told them
+that they were free to convert those who would willingly accept their
+doctrine. A place was assigned to them in Canterbury, and they were
+allowed to use Bertha's church. In the end Æthelberht himself,
+together with thousands of the Kentish men, received baptism. It was
+more by their example than by their teaching that Augustine's band won
+converts. The missionaries lived 'after the model of the primitive
+Church, giving themselves to frequent prayers, watchings, and
+fastings; preaching to all who were within their reach, disregarding
+all worldly things as matters with which they had nothing to do,
+accepting from those whom they taught just what seemed necessary for
+livelihood, living themselves altogether in accordance with what they
+taught, and with hearts prepared to suffer every adversity, or even to
+die, for that truth which they preached.'</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec5" name="chap3sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>Monastic Christianity.</b>&mdash;These missionaries were monks as well as
+preachers. The Christians of those days considered the monastic life
+to be the highest. In the early days of the Church, when the world was
+full of vice and cruelty, it seemed hardly <span class="pagenum"><a id="page040" name="page040"></a>(p. 040)</span> possible to live
+in the world without being dragged down to its wickedness. Men and
+women, therefore, who wished to keep themselves pure, withdrew to
+hermitages or monasteries, where they might be removed from
+temptation, and might fit themselves for heaven by prayer and fasting.
+In the fifth century Benedict of Nursia had organised in Italy a
+system of life for the monastery which he governed, and the
+Benedictine rule, as it was called, was soon accepted in almost all
+the monasteries of Western Europe. The special feature of this rule
+was that it encouraged labour as well as prayer. It was a saying of
+Benedict himself that 'to labour is to pray.' He did not mean that
+labour was good in itself, but that monks who worked during some hours
+of the day would guard their minds against evil thoughts better than
+if they tried to pray all day long. Augustine and his companions were
+Benedictine monks, and their quietness and contentedness attracted the
+population amidst which they had settled. The religion of the heathen
+English was a religion which favoured bravery and endurance, counting
+the warrior who slaughtered most enemies as most highly favoured by
+the gods. The religion of Augustine was one of peace and self-denial.
+Its symbol was the cross, to be borne in the heart of the believer.
+The message brought by Augustine was very hard to learn. If Augustine
+had expected the whole English population to forsake entirely its evil
+ways and to walk in paths of peace, he would probably have been
+rejected at once. It was perhaps because he was a monk that he did not
+expect so much. A monk was accustomed to judge laymen by a lower
+standard of self-denial than that by which he judged himself. He
+would, therefore, not ask too much of the new converts. They must
+forsake the heathen temples and sacrifices, and must give up some
+particularly evil habits. The rest must be left to time and the
+example of the monks.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec6" name="chap3sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>The Archbishopric of Canterbury.</b>&mdash;After a short stay Augustine
+revisited Gaul and came back as Archbishop of the English. Æthelberht
+gave to him a ruined church at Canterbury, and that poor church was
+named Christ Church, and became the mother church of England. From
+that day the Archbishop's See has been fixed at Canterbury. If
+Augustine in his character of monk led men by example, in his
+character of Archbishop he had to organise the Church. With
+Æthelberht's help he set up a bishopric at Rochester and another in
+London. London was now again an important trading city, which, though
+not in Æthelberht's own kingdom of Kent, formed part of the kingdom of
+Essex, which was dependent on Kent. More than these three Sees
+Augustine was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page041" name="page041"></a>(p. 041)</span> unable to establish. An attempt to obtain the
+friendly co-operation of the Welsh bishops broke down because
+Augustine insisted on their adoption of Roman customs; and Lawrence,
+who succeeded to the archbishopric after Augustine's death, could do
+no more than his predecessor had done.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec7" name="chap3sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>Death of Æthelberht. 616.</b>&mdash;In <b>616</b> Æthelberht died. The
+over-lordship of the kings of Kent ended with him, and Augustine's
+church, which had largely depended upon his influence, very nearly
+ended as well. Essex relapsed into heathenism, and it was only by
+terrifying Æthelberht's son with the vengeance of St. Peter that
+Lawrence kept him from relapsing also. On the other hand, Rædwald,
+king of the East Anglians, who succeeded to much of Æthelberht's
+authority, so far accepted Christianity as to worship Christ amongst
+his other gods.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec8" name="chap3sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>The Three Kingdoms opposed to the Welsh.</b>&mdash;Augustine's Church was
+weak, because it depended on the kings, and had not had time to root
+itself in the affections of the people. Æthelberht's supremacy was
+also weak. The greater part of the small states which still
+existed&mdash;Sussex, Kent, Essex, East Anglia, and most of the small
+kingdoms of central England&mdash;were no longer bordered by a Celtic
+population. For them the war of conquest and defence was at an end. If
+any one of the kingdoms was to rise to permanent supremacy it must be
+one of those engaged in strenuous warfare, and as yet strenuous
+warfare was only carried on with the Welsh. The kingdoms which had the
+Welsh on their borders were three&mdash;Wessex, Mercia, and
+North-humberland, and neither Wessex nor Mercia was as yet very
+strong. Wessex was too distracted by conflicts amongst members of the
+kingly family, and Mercia was as yet too small to be of much account.
+North-humberland was therefore the first of the three to rise to the
+foremost place. Till the death of Ælla, the king of Deira, from whose
+land had been carried off the slave-boys whose faces had charmed
+Gregory at Rome, Deira and Bernicia had been as separate as Kent and
+Essex. Then in <b>588</b> Æthelric of Bernicia drove out Ælla's son and
+seized his kingdom of Deira, thus joining the two kingdoms of Deira
+and Bernicia (see p. <a href="#page036">36</a>) into one, under the new name of
+North-humberland.<a id="footnotetag2" name="footnotetag2"></a><a href="#footnote2" title="Go to footnote 2"><span class="small">[2]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec9" name="chap3sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>Æthelfrith and the Kymry.</b>&mdash;In <b>593</b>, four years before the landing of
+Augustine, Æthelric was succeeded by his son Æthelfrith. Æthelfrith
+began a fresh struggle with the Welsh. We <span class="pagenum"><a id="page042" name="page042"></a>(p. 042)</span> know little of the
+internal history of the Welsh population, but what we do know shows
+that towards the end of the sixth century there was an improvement in
+their religious and political existence. The monasteries were
+thronged, especially the great monastery of Bangor-iscoed, in the
+modern Flintshire, which contained 2,000 monks. St. David and other
+bishops gave examples of piety. In fighting against Æthelfrith the
+warriors of the Britons were fighting for their last chance of
+independence. They still held the west from the Clyde to the Channel.
+Unhappily for them, the Severn, the Dee, and the Solway Firth divided
+their land into four portions, and if an enemy coming from the east
+could seize upon the heads of the inlets into which those rivers
+flowed he could prevent the defenders of the west from aiding one
+another. Already in <b>577</b>, by the victory of Deorham (see p.
+<a href="#page035">35</a>), the West Saxons had seized on the mouth of the Severn,
+and had split off the West Welsh of the south-western peninsula.
+Æthelfrith had to do with the Kymry, whose territories stretched from
+the Bristol Channel to the Clyde, and who held an outlying wedge of
+land then known as Loidis and Elmet, which now together form the West
+Riding of Yorkshire.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec10" name="chap3sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>Æthelfrith's Victories.</b>&mdash;The long range of barren hills which
+separated Æthelfrith's kingdom from the Kymry made it difficult for
+either side to strike a serious blow at the other. In the extreme
+north, where a low valley joins the Firths of Clyde and Forth, it was
+easier for them to meet. Here the Kymry found an ally outside their
+own borders. Towards the end of the fifth century a colony of Irish
+Scots had driven out the Picts from the modern Argyle. In <b>603</b> their
+king, Aedan, bringing with him a vast army, in which Picts and the
+Kymry appear to have taken part, invaded the northern part of
+Æthelfrith's country. Æthelfrith defeated him at Degsastan, which was
+probably <span class="pagenum"><a id="page043" name="page043"></a>(p. 043)</span> Dawstone, near Jedburgh. 'From that time no king of
+the Scots durst come into Britain to make war upon the English.'
+Having freed himself from the Scots in the north, Æthelfrith turned
+upon the Kymry. After a succession of struggles of which no record
+remains, he forced his way in <b>613</b> to the western sea near Chester. The
+Kymry had brought with them the 2,000 monks of their great monastery
+Bangor-iscoed, to pray for victory whilst their warriors were engaged
+in battle. Æthelfrith bade his men to slay them all. 'Whether they
+bear arms or no,' he said, 'they fight against us when they cry
+against us to their God.' The monks were slain to a man. Their
+countrymen were routed, and Chester fell into the hands of the
+English. The capture of Chester split the Kymric kingdom in two, as
+the battle of Deorham thirty-five years before had split that kingdom
+off from the West Welsh of the south-western peninsula. The Southern
+Kymry, in what is now called Wales, could no longer give help to the
+Northern Kymry between the Clyde and the Ribble, who grouped
+themselves into the kingdom of Strathclyde, the capital of which was
+Alcluyd, the modern Dumbarton. Three weak Celtic states, unable to
+assist one another, would not long be able to resist their invaders.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec11" name="chap3sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>The Greatness of Eadwine.</b>&mdash;Powerful as Æthelfrith was, he was
+jealous of young Eadwine, a son of his father's rival, Ælla of Deira.
+For some years Eadwine had been in hiding, at one time with Welsh
+princes, at another time with English kings. In <b>617</b> he took refuge
+with Rædwald, the king of the East Angles. Æthelfrith demanded the
+surrender of the fugitive. Rædwald hesitated, but at last refused.
+Æthelfrith attacked him, but was defeated and slain near the river
+Idle, at some point near Retford. Eadwine the Deiran then became king
+over the united North-humberland in the place of Æthelfrith the
+Bernician, whose sons fled for safety to the Picts beyond the Forth.
+Eadwine completed and consolidated the conquests of his predecessors.
+He placed a fortress, named after himself Eadwinesburh, or Edinburgh,
+on a rocky height near the Forth, to guard his land against a fresh
+irruption of Scots and Picts, such as that which had been turned back
+at Degsastan. He conquered from the Kymry Loidis and Elmet, and he
+launched a fleet at Chester which added to his dominions the Isle of
+Man and the greater island which was henceforth known as Anglesea, the
+island of the Angles. Eadwine assumed unwonted state. Wherever he went
+a standard was borne before him, as well as a spear decorated with a
+tuft of feathers, the ancient sign of Roman authority. It has been
+thought by some that his meaning was that <span class="pagenum"><a id="page044" name="page044"></a>(p. 044)</span> he, rather than
+any Welshman, was the true Gwledig, the successor of the Duke of the
+Britains (<i>Dux Britanniarum</i>), and that the name of Bretwalda, or
+ruler of the Britons, which he is said to have borne, was only a
+translation of the Welsh Gwledig. It is true that the title of
+Bretwalda is given to other powerful kings before and after Eadwine,
+some of whom were in no sense rulers over Britons; but it is possible
+that it was taken to signify a ruler over a large part of Britain,
+though the men over whom he ruled were English, and not Britons.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec12" name="chap3sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>Eadwine's Supremacy.</b>&mdash;Eadwine's immediate kingship did not reach
+further south than the Humber and the Dee. But before <b>625</b> he had
+brought the East Angles and the kingdoms of central England to submit
+to his over-lordship, and he hoped to make himself over-lord of the
+south as well, and thus to reduce all England to dependence on
+himself. In <b>625</b> he planned an attack upon the West Saxons, and with
+the object of winning Kent to his side, he married Æthelburh, a sister
+of the Kentish king. Kent was still the only Christian kingdom, and
+Eadwine was obliged to promise to his wife protection for her
+Christian worship. He was now free to attack the West Saxons. In <b>626</b>,
+before he set out, ambassadors arrived from their king. As Eadwine was
+listening to them, one of their number rushed forward to stab him. His
+life was saved by the devotion of Lilla, one of his thegns, who threw
+his body in the way of the assassin, and was slain by the stroke
+intended for his lord. After this Eadwine marched against the West
+Saxons. He defeated them in battle and forced them to acknowledge him
+as their over-lord. He was now over-lord of all the English states
+except Kent, and Kent had become his ally in consequence of his
+marriage.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec13" name="chap3sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>Character of the later Conquests.</b>&mdash;Eadwine's over-lordship had
+been gained with as little difficulty as Æthelberht's had been. The
+ease with which each of them carried out their purpose can only be
+explained by the change which had taken place in the condition of the
+English. The small bodies of conquerors which had landed at different
+parts of the coast had been interested to a man in the defence of the
+lands which they had seized. Every freeman had been ready to come
+forward to defend the soil which his tribe had gained. After tribe had
+been joined to tribe, and still more after kingdom had been joined to
+kingdom, there were large numbers who ceased to have any interest in
+resisting the Welsh on what was, as far as they were concerned, a
+distant frontier. Thus, when Ceawlin was fighting to extend the West
+Saxon frontiers <span class="pagenum"><a id="page045" name="page045"></a>(p. 045)</span> in the valley of the Severn, it mattered
+little to a man whose own allotted land lay on the banks of the
+Southampton Water whether or not his English kinsmen won lands from
+the Welsh near Bath or Gloucester. The first result of this change was
+that the king's war-band formed a far greater proportion of his
+military force than it had formed originally. There was still the
+obligation upon the whole body of the freemen to take arms, but it was
+an obligation which had become more difficult to fulfil, and it must
+often have happened that very few freemen took part in a battle except
+the local levies concerned in defending their own immediate
+neighbourhood. A military change of this kind would account for the
+undoubted fact that the further the English conquest penetrated to the
+west the less destructive it was of British life. The thegns, or
+warriors personally attached to the king, did not want to plough and
+reap with their own hands. They would be far better pleased to spare
+the lives of the conquered and to compel them to labour. Every step in
+advance was marked by a proportionately larger Welsh element in the
+population.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec14" name="chap3sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>Political Changes.</b>&mdash;The character of the kingship was as much
+affected by the change as the character of the population. The old
+folk-moots still remained as the local courts of the smaller kingdoms,
+or of the districts out of which the larger kingdoms were composed,
+and continued to meet under the presidency of ealdormen appointed or
+approved by the king. Four men and a reeve, all of them humble
+cultivators, could not, however, be expected to walk up to York from
+the shores of the Forth, or even from the banks of the Tyne, whenever
+Eadwine needed their counsel. Their place in the larger kingdoms was
+therefore taken by the Witenagemot (<i>The moot of the wise men</i>),
+composed of the ealdormen and the chief thegns, together with the
+priests attached to the king's service in the time of heathendom, and,
+in the time of Christianity, the bishop or bishops of his kingdom. In
+one way the king was the stronger for the change. His counsellors,
+like his fighting force, were more dependent on himself than before.
+He was able to plan greater designs, and to carry out military
+enterprises at a greater distance. In another way he was the weaker
+for the change. He had less support from the bulk of his people, and
+was more likely to undertake enterprises in which they had no
+interest. The over-lordships of Æthelberht and Eadwine appear very
+imposing, but no real tie united the men of the centre of England to
+those of Kent at one time, or to those of North-humberland at another.
+Eadwine was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page046" name="page046"></a>(p. 046)</span> supreme over the other kings because he had a
+better war-band than they had. If another king appeared whose war-band
+was better than his, his supremacy would disappear.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec15" name="chap3sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>Eadwine's Conversion and Fall.</b>&mdash;In <b>627</b> Eadwine, moved by his
+wife's entreaties and the urgency of her chaplain, Paulinus, called
+upon his Witan to accept Christianity. Coifi, the priest, declared
+that he had long served his gods for naught, and would try a change of
+masters. 'The present life of man, O king,' said a thegn, 'seems to me
+in comparison of that time which is unknown to us like to the swift
+flight of a sparrow through the room wherein you sit at supper in
+winter, with your ealdormen and thegns, and a good fire in the midst,
+and storms of rain and snow without.... So this life of man appears
+for a short space, but of what went before or what is to follow we are
+utterly ignorant. If therefore this new doctrine contains something
+more certain, it seems justly to deserve to be followed.' On this
+recommendation Christianity was accepted. Paulinus was acknowledged as
+Bishop of York. The new See, which had been originally intended by
+Pope Gregory to be an archbishopric, was ultimately acknowledged as
+such, but as yet it was but a missionary station. Paulinus converted
+thousands in Deira, but the men of Bernicia were unaffected by his
+pleadings. Christianity, like the extension of all better teaching,
+brought at first not peace but the sword. The new religion was
+contemptible in the eyes of warriors. The supremacy of Eadwine was
+shaken. The men of East Anglia slew their king, who had followed his
+over-lord's example by accepting Christianity. The worst blow came
+from Mercia. Hitherto it had been only a little state on the Welsh
+border. Its king, Penda, the stoutest warrior of his day, now gathered
+under him all the central states, and founded a new Mercia which
+stretched from the Severn to the Fens. He first turned on the West
+Saxons, defeated them at Cirencester, and in <b>628</b> brought the territory
+of the Hwiccas under Mercian sway. On the other hand, East Anglia
+accepted Eadwine's supremacy and Christianity. Penda called to his aid
+Cædwalla, the king of Gwynnedd, the Snowdonian region of Wales. That
+he should have done so shows how completely Æthelfrith's victory at
+Chester, by cutting the Kymric realm in two, had put an end to all
+fears that the Kymry could ever make head against England as a whole.
+The alliance was too strong for Eadwine, and in <b>633</b>, at the battle of
+Heathfield&mdash;the modern Hatfield, in Yorkshire&mdash;the great king was
+slain and his army routed.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec16" name="chap3sec16"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page047" name="page047"></a>(p. 047)</span> 16. <b>Oswald's Victory at Heavenfield.</b>&mdash;Penda was content to
+split up Bernicia and Deira into separate kingdoms, and to join East
+Anglia to his subject states. Cædwalla had all the wrongs of his race
+to avenge. He remained in North-humberland burning and destroying till
+<b>635</b>, when Oswald, who was a son of Æthelfrith and of Eadwine's sister,
+and therefore united the claims of the rival families, gathered the
+men of Bernicia round him, overthrew Cædwalla at Heavenfield, near the
+Roman Wall, and was gratefully accepted as king by the whole of
+North-humberland.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec17" name="chap3sec17"></a>
+<p>17. <b>Oswald and Aidan.</b>&mdash;In the days of Eadwine, Oswald, as the heir of
+the rival house of Bernicia, had passed his youth in exile, and had
+been converted to Christianity in the monastery of Hii, the island now
+known as Iona. The monastery had been founded by Columba, an Irish
+Scot. Christianity had been introduced into Ireland by Patrick early
+in the fifth century. Ireland was a land of constant and cruel war
+between its tribes, and all who wished to be Christians in more than
+name withdrew themselves into monasteries, where they lived an even
+stricter and more ascetic life than the monks did in other parts of
+Western Europe. Bishops were retained in the monasteries to ordain
+priests, but they were entirely powerless. Columba's monastery at Hii
+sent its missionaries abroad, and brought Picts as well as Scots under
+the influence of Christianity. Oswald now requested its abbot, the
+successor of Columba, to send a missionary to preach the faith to the
+men of North-humberland in the place of Paulinus, who had fled when
+Eadwine was slain. The first who was sent came back reporting that the
+people were too stubborn to be converted. "Was it their stubbornness
+or your harshness?" asked the monk Aidan. "Did you forget to give them
+the milk first and then the meat?" Aidan was chosen to take the place
+of the brother who had failed. He established himself, not in an
+inland town, but in Holy Island. His life was spent in wandering
+amongst the men of the valleys opposite, winning them over by his
+gentleness and his self-denying energy. Oswald, warrior as he was, had
+almost all the gentleness and piety of Aidan. 'By reason of his
+constant habit of praying or giving thanks to the Lord he was wont
+whenever he sat to hold his hands upturned on his knees.' On one
+occasion when he sat down to a feast with Aidan by his side, he sent
+both the dainties before him and the silver dish on which they had
+been served to be divided amongst the poor. "May this hand," exclaimed
+the delighted Aidan, "never grow old!"</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec18" name="chap3sec18"></a>
+<p>18. <b>Oswald's Greatness and Overthrow.</b>&mdash;As a king Oswald <span class="pagenum"><a id="page048" name="page048"></a>(p. 048)</span>
+based his power on the acknowledgment of his over-lordship by all the
+kingdoms which were hostile to Penda. In <b>635</b> Wessex accepted
+Christianity, and the acceptance of Christianity brought with it the
+acceptance of Oswald's supremacy. Penda was thus surrounded by
+enemies, but his courage did not fail him, and in <b>642</b> at the battle of
+Maserfield he defeated Oswald. Oswald fell in the battle, begging with
+his last words for God's mercy on the souls of his enemies.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec19" name="chap3sec19"></a>
+<p>19. <b>Penda's Overthrow.</b>&mdash;After Oswald's fall Bernicia was ruled by his
+brother Oswiu. Deira, again divided from it, was governed first by
+Eadwine's cousin Osric, and then by Osric's son, Oswini, who
+acknowledged Penda as his over-lord. Oswini was a man after Aidan's
+own heart. Once he gave a horse to Aidan to carry him on his mission
+journeys. Aidan gave it away to the first beggar he met. "Is that son
+of a mare," answered Aidan to the reproaches of the king, "worth more
+in your eyes than that son of God?" Oswini fell at the bishop's feet
+and entreated his pardon. Aidan wept. "I am sure," he cried, "the king
+will not live long. I never till now saw a king humble." Aidan was
+right. In <b>651</b> Oswini was slain by the order of King Oswiu of Bernicia,
+who had long engaged in a struggle with Penda. Penda had for some
+years been burning and slaughtering in Bernicia, till he had turned a
+quarrel between himself and Oswiu into a national strife. Oswiu
+rescued Bernicia from destruction, and after Oswini's murder joined
+once more the two kingdoms together. Oswini was the last heir of
+Ælla's house, and from that time there was but one North-humberland.
+In <b>655</b> Oswiu and Penda met to fight, as it seemed for supremacy over
+the whole of England, by the river Winwæd, near the present Leeds. The
+heathen Penda was defeated and slain.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec20" name="chap3sec20"></a>
+<p>20. <b>The Three Kingdoms and the Welsh.</b>&mdash;For a moment it seemed as if
+England would be brought together under the rule of Oswiu. After
+Penda's death Mercia accepted Christianity, and the newly united
+Mercia was split up into its original parts ruled by several kings.
+The supremacy of Oswiu was, however, as little to be borne by the
+Mercians as the supremacy of Penda had been borne by the men of
+North-humberland. Under Wulfhere the Mercians rose in <b>659</b> against
+Oswiu. All hope of uniting England was for the present at an end. For
+about a century and a half longer there remained three larger
+kingdoms&mdash;North-humberland, Mercia, and Wessex, whilst four smaller
+ones&mdash;East Anglia, Essex, Kent, and Sussex&mdash;were usually attached
+either to Mercia or to Wessex. The failure of North-humberland to
+maintain the power <span class="pagenum"><a id="page049" name="page049"></a>(p. 049)</span> was no doubt, in the first place owing to
+the absence of any common danger, the fear of which would bind
+together its populations in self-defence. The northern Kymry of
+Strathclyde were no longer formidable, and they grew less formidable
+as years passed on. The southern Kymry of Wales were too weak to
+threaten Mercia, and the Welsh of the south-western peninsula were too
+weak to threaten Wessex. It was most unlikely that any permanent union
+of the English states would be brought about till some enemy arose who
+was more terrible to them than the Welsh could any longer be.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec21" name="chap3sec21"></a>
+<p>21. <b>The English Missionaries.</b>&mdash;Some preparation might, however, be
+made for the day of union by the steady growth of the Church. The
+South Saxons, secluded between the forest and the sea, were the last
+to be converted, but with them English heathenism came to an end as an
+avowed religion, though it still continued to influence the multitude
+in the form of a belief in fairies and witchcraft. Monasteries and
+nunneries sprang up on all sides. Missionaries spread over the
+country. In their mouths, and still more in their lives, Christianity
+taught what the fierce English warrior most wanted to learn, the duty
+of restraining his evil passions, and above all his cruelty. Nowhere
+in all Europe did the missionaries appeal so exclusively as they did
+in England to higher and purer motives. Nowhere but in England were to
+be found kings like Oswald and Oswini, who bowed their souls to the
+lesson of the Cross, and learned that they were not their own, but
+were placed in power that they might use their strength in helping the
+poor and needy.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec22" name="chap3sec22"></a>
+<p>22. <b>Dispute between Wilfrid and Colman. 664.</b>&mdash;The lesson was all the
+better taught because those who taught it were monks. Monasticism
+brought with it an extravagant view of the life of self-denial, but
+those who had to be instructed needed to have the lesson written
+plainly so that a child might read it. The rough warrior or the rough
+peasant was more likely to abstain from drunkenness, if he had learned
+to look up to men who ate and drank barely enough to enable them to
+live; and he was more likely to treat women with gentleness and
+honour, if he had learned to look up to some women who separated
+themselves from the joys of married life that they might give
+themselves to fasting and prayer. Yet, great as the influence of the
+clergy was, it was in danger of being lessened through internal
+disputes amongst themselves. A very large part of England had been
+converted by the Celtic missionaries, and the Celtic missionaries,
+though their life and teaching was in the main the same as that of the
+Church of Canterbury and of the Churches of the Continent, differed
+from them in the shape of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page050" name="page050"></a>(p. 050)</span> the tonsure and in the time at
+which they kept their Easter. These things were themselves
+unimportant, but it was of great importance that the young English
+Church should not be separated from the Churches of more civilised
+countries which had preserved much of the learning and art of the old
+Roman Empire. One of those who felt strongly the evil which would
+follow on such a separation was Wilfrid. He was scornful and
+self-satisfied, but he had travelled to Rome, and had been impressed
+with the ecclesiastical memories of the great city, and with the
+fervour and learning of its clergy. He came back resolved to bring the
+customs of England into conformity with those of the churches of the
+Continent. On his arrival, Oswiu, in <b>664</b>, gathered an assembly of the
+clergy of the north headed by Colman, Aidan's successor, to discuss
+the point. Learned arguments were poured forth on either side. Oswiu
+listened in a puzzled way. Wilfrid boasted that his mode of keeping
+Easter was derived from Peter, and that Christ had given to Peter the
+keys of the kingdom of heaven. Oswiu at once decided to follow Peter,
+lest when he came to the gate of that kingdom Peter, who held the
+keys, should lock him out. Wilfrid triumphed, and the English Church
+was in all outward matters regulated in conformity with that of Rome.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec23" name="chap3sec23"></a>
+<p>23. <b>Archbishop Theodore and the Penitential System.</b>&mdash;In <b>668</b>, four
+years after Oswiu's decision was taken, Theodore of Tarsus was
+consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury at Rome by the Pope himself. When
+he arrived in England the time had come for the purely missionary
+stage of the English Church to come to an end. Hitherto the bishops
+had been few, only seven in all England. Their number was now
+increased, and they were set to work no longer merely to convert the
+heathen, but to see that the clergy did their duty amongst those who
+had been already converted. Gradually, under these bishops, a
+parochial clergy came into existence. Sometimes the freemen of a
+hamlet, or of two or three hamlets together, would demand the constant
+residence of a priest. Sometimes a lord would settle a priest to teach
+his serfs. The parish clergy attacked violence and looseness of life
+in a way different from that of the monks. The monks had given
+examples of extreme self-denial. Theodore introduced the penitential
+system of the Roman Church, and ordered that those who had committed
+sin should be excluded from sharing in the rites of the Church until
+they had done penance. They were to fast, or to repeat prayers,
+sometimes for many years, before they were readmitted to communion.
+Many centuries afterwards good men objected that these penances were
+only bodily actions, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page051" name="page051"></a>(p. 051)</span> did not necessarily bring with them
+any real repentance. In the seventh century the greater part of the
+population could only be reached by such bodily actions. They had
+never had any thought that a murder, for instance, was anything more
+than a dangerous action which might bring down on the murderer the
+vengeance of the relations of the murdered man, which might be bought
+off with the payment of a weregild of a few shillings. The murderer
+who was required by the Church to do penance was being taught that a
+murder was a sin against God and against himself, as well as an
+offence against his fellow-men. Gradually&mdash;very gradually&mdash;men would
+learn from the example of the monks and from the discipline of penance
+that they were to live for something higher than the gratification of
+their own passions.</p>
+
+<a id="img023" name="img023"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img023.jpg" width="400" height="256" alt="" title="">
+<p>Saxon church at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap3sec24" name="chap3sec24"></a>
+<p>24. <b>Ealdhelm and Cædmon.</b>&mdash;When a change is good in itself, it usually
+bears fruit in unexpected ways. Theodore was a scholar as well as a
+bishop. Under his care a school grew up at Canterbury, full of all the
+learning of the Roman world. That which distinguished this school and
+others founded in imitation of it was that the scholars did not keep
+their learning to themselves, but strove to make it helpful to the
+ignorant and the poor. They learnt architecture on the Continent in
+order to raise churches of stone in the place of churches of wood. One
+of these churches is still standing at Bradford-on-Avon. Its builder
+was Ealdhelm, the abbot of Malmesbury, a teacher of all the knowledge
+of the time. Ealdhelm, learned as he was, let his heart go forth to
+the unlearned. Finding that his neighbours would not listen to his
+sermons, he sang to them <span class="pagenum"><a id="page052" name="page052"></a>(p. 052)</span> on a bridge to win them to higher
+things. Like all people who cannot read, the English of those days
+loved a song. In the north, Cædmon, a rude herdsman on the lands of
+the abbey which in later days was known as Whitby, was vexed with
+himself because he could not sing. When at ale-drinkings his comrades
+pressed him to sing a song, he would leave his supper unfinished and
+return home ashamed. One night in a dream he heard a voice bidding him
+sing of the Creation. In his sleep the words came to him, and they
+remained with him when he woke. He had become a poet&mdash;a rude poet, it
+is true, but still a poet. The gift which Cædmon had acquired never
+left him. He sang of the Creation and of the whole course of God's
+providence. To the end he was unable to compose any songs which were
+not religious.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec25" name="chap3sec25"></a>
+<p>25. <b>Bede. 673&mdash;735.</b>&mdash;Of all the English scholars of the time Bæda,
+usually known as 'the venerable Bede,' was the most remarkable. He was
+a monk of Jarrow on the Tyne. From his youth up he was a writer on all
+subjects embraced by the knowledge of his day. One subject he made his
+own. He was the first English historian. The title of his greatest
+work was the Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. He told how
+that nation had been converted, and of the fortunes of its Church; but
+for him the Church included the whole nation, and he told of the
+doings of kings and people, as well as of priests and monks. In this
+he was a true interpreter of the spirit of the English Church. Its
+clergy did not stand aloof from the rulers of the state, but worked
+with them as well as for them. The bishops stepped into the place of
+the heathen priests in the Witenagemots of the kings, and counselled
+them in matters of state as well as in matters of religion.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec26" name="chap3sec26"></a>
+<p>26. <b>Church Councils.</b>&mdash;Bede recognised in the title of his book that
+there was such a thing as an English nation long before there was any
+political unity. Whilst kingdom was fighting against kingdom, Theodore
+in <b>673</b> assembled the first English Church council at Hertford. From
+that time such councils of the bishops and principal clergy of all
+England met whenever any ecclesiastical question required them to
+deliberate in common. The clergy at least did not meet as West Saxons
+or as Mercians. They met on behalf of the whole English Church, and
+their united consultations must have done much to spread the idea
+that, in spite of the strife between the kings, the English nation was
+really one.</p>
+
+<a id="img024" name="img024"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 260px:">
+<img src="images/img024.jpg" width="250" height="234" alt="" title="">
+<p>Saxon horsemen (Harl. MS. 603.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="img025" name="img025"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img025.jpg" width="250" height="398" alt="" title="">
+<p>Group of Saxon warriors. (Harl. MS. 603.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap3sec27" name="chap3sec27"></a>
+<p>27. <b>Struggle between Mercia and Wessex.</b>&mdash;Many years passed away before
+the kingdoms could be brought under one king. North-humberland stood
+apart from southern England, and during <span class="pagenum"><a id="page053" name="page053"></a>(p. 053)</span> the latter half of
+the seventh century Wessex grew in power. Wessex had been weak because
+it was seldom thoroughly united. Each district was presided over by an
+Ætheling, or chief of royal blood, and it was only occasionally that
+these Æthelings submitted to the king. From time to time a strong king
+compelled the obedience of the Æthelings and carried on the old
+struggle with the western Welsh. It was not till <b>710</b> that Ine
+succeeded in driving the Welsh out of Somerset, and about the same
+time a body of the West Saxons advancing through Dorset reached
+Exeter. They took possession of half the city for themselves, and left
+the remainder to the Welsh. Ine was, however, checked by fresh
+outbreaks of the subordinate Æthelings, and in <b>726</b> he gave up the
+struggle and went on a pilgrimage to Rome. Æthelbald, king of the
+Mercians, took the opportunity to invade Wessex, and made himself
+master of the country and over-lord of all the other kingdoms south of
+the Humber. In <b>754</b> the West Saxons rose against him and defeated him
+at Burford. After a few years his successor, Offa, once more took up
+the task of making the Mercian king over-lord of southern England. In
+<b>775</b>, after a long struggle, he brought Kent as well as Essex under his
+sway. In <b>779</b> he defeated the West Saxons at Bensington, and pushed the
+Mercian frontier to the Thames. Further than that Offa did not venture
+to go, and, great as he was, the West Saxons within their shrunken
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page054" name="page054"></a>(p. 054)</span> limits continued to be independent of him. He turned his
+arms upon the Welsh, and drove them back from the Severn to the
+embankment which is known from his name as Offa's Dyke. The West
+Saxons, being freed from attack on the side of Mercia, overran Devon.
+Then there was a contest for the West Saxon crown between Beorhtric
+and Ecgberht. Beorhtric gained the upper hand, and entered into
+alliance with Offa by taking his daughter to wife. Ecgberht fled to
+the Continent.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec28" name="chap3sec28"></a>
+<p>28. <b>Mohammedanism and the Carolingian Empire.</b>&mdash;A great change had
+passed over Europe since the days when a Frankish princess, by her
+marriage with the Kentish Ethelberht, had smoothed the way for the
+introduction of Christianity into England. In the first part of the
+seventh century Mohammed had preached a new religion in Arabia. He
+taught that there was one God, and that Mohammed was his prophet.
+After his death his Arab followers spread as conquerors over the
+neighbouring countries. Before the end of the century they had subdued
+Persia, Syria, and Egypt, and were pushing westwards along the north
+coast of Africa. In <b>711</b> they crossed the Straits of Gibraltar. All
+Spain, with the exception of a hilly district in the north, soon fell
+into their hands, and in <b>717</b> they crossed the Pyrenees. There can be
+little doubt that, if they had subdued Gaul, Mohammedanism and not
+Christianity would for a long time have been the prevailing religion
+in Europe. From this Europe was saved by a great Frankish warrior,
+Charles Martel (<i>the Hammer</i>), who in <b>732</b> drove the invaders back at a
+great battle between Tours and Poitiers. Charles's son, Pippin,
+dethroned the reigning family and became king of the Franks. Pippin's
+son was Charles the Great, who before he died ruled over the whole of
+Gaul and Germany, over the north and centre of Italy, and the
+north-east of Spain. His rule was favoured both by the Frankish
+warriors and by the clergy, who were glad to see so strong a bulwark
+erected against the attacks of the Mohammedans. At that time the Roman
+Empire, which had never ceased to exist at Constantinople, fell into
+the hands of Irene, the murderess of her son. In <b>800</b> the Pope,
+refusing to acknowledge that the Empire could have so unworthy a head,
+placed the Imperial crown on the head of Charles as the successor of
+the old Roman Emperors.</p>
+
+<a id="chap3sec29" name="chap3sec29"></a>
+<p>29. <b>Ecgberht's Rule. 802&mdash;839.</b>&mdash;Though Charles did not directly govern
+England, he made his influence felt there. Offa had claimed his
+protection, and Ecgberht took refuge at his court. Ecgberht doubtless
+learned something of the art of ruling from him, and in <b>802</b> he
+returned to England. Beorhtric was by this time dead, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page055" name="page055"></a>(p. 055)</span> and
+Ecgberht was accepted as king by the West Saxons. Before he died, in
+<b>839</b>, he had made himself the over-lord of all the other kingdoms. He
+was never, indeed, directly king of all England. Kent, Sussex, and
+Essex were governed by rulers of his own family appointed by himself.
+Mercia, East Anglia, and North-humberland retained their own kings,
+ruling under Ecgberht as their over-lord. Towards the west Ecgberht's
+direct government did not reach beyond the Tamar, though the Cornish
+Celts acknowledged his authority, as did the Celts of Wales. The Celts
+of Strathclyde and the Picts and Scots remained entirely independent.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap4" name="chap4"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER IV.<br>
+THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP AND THE STRUGGLE WITH THE DANES.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>First landing of the Danes                               <span class="right10">787</span></li>
+<li>Treaty of Wedmore                                        <span class="right10">878</span></li>
+<li>Dependent alliance of the Scots with Eadward the Elder   <span class="right10">925</span></li>
+<li>Accession of Eadgar                                      <span class="right10">959</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap4sec1" name="chap4sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>The West Saxon Supremacy.</b>&mdash;It was quite possible that the power
+founded by Ecgberht might pass away as completely as did the power
+which had been founded by Æthelfrith of North-humberland or by Penda
+of Mercia. To some extent the danger was averted by the unusual
+strength of character which for six generations showed itself in the
+family of Ecgberht. For nearly a century and a half after Ecgberht's
+death no ruler arose from his line who had not great qualities as a
+warrior or as a ruler. It was no less important that these successive
+kings, with scarcely an exception, kept up a good understanding with
+the clergy, and especially with the Archbishops of Canterbury, so that
+the whole of the influence of the Church was thrown in favour of the
+political unity of England under the West Saxon line. The clergy
+wished to see the establishment of a strong national government for
+the protection of the national Church. Yet it was difficult to
+establish such a government unless other causes than the goodwill of
+the clergy had contributed to its maintenance. Peoples who have had
+little intercourse except by fighting with one another rarely unite
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page056" name="page056"></a>(p. 056)</span> heartily unless they have some common enemy to ward off, and
+some common leader to look up to in the conduct of their defence.<a id="footnotetag3" name="footnotetag3"></a><a href="#footnote3" title="Go to footnote 3"><span class="small">[3]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="img026" name="img026"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img026.jpg" width="500" height="358" alt="" title="">
+<p>Remains of a Viking ship, from a cairn at Gokstad. (Now
+in the University at Christiania.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap4sec2" name="chap4sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>The Coming of the Northmen.</b>&mdash;The common enemy came from the north.
+At the end of the eighth century the inhabitants <span class="pagenum"><a id="page057" name="page057"></a>(p. 057)</span> of Norway
+and Denmark resembled the Angles and Saxons three or four centuries
+before. They swarmed over the sea as pirates to plunder wherever they
+could find stored-up wealth along the coasts of Western Europe. The
+Northmen were heathen still and their religion was the old religion of
+force. They loved battle even more than they loved plunder. They held
+that the warrior who was slain in fight was received by the god Odin
+in Valhalla, where immortal heroes spent their days in cutting one
+another to pieces, and were healed of their wounds in the evening that
+they might join in the nightly feast, and be able to fight again on
+the morrow. He that died in bed was condemned to a chilly and dreary
+existence in the abode of the goddess Hela, whose name is the Norse
+equivalent of Hell.</p>
+
+<a id="img027" name="img027"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 210px;">
+<img src="images/img027.jpg" width="200" height="254" alt="" title="">
+<p>Gold ring of Æthelwulf.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap4sec3" name="chap4sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>The English Coast Plundered.</b>&mdash;Since Englishmen had settled in
+England they had lost the art of seamanship. The Northmen therefore
+were often able to plunder and sail away. They could only be attacked
+on land, and some time would pass before the Ealdorman who ruled the
+district could gather together not only his own war-band, but the
+fyrd, or levy of all men of fighting age. When at last he arrived at
+the spot on the coast where the pirates had been plundering, he often
+found that they were already gone. Yet, as time went on, the Northmen
+took courage, and pushed far enough into the interior to be attacked
+before they could regain the coast. Their first landing had been in
+<b>787</b>, before the time of Ecgberht. In Ecgberht's reign their attacks
+upon Wessex were so persistent that Ecgberht had to bring his own
+war-band to the succour of his Ealdormen. His son and successor,
+Æthelwulf, had a still harder struggle. The pirates spread their
+attacks over the whole of the southern and the eastern coast, and
+ventured to remain long enough on shore to fight a succession of
+battles. In <b>851</b> they were strong enough to remain during the whole
+winter in Thanet. The crews of no less than 350 ships landed in the
+mouth of the Thames sacked Canterbury and London. They were finally
+defeated by Æthelwulf at Aclea (<i>Ockley</i>), in Surrey. In <b>858</b> Æthelwulf
+died. Four of his sons wore the crown in succession; the two eldest,
+Æthelbald and Æthelberht, ruling only a short time.</p>
+
+<a id="chap4sec4" name="chap4sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>The Danes in the North.</b>&mdash;The task of the third brother, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page058" name="page058"></a>(p. 058)</span>
+Æthelred, who succeeded in <b>866</b>, was harder than his father's. Hitherto
+the Northmen had come for plunder, and had departed sooner or later. A
+fresh swarm of Danes now arrived from Denmark to settle on the land as
+conquerors. Though they did not themselves fight on horseback, they
+seized horses to betake themselves rapidly from one part of England to
+the other. Their first attack was made on the north, where there was
+no great affection for the West Saxon kings. They overcame the greater
+part of North-humberland. They beat down the resistance of East
+Anglia, and, fastening its king, Eadmund, to a tree, shot him to death
+with arrows. His countrymen counted him a saint, and a great monastery
+arose at Bury St. Edmunds in his honour. Everywhere the Danes
+plundered and burnt the monasteries, because the monks were weak, and
+their houses were rich with jewelled service books and golden plate.
+They next turned upon Mercia, and forced the Mercian under-king to pay
+tribute to them. Only Wessex, to which the smaller eastern states of
+Kent and Sussex had by this time been completely annexed, retained its
+independence.</p>
+
+<a id="chap4sec5" name="chap4sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>Ælfred's Struggle in Wessex. 871&mdash;878.</b>&mdash;In Wessex Æthelred strove
+hard against the invaders. He won a great victory at Æscesdun
+(<i>Ashdown</i>, near Reading), on the northern slope of the Berkshire
+Downs. After a succession of battles he was slain in <b>871</b>. Though he
+left sons of his own, he was succeeded by Ælfred, his youngest
+brother. It was not the English custom to give the crown to the child
+of a king if there was any one of the kingly family more fitted to
+wear it. Ælfred was no common man. In his childhood he had visited
+Rome, and had been hallowed as king by Pope Leo IV., though the
+ceremony could have had no weight in England. He had early shown a
+love of letters, and the story goes that when his mother offered a
+book with bright illuminations to the one of her children who could
+first learn to read it, the prize was won by Ælfred. During Æthelred's
+reign he had little time to give to learning. He fought nobly by his
+brother's side in the battles of the day, and after he succeeded him
+he fought nobly as king at the head of his people. In <b>878</b> the Danish
+host, under its king, Guthrum, beat down all resistance. Ælfred was no
+longer able to keep in the open country, and took refuge with a few
+chosen warriors in the little island of Athelney, in Somerset, then
+surrounded by the waters of the fen country through which the Parret
+flowed. After a few weeks he came forth, and with the levies of
+Somerset and Wilts and of part of Hants he utterly defeated Guthrum at
+Ethandun (? <i>Edington</i>, in Wiltshire), and stormed his camp.</p>
+
+<a id="img028" name="img028"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img028.jpg" width="400" height="435" alt="" title="">
+<p>Gold jewel of Ælfred found at Athelney. (Now in the
+Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap4sec6" name="chap4sec6"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page059" name="page059"></a>(p. 059)</span> 6. <b>The Treaty of Chippenham, and its Results. 878.</b>&mdash;After
+this defeat Guthrum and the Danes swore to a peace with Ælfred at
+Chippenham. They were afterwards baptised in a body at Aller, not far
+from Athelney. Guthrum with a few of his companions then visited
+Ælfred at Wedmore, a village near the southern foot of the Mendips,
+from which is taken the name by which the treaty is usually but
+wrongly known. By this treaty Ælfred retained no more than Wessex,
+with its dependencies, Sussex and Kent, and the western half of
+Mercia. The remainder of England as far north as the Tees was
+surrendered to the Danes, and became known as the Danelaw, because
+Danish and not Saxon law prevailed in it. Beyond the Tees Bernicia
+maintained its independence under an English king. Though the English
+people never again had to struggle for its very existence as a
+political body, yet, in <b>886</b>, after a successful war, Ælfred wrung from
+Guthrum a fresh treaty by which the Danes surrendered London and the
+surrounding district. Yet, even after this second treaty, it might
+seem as if Ælfred, who only ruled over <span class="pagenum"><a id="page060" name="page060"></a>(p. 060)</span> a part of England,
+was worse off than his grandfather, Ecgberht, who had ruled over the
+whole. In reality he was better off. In the larger kingdom it would
+have been almost impossible to produce the national spirit which alone
+could have permanently kept the whole together. In the smaller kingdom
+it was possible, especially as there was a strong West Saxon element
+in the south-west of Mercia in consequence of its original settlement
+by a West Saxon king after the battle of Deorham (see p. <a href="#page035">35</a>). Moreover,
+Ælfred, taking care not to offend the old feeling
+of local independence which still existed in Mercia, appointed his
+son-in-law, Æthelred, who was a Mercian, to govern it as an ealdorman
+under himself.</p>
+
+<a id="img029" name="img029"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img029.jpg" width="250" height="143" alt="" title="">
+<p>An English vessel. (Harl. MS. 603.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap4sec7" name="chap4sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>Ælfred's Military Work.</b>&mdash;Ælfred would hardly have been able to do
+so much unless his own character had been singularly attractive. Other
+men have been greater warriors or legislators or scholars than Ælfred
+was, but no man has ever combined in his own person so much excellence
+in war, in legislation, and in scholarship. As to war, he was not only
+a daring and resolute commander, but he was an organiser of the
+military forces of his people. One chief cause of the defeats of the
+English had been the difficulty of bringing together in a short time
+the 'fyrd,' or general levy of the male population, or of keeping it
+long together when men were needed at home to till the fields. Ælfred
+did his best to overcome this difficulty by ordering that half the men
+of each shire should be always ready to fight, whilst half remained at
+home. This new half-army, like his new half-kingdom, was stronger than
+the whole one had been before. To an improved army Ælfred added a
+navy, and he was the first English king who defeated the Danes at sea.</p>
+
+<a id="img030" name="img030"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img030.jpg" width="300" height="290" alt="" title="">
+<p>A Saxon house. (Harl. MS. 603.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap4sec8" name="chap4sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>His Laws and Scholarship.</b>&mdash;Ælfred was too great a man to want to
+make every one conform to some ideal of his own choosing. It was
+enough for him to take men as they were, and to help them to become
+better. He took the old laws and customs, and then, suggesting a few
+improvements, submitted them to the approval of his Witenagemot, the
+assembly of his bishops and warriors. He knew also that men's conduct
+is influenced more by what they think than by what they are commanded
+to do. His whole land was steeped in ignorance. The monasteries had
+been the schools of learning; and many of them had been sacked by the
+Danes, their books <span class="pagenum"><a id="page061" name="page061"></a>(p. 061)</span> burnt, and their inmates scattered,
+whilst others were deserted, ceasing to receive new inmates because
+the first duty of Englishmen had been to defend their homes rather
+than to devote themselves to a life of piety. Latin was the language
+in which the services of the Church were read, and in which books like
+Bede's Ecclesiastical History were written. Without a knowledge of
+Latin there could be no intercourse with the learned men of the
+Continent, who used that language still amongst themselves. Yet when
+the Danes departed from Ælfred's kingdom, there were but very few
+priests who could read a page of Latin. Ælfred did his best to remedy
+the evil. He called learned men to him wherever they could be found.
+Some of these were English; others, like Asser, who wrote Ælfred's
+life, were Welsh; others again were Germans from beyond the sea. Yet
+Ælfred was not content. It was a great thing that there should be
+again schools in England for those who could write and speak Latin,
+the language of the learned, but his heart yearned for those who could
+not speak anything but their own native tongue. He set himself to be
+the teacher of these. He himself translated Latin books for them, with
+the object of imparting knowledge, not of giving, as a modern
+translator would do, the exact sense of the author. When, therefore,
+he knew anything which was not in the books, but which he thought it
+good for Englishmen to read, he added it to his translation. Even with
+this he was not content. The books of Latin writers which he
+translated taught men about the history and geography of the
+Continent. They taught nothing about the history of England itself, of
+the deeds and words of the men who had ruled the English nation. That
+these things might not be forgotten, he bade his learned men bring
+together all that was known of the history of his people since the day
+when they first landed as pirates on the coast of Kent. The Chronicle,
+as it is called, is the earliest history which any European nation
+possesses in its own tongue. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page062" name="page062"></a>(p. 062)</span> Yet, after all, such a man as
+Ælfred is greater for what he was than for what he did. No other king
+ever showed forth so well in his own person the truth of the saying,
+'He that would be first among you, let him be the servant of all.'</p>
+
+<a id="chap4sec9" name="chap4sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>Eadward the Elder. 899&mdash;925.</b>&mdash;In <b>899</b> Ælfred died. He had already
+fortified London as an outpost against the Danes, and he left to his
+son, Eadward, a small but strong and consolidated kingdom. The Danes
+on the other side of the frontier were not united. Guthrum's kingdom
+stretched over the old Essex and East Anglia, as well as over the
+south-eastern part of the old Mercia. The land from the Humber to the
+Nen was under the rule of Danes settled in the towns known to the
+English as the Five boroughs of Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Stamford,
+and Nottingham. In the old Deira or modern Yorkshire was a separate
+Danish kingdom. Danes, in short, settled wherever we now find the
+place-names, such as Derby and Whitby, ending in the Danish
+termination 'by' instead of in the English terminations 'ton' or
+'ham,' as in Luton and Chippenham. Yet even in these parts the bulk of
+the population was usually English, and the English population would
+everywhere welcome an English conqueror. A century earlier a Mercian
+or a North-humbrian had preferred independence to submission to a West
+Saxon king. They now preferred a West Saxon king to a Danish master,
+especially as the old royal houses were extinct, and there was no one
+but the West Saxon king to lead them against the Danes.</p>
+
+<a id="chap4sec10" name="chap4sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>Eadward's Conquests.</b>&mdash;Eadward was not, like his father, a
+legislator or a scholar, but he was a great warrior. In a series of
+campaigns he subdued the Danish parts of England as far north as the
+Humber. He was aided by his brother-in-law, Æthelred, and after
+Æthelred's death by his own sister, Æthelred's widow, Æthelflæd, the
+Lady of the Mercians, one of the few warrior-women of the world. Step
+by step the brother and sister won their way, not contenting
+themselves with victories in the open country, but securing each
+district as they advanced by the erection of 'burhs' or
+fortifications. Some of these 'burhs' were placed in desolate Roman
+strongholds, such as Chester. Others were raised, like that of
+Warwick, on the mounds piled up in past times by a still earlier race.
+Others again, like that of Stafford, were placed where no fortress had
+been before. Towns, small at first, grew up in and around the 'burhs,'
+and were guarded by the courage of the townsmen themselves. Eadward,
+after his sister's death, took into his own hands the government of
+Mercia, and from that time all <span class="pagenum"><a id="page063" name="page063"></a>(p. 063)</span> southern and central England
+was united under him. In <b>922</b> the Welsh kings acknowledged his
+supremacy.</p>
+
+<a id="chap4sec11" name="chap4sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>Eadward and the Scots.</b>&mdash;Tradition assigns to Eadward a wider rule
+shortly before his death. In the middle of the ninth century the Picts
+and the intruding Scots (see p. <a href="#page042">42</a>) had been amalgamated
+under Keneth MacAlpin, the king of the Scots, and the new kingdom had
+since been welded together, just as Mercia and Wessex were being
+welded together by the attacks of the Danes. It is said that in <b>925</b>
+the king of the Scots, together with other northern rulers, chose
+Eadward 'to father and lord.' Probably this statement only covers some
+act of alliance formed by the English king with the king of Scots and
+other lesser rulers. Nothing was more natural than that the Scottish
+king, Constantine, should wish to obtain the support of Eadward
+against his enemies; and it was also natural that if Eadward agreed to
+support him, he would require some acknowledgment of the superiority
+of the English king; but what was the precise form of the
+acknowledgment must remain uncertain. In <b>925</b> Eadward died.</p>
+
+<a id="chap4sec12" name="chap4sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>Æthelstan. 925&mdash;940.</b>&mdash;Three sons of Eadward reigned in succession.
+The eldest, of illegitimate birth, was Æthelstan. Sihtric, the Danish
+king at York, owned him as over-lord, and on Sihtric's death in <b>926</b>,
+Æthelstan took Danish North-humberland under his direct rule. The
+Welsh kings were reduced to make a fuller acknowledgment of his
+supremacy than they had made to his father. He drove the Welsh out of
+the half of Exeter which had been left to them, and confined them to
+the modern Cornwall beyond the Tamar. Great rulers on the Continent
+sought his alliance. The empire of Charles the Great had broken up.
+One of Æthelstan's sisters was given to Charles the Simple, the king
+of the Western Franks; another to Hugh the Great, Duke of the French
+and lord of Paris, who, though nominally the vassal of the king, was
+equal in power to his lord, and whose son was afterwards the first
+king of modern France. A third sister was given to Otto, the son of
+Henry, the king of the Eastern Franks, from whom, in due time, sprang
+a new line of Emperors. Æthelstan's greatness drew upon him the
+jealousy of the king of the Scots and of all the northern kings. In
+<b>937</b> he defeated them all in a great battle at Brunanburh, of which the
+site is unknown. His victory was celebrated in a splendid war-song.</p>
+
+<a id="chap4sec13" name="chap4sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>Eadmund (940-946) and Eadred (946-955).</b>&mdash;Æthelstan died in <b>940</b>. He
+was succeeded by his young brother, Eadmund, who had fought bravely at
+Brunanburh. Eadmund had to meet a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page064" name="page064"></a>(p. 064)</span> general rising of the
+Danes of Mercia as well as of those of the north. After he had
+suppressed the rising he showed himself to be a great statesman as
+well as a great warrior. The relations between the king of the English
+and the king of the Scots had for some time been very uncertain.
+Little is definitely known about them but it looks as if they joined
+the English whenever they were afraid of the Danes, and joined the
+Danes whenever they were afraid of the English. Eadmund took an
+opportunity of making it to be the interest of the Scottish king
+permanently to join the English. The southern part of the kingdom of
+Strathclyde had for some time been under the English kings. In <b>945</b>
+Eadmund overran the remainder, but gave it to Malcolm on condition
+that he should be his fellow-worker by sea and land. The king of Scots
+thus entered into a position of dependent alliance towards Eadmund. A
+great step was thus taken in the direction in which the inhabitants of
+Britain afterwards walked. The dominant powers in the island were to
+be English and Scots, not English and Danes. Eadmund thought it worth
+while to conciliate the Scottish Celts rather than to endeavour to
+conquer them. The result of Eadmund's statesmanship was soon made
+manifest. He himself did not live to gather its fruits. In <b>946</b> an
+outlaw who had taken his seat at a feast in his hall slew him as he
+was attempting to drag him out by the hair. The next king, Eadred, the
+last of Eadward's sons, though sickly, had all the spirit of his race.
+He had another sharp struggle with the Danes, but in <b>954</b> he made
+himself their master. North-humberland was now thoroughly amalgamated
+with the English kingdom, and was to be governed by an Englishman,
+Oswulf, with the title of Earl, an old Danish title equivalent to the
+English Ealdorman, having nothing to do, except philologically, with
+the old English word Eorl.</p>
+
+<a id="chap4sec14" name="chap4sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>Danes and English.</b>&mdash;In <b>955</b> Eadred died, having completed the work
+which Ælfred had begun, and which had been carried on by his son and
+his three grandsons. England, from the Forth to the Channel, was under
+one ruler. Even the contrast between Englishmen and Danes was soon,
+for the most part, wiped out. They were both of the same Teutonic
+stock, and therefore their languages were akin to one another and
+their institutions very similar. The Danes of the north were for some
+time fiercer and less easily controlled than the English of the south,
+but there was little national distinction between them, and what
+little there was gradually passed away.</p>
+
+<a id="chap4sec15" name="chap4sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>Eadwig. 955&mdash;959.</b>&mdash;Eadred was succeeded by Eadwig, the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page065" name="page065"></a>(p. 065)</span>
+eldest son of his brother Eadmund. Eadwig was hardly more than fifteen
+years old, and it would be difficult for a boy to keep order amongst
+the great ealdormen and earls. At his coronation feast he gave deep
+offence by leaving his place to amuse himself with a young kinswoman,
+Ælfgifu, in her mother's room, whence he was followed and dragged back
+by two ecclesiastics, one of whom was Dunstan, Abbot of Glastonbury.</p>
+
+<a id="chap4sec16" name="chap4sec16"></a>
+<p>16. <b>Dunstan.</b>&mdash;Dunstan in his boyhood had been attached to Eadmund's
+court, but he had been driven off by the rivalry of other youths. He
+was in no way fitted to be a warrior. He loved art and song, and
+preferred a book to a sword. For such youths there was no place
+amongst the fighting laymen, and Dunstan early found the peace which
+he sought as a monk at Glastonbury. Eadmund made him abbot, but
+Dunstan had almost to create his monastery before he could rule it.
+Monasteries had nearly vanished from England in the time of the Danish
+plunderings, and the few monks who remained had very little that was
+monastic about them. Dunstan brought the old monks into order, and
+attracted new ones, but to the end of his days he was conspicuous
+rather as a scholar than as an ascetic. From Glastonbury he carried on
+the work of teaching an ignorant generation, just as Ælfred had done
+in an earlier time. Ælfred, however, was a warrior and a ruler first,
+and then a teacher. Dunstan was a teacher first, and then a ruler.
+Eadred took counsel with him, and Dunstan became thus the first
+example of a class of men which afterwards rose to power&mdash;that,
+namely, of ecclesiastical statesmen. Up to that time all who had
+governed had been warriors.</p>
+
+<a id="chap4sec17" name="chap4sec17"></a>
+<p>17. <b>Archbishop Oda.</b>&mdash;Another side of the Church's work, the
+maintenance of a high standard of morality, was, in the time of
+Eadred, represented by Oda, Archbishop of Canterbury. The accepted
+standard of morality differs in different ages, and, for many reasons,
+it was held by the purer minds in the tenth century that celibacy was
+nobler than marriage. If our opinion is changed now, it is because
+many things have changed. No one then thought of teaching a girl
+anything, except to sew and to look after the house, and an ignorant
+and untrained wife could only be a burden to a man who was intent upon
+the growth of the spiritual or intellectual life in himself and in
+others. At all times the monks, who were often called the regular
+clergy, because they lived according to a certain rule, had been
+unmarried, and attempts had frequently been made by councils of the
+Church to compel the parish priests, or secular clergy, to follow
+their example. In England, however, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page067" name="page067"></a>(p. 067)</span> and on the Continent as
+well, these orders were seldom heeded, and a married clergy was
+everywhere to be found. Of late, however, there had sprung up in the
+monastery of Cluny, in Burgundy, a zeal for the establishment of
+universal clerical celibacy, and this zeal was shared by Archbishop
+Oda, though he found it impossible to overcome the stubborn resistance
+of the secular clergy.</p>
+
+<a id="img031" name="img031"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img031.jpg" width="400" height="465" alt="" title="">
+<p>A monk driven out of the King's presence.<br> (From a
+drawing belonging to the Society of Antiquaries.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap4sec18" name="chap4sec18"></a>
+<p>18. <b>Eadwig's Marriage.</b>&mdash;In its eagerness to set up a pure standard of
+morality, the Church had made rules against the marriage of even
+distant relations. Eadwig offended against these rules by marrying his
+kinswoman, Ælfgifu. A quarrel arose on this account between Dunstan
+and the young king, and Dunstan was driven into banishment. Such a
+quarrel was sure to weaken the king, because the support of the
+bishops was usually given to him, for the sake of the maintenance of
+peace and order. The dispute came at a bad time, because there was
+also a quarrel among the ealdormen and other great men. At last the
+ealdormen of the north and centre of England revolted and set up the
+king's brother, Eadgar, to be king of all England north of the Thames.
+Upon this, Oda, taking courage, declared Eadwig and his young wife to
+be separated as too near of kin, and even seized her and had her
+carried beyond sea. In <b>959</b> Eadwig died, and Eadgar succeeded to the
+whole kingdom.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap5" name="chap5"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER V.<br>
+EADGAR'S ENGLAND.</h3>
+
+
+<a id="chap5sec1" name="chap5sec1"></a>
+<p class="p2">1. <b>Eadgar and Dunstan. 959&mdash;975.</b>&mdash;Eadgar was known as the Peaceful
+King. He had the advantage, which Eadwig had not, of having the Church
+on his side. He maintained order, with the help of Dunstan as his
+principal adviser. Not long after his accession Dunstan became
+Archbishop of Canterbury. His policy was that of a man who knows that
+he cannot do everything and is content to do what he can. The Danes
+were to keep their own laws, and not to have English laws forced upon
+them. The great ealdormen were to be conciliated, not to be repressed.
+Everything was to be done to raise the standard of morality and
+knowledge. Foreign teachers were brought in to set up schools. More
+than this Dunstan did not attempt. It is true that in his time an
+effort was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page068" name="page068"></a>(p. 068)</span> made to found monasteries, which should be filled
+with monks living after the stricter rule of which the example had
+been set at Cluny, but the man who did most to establish monasteries
+again in England was not Dunstan, but Æthelwold, Bishop of Winchester.
+Æthelwold, however, was not content with founding monasteries. He also
+drove out the secular canons from his own cathedral of Winchester and
+filled their places with monks. His example was followed by Oswald,
+Bishop of Worcester. Dunstan did not introduce monks even into his own
+cathedrals at Worcester and Canterbury. As far as it is now possible
+to understand the matter, the change, though it provoked great
+hostility, was for the better. The secular canons were often married,
+connected with the laity of the neighbourhood, and living an easy
+life. The monks were celibate, living according to a strict rule, and
+conforming themselves to what, according to the standard of the age,
+was the highest ideal of religion. By a life of complete self-denial
+they were able to act as examples to a generation which needed
+teaching by example more than by word. How completely monasticism was
+associated with learning is shown by the fact that the monks now
+established at Worcester took up the work of continuing the Chronicle
+which had been begun under Ælfred (see p. <a href="#page061">61</a>).</p>
+
+<a id="chap5sec2" name="chap5sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>The Cession of Lothian.</b>&mdash;It is said that Eadgar was once rowed by
+six kings on the river Dee. The story, though probably untrue, sets
+forth his power not only over his own immediate subjects but over the
+whole island. His title of Peaceful shows that at least he lived on
+good terms with his neighbours. There is reason to believe that he was
+able to do this because he followed out the policy of Eadmund in
+singling out the king of Scots as the ruler whom it was most worth his
+while to conciliate. Eadmund had given over Strathclyde to one king of
+Scots. Eadgar, it is said&mdash;and probably with truth&mdash;gave over Lothian
+to another. Lothian was then the name of the whole of the northern
+part of Bernicia stretching from the Cheviots to the Forth. In
+Eadred's time the Scots had occupied Eadwinesburh (<i>Edinburgh</i>), the
+northern border fortress of Bernicia (see p. <a href="#page043">43</a>), and after
+this the land to the south of that fortress must have been difficult
+to defend against them. It is therefore likely that the story is true
+that Eadgar ceded Lothian to Kenneth, who was then king of the Scots,
+especially as it would account for the peaceful character of his
+reign. Kenneth in accepting the gift no doubt engaged to be faithful
+to Eadgar, though it is impossible to say what was the exact nature of
+his obligation. It is of more importance that a Celtic king ruled
+thenceforward over an <span class="pagenum"><a id="page069" name="page069"></a>(p. 069)</span> English people as well as over his own
+Celtic Scots, and that ultimately his descendants became more English
+than Celtic in character, through the attraction exercised upon them
+by their English subjects.</p>
+
+<a id="chap5sec3" name="chap5sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>Changes in English Institutions.</b>&mdash;The long struggle with the Danes
+could not fail to leave its mark upon English society. The history of
+the changes which took place is difficult to trace; in the first place
+because our information is scanty, in the second because things
+happened in one part of the country which did not happen in another.
+Yet there were two changes which were widely felt: the growth of the
+king's authority, and the acceleration of the process which was
+reducing to bondage the ceorl, or simple freeman.</p>
+
+<a id="chap5sec4" name="chap5sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>Growth of the King's Power.</b>&mdash;In the early days of the English
+conquest the kings and other great men had around them their
+war-bands, composed of gesiths or thegns, personally attached to
+themselves, and ready, if need were, to die on their lord's behalf.
+Very early these thegns were rewarded by grants of land on condition
+of continuing military service. Every extension of the king's power
+over fresh territory made their services more important. It had always
+been difficult to bring together the fyrd, or general army of the
+freemen, even of a small district, and it was quite impossible to
+bring together the fyrd of a kingdom reaching from the Channel to the
+Firth of Forth. Ælfred's division of the fyrd into two parts, one to
+fight and the other to stay at home, may have served when all the
+fighting had to be done in the western part of Wessex. Æthelstan or
+Eadmund could not possibly make even half of the men of Devonshire or
+Essex fight in his battles north of the Humber. The kings therefore
+had to rely more and more upon their thegns, who in turn had thegns of
+their own whom they could bring with them; and thus was formed an army
+ready for military service in any part of the kingdom. A king who
+could command such an army was even more powerful than one who could
+command the whole of the forces of a smaller territory.</p>
+
+<table summary="alignement" class="center">
+<colgroup>
+    <col width="50%">
+    <col width="50%">
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td class="ilbot">
+<a id="img032" name="img032"></a>
+<img src="images/img032.jpg" width="300" height="93" alt="Ploughing and sowing." title="">
+</td>
+<td class="ilbot">
+<a id="img033" name="img033"></a>
+<img src="images/img033.jpg" width="300" height="118" alt="Pruning." title=""></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>January&mdash;Ploughing and sowing.</td>
+<td>February&mdash;Pruning.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ilbot">
+<a id="img034" name="img034"></a>
+<img src="images/img034.jpg" width="300" height="98" alt="Sowing and digging." title="">
+</td>
+<td class="ilbot">
+<a id="img035" name="img035"></a>
+<img src="images/img035.jpg" width="300" height="124" alt="Feasting." title="">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>March&mdash;Sowing and digging.</td>
+<td>April&mdash;Feasting.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ilbot">
+<a id="img036" name="img036"></a>
+<img src="images/img036.jpg" width="300" height="99" alt="Sheep-tending." title="">
+</td>
+<td class="ilbot">
+<a id="img037" name="img037"></a>
+<img src="images/img037.jpg" width="300" height="100" alt="" title="">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>May&mdash;Sheep-tending.</td>
+<td>June&mdash;Cutting wood.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">Rural life in the eleventh century. January to June.<br>
+(Cott. MS. <i>Julius A.</i> vi.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ilbot">
+<a id="img038" name="img038"></a>
+<img src="images/img038.jpg" width="300" height="113" alt="Mowing." title="">
+</td>
+<td class="ilbot">
+<a id="img039" name="img039"></a>
+<img src="images/img039.jpg" width="300" height="116" alt="Harvesting." title="">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>July&mdash;Mowing.</td>
+<td>August&mdash;Harvesting.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ilbot">
+<a id="img040" name="img040"></a>
+<img src="images/img040.jpg" width="300" height="122" alt="Feeding swine." title="">
+</td>
+<td class="ilbot">
+<a id="img041" name="img041"></a>
+<img src="images/img041.jpg" width="300" height="109" alt="Hawking." title="">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>September&mdash;Feeding swine.</td>
+<td>October&mdash;Hawking.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ilbot">
+<a id="img042" name="img042"></a>
+<img src="images/img042.jpg" width="300" height="99" alt="Making a bonfire." title="">
+</td>
+<td class="ilbot">
+<a id="img043" name="img043"></a>
+<img src="images/img043.jpg" width="300" height="96" alt="Threshing and Winnowing." title="">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>November&mdash;Making a bonfire.</td>
+<td>December&mdash;Threshing and Winnowing.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">Rural life in the eleventh century. July to December.<br>
+(Cott. MS. <i>Julius A.</i> vi.)]</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<a id="chap5sec5" name="chap5sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>Conversion of the Freemen into Serfs.</b>&mdash;It is impossible to give a
+certain account of the changes which passed over the English freemen,
+but there can be little doubt that a process had been for some time
+going on which converted them into bondmen, and that this process was
+greatly accelerated by the Danish wars. When a district was being
+plundered the peasant holders of the strips of village land suffered
+most, and needed the protection of the neighbouring thegn, who was
+better skilled in war than themselves, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page072" name="page072"></a>(p. 072)</span> and this protection
+they could only obtain on condition of becoming bondmen
+themselves&mdash;that is to say, of giving certain days in the week to work
+on the special estate of the lord. A bondman differed both from a
+slave and from a modern farmer. Though he was bound to the soil and
+could not go away if he wished to do so, yet he could not be sold as
+though he were a slave; nor, on the other hand, could he, like a
+farmer, be turned out of his holding so long as he fulfilled his
+obligation of cultivating his lord's demesne. The lord was almost
+invariably a thegn, either of the king or of some superior thegn, and
+there thus arose in England, as there arose about the same time on the
+Continent, a chain of personal relationships. The king was no longer
+merely the head of the whole people. He was the personal lord of his
+own thegns, and they again were the lords of other thegns. The serfs
+cultivated their lands, and thereby set them free to fight for the
+king on behalf of the whole nation. It seems at first sight as if the
+English people had fallen into a worse condition. An organisation,
+partly military and partly servile, was substituted for an
+organisation of free men. Yet only in this way could the whole of
+England be amalgamated. The nation gained in unity what it lost in
+freedom.</p>
+
+<a id="chap5sec6" name="chap5sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>The Hundred-moot and the Lord's Court.</b>&mdash;In another way the
+condition of the peasants was altered for the worse by the growth of
+the king's power. In former days land was held as 'folkland,' granted
+by the people at the original conquest, passing to the kinsmen of the
+holder if he died without children. Afterwards the clergy introduced a
+system by which the owner could grant the 'bookland,' held by book or
+charter, setting at nought the claim of his kinsmen, and in order to
+give validity to the arrangement, obtained the consent of the king and
+his Witenagemot (see p. <a href="#page045">45</a>). In time, the king and the
+Witenagemot granted charters in other cases, and the new 'bookland' to
+a great extent superseded the old 'folkland,' accompanied by a grant
+of the right of holding special courts. In this manner the old
+hundred-moots became neglected, people seeking for justice in the
+courts of the lords. Yet those who lived on the lord's land attended
+his court, appeared as compurgators, and directed the ordeal just as
+they had once done in the hundred-moot.</p>
+
+<a id="chap5sec7" name="chap5sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>The Towns.</b>&mdash;The towns had grown up in various ways. Some were of
+old Roman foundation, such as Lincoln and Gloucester. Others, like
+Nottingham and Bristol, had come into existence since the English
+settlement. Others again gathered round monasteries, like Bury St.
+Edmunds and Peterborough. The <span class="pagenum"><a id="page073" name="page073"></a>(p. 073)</span> inhabitants met to consult
+about their own affairs, sometimes in dependence on a lord. Where
+there was no lord they held a court which was composed in the same way
+as the hundred-moots outside. The townsmen had the right of holding a
+market. Every sale had to take place in the presence of witnesses who
+could prove, if called upon to do so, that the sale had really taken
+place, and markets were therefore usually to be found in towns,
+because it was there that witnesses could most easily be found.</p>
+
+<a id="chap5sec8" name="chap5sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>The Origin of the Shires.</b>&mdash;Shires, which were divisions larger than
+the hundreds, and smaller than the larger kingdoms, originated in
+various ways. In the south, and on the east coast as far north as the
+Wash, they were either old kingdoms like Kent and Essex, or
+settlements forming part of old kingdoms, as Norfolk (the north folk)
+formed part of East Anglia, and Dorset or Somerset, the lands of the
+Dorsætan or the Somersætan, formed part of the kingdom of Wessex. In
+the centre and north they were of more recent origin, and were
+probably formed as those parts of England were gradually reconquered
+from the Danes. The fact that most of these shires are named from
+towns&mdash;as Derbyshire from Derby, and Warwickshire from Warwick&mdash;shows
+that they came into existence after towns had become of importance.</p>
+
+<a id="chap5sec9" name="chap5sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>The Shire-moot.</b>&mdash;Whilst the hundred-moot decayed, the folk-moot
+continued to flourish under a new name, as the shire-moot. This moot
+was still attended by the freemen of the shire though the thegns were
+more numerous and the simple freemen less numerous than they had once
+been. Still the continued existence of the shire-moot kept up the
+custom of self-government more than anything else in England. The
+ordeals were witnessed, the weregild inflicted, and rights to land
+adjudged, not by an officer of the king, but by the landowners of the
+shire assembled for the purpose. These meetings were ordinarily
+presided over by the ealdorman, who appeared as the military commander
+and the official head of the shire, and by the bishop, who represented
+the Church. Another most important personage was the sheriff, or
+shire-reeve, whose business it was to see that the king had all his
+rights, to preside over the shire-moot when it sat as a judicial
+court, and to take care that its sentences were put in execution.</p>
+
+<a id="img044" name="img044"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img044.jpg" width="400" height="437" alt="" title="">
+<p class="right"><i>Walker &amp; Boutallse.</i></p>
+<p>Plan and section of a burh of the eleventh century at
+Laughton-en-Le-Morthen, Yorks.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap5sec10" name="chap5sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>The Ealdormen and the Witenagemot.</b>&mdash;During the long fight with the
+Danes commanders were needed who could lead the forces of more than a
+single shire. Before the end of Eadred's reign there were ealdormen
+who ruled over many shires. One of them for instance, Æthelstan,
+Ealdorman of East Anglia, and of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page074" name="page074"></a>(p. 074)</span> the shires immediately to
+the west of East Anglia, was so powerful that he was popularly known
+as the Half-King. Such ealdormen had great influence in their own
+districts, and they also were very powerful about the king. The king
+could not perform any important act without the consent of the
+Witenagemot, which was made up of three classes&mdash;the Ealdormen, the
+Bishops, and the greater Thegns. When a king died the Witenagemot
+chose his successor out of the kingly family; its members appeared as
+witnesses whenever the king 'booked' land to any one; and it even, on
+rare occasions, deposed a king who was unfit for his post. In
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page075" name="page075"></a>(p. 075)</span> the days of a great warrior king like Eadward or Eadmund,
+members of the Witenagemot were but instruments in his hands, but if a
+weak king came upon the throne, each member usually took his own way
+and pursued his own interest rather than that of the king and kingdom.</p>
+
+<a id="chap5sec11" name="chap5sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>The Land.</b>&mdash;The cultivated land was surrounded either by wood or by
+pasture and open commons. Every cottager kept his hive of bees, to
+produce the honey which was then used as we now use sugar, and drove
+his swine into the woods to fatten on the acorns and beech nuts which
+strewed the ground in the autumn. Sheep and cattle were fed on the
+pastures, and horses were so abundant that when the Danish pirates
+landed they found it easy to set every man on horseback. Yet neither
+the Danes nor the English ever learnt to fight on horseback. They rode
+to battle, but as soon as they approached the enemy they dismounted to
+fight on foot.</p>
+
+<a id="img045" name="img045"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img045.jpg" width="300" height="253" alt="" title="">
+<p>Glass tumbler. (British Museum.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap5sec12" name="chap5sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>Domestic Life.</b>&mdash;The huts of the villagers clustered round the
+house of the lord. His abode was built in a yard surrounded for
+protection by a mound and fence, whilst very great men often
+established themselves in burhs, surrounded by earthworks, either of
+their own raising or the work of earlier times. Its principal feature
+was the hall, in which the whole family with the guests and the thegns
+of the lord met for their meals. The walls were covered with curtains
+worked in patterns of bright colours. The fire was lighted on the
+hearth, a broad stone in the middle, over which was a hole in the roof
+through which the smoke of the hall escaped. The windows were narrow,
+and were either unclosed holes in the wall, or covered with oiled
+linen which would admit a certain amount of light.</p>
+
+<a id="img046" name="img046"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img046.jpg" width="300" height="343" alt="" title="">
+<p>Drinking glass. (British Museum.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap5sec13" name="chap5sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>Food and Drink.</b>&mdash;In a great house at meal-time boards were brought
+forward and placed on tressels. Bread was to be had in plenty, and
+salt butter. Meat too, in winter, was always salted, as turnips and
+other roots upon which cattle are now fed in winter were wholly
+unknown, and it was therefore necessary to kill large numbers of sheep
+and oxen when the cold weather set in. There were dishes, but neither
+plates nor forks. Each man took the meat in his fingers and either bit
+off a piece or cut it off with a knife. The master of the house sat at
+the head of the table, and the lady handed round the drink, and
+afterwards sat down by her husband's side. She, however, with any
+other ladies who might be present, soon departed to the chamber which
+was their own apartment. The men continued drinking long. The cups or
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page076" name="page076"></a>(p. 076)</span> glasses which they used were often made with the bottoms
+rounded so as to force the guests to keep them in their hands till
+they were empty. The usual drink was mead, that is to say, fermented
+honey, or ale brewed from malt alone, as hops were not introduced till
+many centuries later. In wealthy houses imported wine was to be had.
+English wine was not unknown, but it was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page077" name="page077"></a>(p. 077)</span> so sour that it had
+to be sweetened with honey. It was held to be disgraceful to leave the
+company as long as the drinking lasted, and drunkenness and quarrels
+were not unfrequent. Wandering minstrels who could play and sing or
+tell stories were always welcome, especially if they were jugglers as
+well, and could amuse the company by throwing knives in the air and
+catching them as they fell, or could dance on their hands with their
+legs in the air. When the feast was over, the guests and dependents
+slept on the floor on rugs or straw, each man taking care to hang his
+weapons close to his head on the wall, to defend himself in case of an
+attack by robbers in the night. The lord retired to his chamber,
+whilst the unmarried ladies occupied bowers, or small rooms, each with
+a separate door opening on to the yard. Their only beds were bags of
+straw. Neither men nor women wore night-dresses of any kind, but if
+they took off their clothes at all, wrapped themselves in rugs.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="img047" name="img047"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img047.jpg" width="400" height="195" alt="" title="">
+<p>Comb and case of Scandinavian type, found at York.<br> (Now
+in the British Museum.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap6" name="chap6"></a>
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page078" name="page078"></a>(p. 078)</span> CHAPTER VI.<br>
+ENGLAND AND NORMANDY.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Death of Eadgar                             <span class="right10">975</span></li>
+<li>Accession of Æthelred                       <span class="right10">979</span></li>
+<li>Accession of Cnut                          <span class="right10">1016</span></li>
+<li>Accession of Eadward the Confessor         <span class="right10">1035</span></li>
+<li>Banishment of Godwine                      <span class="right10">1051</span></li>
+<li>Accession of Harold and Battle of Senlac   <span class="right10">1066</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap6sec1" name="chap6sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>Eadward the Martyr. 975&mdash;979.</b>&mdash;Eadgar died in <b>975</b>, leaving two
+boys, Eadward and Æthelred.<a id="footnotetag4" name="footnotetag4"></a><a href="#footnote4" title="Go to footnote 4"><span class="small">[4]</span></a> On his death a quarrel broke out
+amongst the ealdormen, some declaring for the succession of Eadward
+and others for the succession of Æthelred. The political quarrel was
+complicated by an ecclesiastical quarrel. The supporters of Eadward
+were the friends of the secular clergy; the supporters of Æthelred
+were the friends of the monks. Dunstan, with his usual moderation,
+gave his voice for the eldest son, and Eadward was chosen king and
+crowned. Not only had he a strong party opposed to him, but he had a
+dissatisfied step-mother in Ælfthryth, the mother of Æthelred, whilst
+his own mother, who had probably been married to Eadgar without full
+marriage rites, had been long since dead. After reigning for four
+years Eadward was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page079" name="page079"></a>(p. 079)</span> murdered near Corfe by some of the
+opposite party, and, as was commonly supposed, by his step-mother's
+directions.</p>
+
+<a id="chap6sec2" name="chap6sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>Æthelred's Early Years. 979&mdash;988.</b>&mdash;Æthelred, now a boy of ten,
+became king in <b>979</b>. The epithet the Unready, which is usually assigned
+to him, is a mistranslation of a word which properly means the
+Rede-less, or the man without counsel. He was entirely without the
+qualities which befit a king. Eadmund had kept the great chieftains in
+subordination to himself because he was a successful leader. Eadgar
+had kept them in subordination because he treated them with respect.
+Æthelred could neither lead nor show respect. He was always picking
+quarrels when he ought to have been making peace, and always making
+peace when he ought to have been fighting. What he tried to do was to
+lessen the power of the great ealdormen, and bring the whole country
+more directly under his own authority. In <b>985</b> he drove out Ælfric, the
+Ealdorman of the Mercians. In <b>988</b> Dunstan died, and Æthelred had no
+longer a wise adviser by his side.</p>
+
+<a id="chap6sec3" name="chap6sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>The Return of the Danes. 984.</b>&mdash;It would have been difficult for
+Æthelred to overpower the ealdormen even if he had had no other
+enemies to deal with. Unluckily for him, new swarms of Danes and
+Norwegians had already appeared in England. They began by plundering
+the country, without attempting to settle in it. In <b>991</b> Brihtnoth,
+Ealdorman of the East Saxons, was defeated and slain by them at
+Maldon. Æthelred could think of no better counsel than to pay them
+10,000<i>l.</i>, a sum of money which was then of much greater value than
+it is now, to abstain from plundering. It was not necessarily a bad
+thing to do. One of the greatest of the kings of the Germans, Henry
+the Fowler, had paid money for a truce to barbarians whom he was not
+strong enough to fight. But when the truce had been bought Henry took
+care to make himself strong enough to destroy them when they came
+again. Æthelred was never ready to fight the Danes and Norwegians at
+any time. In <b>994</b> Olaf Trygvasson, who had been driven from the
+kingship of Norway, and Svend, who had been driven from the kingship
+of Denmark, joined forces to attack London. The London citizens fought
+better than the English king, and the two chieftains failed to take
+the town. 'They went thence, and wrought the greatest evil that ever
+any army could do, in burning, and harrying, and in man-slaying, as in
+Essex, and in Kent, and in Sussex, and in Hampshire. And at last they
+took their horses and rode as far as they could, and did unspeakable
+evil.' The plunderers were now known as 'the army,' moving about where
+they would. Æthelred this time <span class="pagenum"><a id="page080" name="page080"></a>(p. 080)</span> gave them 16,000<i>l.</i> He got
+rid of Olaf, who sailed away and was slain by his enemies, but he
+could not permanently get rid of Svend. Svend, about the year <b>1000</b>,
+recovered his kingship in Denmark, and was more formidable than he had
+been before. Plunderings went on as usual, and Æthelred had no
+resource but to pay money to the plunderers to buy a short respite. He
+then looked across the sea for an ally, and hoped to find one by
+connecting himself with the Duke of the Normans.</p>
+
+<a id="chap6sec4" name="chap6sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>The Norman Dukes. 912&mdash;1002.</b>&mdash;The country which lies on both sides
+of the lower course of the Seine formed, at the beginning of the tenth
+century, part of the dominions of Charles the Simple, king of the West
+Franks, who had inherited so much of the dominions of Charles the
+Great as lay west of a line roughly drawn from the Scheldt to the
+Mediterranean through the lower course of the Rhone. Danes and
+Norwegians, known on the Continent as Normans, plundered Charles's
+dominions as they had plundered England, and at last settled in them
+as they had settled in parts of England. In <b>912</b> Charles the Simple
+ceded to their leader, Hrolf, a territory of which the capital was
+Rouen, and which became known as Normandy&mdash;the land of the Normans.
+Hrolf became the first Duke of the Normans, but his men were fierce
+and rugged, and for some time their southern neighbours scornfully
+called him and his descendants Dukes of the Pirates. In process of
+time a change took place which affected both Normandy and other
+countries as well. The West Frankish kings were descended from Charles
+the Great; but they had failed to defend their subjects from the
+Normans, and they thereby lost hold upon their people. One of their
+dependent nobles, the Duke of the French, whose chief city, Paris,
+formed a bulwark against the Normans advancing up the Seine, grew more
+powerful than themselves. At the same time the Normans were becoming
+more and more French in their speech and customs. At last an alliance
+was made between Hugh Capet, the son of Hugh the Great, Duke of the
+French (see p. <a href="#page063">63</a>), and Richard the Fearless, Duke of the
+Normans. The race of Charles the Great was dethroned, and Hugh became
+king of the French. In name he was king over all the territory which
+had been governed by Charles the Simple. In reality that happened in
+France which Æthelred had been trying to prevent in England. Hugh
+ruled directly over his own duchy of France, a patch of land of which
+Paris was the capital. The great vassals of the crown, who answered to
+the English ealdormen, only obeyed him when it was their interest to
+do so. The most <span class="pagenum"><a id="page081" name="page081"></a>(p. 081)</span> powerful of these vassals was the Duke of
+the Normans. In <b>1002</b> the duke was Richard II.&mdash;the Good&mdash;the son of
+Richard the Fearless. In that year Æthelred, who was a widower,
+married Richard's sister, Emma. It was the beginning of a connection
+with Normandy which never ceased till a Norman duke made himself by
+conquest king of the English.</p>
+
+<a id="chap6sec5" name="chap6sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>Political Contrast between Normandy and England.</b>&mdash;The causes which
+were making the English thegnhood a military aristocracy acted with
+still greater force in Normandy. The tillers of the soil, sprung from
+the old inhabitants of the land, were kept by their Norman lords in
+even harsher bondage than the English serfs. The Norman warriors held
+their land by military service, each one being bound to fight for his
+lord, and the lord in turn being bound, together with his dependents,
+to fight for a higher lord, and all at last for the Duke himself. In
+England, though, in theory, the relations between the king and his
+ealdormen were not very different from those existing between the
+Norman duke and his immediate vassals, the connection between them was
+far looser. The kingdom as a whole had no general unity. The king
+could not control the ealdormen, and the ealdormen could not control
+the king. Even when ealdormen, bishops, and thegns met in the
+Witenagemot they could not speak in the name of the nation. A nation
+in any true sense hardly existed at all, and they were not chosen as
+representatives of any part of it. Each one stood for himself, and it
+was only natural that men who during the greater part of the year were
+ruling in their own districts like little kings should think more of
+keeping up their own almost independent power at home than of the
+common interests of all England, which they had to consider when they
+met&mdash;and that for a few days only at a time&mdash;in the Witenagemot.
+Æthelred at least was not the man to keep them united.</p>
+
+<a id="chap6sec6" name="chap6sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>Svend's Conquest. 1002&mdash;1013.</b>&mdash;Æthelred, having failed to buy off
+the Danes, tried to murder them. In <b>1002</b>, on St. Brice's Day, there
+was a general massacre of all the Danes&mdash;not of the old inhabitants of
+Danish blood who had settled in Ælfred's time&mdash;but of the new-comers.
+Svend returned to avenge his countrymen. Æthelred had in an earlier
+part of his reign levied a land-tax known as the Danegeld to pay off
+the Danes&mdash;the first instance of a general tax in England. He now
+called on all the shires to furnish ships for a fleet; but he could
+not trust his ealdormen. Some of the stories told of these times may
+be exaggerated, and some may be merely idle tales, but we know enough
+to be sure that England was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page082" name="page082"></a>(p. 082)</span> a kingdom divided against
+itself. Svend, ravaging as he went, beat down resistance everywhere.
+In <b>1012</b> the Danes seized Ælfheah, Archbishop of Canterbury, and
+offered to set him free if he would pay a ransom for his life. He
+refused to do so, lest he should have to wring money from the poor in
+order to pay it. The drunken Danes pelted him with bones till one of
+the number clave his skull with an axe. He was soon counted as a
+martyr. Long afterwards one of the most famous of his successors, the
+Norman Lanfranc, doubted whether he was really a martyr, as he had not
+died for the faith. 'He that dies for righteousness,' answered the
+gentle Anselm, 'dies for the faith,' and to this day the name of
+Ælfheah is retained as St. Alphege in the list of English saints. In
+<b>1013</b> Svend appeared no longer as a plunderer but as a conqueror. First
+the old Danish districts of the north and east, and then the
+Anglo-Saxon realm of Ælfred&mdash;Mercia and Wessex&mdash;submitted to him to
+avoid destruction. In <b>1013</b> Æthelred fled to Normandy.</p>
+
+<a id="img048" name="img048"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img048.jpg" width="300" height="361" alt="" title="">
+<p>Martyrdom of St. Edmund by the Danes.<br> (From a drawing
+belonging to the Society of Antiquaries.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap6sec7" name="chap6sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>Æthelred Restored. 1014&mdash;1016.</b>&mdash;In <b>1014</b> Svend died suddenly as he
+was riding at the head of his troops to the attack of the monastery of
+Bury St. Edmunds. A legend soon arose as to the manner of his death.
+St. Edmund himself, the East Anglian king Eadmund who had once been
+martyred by Danes (see p. <a href="#page058">58</a>), now appeared, it was said, to
+protect the monastery founded in his honour. 'Help, fellow soldiers!'
+cried Svend, as he caught sight of the saint. 'St. Edmund is coming to
+slay me.' St. Edmund, we are told, ran his spear through the body of
+the aggressor, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page083" name="page083"></a>(p. 083)</span> Svend died that night in torments. His
+Danish warriors chose his son Cnut king of England.<a id="footnotetag5" name="footnotetag5"></a><a href="#footnote5" title="Go to footnote 5"><span class="small">[5]</span></a> The English
+Witenagemot sent for Æthelred to return. At last, in <b>1016</b>, Æthelred
+died before he had conquered Cnut or Cnut conquered him.</p>
+
+<a id="chap6sec8" name="chap6sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>Eadmund Ironside. 1016.</b>&mdash;Æthelred's eldest son&mdash;not the son of
+Emma&mdash;Eadmund Ironside, succeeded him. He did all that could be done
+to restore the English kingship by his vigour. In a single year he
+fought six battles; but the treachery of the ealdormen was not at an
+end, and at Assandun (? <i>Ashington</i>), in Essex, he was completely
+overthrown. He and Cnut agreed to divide the kingdom, but before the
+end of the year the heroic Eadmund died, and Cnut the Dane became king
+of England without a rival.</p>
+
+<a id="chap6sec9" name="chap6sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>Cnut and the Earldoms. 1016&mdash;1035.</b>&mdash;Cnut was one of those rulers
+who, like the Emperor Augustus, shrink from no barbarity in gaining
+power, but when once they have acquired it exercise their authority
+with moderation and gentleness. He began by outlawing or putting to
+death men whom he considered dangerous, but when this had once been
+done he ruled as a thoroughly English king of the best type. The Danes
+who had hitherto fought for him had come not as settlers, but as an
+army, and soon after Eadmund's death he sent most of them home,
+retaining a force, variously stated as 3,000 or 6,000, warriors known
+as his House-carls (<i>House-men</i>), who formed a small standing army
+depending entirely on himself. They were not enough to keep down a
+general rising of the whole of England, but they were quite enough to
+prevent any single great man from rebelling against him. Cnut
+therefore was, what Æthelred had wished to be, really master of his
+kingdom. Under him ruled the ealdormen, who from this time were known
+as Earls, from the Danish title of Jarl (see p. <a href="#page064">64</a>), and of
+these Earls the principal were the three who governed Mercia,
+North-humberland, and Wessex, the last named now including the old
+kingdoms of Kent and Sussex. There was a fourth in East Anglia, but
+the limits of this earldom varied from time to time, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page084" name="page084"></a>(p. 084)</span>
+there were sometimes other earldoms set up in the neighbouring shires,
+whereas the first-named three remained as they were for some time
+after Cnut's death. It is characteristic of Cnut that the one of the
+Earls to whom he gave his greatest confidence was Godwine, an
+Englishman, who was Earl of the West Saxons. Another Englishman,
+Leofwine, became Earl of the Mercians. A Dane obtained the earldom of
+the North-humbrians, but the land was barbarous, and its Earls were
+frequently murdered. Sometimes there was one Earl of the whole
+territory, sometimes two. It was not till after the end of Cnut's
+reign that Siward became Earl of Deira, and at a later time of all
+North-humberland as far as the Tweed. The descendants of two of these
+Earls, Godwine and Leofwine, leave their mark on the history for some
+time to come.</p>
+
+<a id="chap6sec10" name="chap6sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>Cnut's Empire.</b>&mdash;Beyond the Tweed Malcolm, king of the Scots,
+ruled. He defeated the North-humbrians at Carham, and Cnut ceded
+Lothian to him, either doing so for the first time or repeating the
+act of Eadgar, if the story of Eadgar's cession is true. At all events
+the king of the Scots from this time ruled as far south as the Tweed,
+and acknowledged Cnut's superiority. Cnut also became king of Denmark
+by his brother's death, and king of Norway by conquest. He entered
+into friendly relations with Richard II., Duke of the Normans, by
+marrying his sister Emma, the widow of Æthelred.<a id="footnotetag6" name="footnotetag6"></a><a href="#footnote6" title="Go to footnote 6"><span class="small">[6]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap6sec11" name="chap6sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>Cnut's Government.</b>&mdash;Cnut had thus made himself master of a great
+empire, and yet, Dane as he was, though he treated Englishmen and
+Danes as equals, he gave his special favour to Englishmen. He
+restored, as men said, the laws of Eadgar&mdash;that is to say, he kept
+peace and restored order as in the days of Eadgar. He <span class="pagenum"><a id="page085" name="page085"></a>(p. 085)</span>
+reverenced monks, and once as he was rowing on the waters of the fens,
+he heard the monks of Ely singing. He bade the boatmen row him to the
+shore that he might listen to the song of praise and prayer. He even
+went on a pilgrimage to Rome, to humble himself in that city which
+contained the burial places of the Apostles Peter and Paul. From Rome
+he sent a letter to his subjects. 'I have vowed to God,' he wrote, 'to
+live a right life in all things; to rule justly and piously my realms
+and subjects, and to administer just judgment to all. If heretofore I
+have done aught beyond what is just, through headiness or negligence
+of youth, I am ready, with God's help, to amend it utterly.' With Cnut
+these were not mere words. It is not likely that there is any truth in
+the story how his flattering courtiers told him to sit by the
+sea-shore and bade the inflowing tide refrain from wetting his feet,
+and how when the waves rose over the spot on which his chair was
+placed he refused to wear his crown again, because that honour
+belonged to God alone, the true Ruler of the world. Yet the story
+would not have been invented except of one who was believed to have
+been clothed with real humility.</p>
+
+<a id="chap6sec12" name="chap6sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>The Sons of Cnut. 1035&mdash;1042.</b>&mdash;Cnut died in <b>1035</b>. Godwine and the
+West Saxons chose Harthacnut, the son of Cnut and Emma to take his
+father's place, whilst the north and centre, headed by Leofwine's son,
+Leofric,<a id="footnotetag7" name="footnotetag7"></a><a href="#footnote7" title="Go to footnote 7"><span class="small">[7]</span></a> Earl of the Mercians, chose Harold, the son of Cnut by an
+earlier wife or concubine. Godwine perhaps hoped that Harthacnut would
+make the West Saxon earldom the centre of the empire which had been
+his father's. Cnut's empire was, however, breaking up. The Norwegians
+chose Magnus, a king of their own race, and Harthacnut remained in
+Denmark to defend it against the attacks of Magnus. In Normandy there
+were two English Ethelings, Ælfred and Eadward, the sons of Æthelred
+by Emma, who seem to have thought that the absence of Harthacnut gave
+them a chance of returning to England. Ælfred landed, but was seized
+by Harold. He was blinded with such <span class="pagenum"><a id="page086" name="page086"></a>(p. 086)</span> cruelty that he died.
+His death was, truly or falsely, attributed to Godwine. As Harthacnut
+still remained in Denmark, the West Saxons deposed him and gave
+themselves to Harold, since which time England has never been divided.
+In <b>1040</b> Harold died, and Harthacnut came at last to England to claim
+the crown. He brought with him a Danish fleet, and with his sailors
+and his house-carls he ruled England as a conquered land. He raised a
+Danegeld to satisfy his men, and sent his house-carls to force the
+people to pay the heavy tax. Two of them were killed at Worcester, and
+he burnt Worcester to the ground. In <b>1042</b> he died 'as he stood at his
+drink' at a bridal.</p>
+
+<a id="img049" name="img049"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img049.jpg" width="400" height="392" alt="" title="">
+<p>First Great Seal of Eadward the Confessor (obverse).</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap6sec13" name="chap6sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>Eadward the Confessor and Earl Godwine. 1042&mdash;1051.</b>&mdash;The English
+were tired of foreign rulers. 'All folk chose Eadward king.' Eadward,
+the son of Æthelred and the brother of the murdered Ælfred, though an
+Englishman on his father's side, was also the son of the Norman Emma,
+and had been brought up in Normandy from his childhood. The Normans
+were now men of French speech, and they were more polite and
+cultivated than Englishmen. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page087" name="page087"></a>(p. 087)</span> Eadward filled his court with
+Normans. He disliked the roughness of the English, but instead of
+attempting to improve them as the great Ælfred had formerly done, he
+stood entirely aloof from them. The name of the Confessor by which he
+was afterwards known was given him on account of his piety, but his
+piety was not of that sort which is associated with active usefulness.
+He was fond of hunting, but was not active in any other way, and he
+left others to govern rather than himself. For some years the real
+governor of England was Earl Godwine, who kept his own earldom of
+Wessex, and managed to procure other smaller earldoms for his sons. As
+the Mercia over which Leofric ruled was only the north-western part of
+the old kingdom, and as Siward (see p. <a href="#page084">84</a>) had enough to do to
+keep the fierce men of North-humberland in order, Godwine had as yet
+no competitor to fear. In <b>1045</b> he became the king's father-in-law by
+the marriage of Eadward with his daughter, Eadgyth. Eadward, however,
+did his best for his Norman favourites, and appointed one of them,
+Robert of Jumièges, to the bishopric of London, and afterwards raised
+him to the Archbishopric of Canterbury. Between Godwine and the
+Normans there was no goodwill, and though Godwine was himself of fair
+repute, his eldest son, Swegen, a young man of brutal nature,
+alienated the goodwill of his countrymen by seducing the Abbess of
+Leominster, and by murdering his cousin Beorn. Godwine, in his blind
+family affection, clung to his wicked son and insisted on his being
+allowed to retain his earldom.</p>
+
+<a id="img050" name="img050"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img050.jpg" width="600" height="69" alt="" title="">
+<p>Hunting. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap6sec14" name="chap6sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>The Banishment of Godwine. 1051.</b>&mdash;At last, in <b>1051</b>, the strife
+between the king and the Earl broke out openly. Eadward's
+brother-in-law, Eustace, Count of Boulogne, visited England. On his
+return his men made a disturbance at Dover, and in the riot which
+ensued some of the townsmen as well as some of his own men were slain.
+Eadward called on Godwine, in whose earldom Dover was, to punish the
+townsmen. Godwine refused, and Eadward summoned him to Gloucester to
+account for his refusal. He came attended by an armed host, but
+Leofric and Siward, who were jealous of Godwine's power, came with
+their armed followers to support the king. Leofric mediated, and it
+was arranged that the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page088" name="page088"></a>(p. 088)</span> question should be settled at a
+Witenagemot to be held in London. In the end Godwine was outlawed and
+banished with all his family. Swegen went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem
+and died on the way back.</p>
+
+<a id="chap6sec15" name="chap6sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>Visit of Duke William. 1051.</b>&mdash;In Godwine's absence Eadward
+received a visit from the Duke of the Normans, William, the bastard
+son of Duke Robert and the daughter of a tanner of Falaise. Robert was
+a son of Richard II., and William was thus the grandson of the brother
+of Eadward's mother, Emma. Such a relationship gave him no title
+whatever to the English throne, as Emma was not descended from the
+English kings, and as, even if she had been, no one could be lawfully
+king in England who was not chosen by the Witenagemot. Eadward,
+however, had no children or brothers, and though he had no right to
+give away the crown, he now promised William that he should succeed
+him. William, indeed, was just the man to attract one whose character
+was as weak as Eadward's. Since he received the dukedom he had beaten
+down the opposition of a fierce and discontented nobility at
+Val-ès-dunes (<b>1047</b>). From that day peace and order prevailed in
+Normandy. Law in Normandy did not come as in England from the
+traditions of the shire-moot or the Witenagemot, where men met to
+consult together. It was the Duke's law, and if the Duke was a strong
+man he kept peace in the land. If he was a weak man, the lords fought
+against one another and plundered and oppressed the poor. William was
+strong and wily, and it was this combination of strength and wiliness
+which enabled him to bear down all opposition.</p>
+
+<a id="chap6sec16" name="chap6sec16"></a>
+<p>16. <b>William and the Norman Church.</b>&mdash;An Englishman, who saw much of
+William in after-life, declared that, severe as he was, he was mild to
+good men who loved God. The Church was in his days assuming a new
+place in Europe. The monastic revival which had originated at Cluny
+(see p. <a href="#page067">67</a>) had led to a revival of the Papacy. In <b>1049</b>, for
+the first time, a Pope, Leo IX., travelled through Western Europe,
+holding councils and inflicting punishments upon the married clergy
+and upon priests who took arms and shed blood. With this improvement
+in discipline came a voluntary turning of the better clergy to an
+ascetic life, and increased devotion was accompanied, as it always was
+in the middle ages, with an increase of learning. William, who by the
+strength of his will brought peace into the state, also brought men of
+devotion and learning into the high places of the Church. His chief
+confidant was Lanfranc, an Italian who had taken refuge in <span class="pagenum"><a id="page089" name="page089"></a>(p. 089)</span>
+the abbey of Bec, and, having become its prior, had made it the
+central school of Normandy and the parts around. With the improvement
+of learning came the improvement of art, and churches arose in
+Normandy, as in other parts of Western Europe, which still preserved
+the old round arch derived from the Romans, though both the arches
+themselves and the columns on which they were borne were lighter and
+more graceful than the heavy work which had hitherto been employed. Of
+all this Englishmen as yet knew nothing. They went on in their old
+ways, cut off from the European influences of the time. It was no
+wonder that Eadward yearned after the splendour and the culture of the
+land in which he had been brought up, or even that, in defiance of
+English law, he now promised to Duke William the succession to the
+English crown.</p>
+
+<a id="chap6sec17" name="chap6sec17"></a>
+<p>17. <b>The Return and Death of Godwine. 1052&mdash;1053.</b>&mdash;After William had
+departed Englishmen became discontented at Eadward's increasing favour
+to the Norman strangers. In <b>1052</b> Godwine and his sons&mdash;Swegen only
+excepted&mdash;returned from exile. They sailed up the Thames and landed at
+Southwark. The foreigners hastily fled, and Eadward was unable to
+resist the popular feeling. Godwine was restored to his earldom, and
+an Englishman, Stigand, was made Archbishop of Canterbury in the place
+of Robert of Jumièges, who escaped to the Continent. As it was the law
+of the Church that a bishop once appointed could not be deposed except
+by the ecclesiastical authorities, offence was in this way given to
+the Pope. Godwine did not long outlive his restoration. He was struck
+down by apoplexy at the king's table in <b>1053</b>. Harold, who, after
+Swegen's death, was his eldest son, succeeded to his earldom of
+Wessex, and practically managed the affairs of the kingdom in
+Eadward's name.<a id="footnotetag8" name="footnotetag8"></a><a href="#footnote8" title="Go to footnote 8"><span class="small">[8]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap6sec18" name="chap6sec18"></a>
+<p>18. <b>Harold's Greatness. 1053&mdash;1066.</b>&mdash;Harold was a brave and energetic
+man, but Eadward preferred his brother Tostig, and on the death of
+Siward appointed him Earl of North-humberland. A little later Gyrth,
+another brother of Harold, became Earl of East Anglia, together with
+Bedfordshire and Oxfordshire, and a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page090" name="page090"></a>(p. 090)</span> fourth brother,
+Leofwine, Earl of a district formed of the eastern shires on either
+side of the Thames. All the richest and most thickly populated part of
+England was governed by Harold and his brothers. Mercia was the only
+large earldom not under their rule. It was now under Ælfgar, the son
+of Leofric, who had lately died.</p>
+
+<a id="chap6sec19" name="chap6sec19"></a>
+<p>19. <b>Harold and Eadward. 1057&mdash;1065.</b>&mdash;It became necessary to arrange
+for the succession to the throne, as Eadward was childless, and as
+Englishmen were not likely to acquiesce in his bequest to William. In
+<b>1057</b> the Ætheling Eadward, a son of Eadmund Ironside, was fetched back
+from Hungary, where he had long lived in exile, and was accepted as
+the heir. Eadward, however, died almost immediately after his arrival.
+He left but one son, Eadgar the Ætheling (see genealogy at p.
+<a href="#page078">78</a>), who was far too young to be accepted as a king for many
+years to come. Naturally the thought arose of looking on Harold as
+Eadward's successor. It was contrary to all custom to give the throne
+to any one not of the royal line, but the custom had been necessarily
+broken in favour of Cnut, the Danish conqueror, and it might be better
+to break it in favour of an English earl rather than to place a child
+on the throne, when danger threatened from Normandy. During the
+remainder of Eadward's reign Harold showed himself a warrior worthy of
+the crown. In <b>1063</b> he invaded Wales and reduced it to submission.
+About the same time Ælfgar died, and was succeeded by his son,
+Eadwine, in the earldom of the Mercians. In <b>1065</b> the men of
+North-humberland revolted against Tostig, who had governed them
+harshly, and who was probably unpopular as a West Saxon amongst a
+population of Danes and Angles. The North-humbrians chose Eadwine's
+brother, Morkere, as his successor, and Harold advised Eadward to
+acquiesce in what they had done. Northamptonshire and Huntingdonshire
+were committed to Waltheof, a son of Siward (see p. <a href="#page084">84</a>), and
+the modern Northumberland was committed to a native ruler, Oswulf.</p>
+
+<a id="img051" name="img051"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img051.jpg" width="300" height="532" alt="" title="">
+<p>Tower in the earlier style. Church at Earl's Barton.<br>
+(The battlements are much later.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="img052" name="img052"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img052.jpg" width="300" height="553" alt="" title="">
+<p>Tower in the earlier style. St Benet's Church,
+Cambridge.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap6sec20" name="chap6sec20"></a>
+<p class="clear">20. <b>Death of Eadward. 1066.</b>&mdash;England was therefore ruled by two great
+families. Eadwine and Morkere, the grandsons of Leofric, governed the
+Midlands and almost the whole of North-humberland. Harold and his
+brothers, the sons of Godwine, governed the south and the east. The
+two houses had long been rivals, and after Eadward's death there would
+be no one in the country to whom they could even nominally submit.
+Eadward, whose life was almost at an end, was filled with gloomy
+forebodings. His thoughts, however, turned aside from the
+contemplation of earthly things, and he was only anxious that the
+great abbey church <span class="pagenum"><a id="page091" name="page091"></a>(p. 091)</span> of Westminster, which he had been
+building hard by his own new palace on what was then a lonely place
+outside London, should be consecrated before his death. The church,
+afterwards superseded by the structure which now stands there, was
+built in the new and lighter form of round-arched architecture which
+Eadward had learned to admire from his Norman friends. It was
+consecrated on December 28, <b>1065</b>, but the king was too ill to be
+present, and on January 5, <b>1066</b>, he died, and was buried in the church
+which he had founded. Harold was at once chosen king, and crowned at
+Westminster.</p>
+
+<a id="img053" name="img053"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img053.jpg" width="400" height="481" alt="" title="">
+<p>Building a church in the later style.<br> (From a drawing
+belonging to the Society of Antiquaries.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap6sec21" name="chap6sec21"></a>
+<p>21. <b>Harold and William. 1066.</b>&mdash;William, as soon as he heard of his
+rival's coronation, claimed the crown. He was now even mightier than
+he had been when he visited Eadward. In <b>1063</b> he had conquered Maine,
+and, secure on his southern frontier, he was able to turn his
+undivided attention to England. According <span class="pagenum"><a id="page092" name="page092"></a>(p. 092)</span> to the principles
+accepted in England, he had no right to it whatever; but he contrived
+to put together a good many reasons which seemed, in the eyes of those
+who were not Englishmen, to give him a good case. In the first place
+he had been selected by Eadward as his heir. In the second place the
+deprivation of Robert of Jumièges was an offence against the Church
+law of the Continent, and William was therefore able to obtain from
+the Pope a consecrated banner, and to speak of an attack upon
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page093" name="page093"></a>(p. 093)</span> England as an attempt to uphold the righteous laws of the
+Church. In the third place, Harold had at some former time been
+wrecked upon the French coast, and had been delivered up to William,
+who had refused to let him go till he had sworn solemnly, placing his
+hand on a chest which contained the relics of the most holy Norman
+saints, to do some act, the nature of which is diversely related, but
+which Harold never did. Consequently William could speak of himself as
+going to take vengeance on a perjurer. With some difficulty William
+persuaded the Norman barons to follow him, and he attracted a mixed
+multitude of adventurers from all the neighbouring nations by
+promising them the plunder of England, an argument which every one
+could understand. During the whole of the spring and the summer ships
+for the invasion of England were being built in the Norman harbours.</p>
+
+<a id="img054" name="img054"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img054.jpg" width="400" height="231" alt="" title="">
+<p>Normans feasting; with Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, saying
+grace.<br> (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="img055" name="img055"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img055.jpg" width="600" height="227" alt="" title="">
+<p>Harold swearing upon the Relics.<br> (From the Bayeux
+Tapestry.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap6sec22" name="chap6sec22"></a>
+<p>22. <b>Stamford Bridge. 1066.</b>&mdash;All through the summer Harold was watching
+for his rival's coming. The military organisation of England, however,
+was inferior to that of Normandy. The Norman barons and their vassals
+were always ready for war, and they could support on their estates the
+foreign adventurers who were placed under their orders till the time
+of battle came. Harold had his house-carls, the constant guard of
+picked troops which had been instituted by Cnut, and his thegns, who,
+like the Norman <span class="pagenum"><a id="page094" name="page094"></a>(p. 094)</span> barons, were bound to serve their lord in
+war. The greater part of his force, however, was composed of the
+peasants of the fyrd, and when September came they must needs be sent
+home to attend to their harvest, which seems to have been late this
+year. Scarcely were they gone when Harold received news that his
+brother Tostig, angry with him for having consented to his deposition
+from the North-humbrian earldom, had allied himself to Harold
+Hardrada, the fierce sea-rover, who was king of Norway, and that the
+two, with a mighty host, after wasting the Yorkshire coast, had sailed
+up the Humber. The two Northern Earls, Eadwine and Morkere, were hard
+pressed. Harold had not long before married their sister, and,
+whatever might be the risk, he was bound as the king of all England to
+aid them. Marching swiftly northwards with his house-carls and the
+thegns who joined him on the way, he hastened to their succour. On
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page095" name="page095"></a>(p. 095)</span> the way worse tidings reached him. The Earls had been
+defeated, and York had agreed to submit to the Norsemen. Harold
+hurried on the faster, and came upon the invaders unawares as they lay
+heedlessly on both sides of the Derwent at Stamford Bridge. Those on
+the western side, unprepared as they were, were soon overpowered. One
+brave Norseman, like Horatius and his comrades in the Roman legend,
+kept the narrow bridge against the army, till an Englishman crept
+under it and stabbed him from below through a gap in the woodwork. The
+battle rolled across the Derwent, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page096" name="page096"></a>(p. 096)</span> when evening came
+Harold Hardrada, and Tostig himself, with the bulk of the invaders,
+had been slain. For the last time an English king overthrew a foreign
+host in battle on English soil.</p>
+
+<a id="img056" name="img056"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img056.jpg" width="500" height="299" alt="" title="">
+<p>A Norman ship.<br> (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="img057" name="img057"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img057.jpg" width="500" height="266" alt="" title="">
+<p>Norman soldiers mounted.<br> (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap6sec23" name="chap6sec23"></a>
+<p>23. <b>The Landing of William. 1066.</b>&mdash;Harold had shown what an English
+king could do, who fought not for this or that part of the country,
+but for all England. It was the lack of this national spirit in
+Englishmen which caused his ruin. As Harold was feasting at York in
+celebration of his victory, a messenger told him of the landing of the
+Norman host at Pevensey. He had saved Eadwine and Morkere from
+destruction, but Eadwine and Morkere gave him no help in return. He
+had to hurry back to defend Sussex without a single man from the north
+or the Midlands, except those whom he collected on his line of march.
+The House of Leofric bore no goodwill to the House of Godwine. England
+was a kingdom divided against itself.</p>
+
+<a id="img058" name="img058"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img058.jpg" width="300" height="297" alt="" title="">
+<p>Group of archers on foot.<br> (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap6sec24" name="chap6sec24"></a>
+<p>24. <b>The Battle of Senlac. 1066.&mdash;</b>Harold, as soon as he reached the
+point of danger, drew up his army on the long hill of Senlac on which
+Battle Abbey now stands. On October 14 William marched forth to attack
+him. The military equipment of the Normans was better than that of the
+English. Where the weapons on either side are unlike, battles are
+decided by the momentum&mdash;that is to say, by the combined weight and
+speed of the weapons employed. The English fought on foot mostly with
+two-handed axes; the Normans fought not only on horseback with lances,
+but also with infantry, some of them being archers. A horse, the
+principal weapon of a horseman, has more momentum than an armed
+footman, whilst an arrow can reach the object at which it is aimed
+long before a horse. Harold, however, had in his favour the slope of
+the hill up which the Normans would have to ride, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page097" name="page097"></a>(p. 097)</span> he
+took advantage of the lie of the ground by posting his men with their
+shields before them on the edge of the hill. The position was a strong
+one for purposes of defence, but it was not one that made it easy for
+Harold to change his arrangements as the fortunes of the day might
+need. William, on the other hand, had not only a better armed force,
+but a more flexible one. He had to attack, and, versed as he was in
+all the operations of war, he could move his men from place to place
+and make use of each opportunity as it arrived. The English were brave
+enough, but William was a more intelligent leader than Harold, and his
+men were better under control. Twice after the battle had begun the
+Norman horsemen charged up the hill only to be driven back. The wily
+William, finding that the hill was not to be stormed by a direct
+attack, met the difficulty by galling the English with a shower of
+arrows and ordering his left wing to turn and fly. The stratagem was
+successful. Some of the English rushed down the hill in pursuit. The
+fugitives faced round and charged the pursuers, following them up the
+slope. The English on the height were thus thrown into confusion; but
+they held out stoutly, and as the Norman horsemen now in occupation of
+one end of the hill charged fiercely along its crest, they locked
+their shields together and fought desperately for life, if no longer
+for victory. Slowly and steadily the Normans pressed on, till they
+reached the spot where Harold, surrounded by his house-carls, fought
+beneath his standard. There all their attacks were in vain, till
+William, calling for his bowmen, bade them shoot their arrows into the
+air. Down came the arrows in showers upon the heads of the English
+warriors, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page098" name="page098"></a>(p. 098)</span> one of them pierced Harold's eye, stretching
+him lifeless on the ground. In a series of representations in worsted
+work, known as the Bayeux Tapestry, which was wrought by the needle of
+some unknown woman and is now exhibited in the museum of that city,
+the scenes of the battle and the events preceding it are pictorially
+recorded.</p>
+
+<a id="img059" name="img059"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img059.jpg" width="600" height="276" alt="" title="">
+<p>Men fighting with axes.<br> (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="img060" name="img060"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img060.jpg" width="600" height="369" alt="" title="">
+<p>Death of Harold, who is attempting to pull the arrow
+from his eye.<br> (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap6sec25" name="chap6sec25"></a>
+<p>25. <b>William's Coronation. 1066.</b>&mdash;William had destroyed both the
+English king and the English army. It is possible that England, if
+united, might still have resisted. The great men at London chose for
+their king Eadgar the Ætheling, the grandson of Eadmund Ironside.
+Eadwine and Morkere were present at the election, but left London as
+soon as it was over. They would look after their own earldoms; they
+would not join others, as Harold had done, in defending England as a
+whole. Divided England would sooner or later be a prey to William. He
+wanted, however, not merely to reign as a conqueror, but to be
+lawfully elected as king, that he might have on his side law as well
+as force. He first struck terror into Kent and Sussex by ravaging the
+lands of all who held out against him. Then he marched to the Thames
+and burnt Southwark. He did not, however, try to force his way into
+London, as he wanted to induce the citizens to submit voluntarily to
+him, or at least in a way which might seem voluntary. He therefore
+marched westwards, crossed the Thames at Wallingford, and wheeled
+round to Berkhampstead. His presence there made <span class="pagenum"><a id="page100" name="page100"></a>(p. 100)</span> the
+Londoners feel utterly isolated. Even if Eadwine and Morkere wished to
+do anything for them, they could not come from the north or north-west
+without meeting William's victorious army. The great men and citizens
+alike gave up all thought of resistance, abandoned Eadgar, and
+promised to take William for their king. On Christmas Day, <b>1066</b>,
+William was chosen with acclamation in Eadward's abbey at Westminster,
+where Harold had been chosen less than a year before. The Normans
+outside mistook the shouts of applause for a tumult against their
+Duke, and set fire to the houses around. The English rushed out to
+save their property, and William, frightened for the only time in his
+life, was left alone with the priests. Not knowing what was next to
+follow, he was crowned king of the English by Ealdred, Archbishop of
+York, in an empty church, amidst the crackling of flames and the
+shouts of men striving for the mastery.</p>
+
+<a id="img061" name="img061"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img061.jpg" width="400" height="584" alt="" title="">
+<p>Coronation of a king, <i>temp.</i> William the Conqueror.<br>
+(From a drawing in the possession of the Society of Antiquaries.)</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="p2 center"><i>Books recommended for further study of Part I.</i></p>
+
+<div class="books">
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Dawkins, W.</span> Boyd. Early Man in Britain.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Rhys, J.</span> Early Britain.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Elton, C. J.</span> Origins of English History.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Guest, E.</span> Origines Celticæ. Vol. ii. pp. 121-408.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Freeman.</span> History of the Norman Conquest. Vols. i.-iii.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Green, J. R.</span> The Making of England.</p>
+<p><span class="min2em">&mdash;&mdash;</span> The Conquest of England.</p>
+<p><span class="min2em">&mdash;&mdash;</span> History of the English People. Vol. i. pp. 1-114.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Bright, W.</span> Chapters of English Church History.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Stubbs, W.</span> The Constitutional History of England. Chaps. I.-IX.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Cunningham, W.</span> The Growth of English Industry and Commerce
+                     during the Early and Middle Ages. pp. 1-128.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Hodgkin, T.</span> The Political History of England. Vol i. From the
+                     Earliest Times to 1066.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page101" name="page101"></a>(p. 101)</span> PART II<br>
+<i>THE NORMAN AND ANGEVIN KINGS.</i></h2>
+
+<a id="chap7" name="chap7"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER VII.<br>
+WILLIAM I. <b>1066&mdash;1087.</b></h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>William's coronation         <span class="right10">1066</span></li>
+<li>Completion of the Conquest   <span class="right10">1070</span></li>
+<li>The rising of the Earls      <span class="right10">1075</span></li>
+<li>The Gemot at Salisbury       <span class="right10">1086</span></li>
+<li>Death of William I.          <span class="right10">1087</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="img062" name="img062"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img062.jpg" width="300" height="134" alt="" title="">
+<p>A silver penny of William the Conqueror, struck at
+Romney.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap7sec1" name="chap7sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>The First Months of the Conquest. 1066&mdash;1067.</b>&mdash;Though at the time
+when William was crowned he had gained actual possession of no more
+than the south-eastern part of England, he claimed a right to rule the
+whole as lawful king of the English, not merely by Eadward's bequest,
+but by election and coronation. In reality, he came as a conqueror,
+whilst the Normans by whose aid he gained the victory at Senlac left
+their homes not merely to turn their Duke into a king, but also to
+acquire lands and wealth for themselves. William could not act justly
+and kindly to his new subjects even if he wished. What he did was to
+clothe real violence with the appearance of law. He gave out that as
+he had been the lawful king of the English ever since Eadward's death,
+Harold and all who fought under him at Senlac had forfeited their
+lands by their treason to himself as their lawful king. These lands he
+distributed amongst his Normans. The English indeed were not entirely
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page102" name="page102"></a>(p. 102)</span> dispossessed. Sometimes the son of a warrior who had been
+slain was allowed to retain a small portion of his father's land.
+Sometimes the daughter or the widow of one of Harold's comrades was
+compelled to marry a Norman whom William wished to favour. Yet, for
+all that, a vast number of estates in the southern and eastern
+counties passed from English into Norman hands. The bulk of the
+population, the serfs&mdash;or, as they were now called by a Norman name,
+the villeins&mdash;were not affected by the change, except so far as they
+found a foreign lord less willing than a native one to hearken to
+their complaints. The changes which took place were limited as yet to
+a small part of England. In three months after his coronation William
+was still without authority beyond an irregular line running from the
+Wash to the western border of Hampshire, except that he held some
+outlying posts in Herefordshire. It is true that Eadwine and Morkere
+had acknowledged him as king, but they were still practically
+independent. Even where William actually ruled he allowed all
+Englishmen who had not fought on Harold's side to keep their lands,
+though he made them redeem them by the payment of a fine, on the
+principle that all lands in the country, except those of the Church,
+were the king's lands, and that it was right to fine those who had not
+come to Senlac to help him as their proper lord.</p>
+
+<a id="chap7sec2" name="chap7sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>The Conquest of the West and North. 1067&mdash;1069.</b>&mdash;In March <b>1067</b>
+William returned to Normandy. In his absence the Normans left behind
+in England oppressed the English, and were supported in their
+oppression by the two regents appointed to govern in William's name,
+his half-brother, Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, whom he had made Earl of
+Kent, and William Fitz-Osbern, Earl of Hereford. In some parts the
+English rose in rebellion. In December William returned, and after
+putting down resistance in the south-eastern counties, set himself to
+conquer the rest of England. It took him more than two years to
+complete his task. Perhaps he would have failed even then if the whole
+of the unconquered part of the country had risen against him at the
+same time. Each district, however, resisted separately, and he was
+strong enough to beat them down one by one. In the spring of <b>1068</b> he
+besieged and took Exeter, and subdued the West to the Land's End. When
+this had been accomplished he turned northwards against Eadwine and
+Morkere, who had declared against him. William soon frightened them
+into submission, and seized on York and all the country to the south
+of York on the eastern side of England. In <b>1069</b> the English of the
+North rose once more and summoned to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page103" name="page103"></a>(p. 103)</span> their aid Svend, king
+of Denmark, a nephew of the great Cnut. Svend sent a Danish fleet, and
+the Danes were joined by Eadgar the Ætheling and by other English
+chiefs. They burnt and plundered York, but could do no more. Their
+great host melted away. The Danes went off with their booty to their
+ships, and the English returned to their homes. William found no army
+to oppose him, and he not only regained the lands which he had
+occupied the year before, but added to them the whole country up to
+the Tweed.</p>
+
+<a id="chap7sec3" name="chap7sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>The Completion of the Conquest. 1070.</b>&mdash;William was never cruel
+without an object, but there was no cruelty which he would not commit
+if it would serve his purpose. He resolved to make all further
+resistance impossible. The Vale of York, a long and wide stretch of
+fertile ground running northwards from the city to the Tees, was laid
+waste by William's orders. The men who had joined in the revolt were
+slain. The stored-up crops, the ploughs, the carts, the oxen and sheep
+were destroyed by fire. Men, women, and children dropped dead of
+starvation, and their corpses lay unburied in the wasted fields. Some
+prolonged life by feeding on the flesh of horses, or even of men.
+Others sold themselves into slavery, bowing their heads, as was said,
+in the evil days for meat. "Waste! waste! waste!" was the account
+given long afterwards of field after field in what had once been one
+of the most fertile districts in England. William's work of conquest
+was almost over. Early in <b>1070</b> he crossed the hills amidst frost and
+snow, and descended upon Chester. Chester submitted, and with it the
+shires on the Welsh border. The whole of England was at last subdued.</p>
+
+<a id="chap7sec4" name="chap7sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>Hereward's Revolt and the Homage of Malcolm. 1070&mdash;1072.</b>&mdash;Only one
+serious attempt to revolt was afterwards made, but this was no more
+than a local rising. The Isle of Ely was in those days a real island
+in the midst of the waters of the fens. Hereward, with a band of
+followers, threw himself into the island, and it was only after a
+year's attack that he was driven out. When the revolt was at its
+height, Eadwine and Morkere fled from William's court to join the
+insurgents. Eadwine was murdered by his own attendants. Morkere
+reached Ely, and when resistance was at an end was banished to
+Normandy. No man ever deserved less pity than these two brothers. They
+had never sought any one's advantage but their own, and they had been
+faithless to every cause which they had pretended to adopt. Before
+Hereward was overpowered, Malcolm, king of the Scots, ravaged northern
+England, carrying off with him droves of English slaves. In <b>1072</b>
+William, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page104" name="page104"></a>(p. 104)</span> who had by that time subdued Hereward, marched into
+Scotland as far as the Tay. Malcolm submitted to him at Abernethy, and
+acknowledged him to be his lord. Malcolm's acknowledgment was only a
+repetition of the acknowledgment made by his predecessors the Scottish
+kings, to Eadward and Cnut (see pp. <a href="#page063">63</a>, <a href="#page084">84</a>); but William was
+more powerful than Eadward or Cnut had been, and was likely to
+construe the obligation more strictly.</p>
+
+<a id="chap7sec5" name="chap7sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>How William kept down the English.</b>&mdash;William, having conquered
+England, had now to govern it. His first object was to keep the
+English in subjection.</p>
+
+<p><i>(a) The Confiscation of Land.</i>&mdash;In the first place he continued to
+treat all who had resisted him as rebels, confiscating their land and
+giving it to some Norman follower. In almost every district there was
+at least one Norman landowner, who was on the watch against any
+attempt of his English neighbours to revolt, and who knew that he
+would lose his land if William lost his crown.</p>
+
+<p><i>(b) Building Castles.</i>&mdash;In the second place William built a castle in
+every town of importance, which he garrisoned with his own men. The
+most notable example of these castles is the Tower of London.</p>
+
+<p><i>(c) The Feudal Army.</i>&mdash;In the third place, though the diffusion of
+Norman landowners and of William's castles made a general revolt of
+the English difficult, it did not make it impossible, and William took
+care to have an army always ready to put down a revolt if it occurred.
+No king in those days could have a constantly paid army, such as
+exists in all European countries at the present day, because there was
+not much money anywhere. Some men had land and some men had bodily
+strength, and they bartered one for the other. The villein gave his
+strength to plough and reap for his lord, in return for the land which
+he held from him. The fighting man gave his strength to his lord, to
+serve him with his horse and his spear, in return for the land which
+he held from him. This system, which is known as feudal, had been
+growing up in England before the Conquest, but it was perfected on the
+Continent, and William brought it with him in its perfected shape. The
+warrior who served on horseback was called a knight, and when a knight
+received land from a lord on military tenure&mdash;that is to say, on
+condition of military service&mdash;he was called the vassal of his lord.
+When he became a vassal he knelt, and, placing his hands between those
+of his lord, swore to be his man. This act was called doing homage.
+The land which he received as sufficient to maintain him was called a
+knight's fee. After this homage the vassal was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page105" name="page105"></a>(p. 105)</span> bound to
+serve his lord in arms, this service being the rent payable for his
+land. If the vassal broke his oath and fought against his lord, he was
+regarded as a traitor, or a betrayer of his trust, and could be turned
+out of his land. The whole land of England being regarded as the
+king's, all land was held from the king. Sometimes the knights held
+their fees directly from the king and did homage to him. These knights
+were known as tenants in chief (<i>in capite</i>), however small their
+estates might be. Usually, however, the tenants in chief were large
+landowners, to whom the king had granted vast estates; and these when
+they did homage engaged not merely to fight for him in person, but to
+bring some hundreds of knights with them. To enable them to do this
+they had to give out portions of their land to sub-tenants, each
+engaging to bring himself and a specified number of knights. There
+might thus be a regular chain of sub-tenants, A engaging to serve
+under B, B under C, C under D, and so on till the tenant-in-chief was
+reached, who engaged to bring them all to serve the king. Almost all
+the larger tenants-in-chief were Normans, though Englishmen were still
+to be found amongst the sub-tenants, and even amongst the smaller
+tenants-in-chief. The whole body, however, was preponderantly Norman,
+and William could therefore depend upon it to serve him as an army in
+the field in case of an English rising.</p>
+
+<a id="chap7sec6" name="chap7sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>How William kept down the Normans.</b>&mdash;William was not afraid only of
+the English. He had cause to fear lest the feudal army, which was to
+keep down the English, might be strong enough to be turned against
+himself, and that the barons&mdash;as the greater tenants-in-chief were
+usually called&mdash;might set him at naught as Eadwine and Morkere had set
+Harold at naught, and as the Dukes of Normandy had set at naught the
+kings of France. To prevent this he adopted various contrivances.</p>
+
+<p><i>(a) Abolition of the great Earldoms.</i>&mdash;In the first place he
+abolished the great earldoms. In most counties there were to be no
+earls at all, and no one was to be earl of more than one county. There
+was never again to be an Earl of the West Saxons like Godwine, or an
+Earl of the Mercians like Leofric.</p>
+
+<p><i>(b) The Estates of the Barons scattered.</i>&mdash;- Not only did William
+diminish the official authority of the earls, he also weakened the
+territorial authority of the barons. Even when he granted to one man
+estates so numerous that if they had been close together they would
+have extended at least over a whole county, he took care to scatter
+them over England, allowing only a few to be held by a single owner in
+any one county. If, therefore, a great baron took <span class="pagenum"><a id="page106" name="page106"></a>(p. 106)</span> it into
+his head to levy war against the king, he would have to collect his
+vassals from the most distant counties, and his intentions would thus
+be known before they could be put in practice.</p>
+
+<p><i>(c) The Fyrd kept in readiness.</i>&mdash;Still more important was William's
+resolution to be the real head of the English nation. He had weakened
+it enough to fear it no longer, but he kept it strong enough to use
+it, if need came, against the Norman barons. He won Englishmen to his
+side by the knowledge that he was ready to do them justice whenever
+they were wronged, and he could therefore venture to summon the fyrd
+whenever he needed support, without having cause to fear that it would
+turn against him.</p>
+
+<a id="chap7sec7" name="chap7sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>Ecclesiastical Organisation.</b>&mdash;Before the Conquest the English
+Church had been altogether national. Its bishops had sat side by side
+with the ealdormen or earls in the shire-moots, and in the Witenagemot
+itself. They had been named, like the ealdormen or earls, by the king
+with the consent of the Witenagemot. Ecclesiastical questions had been
+decided and ecclesiastical offences punished not by any special
+ecclesiastical court, but by the shire-moot or Witenagemot, in which
+the laity and the clergy were both to be found. William resolved to
+change all this. The bishops and abbots whom he found were Englishmen,
+and he replaced most of them by Normans. The new Norman bishops and
+abbots were dependent on the king. They looked on the English as
+barbarians, and would certainly not support them in any revolt, as
+their English predecessors might have done. Thurstan, indeed, the
+Norman Abbot of Glastonbury, was so angry with his English monks
+because they refused to change their style of music that he called in
+Norman archers to shoot them down on the steps of the altar. Such
+brutality, however, was exceptional, and, as a rule, even Norman
+bishops and abbots were well disposed towards their English
+neighbours, all the more because they were not very friendly with the
+Norman nobles, who often attempted to encroach on the lands of the
+Church. Many a king in William's position would have been content to
+fill the sees with creatures of his own, who would have done what they
+were bidden and have thought of no one's interest but his. William
+knew, as he had already shown in Normandy, that he would be far better
+served if the clergy were not only dependent on himself but deserving
+the respect of others. He made his old friend Lanfranc (see p.
+<a href="#page088">88</a>) Archbishop of Canterbury. Lanfranc had, like William, the
+mind of a ruler, and under him bishops and abbots were appointed who
+enforced discipline. The monks were compelled to keep the rules of
+their <span class="pagenum"><a id="page107" name="page107"></a>(p. 107)</span> order, the canons of cathedrals were forced to send
+away their wives, and though the married clergy in the country were
+allowed to keep theirs, orders were given that in future no priest
+should marry. Everywhere the Church gave signs of new vigour. The
+monasteries became again the seats of study and learning. The sees of
+bishops were transferred from villages to populous towns, as when the
+Bishop of Dorchester, in Oxfordshire, migrated to Lincoln, and the
+Bishop of Thetford to Norwich. New churches were built and old ones
+restored after the new Continental style, which is known in England as
+Norman, and which Eadward had introduced in his abbey of Westminster.
+The Church, though made dependent on William, was independent, so far
+as its spiritual rights were concerned, of the civil courts.
+Ecclesiastical matters were discussed, not in the Witenagemot, but in
+a Church synod, and, in course of time, punishments were inflicted by
+Church courts on ecclesiastical offenders. The power of William was
+strengthened by the change. That power rested on three supports&mdash;the
+Norman conquerors, the English nation, and the Church, and each one of
+these three had reason to distrust the other two.</p>
+
+<a id="img063" name="img063"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img063.jpg" width="300" height="390" alt="" title="">
+<p>East end of Darenth Church, Kent. Built about 1080.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap7sec8" name="chap7sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>Pope Gregory VII.</b>&mdash;The strength which William had acquired showed
+itself in his bearing towards the Pope. In <b>1073</b> Archdeacon Hildebrand,
+who for some years had been more powerful at Rome than the Popes
+themselves, himself became Pope under the name of Gregory VII. Gregory
+was as stern a ruler of the Church as William was of the State. He was
+an uncompromising champion of the Cluniac reforms (see p. <a href="#page067">67</a>).
+His object was to moderate the cruelty and sinfulness of the feudal
+warriors of Europe by making the Church a light to guide the world to
+piety and self-denial. As matters stood on the Continent, it had been
+impossible for the Church to attain to so high a standard. The clergy
+bought their places and fought and killed like the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page108" name="page108"></a>(p. 108)</span> laymen
+around them. The Cluniac monks, therefore, thought it best to separate
+the clergy entirely from the world. In the first place they were to be
+celibate, that they might not be entangled in the cares of life. In
+the second place they were to refrain from simony, or the purchase of
+ecclesiastical preferment, that they might not be dependent on the
+great men of the world. A third demand was added later, that bishops
+and abbots should not receive from laymen the ring and staff which
+were the signs of their authority&mdash;the ring as the symbol of marriage
+to their churches; the staff or crozier, in the shape of a shepherd's
+crook, as the symbol of their pastoral authority. The Church, in fact,
+was to be governed by its own laws in perfect independence, that it
+might become more pure itself, and thus capable of setting a better
+example to the laity. As might have been expected, though the internal
+condition of the Church was greatly improved, yet when Gregory
+attempted entirely to free ecclesiastics from the influence and
+authority of the State, he found himself involved in endless quarrels.
+Clergy and laity alike resisted him, and they were supported by the
+Emperor Henry IV., whose rule extended over Germany and the greater
+part of Italy. Gregory next claimed the right of excommunicating kings
+and emperors, and of deposing them if they did not repent after
+excommunication. The State, he declared, was as the moon, receiving
+light from the Church, which shone like the sun in heaven. The whole
+of the remainder of Gregory's life was spent in a struggle with the
+Emperor, and the struggle was carried on by the successors of both.</p>
+
+<a id="img064" name="img064"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img064.jpg" width="400" height="617" alt="" title="">
+<p>Part of the nave of St. Alban's Abbey Church.<br> Built by
+Abbot Paul between 1077 and 1093.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap7sec9" name="chap7sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>William and Gregory VII.</b>&mdash;It is remarkable that such a Pope as
+Gregory never came into conflict with William. William appointed
+bishops and abbots by giving them investiture, as the presenting of
+the ring and staff was called. He declared that no Pope should be
+obeyed in England who was not acknowledged by himself, that no papal
+bulls or letters should have any force till he had allowed them, and
+that the decrees of an ecclesiastical synod should bind no one till he
+had confirmed them. When, at a later time, Gregory required William to
+do homage to the see of Rome, William refused, on the ground that
+homage had never been rendered by his predecessors. To all this
+Gregory submitted. No doubt Gregory was prudent in not provoking
+William's anger; but that he should have refrained from even finding
+fault with William may perhaps be set down to the credit of his
+honesty. He claimed to make himself the master of kings because as a
+rule they did not care to advance the purity of the Church. William
+did care to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page110" name="page110"></a>(p. 110)</span> advance it. He chose virtuous and learned
+bishops, and defended the clergy against aggression from without and
+corruption within. Gregory may well have been content to leave power
+over the Church in the hands of a king who ruled it in such a fashion.</p>
+
+<a id="chap7sec10" name="chap7sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>The Rising of the Earls. 1075.</b>&mdash;Of the three classes of men over
+which William ruled, the great Norman barons imagined themselves to be
+the strongest, and were most inclined to throw off his yoke. The chief
+feature of the reigns of William and of his successors for three
+generations was the struggle which scarcely ever ceased between the
+Norman barons on the one side, and the king supported by the English
+and the clergy on the other. It was to the advantage of the king that
+he had not to contend against the whole of the Normans. Normans with
+small estates clung for support, like their English neighbours, to the
+crown. The first of many risings of the barons took place in <b>1075</b>.
+Roger, Earl of Hereford, in spite of William's prohibition, gave his
+sister in marriage to Ralph of Wader, Earl of Norfolk, who, though of
+English birth on his father's side, had fought for William at Senlac,
+and may practically be counted as a Norman. As the chronicler
+expressed it:</p>
+
+<p class="poem20">There was that bride-ale<br>
+  To many men's bale.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The two earls plotted a rising against William and the
+revivals of the old independent earldoms. They took arms and were
+beaten. Ralph fled the country, and Roger was condemned to perpetual
+imprisonment. His followers were blinded or had their feet cut off. It
+was the Norman custom not to put criminals to death. To this rule,
+however, William made one exception. Waltheof, the last earl of purely
+English race, had been present at the fatal bride-ale, but though he
+had listened to the plottings of the conspirators, he had revealed all
+that he knew to William. His wife, Judith, a niece of the Conqueror,
+accused him of actual treason, and he was beheaded at Winchester. By
+the English he was regarded as a martyr, and it was probably his
+popularity amongst them which made William resolve upon his death.</p>
+
+<a id="chap7sec11" name="chap7sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>The New Forest.</b>&mdash;Only once did William cause misery amongst his
+subjects for the sake of his own enjoyment. Many kings before him had
+taken pleasure in hunting, but William was the first who claimed the
+right of hunting over large tracts of country exclusively for himself.
+He made, as the chronicler says, 'mickle deer-frith'&mdash;a tract, that is
+to say, in which the deer might <span class="pagenum"><a id="page111" name="page111"></a>(p. 111)</span> have peace&mdash;'and laid laws
+therewith that he who slew hart or hind that man should blind him....
+In sooth he loved the high deer as though he were their father.' He
+forbade, in short, all men, except those to whom he gave permission,
+to hunt within the limits of the royal forests. In the south-west of
+Hampshire, near his favourite abode at Winchester, he enlarged the New
+Forest. The soil is poor, and it can never have been covered by
+cultivated fields, but here and there, by the sides of streams, there
+were scattered hamlets, and these were destroyed and the dwellers in
+them driven off by William's orders, that there might be a 'mickle
+deer-frith.' We may be sure that there was not nearly as much misery
+caused by the making of the New Forest as was caused by the harrying
+of the Vale of York, but popular tradition rightly held in more
+abhorrence the lesser cruelty for the sake of pleasure than the
+greater cruelty for the sake of policy. It told how the New Forest was
+accursed for William's family. In his own lifetime a son and a
+grandson of his were cut off within it by unknown hands, probably
+falling before the vengeance of some who had lost home and substance
+through the creation of the Forest, and in due time another son, who
+succeeded him on the throne, was to meet with a similar fate.</p>
+
+<a id="chap7sec12" name="chap7sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>Domesday Book. 1085&mdash;1086.</b>&mdash;It was to William's credit that his
+government was a strong one. In William's days life and property and
+female honour were under the protection of a king who knew how to make
+himself obeyed. Strong government, however, is always expensive, and
+William and his officers were always ready with an excuse for getting
+money. "The king and the headmen loved much and overmuch covetousness
+on gold and on silver, and they recked not how sinfully it was gotten,
+if only it came to them.... They reared up unright tolls, and many
+other unright things they did that are hard to reckon." Other men, in
+short, must observe the law; William's government was a law to itself.
+It was, however, a law, and not a mere scramble for money. Though
+there were no Danish invaders now, William continued to levy the
+Danegeld, and he had rents and payments due to him in many quarters
+which had been due to his predecessors. In order to make his exactions
+more complete and more regular, he resolved to have set down the
+amount of taxable property in the realm that his full rights might be
+known, and in <b>1085</b>, "He sent over all England into ilk shire his men,
+and let them find out how many hundred hides were in the shire, or
+what the king himself had of land or cattle in the land, or whilk
+rights he ought to have.... Eke he let write how mickle of land his
+archbishops had, and his bishops, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page112" name="page112"></a>(p. 112)</span> and his abbots and his
+earls, and what or how mickle ilk man had that landholder was in
+England in land and in cattle, and how mickle fee it was worth. So
+very narrowly he let speer it out that there was not a single hide nor
+a yard of land, nor so much as&mdash;it is a shame to tell, though he
+thought it no shame to do&mdash;an ox nor a cow nor a swine was left that
+was not set in his writ." The chronicler who wrote these words was an
+English monk of Peterborough. Englishmen were shocked by the new
+regularity of taxation. They could hardly be expected to understand
+the advantages of a government strong enough through regular taxation
+to put down the resistance of rebellious earls at home and to defy
+invasion from abroad. The result of the inquiries of the king's
+commissioners was embodied in Domesday Book, so called because it was
+no more possible to appeal from it than from the Last Judgment.</p>
+
+<a id="img065" name="img065"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<a href="images/img065.jpg">
+<img src="images/img065tb.jpg" width="400" height="373" alt="" title=""></a>
+<p>Reduced facsimile of part of Domesday Book.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap7sec13" name="chap7sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>William's Great Councils.</b>&mdash;Though William was himself <span class="pagenum"><a id="page113" name="page113"></a>(p. 113)</span>
+the true ruler of England, he kept up the practice of his predecessors
+in summoning the Witenagemot from time to time. In his days, however,
+the name of the Witenagemot was changed into that of the Great
+Council, and, to a slight extent, it changed its nature with its name.
+The members of the Witenagemot had attended because they were
+officially connected with the king, being ealdormen or bishops or
+thegns serving in some way under him. Members of the Great Council
+attended because they held land in chief from the king. The
+difference, however, was greater in appearance than in reality. No
+doubt men who held very small estates in chief might, if they pleased,
+come to the Great Council, and if they had done so the Great Council
+would have been much more numerously attended than the Witenagemot had
+been. The poorer tenants-in-chief, however, found that it was not only
+too troublesome and expensive to make the journey at a time when all
+long journeys had to be made on horseback, but that when they arrived
+their wishes were disregarded. They therefore stayed at home, so that
+the Great Council was regularly attended only by the bishops, the
+abbots of the larger abbeys, and certain great landowners who were
+known as barons. In this way the Great Council became a council of the
+wealthy landowners, as the Witenagemot had been, though the two
+assemblies were formed on different principles.</p>
+
+<a id="chap7sec14" name="chap7sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>The Gemot at Salisbury. 1086.</b>&mdash;In <b>1086</b>, after Domesday Book had
+been finished, William summoned an unusually numerous assembly, known
+as the Great Gemot, to meet at Salisbury. At this not only the
+tenants-in-chief appeared, but also all those who held lands from them
+as sub-tenants. "There came to him," wrote the chronicler, "... all
+the landowning men there were over all England, whose soever men they
+were, and all bowed down before him and became his men, and swore
+oaths of fealty to him, that they would be faithful to him against all
+other men." It was this oath which marked the difference between
+English and Continental feudalism, though they were now in other
+respects alike. On the Continent each tenant swore to be faithful to
+his lord, but only the lords who held directly from the crown swore to
+be faithful to the king. The consequence was that when a lord rebelled
+against the king, his tenants followed their lord and not the king. In
+England the tenants swore to forsake their lord and to serve the king
+against him if he forsook his duty to the king. Nor was this all. Many
+men break their oaths. William, however, was strong enough in England
+to punish those who broke their <span class="pagenum"><a id="page114" name="page114"></a>(p. 114)</span> oaths to him, whilst the
+king of France was seldom strong enough to punish those who broke
+their oaths to him.</p>
+
+<a id="chap7sec15" name="chap7sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>William's Death. 1087.</b>&mdash;The oath taken at Salisbury was the
+completion of William's work in England. To contemporaries he appeared
+as a foreign conqueror, and often as a harsh and despotic ruler. Later
+generations could recognise that his supreme merit was that he made
+England one. He did not die in England. In <b>1087</b> he fought with his
+lord, the king of France, Philip I. In anger at a jest of Philip's he
+set fire to Mantes. As he rode amidst the burning houses his horse
+shied and threw him forward on the pommel of his saddle. He was now
+corpulent and the injury proved fatal. On September 9 he died. When
+the body was carried to Caen for burial in the abbey of St. Stephen,
+which William himself had reared, a knight stepped forward and claimed
+as his own the ground in which the grave had been dug. It had been
+taken, he said, by William from his father. "In the name of God," he
+cried, "I forbid that the body of the robber be covered with my mould,
+or that he be buried within the bounds of my inheritance." The
+bystanders acknowledged the truth of his accusation, and paid the
+price demanded.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap8" name="chap8"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER VIII.<br>
+WILLIAM II. <b>1087&mdash;1100.</b></h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Accession of William II                            <span class="right10">1087</span></li>
+<li>Norman rebellion against William II.               <span class="right10">1088</span></li>
+<li>Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury                   <span class="right10">1093</span></li>
+<li>The Council of Rockingham, and the First Crusade   <span class="right10">1095</span></li>
+<li>Conquest of Jerusalem by the Crusaders             <span class="right10">1099</span></li>
+<li>Death of William II.                               <span class="right10">1100</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap8sec1" name="chap8sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>The Accession of the Red King. 1087.</b>&mdash;In Normandy the Conqueror was
+succeeded by his eldest son, Robert. Robert was sluggish and
+incapable, and his father had expressed a wish that England, newly
+conquered and hard to control, should be ruled by his more energetic
+second son, William. To the third son, Henry, he gave a sum of money.
+There was as yet no settled rule of succession to the English crown,
+and William at once crossed the sea and was crowned king of the
+English at Westminster, by Lanfranc. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page115" name="page115"></a>(p. 115)</span> William Rufus, or the
+Red King, as men called him, feared not God nor regarded man. Yet the
+English rallied round him, because they knew that he was
+strong-willed, and because they needed a king who would keep the
+Norman barons from oppressing them. For that very reason the more
+turbulent of the Norman barons declared for Robert, who would be too
+lazy to keep them in order. In the spring of <b>1088</b> they broke into
+rebellion in his name. William called the English people to his help.
+He would not, he said, wring money from his subjects or exercise
+cruelty in defence of his hunting grounds. On this the English rallied
+round him. At the head of a great army he marched to attack the
+rebels, and finally laid siege to Rochester, which was held against
+him by his uncle Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, whom he had released from the
+imprisonment in which the Conqueror had kept him. William called upon
+yet greater numbers of the English to come to his help. Every one, he
+declared, who failed him now should be known for ever by the shameful
+name of <i>Nithing</i>, or worthless. The English came in crowds. When at
+last Odo surrendered, the English pleaded that no mercy should be
+shown him. "Halters, bring halters!" they cried; "hang up the traitor
+bishop and his accomplices on the gibbet." William, however, spared
+him, but banished him for ever from England.</p>
+
+<a id="chap8sec2" name="chap8sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>The Wickedness of the Red King.</b>&mdash;William had crushed the Norman
+rebels with English aid. When the victory was won he turned against
+those who had helped him. It was not that he oppressed the English
+because they were English, but that he oppressed English and Normans
+alike, though the English, being the weaker, felt his cruelty most. He
+broke all his promises. He gathered round him mercenary soldiers from
+all lands to enforce his will. He hanged murderers and robbers, but he
+himself was the worst of robbers. When he moved about the country with
+the ruffians who attended him, the inhabitants fled to the woods,
+leaving their houses to be pillaged. William allowed no law to be
+pleaded against his own will. His life, and the life of his courtiers,
+was passed in the foulest vice. He was as irreligious as he was
+vicious. It was in especial defiance of the Christian sentiment of the
+time that he encouraged the Jews, who had begun to come into England
+in his father's days, to come in greater numbers. They grew rich as
+money-lenders, and William protected them against their debtors,
+exacting a high price for his protection. Once, it is said, he invited
+the Jewish rabbis to argue in his presence with the bishops on the
+merits of their respective creeds, and promised to become <span class="pagenum"><a id="page116" name="page116"></a>(p. 116)</span> a
+Jew if the rabbis had the better of the argument. His own mouth was
+filled with outrageous blasphemies. "God," he said, "shall never see
+me a good man. I have suffered too much at His hands."</p>
+
+<a id="chap8sec3" name="chap8sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>Ranulf Flambard.</b>&mdash;The chief minister of the Red King was Ranulf
+Flambard, whom he ultimately made Bishop of Durham. He was one of the
+clerks of the king's chapel. The word 'clerk' properly signified a
+member of the clergy. The only way in which men could work with their
+brains instead of with their hands was by becoming clerks, the
+majority of whom, however, only entered the lower orders, without any
+intention of becoming priests or even deacons. Few, except clerks,
+could read or write, and whatever work demanded intelligence naturally
+fell into their hands. They acted as physicians or lawyers, kept
+accounts, and wrote letters. The clerks of the king's chapel were the
+king's secretaries and men of business. These ready writers had taken
+a leading part in the compilation of Domesday Book, and they were
+always active in bringing in money. Under the Conqueror they were
+expected to observe at least something of the rules of justice. Under
+the Red King they were expected to disregard them entirely. Of all the
+clerks Ranulf Flambard was the most unscrupulous; therefore he rose
+into the greatest favour. The first William had appointed high
+officers, known as Justiciars, to act in his name from time to time
+when he was absent from England, or was from any cause unable to be
+present when important business was transacted. Flambard was appointed
+Justiciar by the second William, and in his hands the office became
+permanent. The Justiciar was now the king's chief minister, acting in
+his name whether he was present or absent. Flambard used his power to
+gather wealth for the king on every side. "He drave the king's
+gemots," we are told, "over all England;" that is to say, he forced
+the reluctant courts to exact the money which he claimed for the king.</p>
+
+<a id="chap8sec4" name="chap8sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>Feudal Dues.</b>&mdash;It was Flambard who systematised, if he did not
+invent, the doctrine that the king was to profit by his position as
+supreme landlord. In practice this meant that he exacted to the full
+the consequences of feudal tenure. If a man died who held land by
+knight service from the crown, leaving a son who was a minor, the boy
+became the ward of the king, who took the profits of his lands till he
+was twenty-one, and forced him to pay a relief or fine for taking them
+into his own hands when he attained his majority. If the land
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page117" name="page117"></a>(p. 117)</span> fell to an heiress the king claimed the right of marrying
+her to whom he would, or of requiring of her a sum of money for
+permission to take a husband at her own choice, or, as was usually the
+case, at the choice of her relations. Under special circumstances the
+king exacted aids from his tenants-in-chief. If he were taken prisoner
+they had to pay to ransom him from captivity. When he knighted his
+eldest son or married his eldest daughter they had to contribute to
+the expense. It is true that this was in accordance with the principle
+of feudality. Neither a boy nor a woman could render service in the
+field, and it was therefore only fair that the king should hold the
+lands at times when no service was rendered to him for them; and it
+was also fair that the dependents should come to their lord's help in
+times of special need, especially as all that the king took from them
+they in turn took from their own sub-tenants. Flambard, however, did
+not content himself with a moderately harsh exaction of these feudal
+dues. The grievance against him was that he made the king 'to be every
+man's heir, whether he were in orders or a layman,' that is to say,
+that Flambard so stripped and exhausted the land belonging to the
+king's wards as to make it almost worthless, and then demanded reliefs
+so enormous that when the estate had at last been restored, all its
+value had passed into the hands of the king. When a bishop or an abbot
+died, the king appointed no successor, and appropriated the revenues
+of the vacant see or monastery till some one chose to buy the office
+from him. The king alone grew rich, whilst his vassals were
+impoverished.</p>
+
+<a id="chap8sec5" name="chap8sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>Archbishop Anselm.</b>&mdash;In <b>1089</b> Lanfranc died, and the archbishopric of
+Canterbury was then left vacant for nearly four years. The Archbishop
+of Canterbury was more than the first of English bishops. He was not
+only the maintainer of ecclesiastical discipline, but also the
+mouthpiece of the English people when they had complaints to make to
+the king. Men turned their thoughts to Anselm, the Abbot of Bec.
+Anselm was a stranger from Aosta, on the Italian side of the Alps. He
+was the most learned man of the age, and had striven to justify the
+theology of the day by rational arguments. He was as righteous as he
+was learned, and as gentle as he was righteous. Tender to man and
+woman, he had what was in those days a rare tenderness to animals, and
+had caused astonishment by saving a hunted hare from its pursuers. In
+<b>1092</b> the king's vassals assembled in the Great Council urged William
+to choose a successor to Lanfranc, and asked him to allow prayers to
+be offered in the churches that God might move his heart to select a
+worthy <span class="pagenum"><a id="page118" name="page118"></a>(p. 118)</span> chief pastor. "Pray as you will," said the king,
+scornfully. "I shall do as I think good; no man's prayers will do
+anything to shake my will!" In the spring of <b>1093</b> William fell sick.
+Believing himself to be a dying man, he promised to amend his life,
+and named Anselm archbishop. On his refusal to accept the nomination,
+Anselm was dragged to the king's bedside, and the pastoral staff, the
+symbol of the pastoral office of a bishop, was forced into his hands
+by the bystanders.</p>
+
+<a id="chap8sec6" name="chap8sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>The Council of Rockingham. 1095.</b>&mdash;To this well-meant violence
+Anselm submitted unwillingly. He was, he said, a weak old sheep to be
+yoked with an untamed bull to draw the plough of the English Church.
+Yet, gentle as he was, he was possessed of indomitable courage in
+resistance to evil. William recovered, and returned to his blasphemy
+and his tyranny. In vain Anselm warned him against his sins. A fresh
+object of dispute soon arose between the king and the new archbishop.
+Two Popes claimed the obedience of Christendom. Urban II. was the Pope
+acknowledged by the greater part of the Church. Clement III. was the
+Pope supported by the Emperor. Anselm declared that Urban was the true
+Pope, and that he would obey none other. William asserted that his
+father had laid down a rule that no Pope should be acknowledged in
+England without the king's assent, and he proposed to act upon it by
+acknowledging neither Clement nor Urban. His object was, perhaps, to
+prevent the enforcement of ecclesiastical discipline by temporarily
+getting rid of the papal authority. Anselm wanted the authority of the
+Pope to check vice and disorder. The question was set aside for a
+time, but in <b>1095</b> Anselm, tired of witnessing William's wicked
+actions, asked leave to go to Rome to fetch from Urban the pallium, a
+kind of scarf given by the Pope to archbishops in recognition of their
+office. William replied that he did not acknowledge Urban as Pope. A
+Great Council was summoned to Rockingham to discuss the question. The
+lay barons, who liked to see the king resisted, were on Anselm's side.
+The bishops, many of whom were creatures of William, appointed from
+amongst his clerks, took the side of the king. Anselm stated his case
+firmly and moderately, and then, caring nothing for the angry king,
+retired into the chapel and went quietly to sleep. The king, finding
+that the barons would give him no support, was unable to punish
+Anselm. Two years later, in <b>1097</b>, Anselm betook himself to Rome, and
+William at once seized on his estates.</p>
+
+<a id="chap8sec7" name="chap8sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>William II. and his Brothers.</b>&mdash;Normandy under Robert was even worse
+off than England under William. William was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page119" name="page119"></a>(p. 119)</span> himself a
+tyrant, but in Normandy there were at least a hundred tyrants because
+Robert was too easy-tempered to bring any one to justice. The land was
+full of violence. Each baron made war on his neighbour, and, as usual,
+the peasant suffered most. Robert's own life was vicious and wasteful,
+and he was soon in debt. He sold the Cotentin and the territory of
+Avranches to his youngest brother, Henry. Henry was cool-headed and
+prudent, and he kept order in his new possession better than either of
+his elder brothers would have done. The brothers coveted the
+well-ordered land, and in <b>1091</b>, two years before Anselm became
+archbishop, they marched together against Henry. Henry was besieged on
+St. Michael's Mount, a rocky island surrounded by the sea at high
+water. After a time water ran short. The easy-tempered Robert sent in
+a supply. "Shall we let our brother die of thirst?" he said to
+William. Henry was in the end forced to surrender, and the land which
+he had purchased was lost to him for a time. In <b>1095</b> Henry was again
+in Normandy. Robert of Bellême, the lord of Domfront, was the most
+cruel of the cruel barons. Once he had torn out with his own hands the
+eyes of his godson, merely because the child's father had displeased
+him. The people of Domfront called on Henry to deliver them from such
+a monster. Henry seized Domfront, ruled its people with justice, and
+soon recovered the possessions from which his brothers had driven him.</p>
+
+<a id="chap8sec8" name="chap8sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>William and Scotland. 1093&mdash;1094.</b>&mdash;William's attention was at this
+time drawn to the North. Early in his reign he annexed Cumberland, and
+had secured it against the Scots by fortifying Carlisle, which had
+been desolate since the Danish invasion in the reign of Ælfred.
+Malcolm, king of the Scots, was a rude warrior who had been tamed into
+an outward show of piety by his saintly wife, Margaret, the sister of
+Eadgar the Ætheling. Though he could not read her books of devotion,
+he liked to look at the pictures in them and to kiss the relics which
+she honoured. Margaret gathered Englishmen round her, and spread
+abroad something of southern piety and civilisation amongst the fierce
+Celtic warriors of her husband. She could not teach them to change
+their natures. In <b>1093</b> Malcolm burst into Northumberland, plundering
+and burning, till an Englishman slew him at Alnwick. Queen Margaret
+died broken-hearted at the news, and was before long counted as a
+saint. For the moment the Scottish Celts were weary of the English
+queen and her English ways. They set up Malcolm's brother, Donald
+Bane, as their king, refusing to be <span class="pagenum"><a id="page120" name="page120"></a>(p. 120)</span> governed by any of
+Margaret's sons. Donald at once 'drave out all the English that before
+were with King Malcolm.' In <b>1094</b> Duncan, Margaret's step-son, gained
+the crown from Donald with the aid of a troop of English and Norman
+followers. The Celts soon drove out his followers, and after a while
+they slew him and restored Donald.</p>
+
+<a id="chap8sec9" name="chap8sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>Mowbray's Rebellion. 1095.</b>&mdash;William had as yet too much to do at
+home to interfere further in Scotland. The Norman barons hated him,
+and in <b>1095</b> Robert of Mowbray, Earl of Northumberland&mdash;the name was
+now confined to the land between the Tweed and the Tyne&mdash;refused
+obedience. William at once marched against him, and took from him the
+new castle which he had built in <b>1080</b>, and which has ever since been
+known as Newcastle-on-Tyne. Robert held out long in his stronger
+fortress of Bamborough, which was only taken at last by fraud. He was
+condemned to a lifelong imprisonment, and it is even said that the
+Pope, seeing his case hopeless, allowed his wife to marry again as
+though her husband had been dead. Mowbray's rebellion, like the
+conspiracy of the Earls against the Conqueror, shows how eagerly the
+Norman barons longed to shake off the yoke of the king, and how
+readily Englishmen and the less powerful Normans supported even a
+tyrannical king rather than allow the barons to have their way.</p>
+
+<a id="chap8sec10" name="chap8sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>The First Crusade. 1095&mdash;1099.</b>&mdash;These petty wars were interrupted
+by a call to arms from the Pope. For centuries Christians had made
+pilgrimages to Bethlehem and Jerusalem, the holy places where their
+Lord had been born and had been crucified. When the Arabs conquered
+the Holy Land, Mohammedans as they were, they gave protection to the
+pilgrims from the West. The Turks, who were also Mohammedans, had
+lately obtained the mastery over the Arabs, and had secured dominion
+over the Holy Land. They were fierce warriors, ignorant and cruel, who
+either put the pilgrims to death or subjected them to torture and
+ill-usage. In <b>1095</b> Pope Urban II. came to Clermont to appeal to the
+Christians of the West to set out on a Crusade&mdash;a war of the Cross&mdash;to
+deliver the Holy City from the infidel. After he had spoken the
+multitude burst out with the cry, "It is the will of God!" Men of
+every rank placed on their garments a cross, as the sign of their
+devotion to the service of Christ. In <b>1096</b> a huge multitude set forth
+under Peter the Hermit, who had been active in urging men to take part
+in the Crusade. They believed it to be unnecessary to take money or
+food, trusting that God would supply His warriors. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page121" name="page121"></a>(p. 121)</span> All these
+perished on the way. A better-equipped body of knights and nobles set
+out later under Godfrey of Bouillon. They fought their way through
+Asia Minor and Syria to Jerusalem, and in <b>1099</b> the Holy City was taken
+by storm. Godfrey, though he became its first Christian king, refused
+to be crowned. "I will not," he said, "wear a crown of gold where my
+Saviour wore a crown of thorns." The piety of the Christian warriors
+was not accompanied by mercy to the vanquished. Holding Mohammedans to
+be the special enemies of God, they treated them as no better than
+savage beasts. There was a terrible butchery when Jerusalem was taken,
+and Christian men fancied that they did God service by dashing out the
+brains of Mohammedan babes against the walls.</p>
+
+<a id="chap8sec11" name="chap8sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>Normandy in Pledge. 1096.</b>&mdash;Robert was amongst the Crusaders. To
+raise money for his expedition he pledged Normandy to his brother
+William. William had no wish to take part in a holy war, but he was
+ready to make profit out of those who did. Normandy was the better for
+the change. It is true that William oppressed it himself, but he saved
+the people from the worse oppression of the barons.</p>
+
+<a id="chap8sec12" name="chap8sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>The Last Years of the Red King.</b>&mdash;The remaining years of William's
+reign were years of varying success. An English force set up Eadgar,
+the son of Malcolm and Margaret, as king of the Scots, and Eadgar
+consented to hold his crown as William's vassal. William's attempts to
+reduce the Welsh to submission ended in failure, and he was obliged to
+content himself with hemming them in with castles. In <b>1098</b> the wicked
+Robert of Bellême succeeded his brother as earl of Shrewsbury. Robert
+robbed and tortured Englishmen as he had robbed and tortured Normans.
+He was a great builder of castles, and at Bridgenorth he raised a
+fortress as the centre of a group of strong places which could defy
+the Welsh and form the basis of his operations against them. In the
+same year William captured Le Mans, the capital of Maine, which had
+recovered its independence from Robert, which was held against him by
+Helie de la Flêche, one of the few unselfish men of the day. Unlike
+his father, the Red King often began enterprises which he did not
+finish. In <b>1099</b> he had all his work to do over again. He was hunting
+in the New Forest when he heard that Helie had regained Le Mans. He
+rode hard to Southampton, and, leaping on board a vessel, bade the
+sailors put to sea. A storm was raging, and the sailors prayed him to
+wait till the wind fell. "I never heard," he answered, "of a king
+being drowned." The next morning he was in Normandy. He <span class="pagenum"><a id="page122" name="page122"></a>(p. 122)</span>
+recovered Le Mans, but returned to England without conquering Maine.</p>
+
+<a id="chap8sec13" name="chap8sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>The Death of the Red King. 1100.</b>&mdash;On August 2, <b>1100</b>, the Red King
+went out to hunt in the New Forest. In the evening his body was found
+pierced by an arrow. Who his slayer was is unknown. The blow may have
+been accidental. It is more likely to have been intentional. In every
+part of England were men who had good cause to hate William, and
+nowhere were his enemies in greater numbers than round the New Forest.
+Whoever was his slayer, the body of the tyrant was borne to the
+cathedral of Winchester and buried as the corpse of a wild beast,
+without funeral rites or weeping eyes. When, after a few years had
+passed, the tower above the unhallowed tomb fell in, men said that it
+had fallen because so foul a body lay beneath it.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap9" name="chap9"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER IX.<br>
+HENRY I. AND STEPHEN.<br>
+HENRY I., <b>1100&mdash;1135</b>. STEPHEN, <b>1135&mdash;1154</b>.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>The Accession of Henry I.                      <span class="right10">1100</span></li>
+<li>Battle of Tinchebrai                           <span class="right10">1106</span></li>
+<li>Death of Henry I. and Accession of Stephen     <span class="right10">1135</span></li>
+<li>The Civil War                                  <span class="right10">1139</span></li>
+<li>Treaty of Wallingford                          <span class="right10">1153</span></li>
+<li>Death of Stephen                               <span class="right10">1154</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="img066" name="img066"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img066.jpg" width="400" height="672" alt="" title="">
+<p>Henry I. and his queen Matilda.<br> (From the west front of
+Rochester Cathedral.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap9sec1" name="chap9sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>The Accession of Henry I. 1100.</b>&mdash;When the news spread that the Red
+King had been slain in the New Forest, his younger brother, Henry,
+hastened to Winchester, where he was chosen king by the barons who
+happened to be there. At his coronation at Westminster he swore to
+undo all the evil of his brother's reign. The name by which he came to
+be known&mdash;the Lion of Justice&mdash;shows how well he kept his promise. He
+maintained order as his father had done, and his brother had not done.
+Flambard, the wicked minister of the Red King, was imprisoned in the
+Tower, and Anselm, the good archbishop, recalled to England. Henry's
+chief strength lay in the support of the English. To please them he
+married Eadgyth, the daughter of Malcolm and Margaret, the descendant
+through her mother of the old English kings. Through <span class="pagenum"><a id="page123" name="page123"></a>(p. 123)</span> Eadgyth
+the blood of Alfred and Ecgberht was transmitted to the later kings.
+It was, however, necessary that she should take another <span class="pagenum"><a id="page124" name="page124"></a>(p. 124)</span>
+name. Every one at Henry's court talked French, and 'Eadgyth' was
+unpronounceable in French. The new queen was therefore known as
+Matilda, or Maud. The English called her the good queen. The Normans
+mocked her husband and herself by giving them the English nicknames of
+Godric and Godgifu.</p>
+
+<a id="chap9sec2" name="chap9sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>Invasion of Robert. 1101.</b>&mdash;One danger at least Henry had to face.
+The Norman barons yearned after the weak rule of Robert, who was again
+in possession of Normandy. Once, we are told, he had to stay in bed
+till noon, because his favourites had carried off his clothes, and he
+had no others to put on. A duke who could not keep his own clothes was
+not likely to be able to rule his duchy, and Normandy was again the
+scene of fightings and plunderings which he made no effort to
+suppress. Flambard, having escaped from prison, fled to Normandy, and
+urged Robert to claim England as the heritage of the eldest son of the
+Conqueror. Robert listened to the tempter and sailed for England. When
+he landed at Porchester he found that the Church and the English had
+rallied to Henry. Robert's position was hopeless, and he made a treaty
+with his brother, abandoning all claim to the crown.</p>
+
+<a id="chap9sec3" name="chap9sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>Revolt of Robert of Bellême. 1102.</b>&mdash;Henry knew that the great
+barons wished well to Robert, and on one pretext or another he
+stripped most of them of power. Robert of Bellême, the strongest and
+wickedest of them all, rose in revolt. After capturing many of his
+castles, Henry laid siege to his great fortress at Bridgenorth. The
+barons who served under Henry urged him to spare a rebel who was one
+of their own class. The Englishmen and the inferior Norman knights
+thought otherwise. "Lord King Henry," they cried, "trust not those
+traitors. They do but strive to deceive you, and to take away from you
+the strength of kingly justice.... Behold, we all stand by you
+faithfully; we are ready to serve and help you in all things. Attack
+the castle vigorously; shut in the traitor on all sides, and make no
+peace with him till you have him alive or dead in your hands."
+Bridgenorth was taken, and Robert of Bellême, having been stripped of
+his English land, was sent off to Normandy. Henry was now, in very
+truth, king of the English. "Rejoice, King Henry," ran a popular song,
+"and give thanks to the Lord God, because thou art a free king since
+thou hast overthrown Robert of Bellême, and hast driven him from the
+borders of thy kingdom." Never again during Henry's reign did the
+great Norman lords dare to lift hand against him.</p>
+
+<a id="chap9sec4" name="chap9sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>The Battle of Tinchebrai. 1106.</b>&mdash;It was impossible for Henry to
+avoid interference in Normandy. Many of his vassals in <span class="pagenum"><a id="page125" name="page125"></a>(p. 125)</span>
+England possessed lands in Normandy as well, where they were exposed
+to the violence of Robert of Bellême and of others who had been
+expelled from England. The Duke of the Normans would do nothing to
+keep the peace, and Henry crossed the sea to protect his own injured
+subjects. Duke Robert naturally resisted him, and at last, in <b>1106</b>, a
+great battle was fought at Tinchebrai, in which Robert was utterly
+defeated. Duke Robert was kept for the remainder of his life a
+prisoner in Cardiff Castle, where he died after an imprisonment of
+twenty-eight years. Henry became Duke of the Normans as well as king
+of the English, and all Normandy was the better for the change. Robert
+of Bellême was thrown into prison, and the cruel oppressor thus shared
+the fate of the weak ruler whose remissness had made his oppressions
+possible.</p>
+
+<a id="img067" name="img067"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img067.jpg" width="300" height="292" alt="" title="">
+<p>Seal of Milo of Gloucester, showing mounted armed
+figure in the reign of Henry I.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap9sec5" name="chap9sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>Henry and Anselm. 1100&mdash;1107.</b>&mdash;Though Anselm had done everything in
+his power to support Henry against Robert of Bellême, he was himself
+engaged in a dispute with the king which lasted for some years. A
+bishop in Anselm's time was not only a great Church officer, whose
+duty it was to maintain a high standard of religion and morality
+amongst the clergy. He was also one of the king's barons, because he
+was possessed of large estates, and was therefore bound like any other
+baron to send knights to the king when they were needed. Consequently,
+when Anselm became archbishop he had not only received investiture
+from William II. by accepting from him the ring and the staff which
+were the signs of ecclesiastical authority, but also did homage, thus
+acknowledging himself to be the king's man, and obliging himself, not
+indeed to fight for him in person, but to send knights to fight under
+his orders. When, however, Henry came to the throne, and asked Anselm
+to repeat the homage which he had done to William, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page126" name="page126"></a>(p. 126)</span> Anselm
+not only refused himself to comply with the king's request, but also
+refused to consecrate newly-chosen bishops who had received
+investiture from Henry. During the time of his exile Anselm had taken
+part in a council of the Church, in which bishops and abbots had been
+forbidden by the Pope and the council either to receive investiture
+from laymen or to do homage to them. These decrees had not been issued
+merely to serve the purpose of papal ambition. At that time all
+zealous ecclesiastics thought that the only way to stop the violence
+of kings in their dealings with the Church was to make the Church
+entirely independent. Anselm's experience of the Red King's wickedness
+must have made him ready to concur with this new view, and there can
+be no doubt that it was from the most conscientious motives that he
+refused to do homage to Henry. On the other hand, Henry, wishing to
+rule justly, thought it very hard that the archbishop should insist
+upon the independence of the bishops, especially as in consequence of
+their large estates they had so many knights to send into the field.
+Though the dispute was a hot one, it was carried on without any of the
+violence which had characterised the dispute between Anselm and the
+Red King, and it ended in a compromise. Henry abandoned all claim to
+give the ring and the pastoral staff which were the signs of a
+bishop's or an abbot's spiritual jurisdiction, whilst Anselm consented
+to allow the new bishop or abbot to render the homage which was the
+sign of his readiness to employ all his temporal wealth and power on
+the king's behalf. The bishop was to be chosen by the chapter of his
+cathedral, the abbot by the monks of his abbey, but the election was
+to take place in the king's presence, thus giving him influence over
+their choice. Whether this settlement would work in favour of the king
+or the clergy depended on the character of the kings and the clergy.
+If the kings were as riotous as the Red King and the clergy as
+self-denying as Anselm, the clergy would grow strong in spite of these
+arrangements. If the kings were as just and wise as Henry, and the
+clergy as wicked as Ralph Flambard, all advantage would be on the side
+of the king.</p>
+
+<a id="img068" name="img068"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img068.jpg" width="250" height="564" alt="" title="">
+<p>Monument of Roger, Bishop of Salisbury (died 1139), in
+his cathedral church.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap9sec6" name="chap9sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>Roger of Salisbury.</b>&mdash;After the defeat of the Norman barons the
+Great Council ceased for a time to have any important influence on the
+government. Henry was practically an absolute king, and it was well
+that he should be so, as the country wanted order more than
+discussion. Henry, however, loved to exercise absolute power in an
+orderly way, and he chose for his chief minister Roger, whom he made
+Bishop of Salisbury. Roger had first attracted his notice when he was
+going out hunting, by saying mass in a shorter time <span class="pagenum"><a id="page127" name="page127"></a>(p. 127)</span> than any
+other priest, but he retained his favour by the order and system which
+he introduced into the government. A special body of officials and
+councillors was selected by the king&mdash;perhaps a similar body had been
+selected by his predecessor&mdash;to sit in judgment over cases in which
+tenants-in-chief were concerned, as well as over other cases which
+were, for one reason or another, transferred to it from the Baronial
+Courts. This council or committee was called the <i>Curia Regis</i> (the
+King's Court). The members of this <i>Curia Regis</i> met also in the
+Exchequer, so called from the chequered cloth which covered the table
+at which they sat. They were then known as Barons of the Exchequer,
+and controlled the receipts and outgoings of the treasury. The
+Justiciar presided in both the <i>Curia Regis</i> and the Exchequer.
+Amongst those who took part in these proceedings was the Chancellor,
+who was then a secretary and not a judge, as well as other superior
+officers of the king. A regular system of finance was introduced, and
+a regular system of justice accompanied it. At last the king
+determined to send some of the judges of his court to go on circuit
+into distant parts of the kingdom. These itinerant Justices
+(<i>Justitiarii errantes</i>) brought the royal power into connection with
+the local courts. Their business was of a very miscellaneous
+character. They not only heard the cases in which the king was
+concerned&mdash;the pleas of the crown, as they were called&mdash;but they made
+assessments for purposes of taxation, listened to complaints, and
+conveyed the king's wishes to his people.</p>
+
+<a id="chap9sec7" name="chap9sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>Growth of Trade.</b>&mdash;Though Henry's severe discipline was not liked,
+yet the law and order which he maintained told on the prosperity of
+the country, and the trade of London flourished so <span class="pagenum"><a id="page128" name="page128"></a>(p. 128)</span> much as
+to attract citizens from Normandy to settle in it. Flemings too,
+trained in habits of industry, came in crowds, and with the view of
+providing a bulwark against the Welsh, Henry settled a colony of them
+in South Pembrokeshire, which has since been known as Little England
+beyond Wales. The foreigners were not popular, but the Jews, to whom
+Henry continued the protection which William had given them, were more
+unpopular still.</p>
+
+<a id="img069" name="img069"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img069.jpg" width="400" height="370" alt="" title="">
+<p>Porchester Church, Hampshire. Built about 1135.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap9sec8" name="chap9sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>The Benedictines.</b>&mdash;In the midst of this busy life the Benedictine
+monasteries were still harbours of refuge for all who did not care to
+fight or trade. They were now indeed wealthier than they had once
+been, as gifts, usually of land, had been made to the monks by those
+who reverenced their piety. Sometimes these gifts took a shape which
+afterwards caused no little evil. Landowners who had churches on their
+lands often gave to a monastery the tithes which had hitherto been
+paid for the support of the parish priest, and the monastery stepped
+into the place of the parish priest, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page129" name="page129"></a>(p. 129)</span> sending a vicar to act
+for it in the performance of its new duties. As the monks themselves
+grew richer they grew less ascetic. Their life, however, was not spent
+in idleness. They cared for the poor, kept a school for the children,
+and managed their own property. Some of their number studied and
+wrote, and our knowledge of the history of these times is mainly owing
+to monastic writers. When Henry I. came to the throne the Chronicle
+was still being written in the English tongue by the monks of
+Worcester, and for some years after his death was still carried on at
+Peterborough. The best historical compositions were, however, in
+Latin, the language understood by the clergy over all Western Europe.
+Amongst the authors of these Latin works, the foremost was William of
+Malmesbury.</p>
+
+<a id="chap9sec9" name="chap9sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>The Cistercians.</b>&mdash;Useful as the Benedictines were, there were some
+monks who complained that the extreme self-denial of their founder,
+St. Benedict, was no longer to be met with, and the complainants had
+lately originated a new order, called the Cistercian, from Cîteaux, in
+Burgundy, the site of their first abbey. The Cistercians made their
+appearance in England in <b>1128</b>. Their buildings and churches were
+simpler than those of the Benedictines, and their life more austere.
+They refused to receive gifts of tithes lest they should impoverish
+the parish clergy. They loved to make their homes in solitary places
+far from the haunts of men, and some of the most beautiful of the
+abbeys which remain in ruins&mdash;those, for instance, of Fountains and
+Tintern&mdash;were Cistercian abbeys. They are beautiful, not because the
+Cistercians loved pleasant places, but because they loved solitude,
+whilst the Benedictines had either planted themselves in towns or had
+allowed towns to grow up round their monasteries.</p>
+
+<a id="img070" name="img070"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img070.jpg" width="400" height="599" alt="" title="">
+<p>Part of the nave of Durham Cathedral.<br> Built about
+1130.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap9sec10" name="chap9sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>The White Ship.</b>&mdash;Henry, in consequence of the possession of
+Normandy, had been frequently involved in war with France. Robert's
+son, William Clito, claimed Normandy, and his claim was supported by
+Louis VI. the Fat, who was styled king of France, though the territory
+which he actually ruled was no larger than Normandy. In these wars
+Henry was usually successful, and at last, in <b>1127</b>, William was
+killed, and Henry freed from danger. His own son, also named William,
+had already been drowned on the voyage between Normandy and England in
+<b>1120</b>. The ship in which he sailed ran upon a rock, and the young man
+was placed in a boat, and might have escaped if he had not returned to
+save his half-sister, the Countess of Perche, who was still on board.
+As soon as he approached the sailors and passengers crowded into the
+boat and swamped it. Only one man, a butcher, was saved, by clinging
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page130" name="page130"></a>(p. 130)</span> to the mast of the ship when it sank. The captain, who was
+with him on the mast, threw himself off as soon as he learned that the
+king's son had been drowned, and perished in the water. It is said
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page131" name="page131"></a>(p. 131)</span> that no man dared to tell Henry that his son was drowned,
+and that at last a little child was sent to inform him of his
+misfortune.</p>
+
+<a id="chap9sec11" name="chap9sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>The Last Years of Henry I.</b>&mdash;Henry had many illegitimate children,
+but after William's death the only lawful child left to him was
+Matilda. She had been married as a child to the Emperor Henry V., but
+her husband had died before she was grown up, and she then returned to
+her father, as the Empress Matilda. There had never been a queen in
+England, and it would have been very hard for a woman to rule in those
+times of constant war and bloodshed. Yet Henry persuaded the barons to
+swear to accept her as their future sovereign. He then married her to
+Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, who came of a brave and active race, and
+whose lands, which lay to the south of Normandy, would enlarge the
+French possessions of Henry's descendants. In <b>1135</b> Henry died. The
+great merit of his English government was that he forsook his
+brother's evil ways of violence, and maintained peace by erecting a
+regular administrative system, which kept down the outrages of the
+barons. One of the English chroniclers in recording his death prayed
+that God might give him the peace that he loved.<a id="footnotetag9" name="footnotetag9"></a><a href="#footnote9" title="Go to footnote 9"><span class="small">[9]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="img071" name="img071"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img071.jpg" width="400" height="400" alt="" title="">
+<p>Keep of Rochester Castle. Built between 1126 and 1139.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap9sec12" name="chap9sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>Stephen's Accession. 1135.</b>&mdash;Among the barons who had sworn to obey
+Matilda was Stephen of Blois, a son of the Conqueror's daughter Adela,
+and a nephew of Henry I. As soon as Henry's death was known Stephen
+made his way to London, where he was joyfully received as king. The
+London citizens felt that their chief interest lay in the maintenance
+of peace, and they thought that a man would be more likely than a
+woman to secure order. The barons chose Stephen king at Winchester,
+where his brother, Henry of Blois, was the bishop. Shortly afterwards
+some of these very barons rose against him, but their insurrection was
+soon repressed. More formidable was the hostility of David, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page132" name="page132"></a>(p. 132)</span>
+king of the Scots. David was closely connected with the family of
+Henry I., his sister having been Henry's wife, the Empress Matilda
+being consequently his niece. He also held in right of his own wife
+the earldom of Huntingdon. Under the pretext of taking up Matilda's
+cause he broke into the north of England. Though he himself carried on
+the work of introducing English civilisation into Scotland, his Celtic
+followers were still savage, and massacred women and infants. In <b>1137</b>
+Stephen drove David back. In <b>1138</b> David reappeared, and this time the
+aged Thurstan, Archbishop of York, sent the levies of the North
+against him. In the midst of the English army was a cart bearing a
+standard, at the top of which the banners of the three great churches
+of St. Peter's of York, St. John of Beverley, and St. Wilfrid of
+Ripon, waved round <span class="pagenum"><a id="page133" name="page133"></a>(p. 133)</span> the consecrated Host. The battle which
+ensued, near Northallerton, has consequently been known as the battle
+of the Standard. The Scots were completely defeated, but Stephen, in
+spite of the victory gained for him, found himself obliged to buy
+peace at a heavy price. He agreed that David's son, Henry, should hold
+Northumberland, with the exception of the fortresses of Bamborough and
+of Newcastle, as a fief of the English Crown. David himself was also
+allowed to keep Cumberland without doing homage.</p>
+
+<a id="img072" name="img072"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img072.jpg" width="500" height="392" alt="" title="">
+<p>Keep of Castle Rising. Built about 1140-50.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap9sec13" name="chap9sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>Civil War.</b>&mdash;It would have been well for Stephen if he had learnt
+from the men of the North that his strength lay in rallying the
+English people round him against the great barons, as the Red King and
+Henry I. had done when their right to the crown had been challenged by
+Robert. Instead of this, he brought over mercenaries from Flanders,
+and squandered treasure and lands upon his favourites so as to have
+little left for the hour of need. He made friends easily, but he made
+enemies no less easily. One of the most powerful of the barons was
+Robert, Earl of Gloucester, an illegitimate son of Henry I., who held
+the strong fortress of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page134" name="page134"></a>(p. 134)</span> Bristol, and whose power extended
+over both sides of the lower course of the Severn. In <b>1138</b> Stephen,
+who distrusted him, ordered his castles to be seized. Robert at once
+declared his half-sister Matilda to be the lawful queen, and a
+terrible civil war began. Robert's garrison at Bristol was a terror to
+all the country round. He, too, gathered foreign mercenaries, who knew
+not what pity was. Other barons imitated Robert's example, fighting
+only for themselves whether they nominally took the part of Stephen or
+of Matilda, and the southern and midland counties of England were
+preyed upon by the garrisons of their castles.</p>
+
+<a id="chap9sec14" name="chap9sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>Stephen's Quarrel with the Clergy. 1139.</b>&mdash;Evil as were the men who
+fought on either side, it was to Stephen and not to Matilda and Robert
+that men as yet looked to restore order. The port towns, London,
+Yarmouth, and Lynn, clung to him to the last. Unfortunately Stephen
+did not know how to make good use of his advantages. The clergy, like
+the traders, had always been in favour of order. Some of them, with
+the Justiciar, Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, at their head, had
+organised the Exchequer of Henry I., had gathered in the payments due
+to the Crown, or had acted as judges. Yet with all their zeal in the
+service of the Crown, they had not omitted to provide for their own
+interests. Roger in particular had been insatiable in the pursuit of
+wealth for himself and of promotion for his family. One of his
+nephews, Nigel, Bishop of Ely, was Treasurer, whilst another,
+Alexander, was Bishop of Lincoln, and his own illegitimate son, Roger,
+was Chancellor. In <b>1139</b> Stephen, rightly or wrongly, threw him into
+prison with his son and Alexander of Lincoln. The other nephew, Nigel,
+escaped to his uncle's castle at Devizes, in which was the younger
+Roger's mother, Matilda of Ramsbury. Stephen brought her son before
+the castle, and put a rope round his neck to hang him unless the
+castle was surrendered. The unhappy mother could not bear the sight,
+and opened the gates to Stephen. It might have been wise to deprive a
+too ambitious bishop of his castle, but it was not wise personally to
+maltreat the clergy. Every priest in England turned against Stephen.
+His own brother, Henry, Bishop of Winchester, declared against him,
+and Stephen was obliged to do penance for his offence. The
+administration of the Exchequer was shattered, and though it was not
+altogether destroyed, and money was brought to it for the king's use
+even in the worst times, Stephen's financial resources were from
+henceforth sadly diminished.</p>
+
+<a id="chap9sec15" name="chap9sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>Anarchy. 1139.</b>&mdash;The war now lapsed into sheer anarchy. The barons
+on either side broke loose from all restraint. "They <span class="pagenum"><a id="page135" name="page135"></a>(p. 135)</span> fought
+amongst themselves with deadly hatred; they spoiled the fairest lands
+with fire and rapine; in what had been the most fertile of counties
+they destroyed almost all the provision of bread." All goods and money
+they carried off, and if they suspected any man to have concealed
+treasure they tortured him to oblige him to confess where it was.
+"They hanged up men by the feet and smoked them with foul smoke; some
+were hanged up by their thumbs, others by their head, and coats of
+mail were hung on to their feet. They put knotted strings about men's
+heads, and twisted them till they went to the brain. They put men into
+prisons where adders and snakes and toads were crawling; and so they
+tormented them. Some they put into a chest, short and narrow and not
+deep, and that had sharp stones within; and forced men therein, so
+that they broke all their limbs. In many of the castles were hateful
+and grim things called neckties, which two or three men had enough to
+do to carry. This instrument of torture was thus made: it was fastened
+to a beam, and had a sharp iron to go about a man's neck and throat,
+so that he might no way sit or lie or sleep, but he bore all the iron.
+Many thousands they starved with hunger.... Men said openly that
+Christ and His saints were asleep."</p>
+
+<a id="chap9sec16" name="chap9sec16"></a>
+<p>16. <b>The End of the War. 1141&mdash;1148.</b>&mdash;In the autumn of <b>1139</b>, Matilda
+appeared in England, and in <b>1141</b> there was a battle at Lincoln, in
+which Stephen was taken prisoner. Henry of Winchester (see p.
+<a href="#page131">131</a>) acknowledged Matilda as queen, and all England submitted
+to her, London giving way most reluctantly. Her rule did not last
+long. She was as much too harsh as Stephen was too good-natured. She
+seized the lands of the Church, and ordered the Londoners to pay a
+heavy fine for having supported Stephen. On this the Londoners rang
+their bells, and the citizens in arms swarmed out of their houses
+'like bees out of a hive.' Matilda fled to Winchester before them.
+Bishop Henry then turned against her. Robert of Gloucester was taken
+prisoner, and after a while Matilda was obliged to set free King
+Stephen in exchange for her brother. Fighting continued for some time.
+On all sides men were longing for peace. The fields were untilled
+because no man could tell who would reap the harvest. Thousands
+perished of starvation. If peace there was to be, it could only come
+by Stephen's victory. It was now known that Matilda was even less fit
+to govern than Stephen. Stephen took one castle after another. In <b>1147</b>
+Earl Robert died, and in <b>1148</b> Matilda gave up the struggle and left
+England.</p>
+
+<a id="img073" name="img073"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img073.jpg" width="400" height="598" alt="" title="">
+<p>Tower of Castor Church, Northamptonshire.<br> Built about
+1145. (The parapet and spire are later.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap9sec17" name="chap9sec17"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page136" name="page136"></a>(p. 136)</span> 17. <b>Henry, Duke of the Normans. 1149.</b>&mdash;Whilst Matilda had
+been losing England her husband had been conquering Normandy, and for
+a little while it seemed possible that England and Normandy would be
+separated; England remaining under Stephen and his <span class="pagenum"><a id="page137" name="page137"></a>(p. 137)</span> heirs,
+and Normandy united with Anjou under the Angevin Geoffrey and his
+descendants. That the separation did not yet take place was partly
+owing to the different character of the two heirs. Stephen's son,
+Eustace, was rough and overbearing. Geoffrey's son, Henry, was shrewd
+and prudent. Henry had already been in England when he was still quite
+young, and had learnt something of English affairs from his uncle,
+Robert of Gloucester. He returned to his father in <b>1147</b>, and in <b>1149</b>
+Geoffrey gave up to him the duchy of Normandy. He was then sent to try
+his fortune in England in his mother's stead, but he was only a boy of
+sixteen, and too young to cope with Stephen. In <b>1150</b> he abandoned the
+struggle for a time. In his absence Stephen had still rebels to put
+down and castles to besiege, but he had the greater part of the
+kingdom at his back, and if Henry had continued to leave him alone he
+would probably have reduced all his enemies to submission.</p>
+
+<a id="chap9sec18" name="chap9sec18"></a>
+<p>18. <b>The Last Days of Stephen. 1153&mdash;1154.</b>&mdash;In <b>1150</b> Geoffrey died, and
+Henry became Count of Anjou as well as Duke of Normandy. Before long
+he acquired a much wider territory than either Anjou or Normandy.
+Louis VII. of France had to wife Eleanor, the Duchess of Aquitaine,
+and through her had added to his own scanty dominions the whole of the
+lands between the Loire and the Pyrenees. Louis, believing that she
+was unfaithful to him, had divorced her on the pretext that she was
+too near of kin. Henry was not squeamish about the character of so
+great an heiress, and in <b>1152</b> married the Duchess of Aquitaine for the
+sake of her lands. Thus strengthened, he again returned to England. He
+was now a young man of nineteen; his vigour was as great as that of
+Stephen, and his skill greater. He won fortress after fortress. Before
+the end of <b>1153</b> Eustace died, and Stephen had no motive for prolonging
+the strife if his personal interests could be saved. It was arranged
+by the treaty of Wallingford that Stephen should retain the crown for
+life, and that Henry should be his heir. The castles which had sprung
+up during the civil war without the licence of the king&mdash;the
+'adulterine castles,' as they were called&mdash;and there were no less than
+365<a id="footnotetag10" name="footnotetag10"></a><a href="#footnote10" title="Go to footnote 10"><span class="small">[10]</span></a> of them&mdash;were to be destroyed, and order and good government
+were to return. For five months Henry remained in England. The robber
+barons could not hold out against the two rivals now united. Many of
+the castles were demolished, and 'such good peace as never was here'
+was established. In <b>1154</b> Stephen died, and young Henry ruled England
+in his own name.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap10" name="chap10"></a>
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page138" name="page138"></a>(p. 138)</span> CHAPTER X.<br>
+HENRY II. <b>1154&mdash;1189</b>.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Accession of Henry II.              <span class="right10">1154</span></li>
+<li>Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury    <span class="right10">1162</span></li>
+<li>The Constitutions of Clarendon      <span class="right10">1164</span></li>
+<li>Murder of Archbishop Thomas         <span class="right10">1172</span></li>
+<li>The Assize of Arms                  <span class="right10">1181</span></li>
+<li>Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem    <span class="right10">1187</span></li>
+<li>Death of Henry II.                  <span class="right10">1189</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap10sec1" name="chap10sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>Henry's Accession. 1154.</b>&mdash;Henry II. was but twenty-one when he
+returned, after Stephen's death, to govern England. He had before him
+the difficult task of establishing order where anarchy had prevailed,
+but it was a task for which he was specially suited. His frame was
+strong and thick-set, and he was as active as he was strong. His
+restlessness was the dismay of his courtiers. Eager to see everything
+for himself, and having to rule a territory extending from the
+Pyrenees to the Scottish border, he was always on the move. His
+followers were not allowed to know till he started in the morning
+where he intended to sleep at night, and he frequently changed his
+mind even after he had set out. He was as busy with his mind as he was
+with his body, as fond of a book as of a horse, and ready to chat with
+any one of whatever rank. Even when he was at mass he either drew
+pictures to amuse himself or conversed in whispers with his
+neighbours. His ceaseless energy was combined with a strong will, a
+clear perception of the limits beyond which action would be unwise, a
+good eye for ability in others, and a power of utilising their ability
+in his own service. On the Continent his sagacity appeared in his
+resolution to be content with the dominions which he had acquired
+without making further conquests. In England his main object was the
+same as that of his predecessors, to establish the king's authority
+over the great barons. What especially distinguished him was his clear
+perception of the truth that he could only succeed by securing, not
+merely the passive goodwill, but the active co-operation of those who,
+whether they were of Norman or of English descent, were inferior in
+wealth and position to the great barons.</p>
+
+<a id="img074" name="img074"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img074.jpg" width="400" height="652" alt="" title="">
+<p>Effigies of Henry II. and Queen Eleanor at
+Fontevrault.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap10sec2" name="chap10sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>Pacification of England.</b>&mdash;Henry's first year was spent in
+completing the work which he had begun after the treaty of
+Wallingford. He sent Stephen's mercenaries over the sea and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page140" name="page140"></a>(p. 140)</span>
+completed the destruction of the 'adulterine castles.' One great rebel
+after another was forced to submit and have his strong walls pulled
+down. There were to be no more dens of robbers in England, but all men
+were to obey the king and the law. What castles remained were the
+king's, and as long as they were his rebellions would not be likely to
+be successful. Henry even regained from Malcolm IV., king of the
+Scots, Northumberland and Cumberland, which had been surrendered by
+Stephen (see p. <a href="#page133">133</a>). In his government Henry did his best to
+carry out the plans of his grandfather, Henry I. It was perhaps
+because he was afraid that one Justiciar would be too powerful, that
+he appointed two, Richard de Lucy and the Earl of Leicester, to see
+that justice was executed and the government maintained whether the
+king were absent or present. The old Bishop Nigel of Ely was
+reappointed Treasurer, and presided over the Exchequer at Westminster.
+Thomas of London, known in later times by the name of Becket,<a id="footnotetag11" name="footnotetag11"></a><a href="#footnote11" title="Go to footnote 11"><span class="small">[11]</span></a> an
+active and vigorous man, fifteen years older than the king, who had
+been ordained a deacon, but had nothing clerical about him except the
+name, was made Chancellor. Thomas was the king's chosen friend, and
+the two together delighted in the work of restoring order. Thomas
+liked sumptuous living, and the magnificence of his housekeeping and
+of his feasts was the talk of the whole country. Yet though he laughed
+and jested in the midst of his grandeur, he kept himself from every
+kind of vice. Henry was fond of horseplay, and once on a bitter
+winter's day, when he was riding with Thomas, he snatched at a fine
+new scarlet mantle from the Chancellor's neck to throw to a beggar.
+Thomas struggled hard, and the two men nearly pulled one another off
+their horses, but in the end the beggar got the mantle.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec3" name="chap10sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>Henry and Feudality.</b>&mdash;It was principally with Thomas the Chancellor
+that Henry consulted as to the best means of establishing his
+authority. He resolved not only to renew but to extend the
+administrative system of Henry I. The danger which threatened him came
+from the great barons, and as the great barons were as dangerous to
+the lesser ones and to the bulk of the people as they were to the
+king, Henry was able to strengthen himself by winning the affections
+of the people. Feudality in itself was only a method of owning land;
+but it was always threatening to pass into a method of government. In
+France the great feudal <span class="pagenum"><a id="page141" name="page141"></a>(p. 141)</span> lords ruled their own territories
+with very little regard for the wishes of the king, and the smaller
+feudal lords had their own courts in which they hanged and imprisoned
+their villeins. In Stephen's time an attempt had been made to
+introduce this system into England, with evil consequences both to
+king and people. Before the Conquest great landowners had often
+received permission from the king to exercise criminal jurisdiction in
+the Manor Courts on their own estates, whilst the vast extent of their
+landed property gave them a preponderant voice in the proceedings of
+the shire-moots, now known by the Normans as County Courts. Henry
+resolved to attack the evil at both ends: in the first place to make
+the barons support the king's government instead of setting up their
+own; in the second place, to weaken the Manor and County Courts and to
+strengthen courts directly proceeding from himself.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec4" name="chap10sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>The Great Council and the Curia Regis.</b>&mdash;Henry in the early years of
+his reign revived the importance of the Great Council, taking care
+that it should be attended not only by the great barons, but by
+vassals holding smaller estates, and therefore more dependent on
+himself. He summoned the Great Council oftener than his predecessors
+had done. In this way even the greater barons got the habit of sharing
+in the government of England as a whole, instead of seeking to split
+up the country, as France was split up, into different districts, each
+of which might be governed by one of themselves. It was in consequence
+of the increasing habit of consulting with the king that the Great
+Council, after many changes, ultimately grew into the modern
+Parliament. It was of no less importance that Henry II. strengthened
+the <i>Curia Regis</i>, which had been established in the reign of Henry I.
+(see p. <a href="#page127">127</a>) to collect the king's revenue, to give him
+political advice, and to judge as many questions as it could possibly
+get hold of. It was especially by doing justice that the <i>Curia Regis</i>
+was likely to acquire strength, and the strength of the <i>Curia Regis</i>
+was in reality the strength of the king.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec5" name="chap10sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>Scutage.</b>&mdash;If Henry was to carry out justice everywhere it would be
+necessary for him to weaken still further the power of the barons. He
+reintroduced a plan which had been first adopted by his grandfather,
+which had the double merit of strengthening the king upon the
+Continent and of weakening the barons in England. Henry needed an army
+to defend his Continental possessions against the king of France. The
+fyrd, or general levy of Englishmen, was not bound to fight except at
+home, and though the feudal vassals were liable to serve abroad, they
+could only be <span class="pagenum"><a id="page142" name="page142"></a>(p. 142)</span> made to serve for forty days in the year,
+which was too short a time for Henry's purposes. He accordingly came
+to an agreement with his vassals. The owner of every knight's fee was
+to pay a sum of money known as scutage (<i>shield-money</i>) in lieu of
+service. Both parties gained by the arrangement. The king got money
+with which he paid mercenaries abroad, who would fight for him all the
+year round, and the vassal escaped the onerous duty of fighting in
+quarrels in which he took no interest. Indirectly the change weakened
+the feudal vassals, because they had now less opportunity than before
+of acquiring a military training in actual war.</p>
+
+<a id="img075" name="img075"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img075.jpg" width="400" height="374" alt="" title="">
+<p>Ecclesiastical costume in the twelfth century.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap10sec6" name="chap10sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>Archbishop Thomas. 1162.</b>&mdash;Henry, who meditated great judicial
+reforms, foresaw that the clergy would be an obstacle in his way. He
+was eager to establish one law for his whole kingdom, and the clergy,
+having been exempted by the Conqueror from the jurisdiction of the
+ordinary law courts in all ecclesiastical matters, had, during the
+anarchy of Stephen's reign, encroached on the royal authority, and
+claimed to be responsible, even in criminal cases, only to the
+ecclesiastical courts, which were unable to inflict the penalty of
+death, so that a clerk who committed a murder could not be hanged like
+other murderers. As large numbers of clerks were only in the lower
+orders, and as many of them had only taken those orders to escape from
+the hardships of lay life, their morals were often no better than
+those of their lay neighbours. A <span class="pagenum"><a id="page143" name="page143"></a>(p. 143)</span> vacancy occurring in the
+Archbishopric of Canterbury, Henry, who wished to make these clerks
+punishable by his own courts, thought that the arrangement would
+easily be effected if Thomas, who had hitherto been active as a
+reformer in his service, were Archbishop as well as Chancellor. It was
+in vain that Thomas remonstrated. "I warn you," he said to Henry,
+"that, if such a thing should be, our friendship would soon turn to
+bitter hate." Henry persisted in spite of the warning, and Thomas
+became Archbishop.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec7" name="chap10sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>Breach between Henry and Thomas.</b>&mdash;The first act of the new
+Archbishop was to surrender his Chancellorship. He was unable, he
+said, to serve two masters. It is not difficult to understand his
+motives. The Church, as the best men of the twelfth century believed,
+was divinely instituted for the guidance of the world. It was but a
+short step for the nobler spirits amongst the clergy to hold it
+necessary that, in order to secure the due performance of such exalted
+duties, the clergy should be exempted from the so-called justice of
+laymen, which was often only another name for tyranny, even if the
+exemption led to the infliction upon wicked clerks of lesser
+punishments than were meet. In this way the clergy would unconsciously
+fall into the frame of mind which might lead them to imagine it more
+to the honour of God that a wicked clerk should be insufficiently
+punished than that he should be punished by a layman. Of all men
+Archbishop Thomas was the most likely to fall into this mistake. He
+was, as Chancellor, prone to magnify his office, and to think more of
+being the originator of great reforms than of the great reforms
+themselves. As Archbishop he would also be sure to magnify his office,
+and to think less, as Anselm would have thought, of reconciling the
+true interests of the kingdom with the true interests of the Church,
+than of making the Archbishop's authority the centre of stirring
+movement, and of raising the Church, of which he was the highest
+embodiment in England, to a position above the power of the king. All
+this he would do with a great, if not a complete, sincerity. He would
+feel that he was himself the greater man because he believed that he
+was fighting in the cause of God.</p>
+
+<a id="img076" name="img076"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img076.jpg" width="400" height="387" alt="" title="">
+<p>A bishop ordaining a priest.<br> (From a MS. of the latter
+part of the twelfth century.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap10sec8" name="chap10sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>The Constitutions of Clarendon. 1164.</b>&mdash;Between a king eager to
+assert the rights of the crown and an archbishop eager to assert the
+rights of the clergy a quarrel could not be long deferred. Thomas's
+first stand, however, was on behalf of the whole country. At a Great
+Council at Woodstock he resisted the king's resolution to levy the old
+tax of Danegeld, and in consequence Danegeld was never levied again.
+Henry had for some time been displeased <span class="pagenum"><a id="page144" name="page144"></a>(p. 144)</span> because, without
+consulting him, the Archbishop had seized on lands which he claimed as
+the property of the see of Canterbury, and had excommunicated one of
+the king's tenants. Then a clerk who had committed a rape and a murder
+had been acquitted in an ecclesiastical court. On this, Henry called
+on the bishops to promise to obey the customs of the realm. Thomas,
+being told that the king merely wanted a verbal promise to save his
+dignity, with some reluctance consented. He soon found that he had
+been tricked. In <b>1164</b> Henry summoned a Great Council to meet at
+Clarendon, and directed some of the oldest of his barons to set down
+in writing the customs observed by his grandfather. Their report was
+intended to settle all disputed points between the king and the
+clergy, and was drawn up under sixteen heads known as the
+Constitutions of Clarendon. The most important of them declared
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page145" name="page145"></a>(p. 145)</span> that beneficed clergy should not leave the realm without the
+king's leave; that no tenant-in-chief of the king should be
+excommunicated without the king's knowledge; that no villein should be
+ordained without his lord's consent; that a criminous clerk should be
+sent to the ecclesiastical court for trial, and that after he had been
+there convicted or had pleaded guilty the Church should deprive him
+and leave him to the lay court for further punishment. It was for the
+<i>Curia Regis</i> to determine what matters were properly to be decided by
+the ecclesiastical courts; and no appeal to Rome was to be allowed
+without its permission. To all this Thomas was violently opposed,
+maintaining that the sentence of deprivation, which was all that an
+ecclesiastical court was empowered to inflict, was so terrible, that
+one who had incurred it ought not to be sentenced to any further
+penalty by a lay court. After six days' struggle he left the Council,
+refusing to assent to the Constitutions.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec9" name="chap10sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>The Persecution of Archbishop Thomas. 1164.</b>&mdash;Unluckily for himself,
+Henry could not be content firmly and quietly to enforce the law as it
+had been declared at Clarendon. He had in his character much of the
+orderly spirit of his grandfather, Henry I., but he had also something
+of the violence of his great-uncle, William II. A certain John the
+Marshal had a suit against the archbishop, and when the archbishop
+refused to plead in a lay court, the king's council sentenced him to a
+fine of 500<i>l.</i> Then Henry summoned the archbishop to his castle at
+Northampton to give an account of all the money which, when he was
+Chancellor, he had received from the king&mdash;a claim which is said to
+have amounted to 30,000<i>l.</i>, a sum equal in the money of these days to
+not much less than 400,000<i>l.</i> now. Thomas, with the crucifix in his
+hand, awaited in the hall the decision of Henry, who with the council
+was discussing his fate in an upper chamber. When the Justiciar came
+out to tell him that he had been declared a traitor he refused to
+listen, and placed himself under the Pope's protection. Hot words were
+bandied on either side as he walked out of the hall. "This is a
+fearful day," said one of his attendants. "The Day of Judgment,"
+replied Thomas, "will be more fearful." Thomas made his way to the
+coast and fled to France. Henry in his wrath banished no less than
+four hundred of the archbishop's kinsmen and friends. Thomas found
+less help in France than he had expected. There were once more two
+rival Popes&mdash;Alexander III., who was acknowledged by the greater part
+of the clergy and by the kings of England and France, and Calixtus
+III., who had been set up by the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa.
+Alexander was too much afraid <span class="pagenum"><a id="page146" name="page146"></a>(p. 146)</span> lest Henry should take the
+part of Calixtus to be very eager in supporting Thomas. He therefore
+did his best to effect a reconciliation between Henry and Thomas, but
+for some years his efforts were of no avail.</p>
+
+<a id="img077" name="img077"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img077.jpg" width="400" height="389" alt="" title="">
+<p>Small ship of the latter part of the twelfth century.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap10sec10" name="chap10sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>The Assize of Clarendon. 1166.</b>&mdash;Henry, being temporarily
+disembarrassed of Thomas's rivalry, was able to devote his time to
+carrying out still further the judicial organisation of the country.
+In <b>1166</b> he held a Great Council at Clarendon, and with its approval
+issued a set of decrees known as the Assize of Clarendon. By this
+assize full force was given to a change which had for some time been
+growing in the judicial system. The old English way of dealing with
+criminals had been by calling on an accused person to swear to his own
+innocence and to bring compurgators to swear that his oath was true.
+If the accused failed to find compurgators he was sent to the ordeal.
+According to the new way there was to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page147" name="page147"></a>(p. 147)</span> be in each county
+juries consisting of twelve men of the hundred and of four from each
+township in it to present offences&mdash;felonies, murders, and
+robberies&mdash;and to accuse persons on common report. They were sworn to
+speak the truth, so that their charges were known as verdicts (<i>verè
+dicta</i>). No compurgators were allowed, but the accused, after his
+offence had been presented, had to go to the ordeal, and even if he
+succeeded in this he was, if his character was notoriously bad, to
+abjure the realm&mdash;that is to say, to be banished, swearing never to
+return. If he came back he was held to be an outlaw, and might be put
+to death without mercy by any one.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec11" name="chap10sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>Recognitions.</b>&mdash;A very similar system to that which was thus
+adopted in criminal cases had already in the early part of Henry's
+reign been widely extended in civil cases. When, before the Conquest,
+disputes occurred amongst the English as to the possession of
+property, each party swore to the justice of his own case, brought
+compurgators, and summoned witnesses to declare in his favour. There
+was, however, no method of cross-examination, and if the hundred or
+shire court was still unsatisfied, it had recourse to the ordeal. The
+Normans introduced the system of trial by battle, under the belief
+that God would intervene to give victory to the litigant whose cause
+was just. This latter system, however, had never been popular with the
+English, and Henry favoured another which had been in existence in
+Normandy before the Conquest, and was fairly suited to English habits.
+This was the system of recognitions. Any freeholder who had been
+dispossessed of his land might apply to the <i>Curia Regis</i>, and the
+<i>Curia Regis</i> ordered the sheriff of the county in which was the land
+in dispute to select four knights of that county, by whom twelve
+knights were chosen to serve as Recognitors. It was the business of
+these Recognitors to find out either by their own knowledge or by
+private inquiry the truth of the matter. If they were unanimous their
+verdict was accepted as final. If not, other knights were added to
+them, and when at last twelve were found agreeing, their agreement was
+held to settle the question.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec12" name="chap10sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>The Germ of the Jury.</b>&mdash;Thus, whilst in criminal cases the local
+knowledge of sworn accusers was treated as satisfactory evidence of
+guilt, in civil cases a system was growing up in which is to be traced
+the germ of the modern jury. The Recognitors did not indeed hear
+evidence in public or become judges of the fact, like the modern jury;
+they were rather sworn witnesses, allowed to form an opinion not
+merely, like modern witnesses, on what they <span class="pagenum"><a id="page148" name="page148"></a>(p. 148)</span> had actually
+seen or heard, but also on what they could gather by private inquiry.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec13" name="chap10sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>The Itinerant Justices Revived.</b>&mdash;To carry out this system Henry
+renewed his grandfather's experiment of sending members of the <i>Curia
+Regis</i> as itinerant justices visiting the counties. They held what
+were called the pleas of the crown&mdash;that is to say, trials which were
+brought before the king's judges instead of being tried either in the
+county courts or the manorial courts. Both these judges and the king
+had every interest in getting as much business before their courts as
+possible. Offenders were fined and suitors had to pay fees, and the
+best chance of increasing these profits was to attract suitors by
+administering justice better than the local courts. The more thronged
+were the king's courts, the more rich and powerful he became. The
+consequent growth of the influence of the itinerant justices was no
+doubt offensive to the lords of the manor, and especially to the
+greater landowners, as diminishing their importance, and calling them
+to account whenever they attempted to encroach on their less powerful
+neighbours.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec14" name="chap10sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>The Inquisition of the Sheriffs. 1170.</b>&mdash;It was not long before
+Henry discovered another way of diminishing the power of the barons.
+In the early part of his reign the sheriffs of the counties were still
+selected from the great landowners, and the sheriff was not merely the
+collector of the king's revenue in his county, but had, since the
+Conquest, assumed a new importance in the county court, over which in
+the older times the ealdorman or earl and the bishop had presided.
+Since the Conquest the bishop, having a court of his own for
+ecclesiastical matters, had ceased to take part in its proceedings,
+and the earl's authority, which had been much lessened after the
+Conquest, had now disappeared. The sheriff, therefore, was left alone
+at the head of the county court, and when the new system of trial grew
+up he as well as the itinerant justices was allowed to receive the
+presentments of juries. When, in the spring of <b>1170</b>, the king returned
+to England after an absence of four years, he held a strict inquiry
+into the conduct of them all, and deposed twenty of them. In many
+cases, no doubt, the sheriffs had done things to displease Henry, but
+there can be no doubt that the blow thus struck at the sheriffs was,
+in the main, aimed at the great nobility. The successors of those
+turned out were of lower rank, and therefore more submissive. From
+this time it was accepted by the kings of England as a principle of
+government that no great noble should serve as sheriff.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec15" name="chap10sec15"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page149" name="page149"></a>(p. 149)</span> 15. <b>The Nobles and the Church.</b>&mdash;Henry knew well that the
+great nobles were indignant, and that it was possible that they might
+rise against him, as at one time or another they had risen against
+every king since the Conquest. He knew too that his predecessors had
+found their strongest support against the nobles in the Church, and
+that the Church was no longer unanimously on his side. He could indeed
+count upon all the bishops save one. Bishops who were or had been his
+officials, bishops envious of Thomas or afraid of himself, were all at
+his disposal, but they brought him no popular strength. Thomas alone
+amongst them had a hold on the imagination of the people through his
+austerities and his daring. Moreover, as the champion of the clergy,
+he was regarded as being also the champion of the people, from whose
+ranks the clergy were recruited.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec16" name="chap10sec16"></a>
+<p>16. <b>The Coronation of Young Henry. 1170.</b>&mdash;At the moment of Henry's
+return to England he had special need of the Church. He wished the
+kingdom of England to pass at his death to his eldest son, Henry, and
+since the Conquest no eldest son had ever succeeded his father on the
+throne. He therefore determined to adopt a plan which had succeeded
+with the kings of France, of having the young Henry chosen and crowned
+in his own lifetime, so that when he died he might be ready to step
+into his father's place. Young Henry was chosen, and on June 14, <b>1170</b>,
+he was crowned by Roger, Archbishop of York; but on the day before the
+coronation Roger received from Thomas a notice of his excommunication
+of all bishops taking part in the ceremony, on the ground that it
+belonged only to an Archbishop of Canterbury to crown a king, and this
+excommunication had been ratified by the Pope. It was therefore
+possible that the whole ceremony might go for nothing.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec17" name="chap10sec17"></a>
+<p>17. <b>The Return of Archbishop Thomas. 1170.</b>&mdash;To obviate this danger
+Henry again sought to make peace with Thomas. An agreement was come to
+on the vague terms that the past should be forgotten on both sides.
+Henry perhaps hoped that when Thomas was once again in England he
+would be too wise to rake up the question of his claim to crown the
+king. If it was so he was soon disappointed. On December 1, <b>1170</b>,
+Thomas landed at Sandwich and rode to Canterbury amidst the shouts of
+the people. He refused to release from excommunication the bishops who
+had taken part in young Henry's coronation unless they would first
+give him satisfaction for the wrong done to the see of Canterbury,
+thus showing that he had forgotten nothing.</p>
+
+<a id="img078" name="img078"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img078.jpg" width="400" height="811" alt="" title="">
+<p>Part of the choir of Canterbury Cathedral<br> (in building
+from 1175-1184).</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap10sec18" name="chap10sec18"></a>
+<p>18. <b>Murder of Archbishop Thomas. 1170.</b>&mdash;The aggrieved <span class="pagenum"><a id="page150" name="page150"></a>(p. 150)</span>
+bishops at once crossed the sea to lay their complaint before Henry.
+"What a parcel of fools and dastards," cried Henry impatiently, "have
+I nourished in my house, that none of them can be found to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page151" name="page151"></a>(p. 151)</span>
+avenge me on one upstart clerk!" Four of his knights took him at his
+word, and started in all haste for Canterbury. The Archbishop before
+their arrival had given fresh offence in a cause more righteous than
+that of his quarrel with the bishops. Ranulf de Broc and others who
+had had the custody of his lands in his absence refused to surrender
+them, robbed him of his goods, and maltreated his followers. On
+Christmas Day he excommunicated them and repeated the excommunication
+of the bishops. On December 29 the four knights sought him out. They
+do not seem at first to have intended to do him bodily harm. The
+excommunication of the king's servants before the king had been
+consulted was a breach of the Constitutions of Clarendon, and they
+bade him, in the king's name, to leave the kingdom. After a hot
+altercation the knights retired to arm themselves. The archbishop was
+persuaded by his followers to take refuge in the church. In rushed the
+knights crying, "Where is the traitor? Where is the archbishop?"
+"Behold me," replied Thomas, "no traitor, but a priest of God." The
+assailants strove to lay hands upon him. He struggled and cast forth
+angry words upon them. In the madness of their wrath they struck him
+to the ground and slew him as he lay.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec19" name="chap10sec19"></a>
+<p>19. <b>Popular Indignation. 1171.</b>&mdash;Archbishop Thomas did not die as a
+martyr for any high or sacred cause. He was not a martyr for the
+faith, like those who had been thrown to the lions by the Roman
+emperors. He was not a martyr for righteousness, like Archbishop
+Ælfheah. He was a martyr for the privileges of his order and of his
+see. Yet if he sank below the level of the great martyrs, he did not
+sink to that lowest stage at which men cry out for the preservation of
+their own privileges, after those privileges have ceased to benefit
+any but themselves. The sympathy of the mass of the population shows
+the persistence of a widespread belief that in maintaining the
+privileges of the clergy Thomas was maintaining the rights of the
+protectors of the poor. This sentiment was only strengthened by his
+murder. All through Europe the news was received with a burst of
+indignation. Of that indignation the Pope made himself the mouthpiece.
+In the summer of <b>1171</b> two Papal legates appeared in Normandy to
+excommunicate Henry unless he was able to convince them that he was
+guiltless of the murder. Henry was too cautious to abide their coming.
+He crossed first to England and then to Ireland, resolved to have
+something to offer the Pope which might put him in a better humour.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec20" name="chap10sec20"></a>
+<p>20. <b>State of Ireland.</b>&mdash;In the domain of art, Ireland was inferior to
+no European nation. In metal-work, in sculpture, and in the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page152" name="page152"></a>(p. 152)</span>
+skilful illumination of manuscripts it surpassed them all. It had no
+mean school of music and song. In political development it lagged far
+behind. Ireland was still in the tribal stage, and had never been
+welded into unity by foreign conquerors, as Gaul had been welded into
+unity by the Romans, and as England had been welded into unity by the
+Normans. Tribe warred with tribe and chief with chief. The efforts of
+chiefs to attain supremacy over the whole island had always ended in
+partial or complete failure. The Danes had made settlements in Dublin,
+Wexford, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick, but though the native Celtic
+population was not strong enough to expel them, neither were they
+strong enough to conquer the Celts. The Church was as disorganised as
+the State, and there was little discipline exercised outside the
+monasteries. For some time the Popes and the Archbishops of Canterbury
+had been anxious to establish a better regulated Church system, and in
+<b>1154</b> Adrian IV.&mdash;the only Englishman who was ever Pope&mdash;hoping that
+Henry would bring the Irish Church under Papal order, had made him a
+present of Ireland, on the ground that all islands belonged to the
+Pope.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec21" name="chap10sec21"></a>
+<p>21. <b>Partial Conquest of Ireland. 1166&mdash;1172.</b>&mdash;Henry, however, had too
+much to do during the earlier years of his reign to think of
+conquering Ireland. In <b>1166</b> Dermot, king or chief of Leinster, having
+been driven out of his dominions, appealed to Henry for aid. Henry
+gave him leave to carry over to Ireland any English knights whom he
+could persuade to help him. On this a number of knights from South
+Wales, of whom the most important was Richard de Clare, afterwards
+known as Strongbow, flocked across the Irish Sea (<b>1169&mdash;1170</b>). They
+fought and conquered, and Strongbow, who married Dermot's daughter,
+gave himself the title of Earl of Leinster. The rule of these knights
+was a rule of cruelty and violence, and, what was more, it might well
+become dangerous to Henry himself. If feudal nobles established
+themselves in Ireland, they might soon be holding out a hand to help
+the feudal nobles who were Henry's worst enemies in England. When
+Henry landed in Ireland in <b>1171</b> he set himself to restore order. The
+Irish welcomed him because he alone could bridle the invaders, and the
+invaders submitted to him because they dared not resist him. He
+gathered a synod of the clergy at Cashel, and arranged for the future
+discipline of the Church. Unhappily he could not remain long in
+Ireland, and when he left it the old anarchy and violence blazed up
+again. Though Henry had not served Ireland, he had gained his own
+personal ends. He had frightened Strongbow and his followers, and had
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page153" name="page153"></a>(p. 153)</span> shown the Pope, by his proceedings at Cashel, that his
+friendship was worth having.</p>
+
+<a id="img079" name="img079"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 210px;">
+<img src="images/img079.jpg" width="200" height="541" alt="" title="">
+<p>Mitre of Archbishop Thomas of Canterbury<br> preserved at
+Sens.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap10sec22" name="chap10sec22"></a>
+<p>22. <b>Young Henry's Coronation and the Revolt of the Barons.
+1172&mdash;1174.</b>&mdash;In the spring of <b>1172</b> Henry was back in Normandy. The
+English barons were longing to take advantage of his quarrel with the
+Church, and his only chance of resisting them was to propitiate the
+Church. He met the Papal legates at Avranches, swore that he was
+innocent of the death of Thomas, and renounced the Constitutions of
+Clarendon. He then proceeded to pacify Louis VII., whose daughter was
+married to the younger Henry, by having the boy recrowned in due form.
+Young Henry was a foolish lad, and took it into his head that because
+he had been crowned his father's reign was at an end. In <b>1173</b> he fled
+for support to his father-in-law and persuaded him to take up his
+cause. "Your master," said Louis to the ambassadors of the father, "is
+king no longer. Here stands the king of the English." These words were
+the signal for a general attack on the elder king. Headed by Louis,
+his neighbours and discontented subjects took arms against him, and it
+was not till September that he prevailed over them. In July the great
+English barons of the north and centre rose in insurrection, and
+William the Lion, king of the Scots, joined them. De Lucy, the
+Justiciar, stood up for Henry; but, though he gained ground, the war
+was still raging in the following year, <b>1174</b>. In the spring of that
+year the rebels were gaining the upper hand, and the younger Henry was
+preparing to come to their help. In July the elder Henry landed in
+England. For the first and only time in his life he brought to England
+the mercenaries who were paid with the scutage money. At Canterbury he
+visited the tomb of Thomas, now acknowledged <span class="pagenum"><a id="page154" name="page154"></a>(p. 154)</span> as a martyr,
+spent the whole night in prayer and tears, and on the next morning
+was, at his own request, scourged by the monks as a token of his
+penitence. That night he was awakened by a messenger with good news.
+Ranulf de Glanvile had won for him a great victory at Alnwick, had
+dispersed the barons' host, and had taken prisoner the Scottish king.
+About the same time the fleet which was to bring his son over was
+dispersed by a storm. Within a few weeks the whole rebellion was at an
+end. It was the last time that the barons ventured to strive with the
+king till the time came when they had the people and the Church on
+their side. William the Lion was carried to Normandy, where, by the
+treaty of Falaise, he acknowledged himself the vassal of the king of
+England for the whole of Scotland.</p>
+
+<a id="img080" name="img080"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img080.jpg" width="400" height="386" alt="" title="">
+<p>Military and civil costume of the latter part of the
+twelfth century.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap10sec23" name="chap10sec23"></a>
+<p>23. <b>The Assize of Arms. 1181.</b>&mdash;In September <b>1174</b> there was a general
+peace. In <b>1181</b> Henry issued the Assize of Arms, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page155" name="page155"></a>(p. 155)</span> organising
+the old fyrd in a more serviceable way. Every English freeman was
+bound by it to find arms of a kind suitable to his property, that he
+might be ready to defend the realm against rebels or invaders. The
+Assize of Arms is the strongest possible evidence as to the real
+nature of Henry's government. He had long ago sent back to the
+Continent the mercenaries whom he had brought with him in the peril of
+<b>1174</b>, and he now entrusted himself not to a paid standing army, but to
+the whole body of English freemen. He was, in truth, king of the
+English not merely because he ruled over them, but because they were
+ready to rally round him in arms against those barons whose ancestors
+had worked such evil in the days of Stephen. England was not to be
+given over either to baronial anarchy or to military despotism.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec24" name="chap10sec24"></a>
+<p>24. <b>Henry II. and his Sons.</b>&mdash;In England Henry ruled as a national king
+over a nation which, at least, preferred his government to that of the
+barons. The old division between English and Norman was dying out, and
+though the upper classes, for the most part, still spoke French,
+intermarriages had been so frequent that there were few amongst them
+who had not some English ancestress and who did not understand the
+English language. Henry was even strong enough to regain much that he
+had surrendered when he abandoned the Constitutions of Clarendon. In
+his Continental possessions there was no such unity. The inhabitants
+of each province were tenacious of their own laws and customs, and
+this was especially the case with the men of Aquitaine, the country
+south of the Loire, who differed in habits, and even in language, from
+the Frenchmen of Normandy and Anjou. They therefore found it difficult
+to give a share of the allegiance which they owed to their own
+duchess, Eleanor, to her Angevin husband, the king of England. Henry
+in <b>1172</b> having appointed his eldest son, Henry, as the future ruler of
+Normandy and Anjou as well as of England, thought it wise to recognise
+this feeling by giving to his second son, Richard, the immediate
+possession of Eleanor's duchy of Aquitaine. In <b>1181</b> he provided for
+his third son, Geoffrey, by a marriage with Constance, the heiress of
+Brittany, over which country he claimed a feudal superiority as Duke
+of the Normans. Yet, though he gave away so much to his sons, he
+wished to keep the actual control over them all. The arrangement did
+not turn out well. He had set no good example of domestic peace. His
+sons knew that he had married their mother for the sake of her lands,
+that he had subsequently thrown her into prison and had been faithless
+to her with a succession of mistresses. Besides this, they were
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page156" name="page156"></a>(p. 156)</span> torn away from him by the influence of the men whom they
+were set to rule. Richard was dragged away from his father by the
+interests and feelings of the men of Aquitaine, Geoffrey by the
+interests and feelings of the men of Brittany. John, the fourth son,
+who was named Lackland from having no territory assigned to him, was,
+as yet, too young to be troublesome.<a id="footnotetag12" name="footnotetag12"></a><a href="#footnote12" title="Go to footnote 12"><span class="small">[12]</span></a> Both Richard and Geoffrey had
+taken part with their brother Henry in the great revolt of <b>1173</b>. In
+<b>1177</b> they were again quarrelling with their father and with each
+other. "Dost thou not know," was the message which Geoffrey sent to
+his father, "that it is our proper nature, planted in us by
+inheritance from our ancestors, that none of us should love the other,
+but that ever brother should strive with brother and son against
+father? I would not that thou shouldst deprive us of our hereditary
+right nor vainly seek to rob us of our nature." Henry loved his
+children, and could never bring himself to make war very seriously
+against them. Henry died young in <b>1183</b>, and Geoffrey in <b>1185</b>. Richard
+was now the heir of all his father's lands, from the Tweed to the
+Pyrenees. Henry made an effort to provide for John in Ireland, and in
+<b>1185</b> he sent the youth&mdash;now eighteen years old&mdash;to Dublin to rule as
+king of Ireland. John soon showed his incompetence. He was rude to the
+English barons, and still ruder to the Irish chiefs, amusing himself
+by laughing at their dress and pulling the hairs out of their beards.
+Before the end of the year his father was obliged to recall him.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec25" name="chap10sec25"></a>
+<p>25. <b>The Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. 1187.</b>&mdash;The divisions in
+Henry's family were stirred up afresh by the new king of France,
+Philip II., who had succeeded his father, Louis VII., in <b>1179</b>. Philip
+was resolved to enlarge his narrow dominions at the expense of Henry.
+He was Henry's feudal lord, and he was crafty enough to know that by
+assisting Henry's sons he might be able to convert his nominal
+lordship into a real power. News, however, arrived in the midst of the
+strife which for a little time put an end to the discords <span class="pagenum"><a id="page157" name="page157"></a>(p. 157)</span> of
+men and peoples. The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, which had been
+established after the first crusade, had only maintained itself
+because the Mahommedan rulers of Egypt were the rivals and enemies of
+the Mahommedan rulers of Syria. Yet even with the advantage of
+divisions amongst their enemies, the Christians had only defended
+themselves with difficulty. A second crusade which had gone out to
+relieve them in Stephen's reign, under the Emperor Conrad III. and
+Louis VII. of France, had accomplished nothing. Their real defenders
+were two bodies of soldiers, known as the Knights Templars and the
+Knights of St. John, who were bound, like monks, to vows of celibacy,
+so that they might always be free to defend Jerusalem. At last a great
+Mahommedan warrior, Saladin, arose, who ruled both Egypt and Syria,
+and was therefore able to bring the united forces of the two countries
+against the Christian colony. In <b>1187</b> he destroyed the Christian army
+at Tiberias, and in the same year took Jerusalem and almost every city
+still held by the Christians in the East. Tyre alone held out, and
+that, too, would be lost unless help came speedily.</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec26" name="chap10sec26"></a>
+<p>26. <b>The Last Years of Henry II. 1188&mdash;1189.</b>&mdash;For a moment the rulers
+of the West were shocked at the tidings from the East. In <b>1188</b> Philip,
+Henry, and Richard had taken the cross as the sign of their resolution
+to recover the Holy City from the infidel. To enable him to meet the
+expenses of a war in the East, Henry imposed upon England a new tax of
+a tenth part of all movable property, which is known as the Saladin
+tithe, but in a few months those who were pledged to go on the crusade
+were fighting with one another&mdash;first Henry and Richard against
+Philip, and then Philip and Richard against Henry. At last, in <b>1189</b>,
+Henry, beaten in war, was forced to submit to Philip's terms,
+receiving in return a list of those of his own barons who had engaged
+to support Richard against his father. The list reached him when he
+was at Chinon, ill and worn out. The first name on it was that of his
+favourite son John. The old man turned his face to the wall. "Let
+things go now as they will," he cried bitterly. "I care no more for
+myself or for the world." After a few days of suffering he died. The
+last words which passed his lips were, "Shame, shame upon a conquered
+king."</p>
+
+<a id="chap10sec27" name="chap10sec27"></a>
+<p>27. <b>The Work of Henry II.</b>&mdash;The wisest and most powerful ruler can only
+assist the forces of nature; he cannot work against them. Those who
+merely glance at a map in which the political divisions of France are
+marked as they existed in Henry's reign, cannot but wonder that Henry
+did not make himself master of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page158" name="page158"></a>(p. 158)</span> small territory which was
+directly governed, in turn, by Louis VII. and Philip II. A careful
+study of the political conditions of his reign shows, however, that he
+was not really strong enough to do anything of the kind. His own power
+on the Continent was purely feudal, and he held authority over his
+vassals there because they had personally done homage to him. Henry,
+however, had also done homage to the king of France, and did not
+venture, even if he made war upon his lord, the king of France, to
+push matters to extremities against him, lest his sons as his own
+vassals might push matters to extremities against himself. He could
+not, in short, expel the king of France from Paris, lest he should
+provoke his own vassals to follow his example of insubordination and
+expel him from Bordeaux or Rouen. Moreover, Henry had too much to do
+in England to give himself heart and soul to Continental affairs,
+whilst the king of France, on the contrary, who had no foreign
+possessions, and was always at his post, would be the first to profit
+by a national French feeling whenever such a feeling arose. England
+under Henry II. was already growing more united and more national. The
+crown which Henry derived from the Conqueror was national as well as
+feudal. Henry, like his predecessors, had two strings to his bow. On
+the one hand he could call upon his vassals to be faithful to him
+because they had sworn homage to him, whilst he himself, as far as
+England was concerned, had sworn homage to no one. On the other hand,
+he could rally round him the national forces. To do this he must do
+justice and gain the goodwill of the people at large. It was this that
+he had attempted to do, by sending judges round the country and by
+improving the law, by establishing scutage to weaken the power of the
+barons, and by strengthening the national forces by the Assize of
+Arms. No doubt he had little thanks for his pains. Men could feel the
+weight of his arm and could complain of the heavy fines exacted in his
+courts of justice. It was only a later generation, which enjoyed the
+benefits of his hard discipline, which understood how much England
+owed to him.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap11" name="chap11"></a>
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page159" name="page159"></a>(p. 159)</span> CHAPTER XI.<br>
+RICHARD I. <b>1189&mdash;1199</b>.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Accession of Richard I.                          <span class="right10">1189</span></li>
+<li>Richard's Return to England from the Crusade     <span class="right10">1194</span></li>
+<li>Death of Richard I.                              <span class="right10">1199</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="img081" name="img081"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img081.jpg" width="300" height="337" alt="" title="">
+<p>Royal arms of England from Richard I. to Edward III.<br>
+(From the wall arcade, south aisle of nave,<br> Westminster Abbey.)</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap11sec1" name="chap11sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>Richard in England. 1189.</b>&mdash;Richard was accepted without dispute as
+the master of the whole of the Angevin dominions. He was a warrior,
+not a statesman. Impulsive in his generosity, he was also impulsive in
+his passions. Having determined to embark on the crusade, he came to
+England eager to raise money for its expenses. With this object he not
+only sold offices to those who wished to buy them, and the right of
+leaving office to those who wished to retire, but also, with the
+Pope's consent, sold leave to remain at home to those who had taken
+the cross. Regardless of the distant future, he abandoned for money to
+William the Lion the treaty of Falaise, in which William had engaged
+to do homage to the English king.</p>
+
+<a id="chap11sec2" name="chap11sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>William of Longchamps. 1189&mdash;1191.</b>&mdash;To secure order during his
+absence Richard appointed two Justiciars&mdash;Hugh of Puiset, Bishop of
+Durham, and William of Longchamps, Bishop of Ely. At the same time he
+attempted to conciliate all who were likely to be dangerous by making
+them lavish grants of land, especially giving what was practically
+royal authority over five shires to his brother John. Such an
+arrangement <span class="pagenum"><a id="page160" name="page160"></a>(p. 160)</span> was not likely to last. Before the end of <b>1189</b>
+Richard crossed to the Continent. Scarcely was he gone when the
+populace in many towns turned savagely on the Jews and massacred them
+in crowds. The Jews lived by money-lending, and money-lenders are
+never popular. In York they took refuge in the castle, and when all
+hope of defending themselves failed, slew their wives and children,
+set fire to the castle, and perished in the flames. The Justiciars
+were too much occupied with their own quarrels to heed such matters.
+Hugh was a stately and magnificent prelate. William was lame <span class="pagenum"><a id="page161" name="page161"></a>(p. 161)</span>
+and misshapen, quick of wit and unscrupulous. In a few weeks he had
+deprived his rival of all authority. His own power did not last long.
+He had a sharp tongue, and did not hesitate to let all men, great and
+small, know how meanly he thought of them. Those whom he despised
+found a leader in John, who was anxious to succeed his brother, and
+thought that it might some day be useful to have made himself popular
+in England. In the autumn of <b>1191</b> William of Longchamps was driven out
+of the country.</p>
+
+<a id="img082" name="img082"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img082.jpg" width="400" height="488" alt="" title="">
+<p>The Galilee or Lady Chapel, Durham Cathedral.<br> Built by
+Bishop Hugh of Puiset between 1180 and 1197.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap11sec3" name="chap11sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>The Third Crusade. 1189&mdash;1192.</b>&mdash;Richard threw his whole heart&mdash;his
+lion's heart, as men called it&mdash;into the crusade. Alike by sea and by
+land, he knew better than any other leader of his age how to direct
+the operations of war. He was too impetuous to guard himself against
+the intrigues and personal rancour of his fellow-Crusaders. At Messina
+he quarrelled with the wily Philip II. of France, while he gave
+offence to all Germans by upholding the claims of Tancred to the crown
+of Sicily, which was also claimed by the German king, who afterwards
+became the Emperor Henry VI. In the spring of <b>1191</b> Richard sailed from
+Sicily for the Holy Land, conquering Cyprus on the way, where he
+married Berengaria of Navarre. Passing on to the coast of Syria, he
+found the Crusaders besieging Acre, and his own vigour greatly
+contributed to its fall. When Acre was taken Philip slipped home to
+plot against Richard, and Richard found every French Crusader and
+every German Crusader banded together against him. When he advocated
+the right of Guy of Lusignan to the crown of Jerusalem, they advocated
+the claim of Conrad of Montferrat. Jerusalem was not to be had for
+either of them. Twice Richard brought the Crusading host within a few
+miles of the Holy City. Each time he was driven to retreat by the
+failure of the Crusaders to support him. The last time his comrades
+invited him at least to reach a spot from which a view of the city
+could be gained. Richard refused. If he was not worthy, he said, to
+regain the city, he was not worthy to look on it.</p>
+
+<a id="chap11sec4" name="chap11sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>The Return of Richard. 1192&mdash;1194.</b>&mdash;In <b>1192</b> there was nothing for
+it but to return home. Enemies were watching for him on every shore.
+Landing at the head of the Adriatic, he attempted to make his way in
+disguise through Germany. With characteristic want of reflection, he
+roasted his meat at a village inn near Vienna with a jewelled ring on
+his finger. Attention was aroused, and he was arrested and delivered
+up to Leopold, Duke of Austria, who had been his bitter antagonist in
+the Holy Land, and Leopold delivered him up to his own feudal
+superior, the Emperor, Henry VI.</p>
+
+<a id="img083" name="img083"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img083.jpg" width="250" height="740" alt="" title="">
+<p>Effigy of a knight in the Temple Church, London,
+showing armour of the end of the twelfth century.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page162" name="page162"></a>(p. 162)</span> The imprisonment of Richard was joyful news to Philip and
+John. John did his best to get into his hands all the English and
+Continental dominions of his brother. His meanness was, however, by
+this time well known, and he was repelled on all sides. At last in
+<b>1193</b> the Emperor consented to let Richard go on payment of what was
+then the enormous ransom of 150,000 marks, or 100,000<i>l.</i> "Beware,"
+wrote Philip to John when he heard that the Emperor's consent had been
+given; "the devil is loose again," Philip and John tried to bribe the
+Emperor to keep his prisoner, but in February <b>1194</b> Richard was
+liberated, and set out for England.</p>
+
+<a id="chap11sec5" name="chap11sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>Heavy taxation.</b>&mdash;Before Richard reappeared in England each
+tenant-in-chief had to pay the aid which was due to deliver his lord
+from prison (see p. <a href="#page117">117</a>), but this was far from being
+enough. Besides all kinds of irregular expedients the Danegeld had
+been practically revived, and to it was now given the name of
+carucage, a tax of two shillings on every plough-land. Another tax of
+a fourth part of all movable goods had also been imposed, for which a
+precedent had been set by Henry II. when he levied the Saladin tithe
+(see p. <a href="#page157">157</a>). Richard had now to gather in what was left
+unpaid of these <span class="pagenum"><a id="page163" name="page163"></a>(p. 163)</span> charges. Yet so hated was John that Richard
+was welcomed with every appearance of joy, and John thought it prudent
+to submit to his brother. Philip, however, was still an open enemy,
+and as soon as Richard had gathered in all the money that he could
+raise in England he left the country never to return. On the Continent
+he could best defend himself against Philip, and, besides this,
+Richard was at home in sunny Aquitaine, and had no liking for his
+English realm.</p>
+
+<a id="chap11sec6" name="chap11sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>The Administration of Hubert Walter. 1194&mdash;1198.</b>&mdash;For four years
+the administration of England was in the hands of a new Justiciar, the
+Archbishop of Canterbury, Hubert Walter. He was a statesman of the
+school of Henry II., and he carried the jury system yet farther than
+Henry had done. The immense increase of taxation rendered it the more
+necessary to guard against unfairness, and Hubert Walter placed the
+selection of the juries of presentment (see p. <a href="#page147">147</a>) in the
+hands of four knights in every shire, who, as is probable, were chosen
+by the freeholders in the County Court, instead of being named by the
+sheriff. This was a further step in the direction of allowing the
+counties to manage their own affairs, and a still greater one was
+taken by the frequent employment of juries in the assessment of the
+taxes paid within the county, so as to enable them to take a prominent
+part in its financial as well as in its judicial business. In <b>1198</b>
+there was taken a new survey of England for taxable purposes, and
+again elected juries were employed to make the returns. In this year
+Archbishop Hubert retired from the Justiciarship, and was succeeded by
+Geoffrey Fitz-Peter. Archbishop Hubert's administration marks a great
+advance in constitutional progress, though it is probable that his
+motive was only to raise money more readily. The main constitutional
+problem of the Norman and Angevin reigns was how to bring the national
+organisation of the king's officials into close and constant
+intercourse with the local organisation of the counties. Henry I. and
+Henry II. had attacked the problem on one side by sending the judges
+round the country to carry the king's wishes and commands to each
+separate county. It still remained to devise a scheme by which the
+wishes and complaints of the counties could be brought to the king.
+Hubert Walter did not contrive that this should be done, but he made
+it easy to be done in the next generation, because before he left
+office he had increased the powers of the juries in each county and
+had accustomed them to deal independently with all the local matters
+in which the king and the county were both interested. It only
+remained to bring these juries together in one place where they might
+join in making the king aware of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page165" name="page165"></a>(p. 165)</span> wishes and complaints
+of all counties alike. When this had been accomplished there would,
+for the first time, be a representative assembly in England.</p>
+
+<a id="img084" name="img084"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 190px;">
+<img src="images/img084a.jpg" width="180" height="700" alt="" title="">
+<p>Richard I. From his tomb at Fontevrault.</p></div>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 225px;">
+<img src="images/img084b.jpg" width="215" height="700" alt="" title="">
+<p>Berengaria. From her tomb at Espan.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap11sec7" name="chap11sec7"></a>
+<p class="clear">7. <b>Death of Richard. 1199.</b>&mdash;It was not only Richard's love for his old
+home which fixed him on the Continent. He knew that the weakest part
+of his dominions was there. His lands beyond sea had no natural unity.
+Normans did not love Angevins, neither did Angevins love the men of
+Poitou or Guienne. Philip was willingly obeyed in his own dominions,
+and he had all the advantage which his title of king of the French
+could give him. Richard fought desperately, and for the most part
+successfully, against the French king, and formed alliances with all
+who were opposed to him. He built on a rock overhanging the Seine
+above Les Andelys a mighty fortress&mdash;the Château Gaillard, or Saucy
+Castle, as he called it in jest. With characteristic haste he
+completed the building in a few months. "How fair a child is mine!" he
+called to his followers, "this child but a twelvemonth old." Other
+child he had none, and he had but the miserable John to look to to
+hold his dominions after he was gone. He did not live long enough to
+see whether his new castle could stand a siege. A peasant dug up a
+treasure on the land of the lord of Châlus in the Limousin. Richard
+claimed it as his right because he was the over-lord. On the refusal
+of the lord to surrender it he laid siege to Châlus. An arrow from the
+castle struck him on the shoulder. The wound rankled, and
+mortification followed. As Richard lay dying the castle surrendered,
+and the man who had aimed the fatal shot was brought before him. "What
+have I done to thee," asked Richard, "that thou shouldest slay me?"
+"Thou hast slain my father and two of my brothers with thy own hand,"
+said the prisoner, "and thou wouldest fain have killed me too. Avenge
+thyself upon me as thou wilt. I will gladly endure the greatest
+torments thou canst devise, since I have seen thee on thy deathbed."
+Richard, generous to the last, bade his attendants set the prisoner
+free. They kept him till Richard was dead, and then tortured him to
+death.</p>
+
+<a id="img085" name="img085"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img085.jpg" width="400" height="686" alt="" title="">
+<p>Part of the choir of Ripon Cathedral: built during the
+last quarter of the twelfth century.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap11sec8" name="chap11sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>Church and State under the Angevin Kings.</b>&mdash;During the forty-five
+years of the reigns of Richard and his father the chief feature of
+English history is the growth of the power of the state. There was
+more justice and order, and also more taxation, at the end of the
+period than at the beginning. During the same period the influence of
+the Church grew less. The character of Thomas's resistance to the king
+was lower than that of Anselm, and not long <span class="pagenum"><a id="page166" name="page166"></a>(p. 166)</span> after Thomas's
+murder Henry indirectly regained the power which he had lost, and
+filled the sees with officials and dependents who cared little for the
+higher aims of religion. The evil consequences <span class="pagenum"><a id="page167" name="page167"></a>(p. 167)</span> of making the
+Church dependent on the king were at least as great as those of
+freeing the political and social life of the clergy from the control
+of the State. Even monasticism ceased to afford a strong example of
+self-denial. The very Cistercians, who had begun so well, had fallen
+from their original purity. They were now owners of immense tracts of
+pasture-land, and their keenness in money-making had become notorious.
+They exercised great influence, but it was the influence of great
+landlords, not the influence of ascetics.</p>
+
+<a id="chap11sec9" name="chap11sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>Growth of Learning.</b>&mdash;The decay of asceticism was to some extent
+brought about by the opening of new careers into which energetic men
+might throw themselves. They were needed as judges, as administrators,
+as councillors. A vigorous literature sprung up in the reign of Henry
+II., but at the end of the reign most of it was connected with the
+court rather than with the monasteries. Henry's Justiciar, Ranulf de
+Glanvile, wrote the first English law-book. His Treasurer, Richard
+Fitz-Nigel, set forth in the <i>Dialogus de Scaccario</i> the methods of
+his financial administration, and also produced 'The Deeds of King
+Henry and King Richard.' William of Newburgh, indeed, the best
+historian of these reigns, wrote in a small Yorkshire monastery, but
+Roger of Hoveden and Ralph de Diceto pursued their historical work
+under the influence of the court. Still more striking is the
+universality of the intellectual inquisitiveness of Walter Map. On the
+one hand, in his <i>De Nugis Curialium</i> he chattered over the manners of
+his contemporaries, and in his satirical poems scourged the greed and
+vices of the clergy, whilst on the other hand he took a principal part
+in spreading a knowledge of the legend of the high-souled King Arthur
+and of the quest of the Holy Grail. Giraldus Cambrensis again, or
+Gerald of Wales, wrote on all sorts of subjects with shrewd humour and
+extensive knowledge.</p>
+
+<a id="chap11sec10" name="chap11sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>The University of Oxford.</b>&mdash;There was already in England a place
+where learning was cherished for its own sake. For some time there had
+been growing up on the Continent gatherings for the increase of
+learning, which ultimately were known as universities, or corporations
+of teachers and scholars. One at Bologna had devoted itself to the
+study of the civil or Roman law. Another at Paris gave itself to the
+spread of all the knowledge of the time. In these early universities
+there were no colleges. Lads, very poor for the most part, flocked to
+the teachers and lodged themselves as best they could. Such a
+university, though the name was not used till later, had been
+gradually forming at Oxford. Its origin and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page168" name="page168"></a>(p. 168)</span> early history is
+obscure, but in <b>1186</b> Giraldus, wishing to find a cultivated audience
+for his new book on the topography of Ireland, read it aloud at
+Oxford, where, as he tells us, 'the clergy in England chiefly
+flourished and excelled in clerkly lore.' It appears that there were
+already separate faculties or branches of study, and persons
+recognised as doctors or teachers in all of them.</p>
+
+<a id="img086" name="img086"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img086.jpg" width="300" height="306" alt="" title="">
+<p>Lay costumes in the twelfth century.</p></div>
+
+<a id="img087" name="img087"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img087.jpg" width="300" height="226" alt="" title="">
+<p>Costume of shepherds in the twelfth century.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap11sec11" name="chap11sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>Country and Town.</b>&mdash;Intellectual progress was accompanied by
+material progress. In the country the old system of cultivation by the
+labour service of villein-tenants still prevailed, but in many parts
+the service had been commuted, either for a money payment or for
+payments in kind, such as payments of a fixed number of eggs or fowls,
+or of a fixed quantity of honey or straw. Greater progress was made in
+the towns. At the time of the Conquest there were about eighty towns
+in England, most of them no larger than villages. The largest towns
+after London were Winchester, Bristol, Norwich, York, and Lincoln, but
+even these had not a population much above 7,000 apiece. In the
+smaller towns trade was sufficiently provided for by the establishment
+of a market to which country people brought their grain or their
+cattle, and where they provided themselves in turn with such rude
+household necessaries as they required. Even before the Conquest port
+towns had grown up on <span class="pagenum"><a id="page169" name="page169"></a>(p. 169)</span> the coast, but foreign trade was
+slight, imports being almost entirely confined to luxuries for the
+rich. The order introduced by the Normans and the connection between
+England and the king's Continental possessions was followed by an
+increase of trade, and there arose in each of the larger towns a
+corporation which was known as the Merchant Gild, and which was, in
+some instances at least, only a development of an older association
+existing in the times before the Conquest. No one except the brothers
+of the Merchant Gild was allowed to trade in any article except food,
+but any one living in the town might become a brother on payment of a
+settled fee. The first Merchant Gild known was constituted in <b>1093</b>. A
+little later, Henry I. granted charters to some of the towns,
+conferring on them the right of managing their own affairs; and his
+example was followed, in far greater profusion, by Henry II. and
+Richard I. Though the organisation of the Merchant Gild was originally
+distinct from the organisation of the town, and the two were in theory
+kept apart, the Merchant Gild, to which most of the townsmen belonged,
+usually encroached upon the authorities of the town, regulated trade
+to its own advantage, and practically controlled the choice of
+officers, the principal officer being usually styled an Alderman, with
+power to keep order and generally to provide for the well-being of the
+place. In this way the tradesmen and merchants of the towns prepared
+themselves unconsciously for the time when they would be called on to
+take part in managing the affairs of the country. Even in these early
+times, however, the artisans in some of the trades attempted to
+combine together.</p>
+
+<a id="chap11sec12" name="chap11sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>Condition of London.</b>&mdash;Of all the towns London had been growing
+most rapidly in wealth and population, and during the troubles in
+which John had been pitted against William of Longchamps it had
+secured the right of being governed by a Mayor and Aldermen of its
+own, instead of being placed under the jurisdiction of the King's
+sheriff. The Mayor and Aldermen, however, did not represent all the
+townsmen. In London, though there is no evidence of the existence of a
+Merchant Gild, there was a corporation composed of the wealthier
+traders, by which the city was governed. The Mayor and Aldermen were
+chosen out of this corporation, as were the juries elected to assess
+the taxes. Artisans soon came to believe that these juries dealt
+unfairly with the poor. One of the Aldermen, William Longbeard, made
+himself the mouthpiece of their complaints and stirred them up against
+the rest. Hubert Walter sent a messenger to seize him, but William
+Longbeard slew the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page170" name="page170"></a>(p. 170)</span> messenger and fled into the church of
+Mary-at-Bow. Here, according to the ideas of his age, he should have
+been safe, as every church was considered to be a sanctuary in which
+no criminal could be arrested. Hubert Walter, however, came in person
+to seize him, set the church on fire, and had him dragged out. William
+Longbeard was first stabbed, and then tried and hanged, and for the
+time the rich tradesmen had their way against the poorer artisans.</p>
+
+<a id="img088" name="img088"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img088.jpg" width="400" height="328" alt="" title="">
+<p>Hall of Oakham Castle, Rutland: built about 1185.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap11sec13" name="chap11sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>Architectural Changes.</b>&mdash;Even in the most flourishing towns the
+houses were still mostly of wood or rubble covered with thatch, and
+only here and there was to be found a house of stone. So slight,
+indeed, were the ordinary buildings, that it was provided by the
+Assize of Clarendon that the houses of certain offenders should be
+carried outside the town and burnt. Here and there, however, as in the
+case of the so-called Jews' house at Lincoln, stone houses were
+erected. In the larger houses the arrangements were much as they had
+been before the Conquest, the large hall being still the most
+conspicuous part, though another apartment, known as the solar, to
+which an ascent was made by steps from the outside, and which served
+as a sitting-room for the master <span class="pagenum"><a id="page171" name="page171"></a>(p. 171)</span> of the house, had usually
+been added. The castles reared by the king or the barons were built
+for defence alone, and it was in the great cathedrals and churches
+that the skill of the architect was shown. An enormous number of
+parish churches of stone were raised by Norman builders to supersede
+earlier buildings of wood. For some time the round-arched Norman
+architecture which had been introduced by Eadward the Confessor was
+alone followed, such as may be studied in the Galilee of Durham (see
+p. <a href="#page160">160</a>) the nave of St. Albans (see p. <a href="#page110">109</a>) and the
+tower of Castor (see p. <a href="#page136">136</a>). Gradually the pointed arch of
+Gothic architecture took its place, and after a period of transition,
+of which the nave of Durham, and the choirs of Canterbury and of Ripon
+afford examples (see pp. <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page166">166</a>), the graceful style
+now known as Early English was first used on a large scale in <b>1192</b> in
+the choir of the cathedral of Lincoln.</p>
+
+<a id="img089" name="img089"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img089.jpg" width="400" height="386" alt="" title="">
+<p>Norman House at Lincoln, called the Jews' House.<br> Built
+about 1140. The square windows are of later date.</p></div>
+
+<p class="p2 center"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page172" name="page172"></a>(p. 172)</span> <i>Books recommended for further study of Part II.</i></p>
+
+<div class="books">
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Stubbs, W.</span> (Bishop of Oxford). Constitutional History of England.
+  Vol i. chaps. ix.-xiii.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Freeman, E. A.</span> History of the Norman Conquest. Vols. iv. and v.
+  History of William Rufus.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Green, J. R.</span> History of the English People. Vol. i. pp. 115-189.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Norgate</span>, Miss K. England under the Angevin Kings. Vols. i. and
+  ii. pp. 1-388.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Cunningham, W.</span> Growth of English Industry and Commerce during
+  the Early and Middle Ages, pp. 129-173.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Wakeman, H. O.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Hassall, A.</span> Constitutional Essays.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Adams, G. B.</span> The Political History of England. Vol. ii. From the
+  Norman Conquest to the Death of John (1066-1216).<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page173" name="page173"></a>(p. 173)</span> PART III.<br>
+<i>THE GROWTH OF THE PARLIAMENTARY CONSTITUTION.</i> <b>1199-1399</b>.</h2>
+
+<a id="chap12" name="chap12"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XII.<br>
+JOHN. <b>1199-1216</b>.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Accession of John           <span class="right10">1199</span></li>
+<li>Loss of Normandy            <span class="right10">1204</span></li>
+<li>England under an Interdict  <span class="right10">1208</span></li>
+<li>Magna Carta                 <span class="right10">1215</span></li>
+<li>Death of John               <span class="right10">1216</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap12sec1" name="chap12sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>The Accession of John. 1199.</b>&mdash;After Richard's death there were
+living but two descendants of Henry II. in the male line&mdash;John,
+Richard's only surviving brother, and Arthur, the young son of John's
+elder brother, Geoffrey. The English barons had to make their choice
+between uncle and nephew, and, as had been done in the days of Ælfred,
+they preferred the grown man to the child. It was the last time when
+that principle of election was confessedly acted on. Archbishop Hubert
+in announcing the result used words which seem strange now:
+"Forasmuch," he declared to the people assembled to witness John's
+coronation, "as we see him to be prudent and vigorous, we all, after
+invoking the Holy Spirit's grace, for his merits no less than his
+royal blood, have with one consent chosen him for our king." In
+reality, John was of all men most unworthy. He was without dispute the
+worst of the English kings. Like William II. he feared not God nor
+regarded man. Though William indeed was more vicious in his private
+life, John's violence and tyranny in public life was as great as
+William's, and he added a meanness and frivolity which sank him far
+below him.</p>
+
+<a id="chap12sec2" name="chap12sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>John's First War with Philip II. 1199&mdash;1200.</b>&mdash;On the Continent
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page174" name="page174"></a>(p. 174)</span> John had a difficult game to play. Normandy and Aquitaine
+submitted to him, but Anjou and its dependent territories declared for
+Arthur, who was Duke of Brittany in right of his mother. Philip II.,
+who had long been the rival of Richard, now took the field in <b>1199</b> as
+the rival of John in support of Arthur; but for the moment he ruined
+his chance of success by keeping in his own hands the castles which he
+took from John instead of making them over to Arthur. Arthur's
+supporters took offence, and in <b>1200</b> Philip made peace with John.
+Philip acknowledged John as Richard's heir, but forced him in return
+to pay a heavy sum of money, and to make other concessions.</p>
+
+<a id="chap12sec3" name="chap12sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>John's Misconduct in Poitou. 1200&mdash;1201.</b>&mdash;John did not know how to
+make use of the time of rest which he had gained. Being tired of his
+wife, Avice of Gloucester, he persuaded some Aquitanian bishops to
+divorce him from her, though he took care to keep the lands which he
+had received from her at her marriage. He then married Isabella of
+Angoulême, though she was betrothed to a Poitevin noble, Hugh of
+Lusignan. Hugh was enraged, and, together with many of his neighbours,
+took arms against John. In <b>1201</b> John charged all the barons of Poitou
+with treason, and bade them clear their character by selecting
+champions to fight with an equal number of English and Norman knights.</p>
+
+<a id="chap12sec4" name="chap12sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>The Loss of Normandy and Anjou. 1202&mdash;1204.</b>&mdash;The Poitevin barons,
+instead of accepting the wager of battle, appealed to Philip as John's
+over-lord, and in <b>1202</b> Philip summoned John to answer their complaints
+before his peers. John not only did not appear, but made no excuse for
+his absence; and Philip afterwards pretended that the peers had
+condemned him to forfeit his lands. After this Philip, in alliance
+with Arthur, invaded Normandy. John's aged mother, Eleanor, who was
+far more able and energetic than her son, took up his cause against
+her grandson Arthur. She was besieged by Arthur at Mirebeau when John
+came to her help, and not only raised the siege, but carried off
+Arthur as a prisoner. Many of his vassals rose against him, and
+finding himself unable to meet them in the field he wreaked his
+vengeance on his helpless prisoner. A little before Easter <b>1203</b> Arthur
+ceased to live. How the boy died has never been known, but it was
+generally believed that he was drowned in the Seine near Rouen&mdash;some
+said by his uncle's own hands. The murderer was the first to suffer
+from the crime. Philip at once invaded Normandy. The Norman barons had
+long ceased to respect John, and very few of them would do anything to
+help him. Philip took castle after castle. John was indeed capable of
+a sudden outbreak of violence, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page176" name="page176"></a>(p. 176)</span> but he was incapable of
+sustained effort. He now looked sluggishly on, feasting and amusing
+himself whilst Philip was conquering Normandy. "Let him alone," he
+lazily said; "I shall some day win back all that he is taking from me
+now." His best friends dropped off from him. The only fortress which
+made a long resistance was that Château Gaillard which Richard had
+built to guard the Seine. In <b>1204</b> it was at last taken, and before the
+end of that year Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Touraine, together with
+part of Poitou, had submitted to Philip.</p>
+
+<a id="img090" name="img090"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img090a.jpg" width="300" height="705" alt="" title="">
+<p>Effigy of King John on his monument in Worcester
+Cathedral.</p></div>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 182px;">
+<img src="images/img090b.jpg" width="172" height="700" alt="" title="">
+<p>Isabella, wife of King John. From her monument at
+Fontevrault.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap12sec5" name="chap12sec5"></a>
+<p class="clear">5. <b>Causes of Philip's Success.</b>&mdash;It was not owing to John's vigour that
+Aquitaine was not lost as well as Normandy and Anjou. Philip had
+justified his attack on John as being John's feudal lord, and as being
+therefore bound to take the part of John's vassals whom he had
+injured. Hitherto the power of the king over his great vassals, which
+had been strong in England, had been weak in France. Philip made it
+strong in Normandy and Anjou because he had the support there of the
+vassals of John. That these vassals favoured him was owing partly to
+John's contemptible character, but also to the growth of national
+unity between the inhabitants of Normandy and Anjou on the one hand
+and those of Philip's French dominions on the other. Normans and
+Angevins both spoke the same language as the Frenchmen of Paris and
+its neighbourhood. Their manners and characters were very much the
+same, and the two peoples very soon blended with one another. They had
+been separated merely because their feudal organisation had been
+distinct, because the lord over one was John and over the other was
+Philip. In Aquitaine it was otherwise. The language and manners there,
+though much nearer to those of the French than they were to those of
+the English, differed considerably from the language and manners of
+the Frenchmen, Normans, and Angevins. What the men of Aquitaine really
+wanted was independence. They therefore now clung to John against
+Philip as they had clung to Richard against Henry II. They resisted
+Henry II. because Henry II. ruled in Anjou and Normandy, and they
+wished to be free from any connection with Anjou and Normandy. They
+resisted Philip because Philip now ruled in Anjou and Normandy. They
+were not afraid of John any longer, because they thought that now that
+England alone was left to him, he would be too far off to interfere
+with them.</p>
+
+<a id="chap12sec6" name="chap12sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>The Election of Stephen Langton to the Archbishopric of Canterbury.
+1205.</b>&mdash;In England John had caused much discontent by the heavy
+taxation which he imposed, not with the regularity of Henry II. and
+Hubert Walter, but with unfair inequality. In <span class="pagenum"><a id="page177" name="page177"></a>(p. 177)</span> <b>1205</b>
+Archbishop Hubert Walter died. The right of choosing a new archbishop
+lay with the monks of the monastery of Christchurch at Canterbury, of
+which every archbishop, as the successor of St. Augustine, was the
+abbot. This right, however, had long been exercised only according to
+the wish of the king, who practically named the archbishop. This time
+the monks, without asking John's leave, hurriedly chose their
+sub-prior Reginald, and sent him off with a party of monks to Rome, to
+obtain the sanction of the Pope. Reginald was directed to say nothing
+of his election till he reached Rome; but he was a vain man, and had
+no sooner reached the Continent than he babbled about his own dignity
+as an archbishop. When John heard this he bade the monks choose the
+Bishop of Norwich, John de Grey, the king's treasurer; and the monks,
+thoroughly frightened, chose him as if they had not already made their
+election. John had, however, forgotten to consult the bishops of the
+province of Canterbury, who had always been consulted by his father
+and brother, and they too sent messengers to the Pope to complain of
+the king.</p>
+
+<a id="img091" name="img091"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img091.jpg" width="300" height="542" alt="" title="">
+<p>Bishop Marshall of Exeter, died 1206; from his tomb at
+Exeter, showing a bishop vested for mass.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap12sec7" name="chap12sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>Innocent III. and Stephen Langton. 1206.</b>&mdash;The Pope was Innocent
+III., who at once determined that John must not name bishops whose
+only merit was that they were good state officials. Being an able man,
+he soon discovered that Reginald was a fool. He therefore in <b>1206</b> sent
+for a fresh deputation of monks, and, as soon as they arrived in Rome,
+bade them make a new choice in the name of their monastery. At
+Innocent's suggestion they chose Stephen Langton, one of the most
+pious and learned men of the day, whose greatness of character was
+hardly suspected by anyone at the time.</p>
+
+<a id="chap12sec8" name="chap12sec8"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page178" name="page178"></a>(p. 178)</span> 8. <b>John's Quarrel with the Church. 1206&mdash;1208.</b>&mdash;The choice of
+an archbishop in opposition to the king was undoubtedly something new.
+The archbishopric of Canterbury was a great national office, and a
+king as skilful as Henry II. would probably have succeeded in refusing
+to allow it to be disposed of by the Pope and a small party of monks.
+John was unworthy to be the champion of any cause whatever. In <b>1207</b>,
+after an angry correspondence with Innocent, he drove the monks of
+Christchurch out of the kingdom. Innocent in reply threatened England
+with an interdict, and in the spring of <b>1208</b> the interdict was
+published.</p>
+
+<a id="chap12sec9" name="chap12sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>England under an Interdict. 1208.</b>&mdash;An interdict carried with it the
+suppression of all the sacraments of the Church except those of
+baptism and extreme unction. Even these were only to be received in
+private. No words of solemn import were pronounced at the burial of
+the dead. The churches were all closed, and to the men of that time
+the closing of the church-doors was like the closing of the very gate
+of heaven. In the choice of the punishment inflicted there was some
+sign that the Papacy was hardly as strong in the thirteenth as it had
+been in the eleventh century. Gregory VII. had smitten down kings by
+personal excommunication; Innocent III. found it necessary to stir up
+resistance against the king by inflicting sufferings on the people.
+Yet there is no evidence of any indignation against the Pope. The
+clergy rallied almost as one man round Innocent, and songs proceeded
+from the monasteries which mocked the few official bishops who took
+John's side as money-makers who cared more for marks than for Mark,
+and more for lucre than for Luke, whilst John de Grey was branded with
+the title of 'that beast of Norwich.' John taking no heed of the
+popular feeling, seized the property of the clergy who obeyed the
+interdict. Yet he was not without fear lest the barons should join the
+clergy against him, and to keep them in obedience he compelled them to
+entrust to him their eldest sons as hostages. One lady to whom this
+order came replied that she would never give her son to a king who had
+murdered his nephew.</p>
+
+<a id="chap12sec10" name="chap12sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>John Excommunicated. 1209.</b>&mdash;In <b>1209</b> Innocent excommunicated John
+himself. John cared nothing for being excluded from the services of
+the Church, but he knew that if the excommunication were published in
+England few would venture to sit at table with him, or even to speak
+with him. For some time he kept it out of the country, but it became
+known that it had been pronounced at Rome, and even his own dependents
+began to avoid his company. He feared lest the barons whom he had
+wearied with heavy fines <span class="pagenum"><a id="page179" name="page179"></a>(p. 179)</span> and taxes might turn against him,
+and he needed large sums of money to defend himself against them.
+First he turned on the Jews, threw them into prison, and after
+torturing those who refused to pay, wrung from them 40,000<i>l.</i> The
+abbots were next summoned before him and forced by threats to pay
+100,000<i>l.</i> Besides this the wealthy Cistercians had to pay an
+additional fine, the amount of which is uncertain, but of which the
+lowest estimate is 27,000<i>l.</i> In <b>1211</b> some of the barons declared
+against John, but they were driven from the country, and those who
+remained were harshly treated. Some of their sons who had been taken
+as hostages were hanged or starved to death.</p>
+
+<a id="img092" name="img092"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img092.jpg" width="400" height="318" alt="" title="">
+<p>Parsonage house of early thirteenth-century date at
+West Dean, Sussex.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap12sec11" name="chap12sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>The Pope threatens John with Deposition. 1212&mdash;1213.</b>&mdash;In <b>1212</b>
+Innocent's patience came to an end, and he announced that he would
+depose John if he still refused to give way, and would transfer his
+crown to his old enemy, Philip II. The English clergy and barons were
+not likely to oppose the change. Philip gathered a great army in
+France to make good the claim which he expected Innocent to give him.
+John, indeed, was not entirely without resource. The Emperor Otto IV.
+was John's sister's son, and as he too had been excommunicated by
+Innocent he made common cause with John against Philip. Early in <b>1213</b>
+John gathered an army of 60,000 men to resist Philip's landing, and if
+Otto with his <span class="pagenum"><a id="page180" name="page180"></a>(p. 180)</span> Germans were to attack France from the east, a
+French army would hardly venture to cross into England, unless indeed
+it had no serious resistance to fear. John, however, knew well that he
+could not depend on his own army. Many men in the host hated him
+bitterly, and he feared deposition, and perhaps death, at the hands of
+those whom he had summoned to his help.</p>
+
+<a id="chap12sec12" name="chap12sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>John's Submission. 1213.</b>&mdash;Under these circumstances John preferred
+submission to the Pope to submission to Philip or his own barons. He
+invited Pandulf, the Pope's representative, to Dover. He swore to
+admit Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury, to restore to their
+rights all those of the clergy or laity whom he had banished, and to
+give back the money which he had wrongfully exacted. Two days later he
+knelt before Pandulf and did homage to the Pope for England and
+Ireland. He was no longer to be an independent king but the Pope's
+vassal. In token of his vassalage he agreed that he and his successors
+should pay to Innocent and his successors 1,000 marks a year, each
+mark being equal to 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>, or two-thirds of a pound. Innocent
+had reached his aim as far as John was concerned. In his eyes the
+Papacy was not merely the guide of the Church, it was an institution
+for controlling kings and forcing them to act in accordance with the
+orders of the Popes. It remained to be seen whether the Pope's orders
+would be always unselfish, and whether the English barons and clergy
+would submit to them as readily as did this most miserable of English
+kings.</p>
+
+<a id="chap12sec13" name="chap12sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>The Resistance of the Barons and Clergy. 1213.</b>&mdash;At first John
+seemed to have gained all that he wanted by submission. Pandulf bade
+Philip abandon all thought of invading England, and when Philip
+refused to obey, John's fleet fell upon the French fleet off the coast
+of Flanders and destroyed it. John even proposed to land with an army
+in Poitou and to reconquer Normandy and Anjou. His subjects thought
+that he ought to begin by fulfilling his engagements to them. John
+having received absolution, summoned four men from each county to meet
+at St. Albans to assess the damages of the clergy which he had bound
+himself to make good. The meeting thus summoned was the germ of the
+future House of Commons. It was not a national political assembly, but
+it was a national jury gathered together into one place. The exiled
+barons were recalled, and John now hoped that his vassals would follow
+him to Poitou. They refused to do so, alleging their poverty and the
+fact that they had already fulfilled their feudal obligation of forty
+days' service by attending him at Dover. They had, in <span class="pagenum"><a id="page181" name="page181"></a>(p. 181)</span> fact,
+no interest in regaining Normandy and Anjou for John. Though the
+English barons still spoke French, and were proud of their Norman
+descent, they now thought of themselves as Englishmen and cared for
+England alone. John turned furiously on the barons, and was only
+hindered from attacking them by the new Archbishop, who threatened to
+excommunicate everyone who took arms against them. It was time for all
+Englishmen who loved order and law to resist John. Stephen Langton put
+himself at the head of the movement, and at a great assembly at St.
+Paul's produced a charter of Henry I., by which that king had promised
+to put an end to the tyranny of the Red King, and declared amidst
+general applause that it must be renewed by John. It was a memorable
+scene. Up to this time it had been necessary for the clergy and the
+people to support the king against the tyranny of the barons. Now the
+clergy and people offered their support to the barons against the
+tyranny of the king. John had merely the Pope on his side. Innocent's
+view of the situation was very simple. John was to obey the Pope, and
+all John's subjects were to obey John. A Papal legate arrived in
+England, fixed the sum which John was to pay to the clergy, and
+refused to listen to the complaints of those who thought themselves
+defrauded.</p>
+
+<a id="chap12sec14" name="chap12sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>The Battle of Bouvines. 1214.</b>&mdash;In <b>1214</b> John succeeded in carrying
+his barons and their vassals across the sea. With one army he landed
+at Rochelle, and recovered what had been lost to him on the south of
+the Loire, but failed to make any permanent conquests to the north of
+that river. Another army, under John's illegitimate brother, the Earl
+of Salisbury, joined the Emperor Otto in an attack on Philip from the
+north. The united force of Germans and English was, however, routed by
+Philip at Bouvines, in Flanders. "Since I have been reconciled to
+God," cried John, when he heard the news, "and submitted to the Roman
+Church, nothing has gone well with me." He made a truce with Philip,
+and temporarily renounced all claims to the lands to the north of the
+Loire.</p>
+
+<a id="img093" name="img093"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img093.jpg" width="250" height="760" alt="" title="">
+<p>Effigy of a knight in the Temple Church, London,
+showing armour worn between 1190 and 1225.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap12sec15" name="chap12sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>The Struggle between John and the Barons. 1214&mdash;1215.</b> When John
+returned he called upon all his vassals who had remained at home to
+pay an exorbitant scutage. In reply they met at Bury St. Edmunds. The
+charter of Henry I., which had been produced at St. Paul's the year
+before, was again read, and all present swore to force John to accept
+it as the rule of his own government. John asked for delay, and
+attempted to divide his antagonists by offering to the clergy the
+right of free election to bishoprics and abbacies. Then he turned
+against the barons. Early <span class="pagenum"><a id="page182" name="page182"></a>(p. 182)</span> in <b>1215</b> he brought over a large
+force of foreign mercenaries, and persuaded the Pope to threaten the
+barons with excommunication. His attempt was defeated by the constancy
+of Stephen Langton. The demands of the barons were placed in writing
+by the archbishop, and, on John's refusal to accept them, an army was
+formed to force them on the king. The army of God and the Holy Church,
+as it was called, grew rapidly. London admitted it within its walls,
+and the accession of London to the cause of the barons was a sign that
+the traders of England were of one mind with the barons and the
+clergy. John found that their force was superior to his own, and at
+Runnimede on June 15, <b>1215</b>, confirmed with his hand and seal the
+articles of the barons, with the full intention of breaking his
+engagement as soon as he should be strong enough to do so.</p>
+
+<a id="chap12sec16" name="chap12sec16"></a>
+<p>16. <b>Magna Carta. 1215.</b>&mdash;<i>Magna Carta</i>, or the Great Charter, as the
+articles were called after John confirmed them, was won by a
+combination between all classes of freemen, and it gave rights to them
+all.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Its Concessions.</i>&mdash;The Church was to be free, its privileges
+were to be respected, and its right to free elections which John had
+granted earlier in the year was not to be infringed on. As for the
+laity, the tenants-in-chief were to pay only fixed reliefs when they
+entered on their estates. Heirs under age were to be the king's wards,
+but the king was to treat them fairly, and do <span class="pagenum"><a id="page183" name="page183"></a>(p. 183)</span> nothing to
+injure their land whilst it was in his hands. The king might continue
+to find husbands for heiresses and wives for heirs, but only amongst
+those of their own class. The tenants-in-chief again were bound to pay
+aids to the king when he needed ransom from imprisonment, or money to
+enable him to bear the expenses of knighting his eldest son or of
+marrying his eldest daughter. For all other purposes the king could
+only demand supplies from his tenants-in-chief with the consent of the
+Common Council of the realm. As only the tenants-in-chief were
+concerned, this Common Council was the Great Council of
+tenants-in-chief, such as had met under the Norman and Angevin kings.
+A fresh attempt, however, was made to induce the smaller
+tenants-in-chief to attend, in addition to the bishops, abbots, and
+barons, by a direction that whilst these were to be summoned
+personally, the sheriffs should in each county issue a general summons
+to the smaller tenants-in-chief. Though the sub-tenants had no part in
+the Common Council of the realm, they were relieved by a direction
+that they should pay no more aids to their lords than their lords paid
+to the king, and by a general declaration that all that had been
+granted to their lords by the king should be allowed by their lords to
+them. The Londoners and other townsmen had their privileges assured to
+them; and all freemen were secured against heavy and irregular
+penalties if they committed an offence.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Its Securities.</i>&mdash;Such were the provisions of this truly
+national act, which Englishmen were for ages engaged in maintaining
+and developing. The immediate question was how to secure what had been
+gained. The first thing necessary for this purpose was to make the
+courts of law the arbitrators between the king and his subjects. In a
+series of articles it was declared that the sworn testimony of a man's
+peers should be used whenever fines or penalties were imposed, and
+this insistence on the employment of the jury system as it then
+existed was emphasised by the strong words to which John placed his
+seal: "No freeman may be taken, or imprisoned, or disseised, or
+outlawed, or banished, or in any way destroyed, nor will we go against
+him, or send against him, except by the lawful judgment of his peers,
+or by the law of the land. To none will we sell or deny or delay right
+or justice." It was a good security if it could be maintained, but it
+would avail nothing against a king who was willing and able to use
+force to set up the old tyranny once more. In the first place John
+must dismiss all his foreign mercenaries. So little, however, was John
+trusted that it was thought necessary in the second place to establish
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page184" name="page184"></a>(p. 184)</span> a body of twenty-five&mdash;twenty-four barons and the Mayor of
+London&mdash;which was to guard against any attempt of the king to break
+his word. If John infringed upon any of the articles of the Charter
+the twenty-five, with the assistance of the whole community of the
+kingdom, had the right of distraining upon the king's lands till
+enough was obtained to make up the loss to the person who had suffered
+wrong. In other words, there was to be a permanent organisation for
+making war upon the king.</p>
+
+<a id="chap12sec17" name="chap12sec17"></a>
+<p>17. <b>War between John and the Barons. 1215&mdash;1216.</b>&mdash;John waited for the
+moment of vengeance. Not only did he refuse to send his mercenaries
+away, but he sent to the Continent for large reinforcements. Pope
+Innocent declared the barons to be wicked rebels, and released John
+from his oath to the Great Charter. War soon broke out. John's
+mercenaries were too strong for the barons, and in the beginning of
+<b>1216</b> almost all England with the exception of London had been overrun
+by them. Though the Pope laid London under an interdict, neither the
+citizens nor the barons paid any attention to it. They sent to Louis,
+the eldest son of Philip of France, to invite him to come and be their
+king in John's stead. Louis was married to John's niece, and might
+thus be counted as a member of the English royal family. The time had
+not yet come when a man who spoke French was regarded as quite a
+foreigner amongst the English barons. On May 21, <b>1216</b>, Louis landed
+with an army in the Isle of Thanet.</p>
+
+<a id="img094" name="img094"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img094.jpg" width="300" height="130" alt="" title="">
+<p>A silver penny of John, struck at Dublin.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap12sec18" name="chap12sec18"></a>
+<p>18. <b>Conflict between Louis and John. 1216.</b>&mdash;John, in spite of his
+success, found himself without sufficient money to pay his
+mercenaries, and he therefore retreated to Winchester. Louis entered
+London in triumph, and afterwards drove John out of Winchester.
+Innocent indeed excommunicated Louis, but no one took heed of the
+excommunication. Yet John was not without support. The trading towns
+of the East, who probably regarded Louis as a foreigner, took his
+part, and many of his old officials, to whom the victory of the barons
+seemed likely to bring back the anarchy of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page185" name="page185"></a>(p. 185)</span> Stephen's time,
+clung to him. One of these, a high-spirited and strong-willed man,
+Hubert de Burgh, held out for John in Dover Castle. John kept the
+field and even won some successes. As he was crossing the Wash the
+tide rose rapidly and swept away his baggage. He himself escaped with
+difficulty. Worn out in mind and body, he was carried on a litter to
+Newark, where on October 19, <b>1216</b>, he died.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap13" name="chap13"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XIII.<br>
+HENRY III. <b>1216-1272</b>.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Accession of Henry III.      <span class="right10">1216</span></li>
+<li>The Fall of Hubert de Burgh  <span class="right10">1232</span></li>
+<li>The Provisions of Oxford     <span class="right10">1258</span></li>
+<li>Battle of Lewes              <span class="right10">1264</span></li>
+<li>Battle of Evesham            <span class="right10">1265</span></li>
+<li>Death of Henry III.          <span class="right10">1272</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap13sec1" name="chap13sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>Henry III. and Louis. 1216&mdash;1217.</b>&mdash;Henry III., the eldest son of
+John, was but nine years old at his father's death. Never before had
+it been useful for England that the king should be a child. As Henry
+had oppressed no one and had broken no oaths, those who dared not
+trust the father could rally to the son. The boy had two guardians,
+one of whom was Gualo, the legate of Pope Honorius III., a man gentler
+and less ambitious than Innocent III., whom he had just succeeded; the
+other was William the Marshal, Earl of Pembroke, who had been constant
+to John, not because he loved his evil deeds, but because, like many
+of the older officials, he feared that the victory of the barons would
+be followed by anarchy. These two had on their side the growing
+feeling on behalf of English nationality; whereas, as long as John
+lived, his opponents had argued that it was better to have a foreign
+king like Louis than to have a king like John, who tyrannised over the
+land by the help of foreign mercenaries. Henry's followers daily
+increased, and in <b>1217</b> Louis was defeated by the Marshal at Lincoln.
+Later in the year Hubert de Burgh, the Justiciar, sent out a fleet
+which defeated a French fleet off Dover. Louis then submitted and left
+the kingdom.</p>
+
+<a id="img095" name="img095"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 210px;">
+<img src="images/img095.jpg" width="200" height="643" alt="" title="">
+<p>Effigy of Henry III. from his tomb in Westminster
+Abbey.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap13sec2" name="chap13sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>The Renewal of the Great Charter. 1216&mdash;1217.</b>&mdash;The <span class="pagenum"><a id="page186" name="page186"></a>(p. 186)</span>
+principles on which William the Marshal intended to govern were
+signified by the changes made in the Great Charter when it was renewed
+on the king's accession in <b>1216</b>, and again on Louis's expulsion in
+<b>1217</b>. Most of the clauses binding the king to avoid oppression were
+allowed to stand; but those which prohibited the raising of new
+taxation without the authority of the Great Council, and the
+stipulation which established a body of twenty-five to distrain on
+John's property in case of the breach of the Charter, were omitted.
+Probably it was thought that there was less danger from Henry than
+there had been from John; but the acceptance of the compromise was
+mainly due to the feeling that, whilst it was desirable that the king
+should govern with moderation, it would be a dangerous experiment to
+put the power to control him in the hands of the barons, who might use
+it for their own advantage rather than for the advantage of the
+nation. The whole history of England for many years was to turn on the
+difficulty of weakening the power of a bad king without producing
+anarchy.</p>
+
+<a id="img096" name="img096"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 210px;">
+<img src="images/img096.jpg" width="200" height="608" alt="" title="">
+<p>Effigy of William Longespée, Earl of Salisbury (died
+1227); from his tomb in Salisbury Cathedral: showing armour worn from
+about 1225 to 1250.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap13sec3" name="chap13sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>Administration of Hubert de Burgh. 1219-1232.</b>&mdash;In <b>1219</b> William the
+Marshal died. For some years the government was mainly in the hands of
+Hubert de Burgh, who strenuously maintained the authority of the king
+over the barons, whilst at the same time he set himself distinctly at
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page187" name="page187"></a>(p. 187)</span> the head of the growing national feeling against the
+admission of foreigners to wealth and high position in England. As a
+result of the disturbances of John's reign many of the barons and of
+the leaders of the mercenaries had either fortified their own castles
+or had taken possession of those which belonged to the king. In <b>1220</b>
+Hubert demanded the surrender of these castles as Henry II. had done
+in the beginning of his reign. In <b>1221</b> the Earl of Aumale was forced
+to surrender his castles, and in <b>1224</b> Faukes de Breauté, one of the
+leaders of John's mercenaries who had received broad lands in England,
+was reduced to submission and was banished on his refusal to give up
+his great castle at Bedford. As long as Hubert ruled, England was to
+belong to the English. His power was endangered from the very quarter
+from which it ought to have received most support. In <b>1227</b> Henry
+declared himself of age. He was weak and untrustworthy, always ready
+to give his confidence to unworthy favourites. His present favourite
+was Peter des Roches, Bishop of Winchester. The bishop was a greedy
+and unscrupulous Poitevin, who regarded the king's favour as a means
+of enriching himself and his Poitevin relatives and friends. Henry was
+always short of money, and was persuaded by Peter that it was
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page188" name="page188"></a>(p. 188)</span> Hubert's fault. In <b>1232</b> Hubert was charged with a whole
+string of crimes and dismissed from office.</p>
+
+<a id="img097" name="img097"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img097.jpg" width="250" height="578" alt="" title="">
+<p>Simon, Bishop of Exeter (died 1223); from his tomb at
+Exeter, showing rich mass-vestments.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap13sec4" name="chap13sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>Administration of Peter des Roches. 1232-1234.</b>&mdash;Henry was now
+entirely under the power of Peter des Roches. In <b>1233</b> he ordered
+Hubert to be seized. Though Hubert took sanctuary in a chapel, he was
+dragged out, and a smith was ordered to put him in fetters. The man
+refused to obey. "Is not this," he said, "that most faithful and
+high-souled Hubert who has so often saved England from the ravages of
+foreigners, and has given England back to the English?" Hubert was
+thrown into the Tower, and was never again employed in any office of
+state. As long as Peter des Roches ruled the king it would be hard to
+keep England for the English. Poitevins and Bretons flocked over from
+the Continent, and were appointed to all the influential posts which
+fell vacant. The barons had the national feeling behind them when they
+raised complaints against this policy. Their leader was Earl Richard
+the Marshal, the son of the Earl William who had governed England
+after the death of John. Without even the semblance of trial Henry
+declared Earl Richard and his chief supporters guilty of treason. At a
+Great Council held at Westminster some of the barons remonstrated.
+Peter des Roches replied saucily that there were no peers in England
+as in France, meaning that in England the barons had no rights against
+the king. Both Henry and Peter could, however, use their tongues
+better than their swords. They failed miserably in an attempt to
+overcome the men whom they had unjustly accused, till in <b>1234</b> Peter
+stirred up some of the English lords in Ireland to seize on Earl
+Richard's possessions there. The Earl hurried over to defend his
+estates. Amongst <span class="pagenum"><a id="page189" name="page189"></a>(p. 189)</span> his followers were many of Peter's
+confidants, who, treacherously deserting him in the first battle, left
+him to be slain by his enemies. Peter at least gained nothing by his
+villainy. Edmund Rich, a saintly man, who had recently become
+Archbishop of Canterbury, protested against his misdeeds. All England
+was behind the Archbishop, and Henry was compelled to dismiss Peter
+and then to welcome back Peter's enemies and to restore them to their
+rights. It was of no slight importance that a man so devoted and
+unselfish as Edmund Rich had put himself at the head of the movement.
+It was a good thing, no doubt, to maintain that wealth should be in
+the hands <span class="pagenum"><a id="page190" name="page190"></a>(p. 190)</span> rather of natives than of foreigners; but after
+all every contention for material wealth alone is of the earth,
+earthy. No object which appeals exclusively to the selfish instincts
+can, in the long run, be worth contending for. Edmund Rich's accession
+to the national cause was a guarantee that the claims of righteousness
+and mercy in the management of the national government would not
+altogether be forgotten, and fortunately there were new forces
+actively at work in the same direction. The friars, the followers of
+St. Francis and St. Dominic, had made good their footing in England.</p>
+
+<a id="img098" name="img098"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img098.jpg" width="400" height="467" alt="" title="">
+<p>Beverley Minster, Yorkshire&mdash;the south transept; built
+about 1220-1230.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap13sec5" name="chap13sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>Francis of Assisi.</b>&mdash;Francis, the son of a merchant in the Tuscan
+town of Assisi, threw aside the vanities of youth after a serious
+illness. He was wedded, he declared, to Poverty as his bride. He
+clothed himself in rags. When his father sent him with a horseload of
+goods to a neighbouring market, he sold both horse and goods, and
+offered the money to build a church. His father was enraged, and
+summoned him before the bishop that he might be deprived of the right
+of inheriting that which he knew not how to use. Francis stripped
+himself naked, renouncing even his clothes as his father's property.
+"I have now," he said, "but one Father, He that is in heaven." He
+wandered about as a beggar, subsisting on alms and devoting himself to
+the care of the sick and afflicted. In his heroism of self-denial he
+chose out the lepers, covered as they were with foul and infectious
+sores, as the main objects of his tending. Before long he gathered
+together a brotherhood of men like-minded with himself, who left all,
+to give not alms but themselves to the help of the poor and sorrowful
+of Christ's flock. In <b>1209</b> Innocent III. constituted them into a new
+order, not of monks but of Friars (<i>Fratres</i> or brethren). The special
+title of the new order, which after ages have known by the name of
+Franciscans, was that of Minorites (<i>Fratres Minores</i>), or the lesser
+brethren, because Francis in his humility declared them to be less
+than the least of Christ's servants. Like Francis, they were to be
+mendicants, begging their food from day to day. Having nothing
+themselves, they would be the better able to touch the hearts of those
+who had nothing. Yet it was not so much the humility of Francis as his
+loving heart which distinguished him amongst men. Not only all human
+beings but all created things were dear to him. Once he is said to
+have preached to birds. He called the sun and the wind his brethren,
+the moon and the water his sisters. When he died the last feeble words
+which he breathed were, "Welcome, sister Death!"</p>
+
+<a id="chap13sec6" name="chap13sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>St. Dominic.</b>&mdash;Another order arose about the same time in <span class="pagenum"><a id="page191" name="page191"></a>(p. 191)</span>
+Spain. Dominic, a Spaniard, was appalled, not by the misery, but by
+the ignorance of mankind. The order which he instituted was to be
+called that of the Friars Preachers, though they have in later times
+usually been known as Dominicans. Like the Franciscans they were to be
+Friars, or brothers, because all teaching is vain, as much as all
+charitable acts are vain, unless brotherly kindness be at the root.
+Like the Franciscans they were to be mendicants, because so only could
+the world be convinced that they sought not their own good, but to win
+souls to Christ.</p>
+
+<a id="chap13sec7" name="chap13sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>The Coming of the Friars. 1220-1224.</b>&mdash;In <b>1220</b> the first Dominicans
+arrived in England. Four years later, in <b>1224</b>, the first Franciscans
+followed them. Of the work of the early Dominicans in England little
+is known. They preached and taught, appealing to those whose
+intelligence was keen enough to appreciate the value of argument. The
+Franciscans had a different work before them. The misery of the
+dwellers on the outskirts of English towns was appalling. The townsmen
+had made provision for keeping good order amongst all who shared in
+the liberties,<a id="footnotetag13" name="footnotetag13"></a><a href="#footnote13" title="Go to footnote 13"><span class="small">[13]</span></a> or, as we should say, in the privileges of the
+town; but they made no provision for good order amongst the crowds who
+flocked to the town to pick up a scanty living as best they might.
+These poor wretches had to dwell in miserable hovels outside the walls
+by the side of fetid ditches into which the filth of the town was
+poured. Disease and starvation thinned their numbers. No man cared for
+their bodies or their souls. The priests who served in the churches
+within the town passed them by, nor had they any place in the
+charities with which the brethren of the gilds assuaged the
+misfortunes of their own members. It was amongst these that the
+Franciscans lived and laboured, sharing in their misery and their
+diseases, counting their lives well spent if they could bring comfort
+to a single human soul.</p>
+
+<a id="chap13sec8" name="chap13sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>Monks and Friars.</b>&mdash;The work of the friars was a new phase in the
+history of the Church. The monks had made it their object to save
+their own souls; the friars made it their object to save the bodies
+and souls of others. The friars, like the monks, taught by the example
+of self-denial; but the friars added active well-doing to the passive
+virtue of restraint. Such examples could not fail to be attended with
+consequences of which those who set <span class="pagenum"><a id="page192" name="page192"></a>(p. 192)</span> them never dreamed, all
+the more because the two new orders worked harmoniously towards a
+common end. The Dominicans quickened the brain whilst the Franciscans
+touched the heart, and the whole nation was the better in consequence.</p>
+
+<a id="img099" name="img099"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img099.jpg" width="500" height="344" alt="" title="">
+<p>Longthorpe Manor House, Northampton;<br> built about 1235.
+Some of the larger windows are later.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap13sec9" name="chap13sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>The King's Marriage. 1236.</b>&mdash;In <b>1236</b> Henry married Eleanor, the
+daughter of the Count of Provence. The immediate consequence was the
+arrival of her four uncles with a stream of Provençals in their train.
+Amongst these uncles William, Bishop-elect of Valence, took the lead.
+Henry submitted his weak mind entirely to him, and distributed rank
+and wealth to the Provençals with as much profusion as he had
+distributed them to the Poitevins in the days of Peter des Roches. The
+barons, led now by the king's brother, Richard of Cornwall,
+remonstrated when they met in the Great Council, which was gradually
+acquiring the right of granting fresh taxes, though all reference to
+that right was dropped out of all editions of the Great Charter issued
+in the reign of Henry. For some time they granted the money which
+Henry continually asked for, coupling, however, with their grant the
+demand that Henry should confirm the Charter. The king never refused
+to confirm it. He had no difficulty in making promises, but he never
+troubled himself to keep those which he had made.</p>
+
+<a id="img100" name="img100"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img100.jpg" width="400" height="298" alt="" title="">
+<p>A ship in the reign of Henry III.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap13sec10" name="chap13sec10"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page193" name="page193"></a>(p. 193)</span> 10. <b>The Early Career of Simon de Montfort.
+1231&mdash;1243.</b>&mdash;Strangely enough, Simon de Montfort, the man who was to
+be the chief opponent of Henry and his foreign favourites, was himself
+a foreigner. He was sprung from a family established in Normandy, and
+his father, the elder Simon de Montfort, had been the leader of a body
+of Crusaders from the north of France, who had poured over the south
+to crush a vast body of heretics, known by the name of Albigeois, from
+Albi, a town in which they swarmed. The elder Simon had been strict in
+his orthodoxy and unsparing in his cruelty to all who were unorthodox.
+From him the younger Simon inherited his unswerving religious zeal and
+his constancy of purpose. There was the same stern resolution in both,
+but in the younger man these qualities were coupled with a
+statesmanlike instinct, which was wanting to the father. Norman as he
+was, he had a claim to the earldom of Leicester through his
+grandmother, and in <b>1231</b> this claim was acknowledged by Henry. For
+some time Simon continued to live abroad, but in <b>1236</b> he returned to
+England to be present at the king's marriage. He was at once taken
+into favour, and in <b>1238</b> married the king's sister, Eleanor. His
+marriage was received by the barons and the people with a burst of
+indignation. It was one more instance, it was said, of Henry's
+preference for foreigners over his own countrymen. In <b>1239</b> Henry
+turned upon his brother-in-law, brought heavy charges against him, and
+drove him from his court. In <b>1240</b> Simon was outwardly reconciled to
+Henry, but he was never again able to repose confidence in one so
+fickle. In <b>1242</b> Henry resolved to undertake an expedition to France to
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page194" name="page194"></a>(p. 194)</span> recover Poitou, which had been gradually slipping out of his
+hands. At a Great Council held before he sailed, the barons, who had
+no sympathy with any attempt to recover lost possessions in France,
+not only rated him soundly for his folly, but, for the first time,
+absolutely refused to make him a grant of money. Simon told him to his
+face that the Frenchman was no lamb to be easily subdued. Simon's
+words proved true. Henry sailed for France, but in <b>1243</b> he surrendered
+all claims to Poitou, and returned discomfited. If he did not bring
+home victory he brought with him a new crowd of Poitevins, who were
+connected with his mother's second husband. All of them expected to
+receive advancement in England, and they seldom expected it in vain.</p>
+
+<a id="chap13sec11" name="chap13sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>Papal Exactions. 1237&mdash;1243.</b>&mdash;Disgusted as were the English
+landowners by the preference shown by the king to foreigners, the
+English clergy were no less disgusted by the exactions of the Pope.
+The claim of Innocent III. to regulate the proceedings of kings had
+been handed down to his successors and made them jealous of any ruler
+too powerful to be controlled. The Emperor Frederick II. had not only
+succeeded to the government of Germany, and to some influence over the
+north of Italy, but had inherited Naples and Sicily from his mother.
+The Pope thus found himself, as it were, between two fires. There was
+constant bickering between Frederick and Gregory IX., a fiery old man
+who became Pope in <b>1227</b>, and in <b>1238</b> Gregory excommunicated Frederick,
+and called on all Europe to assist him against the man whom he
+stigmatised as the enemy of God and the Church. As the king of England
+was his vassal in consequence of John's surrender, he looked to him
+for aid more than to others, especially as England, enjoying internal
+peace more than other nations, was regarded as especially wealthy. In
+<b>1237</b>, the year before Frederick's excommunication, Gregory sent
+Cardinal Otho as his legate to demand money from the English clergy.
+The clergy found a leader in Robert Grossetête, Bishop of Lincoln, a
+wise and practical reformer of clerical disorders; but though they
+grumbled, they could get no protection from the king, and were forced
+to pay. Otho left England in <b>1241</b>, carrying immense sums of money with
+him, and the promise of the king to present three hundred Italian
+priests to English benefices before he presented a single Englishman.
+In <b>1243</b> Gregory IX. was succeeded by Innocent IV., who was even more
+grasping than his predecessor.</p>
+
+<a id="chap13sec12" name="chap13sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>A Weak Parliamentary Opposition. 1244.</b>&mdash;Against these evils the
+Great Council strove in vain to make head. It was now <span class="pagenum"><a id="page195" name="page195"></a>(p. 195)</span>
+beginning to be known as Parliament, though no alteration was yet made
+in its composition. In <b>1244</b> clergy and barons joined in remonstrating
+with the king, and some of them even talked about restraining his
+power by the establishment of a Justiciar and Chancellor, together
+with four councillors, all six to be elected by the whole of the
+baronage. Without the consent of the Chancellor thus chosen no
+administrative act could be done. The scheme was a distinct advance
+upon that of the barons who, in <b>1215</b>, forced the Great Charter upon
+John. The barons had then proposed to leave the appointment of
+executive officials to the king, and to appoint a committee of
+twenty-five, who were to have nothing to do with the government of the
+country, but were to compel the king by force to keep the promises
+which he had made. In <b>1244</b> they proposed to appoint the executive
+officials themselves. It was the beginning of a series of changes
+which ultimately led to that with which we are now familiar, the
+appointment of ministers responsible to Parliament. It was too great
+an innovation to be accepted at once, especially as it was demanded by
+the barons alone. The clergy, who were still afraid of the disorders
+which might ensue if power were lodged in the hands of the barons,
+refused to support it, and for a time it fell to the ground. At the
+same time Richard of Cornwall abandoned the baronial party. He had
+lately married the queen's sister, which may have drawn him over to
+the king; but it is also probable that his own position as the king's
+brother made him unwilling to consent to a scheme which would
+practically transfer the government from the king to the barons. On
+the other hand Earl Simon was found on the side of the barons. He held
+his earldom by inheritance from his English grandmother, and the
+barons were willing to forgive his descent from a foreign grandfather
+when they found him prepared to share their policy.</p>
+
+<a id="chap13sec13" name="chap13sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>Growing Discontent. 1244&mdash;1254.</b>&mdash;The clergy had to learn by bitter
+experience that it was only by a close alliance with the barons that
+they could preserve themselves from wrong. In <b>1244</b> a new envoy from
+the Pope, Master Martin, travelled over England wringing money from
+the clergy. Though he was driven out of the country in <b>1245</b>, the Papal
+exactions did not cease. The Pope, moreover, continued to present his
+own nominees to English benefices, and in <b>1252</b> Grossetête complained
+that these nominees drew three times as much income from England as
+flowed into the royal exchequer. For a time even Henry made
+complaints, but in <b>1254</b> Innocent IV. won him over to his side.
+Frederick II. had died in <b>1250</b>, and his illegitimate son, Manfred, a
+tried warrior and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page196" name="page196"></a>(p. 196)</span> an able ruler, had succeeded him as king
+of Sicily and Naples. Innocent could not bear that that crown should
+be worn by the son of the man whom he had hated bitterly, and offered
+it to Edmund, the second son of Henry III. Henry lept at the offer,
+hoping that England would bear the expense of the undertaking. England
+was, however, in no mood to comply. Henry had been squandering money
+for years. He had recently employed Earl Simon in Gascony, where Simon
+had put down the resistance of the nobles with a heavy hand. The
+Gascons complained to Henry, and Henry quarrelled with Simon more
+bitterly than before. In <b>1254</b> Henry crossed the sea to restore order
+in person. To meet his expenses he borrowed a vast sum of money, and
+this loan, which he expected England to meet, was the only result of
+the expedition.</p>
+
+<a id="img101" name="img101"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img101.jpg" width="300" height="202" alt="" title="">
+<p>A bed in the reign of Henry III.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap13sec14" name="chap13sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>The Knights of the Shire in Parliament. 1254.</b>&mdash;During the king's
+absence the queen and Earl Richard, who were left as regents, and who
+had to collect money as best they might, gathered a Great Council, to
+which, for the first time, representative knights, four from each
+shire, were summoned. They were merely called on to report what amount
+of aid their constituents were willing to give, and the regents were
+doubtless little aware of the importance of the step which they were
+taking. It was only, to all appearances, an adaptation of the summons
+calling on the united jury to meet at St. Albans to assess the damages
+of the clergy in the reign of John. It might seem as if the regents
+had only summoned a united jury to give evidence of their
+constituents' readiness to grant certain sums of money. In reality the
+new scheme was sure to take root, because it held out a hope of
+getting rid of a constitutional difficulty which had hitherto proved
+insoluble&mdash;the difficulty, that is to say, of weakening the king's
+power to do evil without establishing baronial anarchy in its place.
+It was certain that the representatives of the freeholders in the
+counties would not use their influence for the destruction of order.</p>
+
+<a id="img102" name="img102"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img102.jpg" width="500" height="321" alt="" title="">
+<p>Barn of thirteenth-century date at Raunds,
+Northamptonshire.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap13sec15" name="chap13sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>Fresh Exactions. 1254-1257.</b>&mdash;At the end of <b>1254</b> Henry returned to
+England. In <b>1255</b> a new Pope, Alexander IV., confirmed <span class="pagenum"><a id="page197" name="page197"></a>(p. 197)</span> his
+predecessor's grant of the kingdom of Sicily to Edmund, on condition
+that Henry should give a large sum of money for the expenses of a war
+against Manfred. To make it easy for Henry to find the money,
+Alexander gave him a tenth of the revenues of the English clergy, on
+the plea that the clergy had always borne their share of the expenses
+of a crusade, and that to fight for the Pope against Manfred was
+equivalent to a crusade. Immense sums were wrung from the clergy, who
+were powerless to resist Pope and king combined. Their indignation was
+the greater, not only because they knew that religion was not at stake
+in the Pope's effort to secure his political power in Italy, but also
+because the Papal court was known to be hopelessly corrupt, it being a
+matter of common talk that all things were for sale at Rome. The
+clergy indeed were less than ever in a condition to resist the king
+without support. Grossetête was dead, and the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, the queen's uncle, Boniface of Savoy, whose duty it was to
+maintain the rights of the Church, was a man who cared nothing for
+England except on account of the money he drew from it. Other
+bishoprics as well were held by foreigners. The result of the weakness
+of the clergy was that they were now ready to unite with the barons,
+whom they had deserted in <b>1244</b> (see p. <a href="#page195">195</a>). Henry's
+misgovernment, in fact, had roused all classes against him, as the
+townsmen and the smaller landowners had been even worse treated than
+the greater <span class="pagenum"><a id="page198" name="page198"></a>(p. 198)</span> barons. In <b>1257</b> one obstacle to reform was
+removed. Richard of Cornwall, the king's brother, who was formidable
+through his wealth and the numbers of his vassals, had for some time
+taken part against them. In <b>1257</b> he was chosen king of the Romans by
+the German electors, an election which would make him Emperor as soon
+as he had been crowned by the Pope. He at once left England to seek
+his fortunes in Germany, where he was well received as long as he had
+money to reward his followers, but was deserted as soon as his purse
+was empty.</p>
+
+<a id="chap13sec16" name="chap13sec16"></a>
+<p>16. <b>The Provisions of Oxford. 1258.</b>&mdash;The crisis in England came in
+<b>1258</b>, whilst Richard was still abroad. Though thousands were dying of
+starvation in consequence of a bad harvest, Henry demanded for the
+Pope the monstrous sum of one-third of the revenue of all England.
+Then the storm burst. At a Parliament at Westminster the barons
+appeared in arms and demanded, first, the expulsion of all foreigners,
+and, secondly, the appointment of a committee of twenty-four&mdash;twelve
+from the king's party and twelve from that of the barons&mdash;to reform
+the realm. The king unwillingly consented, and the committee was
+appointed. Later in the year Parliament met again at Oxford to receive
+the report of the new committee. The Mad Parliament, as it was
+afterwards called in derision, was resolved to make good its claims.
+The scheme of reinforcing Parliament by the election of knights of the
+shire had indeed been suffered to fall into disuse since its
+introduction in <b>1254</b>, yet every tenant-in-chief had of old the right
+of attending, and though the lesser tenants-in-chief had hitherto
+seldom or never exercised that right, they now trooped in arms to
+Oxford to support the barons. To this unwonted gathering the committee
+produced a set of proposals which have gone by the name of the
+Provisions of Oxford. There was to be a council of fifteen, without
+the advice of which the king could do no act, and in this council the
+baronial party had a majority. The offices of state were filled in
+accordance with the wishes of the twenty-four, and the barons thus
+entered into possession of the authority which had hitherto been the
+king's. The danger of the king's tyranny was averted, but it remained
+to be seen whether a greater tyranny would not be erected in its
+stead. One clause of the Provisions of Oxford was not reassuring. The
+old Parliaments, which every tenant-in-chief had at least the
+customary right of attending, were no longer to exist. Their place was
+to be taken by a body of twelve, to be chosen by the barons, which was
+to meet three times a year to discuss public affairs with the council
+of fifteen.</p>
+
+<a id="chap13sec17" name="chap13sec17"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page199" name="page199"></a>(p. 199)</span> 17. <b>The Expulsion of the Foreigners. 1258.</b>&mdash;The first
+difficulty of the new government was to compel the foreigners to
+surrender their castles. William de Valence, the king's half-brother,
+headed the resistance of the foreigners. The barons swore that no
+danger should keep them back till they had cleared the land of
+foreigners and had obtained the good laws which they needed. Earl
+Simon set the example by surrendering his own castles at Kenilworth
+and Odiham. The national feeling was with Simon and the barons, and at
+last the foreigners were driven across the sea. For a time all went
+well. The committee of twenty-four continued its work and produced a
+further series of reforms. All persons in authority were called on to
+swear to be faithful to the Provisions of Oxford, and the king and his
+eldest son, Edward, complied with the demand.</p>
+
+<a id="chap13sec18" name="chap13sec18"></a>
+<p>18. <b>Edward and the Barons. 1259.</b>&mdash;Early in <b>1259</b> Richard came back to
+England, and gave satisfaction by swearing to the Provisions. Before
+long signs of danger appeared. The placing complete authority in the
+hands of the barons was not likely to be long popular, and Earl Simon
+was known to be in favour of a wider and more popular scheme. Hugh
+Bigod, who had been named Justiciar by the barons, gave offence by the
+way in which he exercised his office. Simon was hated by the king, and
+he knew that many of the barons did not love him. The sub-tenants&mdash;the
+Knights Bachelors of England as they called themselves&mdash;doubting his
+power to protect them, complained, not to Simon, but to Edward, the
+eldest son of the King, that the barons had obtained the redress of
+their own grievances, but had done nothing for the rest of the
+community. Edward was now a young man of twenty, hot-tempered and
+impatient of control, but keen-sighted enough to know, what his father
+had never known, that the royal power would be increased if it could
+establish itself in the affections of the classes whose interests were
+antagonistic to those of the barons. He therefore declared that he had
+sworn to the Provisions, and would keep his oath; but that if the
+barons did not fulfil their own promises, he would join the community
+in compelling them to do so. The warning was effectual, and the barons
+issued orders for the redress of the grievances of those who had found
+so high a patron.</p>
+
+<a id="chap13sec19" name="chap13sec19"></a>
+<p>19. <b>The Breach amongst the Barons. 1259&mdash;1261.</b>&mdash;Simon had no wish to
+be involved in a purely baronial policy. He had already fallen out
+with Richard de Clare, Earl of Gloucester, the leader of the barons
+who had resisted the full execution of the promises made at Oxford in
+the interest of the people at large. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page200" name="page200"></a>(p. 200)</span> "With such fickle and
+faithless men," said Simon to him, "I care not to have ought to do.
+The things we are treating of now we have sworn to carry out. And
+thou, Sir Earl, the higher thou art the more art thou bound to keep
+such statutes as are wholesome for the land." The king fomented the
+rising quarrel, and in <b>1261</b> announced that the Pope had declared the
+Provisions to be null and void, and had released him from his oath to
+observe them.</p>
+
+<a id="chap13sec20" name="chap13sec20"></a>
+<p>20. <b>Royalist Reaction and Civil War. 1261.</b>&mdash;Henry now ruled again in
+his own fashion. Even the Earl of Gloucester discovered that if the
+king was to be resisted it must be by an appeal to a body of men more
+numerous than the barons alone. He joined Simon in inviting a
+Parliament to meet, at which three knights should appear for each
+county, thus throwing over the unfortunate narrowing of Parliament to
+a baronial committee of twelve, which had been the worst blot on the
+Provisions of Oxford. In the summer of <b>1262</b> the Earl of Gloucester
+died, and was succeeded by his son, Earl Gilbert, one of Simon's
+warmest personal admirers. In <b>1263</b> Simon, now the acknowledged head of
+the barons and of the nation, finding that the king could not be
+brought to keep the Provisions, took arms against him. He was a master
+in the art of war, and gained one fortified post after another. Henry,
+being, as usual, short of money, called on the Londoners for a loan.
+On their refusal Edward seized a sum of money which belonged to them,
+and so exasperated them that, on the queen's passing under London
+Bridge, the citizens reviled her and pelted her with stones. The war
+was carried on with doubtful results, and by the end of the year both
+parties agreed to submit to the arbitration of the king of France.</p>
+
+<a id="chap13sec21" name="chap13sec21"></a>
+<p>21. <b>The Mise of Amiens. 1264.</b>&mdash;The king of France Louis IX.,
+afterwards known as St. Louis, was the justest and most unselfish of
+men. In <b>1259</b> he had surrendered to Henry a considerable amount of
+territory in France, which Henry had been unable to reconquer for
+himself; and was well satisfied to obtain from Henry in return a
+formal renunciation of the remainder of the lands which Philip II. had
+taken from John. Yet, well-intentioned as Louis was, he had no
+knowledge of England, and in France, where the feudal nobility was
+still excessively tyrannical, justice was only to be obtained by the
+maintenance of a strong royal power. He therefore thought that what
+was good for France was also good for England, and in the beginning of
+<b>1264</b> he relieved Henry from all the restrictions which his subjects
+had sought to place upon <span class="pagenum"><a id="page201" name="page201"></a>(p. 201)</span> him. The decision thus taken was
+known as the Mise, or settlement, of Amiens, from the place at which
+it was issued.</p>
+
+<a id="img103" name="img103"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img103.jpg" width="400" height="218" alt="" title="">
+<p>A fight between armed and mounted knights of the time
+of Henry III.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap13sec22" name="chap13sec22"></a>
+<p>22. <b>The Battle of Lewes. 1264.</b>&mdash;The Mise of Amiens required an
+unconditional surrender of England to the king. The Londoners and the
+trading towns were the first to reject it. Simon put himself at the
+head of a united army of barons and citizens. In the early morning of
+May 14 he caught the king's army half asleep at Lewes. Edward charged
+at the Londoners, against whom he bore a grudge since they had
+ill-treated his mother, and cleared them off the field with enormous
+slaughter. When he returned the battle was lost. Henry himself was
+captured, and Richard, king of the Romans, was found hiding in a
+windmill. Edward, in spite of his success, had to give himself up as a
+prisoner.</p>
+
+<a id="img104" name="img104"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img104.jpg" width="300" height="293" alt="" title="">
+<p>Seal of Robert Fitzwalter, showing a mounted knight in
+complete mail armour. Date, about 1265.</p></div>
+
+<a id="img105" name="img105"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 210px;">
+<img src="images/img105.jpg" width="200" height="684" alt="" title="">
+<p>Effigy of a knight at Gosperton, showing armour worn
+from about 1250 to 1300. Date, about 1270.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap13sec23" name="chap13sec23"></a>
+<p>23. <b>Earl Simon's Government. 1264-1265.</b>&mdash;Simon followed up his victory
+by an agreement called the Mise of Lewes, according to which all
+matters of dispute were again to be referred to arbitration. In the
+meantime there were to be three Electors, Earl Simon himself, the Earl
+of Gloucester, and the Bishop of Chichester. These were to elect nine
+councillors, who were to name the ministers of state. To keep these
+councillors within bounds a Parliament was called, in which with the
+barons, bishops, and abbots there sat not only chosen knights for each
+shire, but also for the first time two representatives of certain
+towns. This Parliament met in <b>1265</b>. It was not, indeed, a full
+parliament, as only Simon's partisans amongst the barons were
+summoned, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page202" name="page202"></a>(p. 202)</span> but it was the fullest representation of England
+as a whole which had yet met, and not a merely baronial committee like
+that proposed in <b>1258</b>. The views of Simon were clearly indicated in an
+argumentative Latin poem written after the battle of Lewes by one of
+his supporters. In this poem the king's claim to do as he likes with
+his own is met by a demand that he shall rule according to law. Such a
+demand was made by others than the poet. "The king," a great lawyer of
+the day had said, "is not subject to any man, but to God and the law."
+The difficulty still remained of ascertaining what the law was. The
+poet did not, indeed, anticipate modern theories, and hold that the
+law was what the representatives of the people made it to be; but he
+held that the law consisted in the old customs, and that the people
+themselves must be appealed to as the witnesses of what those old
+customs were. "Therefore," he wrote, "let the community of the kingdom
+advise, and let it be known what the generality thinks, to whom their
+own laws are best known. Nor are all those of the country so ignorant
+that they do not know better than strangers the customs of their own
+kingdom which have been handed down to them by <span class="pagenum"><a id="page203" name="page203"></a>(p. 203)</span> their
+ancestors."<a id="footnotetag14" name="footnotetag14"></a><a href="#footnote14" title="Go to footnote 14"><span class="small">[14]</span></a> The poet, in short, regarded the Parliament as a
+national jury, whose duty it was to give evidence on the laws and
+customs of the nation, in the same way that a local jury gave evidence
+on local matters.</p>
+
+<a id="chap13sec24" name="chap13sec24"></a>
+<p>24. <b>The Battle of Evesham. 1265.</b>&mdash;Simon's constitution was premature.
+Men wanted a patriotic king who could lead the nation instead of one
+who, like Henry, used it for his own ends. The new rulers were sure to
+quarrel with one another. If Simon was still Simon the Righteous, his
+sons acted tyrannically. The barons began again to distrust Simon
+himself, and the young Earl of Gloucester, like his father before him,
+put himself at the head of the dissatisfied barons, and went over to
+the king. Edward escaped from confinement, by urging his keepers to
+ride races with one another, and then galloping off when their horses
+were too tired to follow him. Edward and Gloucester combined forces,
+and, falling on Earl Simon at Evesham, defeated him utterly. Simon was
+slain in the fight and his body barbarously mutilated; but his memory
+was treasured, and he was counted as a saint by the people for whom he
+had worked. Verses have been preserved in which he is compared to
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page204" name="page204"></a>(p. 204)</span> Archbishop Thomas, who had given himself as a sacrifice for
+the Church, as Simon had given himself as a sacrifice for the nation.</p>
+
+<a id="img106" name="img106"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img106.jpg" width="500" height="345" alt="" title="">
+<p>Building operations in the reign of Henry III., with
+the king giving directions to the architect.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap13sec25" name="chap13sec25"></a>
+<p>25. <b>The Last Years of Henry III. 1265&mdash;1272.</b>&mdash;The storm which had been
+raised was some time in calming down. Some of Earl Simon's followers
+continued to hold out against the king. When at last they submitted,
+they were treated leniently, and in <b>1267</b>, at a Parliament at
+Marlborough, a statute was enacted embodying most of the demands for
+the redress of grievances made by the earlier reformers. The kingdom
+settled down in peace, because Henry now allowed Edward to be the real
+head of the government. Edward, in short, carried on Earl Simon's work
+in ruling justly, with the advantage of being raised above jealousies
+by his position as heir to the throne. In <b>1270</b> England was so peaceful
+that Edward could embark on a crusade. At Acre he very nearly fell a
+victim to a fanatic belonging to a body which counted assassination a
+religious duty. His wife, Eleanor of Castile, who was tenderly
+attached to him, had to be led out of his tent, lest her bitter grief
+should distract him during an operation which the surgeons held to be
+necessary. In <b>1272</b> Henry III. died, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page206" name="page206"></a>(p. 206)</span> his son, though in
+a distant land, was quietly accepted as his successor.</p>
+
+<a id="img107" name="img107"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img107.jpg" width="400" height="630" alt="" title="">
+<p>East end of Westminster Abbey Church: begun by Henry
+III. in 1245.</p></div>
+
+<a id="img108" name="img108"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img108.jpg" width="400" height="534" alt="" title="">
+<p>Nave of Salisbury Cathedral Church, looking west. Date,
+between 1240 and 1250.</p></div>
+
+<a id="img109" name="img109"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img109.jpg" width="400" height="303" alt="" title="">
+<p>A king and labourers in the reign of Henry III.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap13sec26" name="chap13sec26"></a>
+<p>26. <b>General Progress of the Country.</b>&mdash;In spite of the turmoils of
+Henry's reign the country made progress in many ways. Men busied
+themselves with replacing the old round-arched churches by <span class="pagenum"><a id="page207" name="page207"></a>(p. 207)</span>
+large and more beautiful ones, in that Early English style of which
+Lincoln Cathedral was the first example on a large scale. In <b>1220</b> it
+was followed by Beverley Minster (see p. <a href="#page189">189</a>). The nave of
+Salisbury Cathedral was begun in <b>1240</b> (see p. <a href="#page206">206</a>), and a new
+Westminster Abbey grew piecemeal under Henry's own supervision during
+the greater part of the reign (see p. <a href="#page204">205</a>). Mental activity
+accompanied material activity. At Oxford there were reckoned 15,000
+scholars. Most remarkable was the new departure taken by Walter de
+Merton, Henry's Chancellor. Hitherto each scholar had shifted for
+himself, lived where he could, and been subjected to little or no
+discipline. In founding Merton College, the first college which
+existed in the University, Merton proposed not only to erect a
+building in which the lads who studied might be boarded and placed
+under supervision, but to train them with a view to learning for its
+own sake, and not to prepare them for the priesthood. The eagerness to
+learn things difficult was accompanied by a desire to increase popular
+knowledge. For the first time since the Chronicle came to an end,
+which was soon after the accession of Henry II., a book&mdash;Layamon's
+<i>Brut</i>&mdash;appeared in the reign of John in the English language, and one
+at least of the songs which witness to the interest of the people in
+the great struggle with Henry III. was also written in the same
+language. Yet the great achievement of the fifty-six years of Henry's
+reign was&mdash;to use the language of the smith who refused to put fetters
+on the limbs of Hubert de Burgh (see p. <a href="#page188">188</a>)&mdash;the giving of
+England back to the English. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page208" name="page208"></a>(p. 208)</span> In <b>1216</b> it was possible for
+Englishmen to prefer a French-born Louis as their king to an Angevin
+John. In <b>1272</b> England was indeed divided by class prejudices and
+conflicting interests, but it was nationally one. The greatest
+grievance suffered from Henry III. was his preference of foreigners
+over his own countrymen. In resistance to foreigners Englishmen had
+been welded together into a nation, and in their new king Edward they
+found a leader who would not only prove a wise and thoughtful ruler,
+but who was every inch an Englishman.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Genealogy of John's Sons and Grandsons.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="16" class="center"><span class="smcap">John</span>, 1199-1216</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry III.</span><br>1216-1272</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Eleanor of Provence</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Richard,<br>Earl of Cornwall<br>and King of the Romans</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Eleanor</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Simon de Montfort</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="13">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="13">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Edward I.</span><br>1272-1307</td>
+<td colspan="14">Edmund, titular King of Sicily<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<a id="chap14" name="chap14"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XIV.<br>
+EDWARD I. AND EDWARD II.<br>
+EDWARD I., <b>1272&mdash;1307.</b> EDWARD II., <b>1307&mdash;1327.</b></h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Accession of Edward I.                         <span class="right10">1272</span></li>
+<li>Death of Alexander III.                        <span class="right10">1285</span></li>
+<li>The Award of Norham                            <span class="right10">1292</span></li>
+<li>The Model Parliament                           <span class="right10">1295</span></li>
+<li>The First Conquest of Scotland                 <span class="right10">1296</span></li>
+<li>Confirmatio Cartarum                           <span class="right10">1297</span></li>
+<li>Completion of the Second Conquest of Scotland  <span class="right10">1304</span></li>
+<li>The Incorporation of Scotland with England     <span class="right10">1305</span></li>
+<li>The Third Conquest of Scotland                <span class="right10">1306</span></li>
+<li>Accession of Edward II.                        <span class="right10">1307</span></li>
+<li>Execution of Gaveston                          <span class="right10">1312</span></li>
+<li>Battle of Bannockburn                          <span class="right10">1314</span></li>
+<li>Execution of Lancaster                         <span class="right10">1322</span></li>
+<li>Deposition of Edward II.                       <span class="right10">1327</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="img110" name="img110"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img110.jpg" width="300" height="302" alt="" title="">
+<p>Great Seal of Edward I.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap14sec1" name="chap14sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>The First Years of Edward I. 1272&mdash;1279.</b>&mdash;Edward I., though he
+inherited the crown in <b>1272</b>, did not return to England till <b>1274</b>,
+being able to move in a leisurely fashion across Europe without fear
+of disturbances at home. He fully accepted those articles of John's
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page209" name="page209"></a>(p. 209)</span> Great Charter which had been set aside at the beginning of
+the reign of Henry III., and which required that the king should only
+take scutages and aids with the consent of the Great Council or
+Parliament. The further requirement of the barons that they should
+name the ministers of the crown, was allowed to fall asleep. Edward
+was a capable ruler, and knew how to appoint better ministers than the
+barons were likely to choose for him. It was Edward's peculiar merit
+that he stood forward not only as a ruler but as a legislator. He
+succeeded in passing one law after another, because he thoroughly
+understood that useful legislation is only possible when the
+legislator on the one hand has an intelligent perception of the
+remedies needed to meet existing evils, and on the other hand is
+willing to content himself with such remedies as those who are to be
+benefited by them are <span class="pagenum"><a id="page210" name="page210"></a>(p. 210)</span> ready to accept. The first condition
+was fulfilled by Edward's own skill as a lawyer, and by the skill of
+the great lawyers whom he employed. The second condition was fulfilled
+by his determination to authorise no new legislation without the
+counsel and consent of those who were most affected by it. He did not,
+indeed, till late in his reign call a whole Parliament together, as
+Earl Simon had done. But he called the barons together in any matter
+which affected the barons, and he called the representatives of the
+townsmen together in any matter which affected the townsmen, and so on
+with the other classes.</p>
+
+<a id="chap14sec2" name="chap14sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>Edward I. and Wales. 1276&mdash;1284.</b>&mdash;Outside England Edward's first
+difficulty was with the Welsh, who, though their Princes had long been
+regarded by the English Kings as vassals, had practically maintained
+their independence in the mountainous region of North Wales of which
+Snowdon is the centre. Between them and the English Lords Marchers,
+who had been established to keep order in the marches, or border-land,
+there was nothing but hostility. The Welshmen made forays and
+plundered the English lands, and the English retorted by slaughtering
+Welshmen whenever they could come up with them amongst the hills.
+Naturally the Welsh took the side of any enemy of the English kings
+with whom it was possible to ally themselves. Llewelyn, Prince of
+Wales, had joined Earl Simon against Henry III., and had only done
+homage to Henry after Simon had been defeated. After Henry's death he
+refused homage to Edward till <b>1276</b>. In <b>1282</b> he and his brother David
+renewed the war, and Edward, determined to put an end to the
+independence of such troublesome neighbours, marched against them.
+Before the end of the year Llewelyn was slain, and David was captured
+and executed in <b>1283</b>. Wales then came fully under the dominion of the
+English kings. Edward's second son, afterwards King Edward II., was
+born at Carnarvon in <b>1284</b>, and soon afterwards, having become heir to
+the throne upon the death of his elder brother, was presented to the
+Welsh as Prince of Wales, a title from that day usually bestowed upon
+the king's eldest son. At the same time, though Edward built strong
+castles at Conway and Carnarvon to hold the Welsh in awe, he made
+submission easier by enacting suitable laws for them, under the name
+of the Statute of Wales, and by establishing a separate body of local
+officials to govern them, as well as by confirming them in the
+possession of their lands and goods.</p>
+
+<a id="img111" name="img111"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img111.jpg" width="300" height="399" alt="" title="">
+<p>Group of armed knights, and a king in ordinary dress.
+Date, <i>temp.</i> Edward I.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap14sec3" name="chap14sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>Customs Duties. 1275.</b>&mdash;Though Edward I. was by no means
+extravagant, he found it impossible to meet the expenses of government
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page211" name="page211"></a>(p. 211)</span> without an increase of taxation. In <b>1275</b> he obtained the
+consent of Parliament to the increase of the duties on exports and
+imports which had hitherto been levied without Parliamentary sanction.
+He was now to receive by a Parliamentary grant a fixed export duty of
+6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> on every sack of wool sent out of the country, and of a
+corresponding duty on wool-fells and leather. Under ordinary
+circumstances it is useless for any government to attempt to gain a
+revenue by export duty, because such a duty only raises the price
+abroad of the products of its own country, and foreigners will
+therefore prefer to buy the articles which they need from some country
+which does not levy export duties, and where, therefore, the articles
+are to be had more cheaply. England, however, was, in Edward's time,
+and for many years afterwards, an exception to the rule. On the
+Continent men could not produce much wool or leather for sale, because
+private wars were constantly occurring, and the fighting men were in
+the habit of driving off the sheep and the cattle. In England there
+were no private wars, and under the king's protection sheep and cattle
+could be bred in safety. There were now growing up manufactures of
+cloth in the fortified towns of Flanders, and the manufacturers there
+were obliged to come to England for the greater part of the wool which
+they used. They could not help paying not only the price of the wool,
+but the king's export duty as well, because if they refused they could
+not get sufficient wool in any other country.</p>
+
+<a id="chap14sec4" name="chap14sec4"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page212" name="page212"></a>(p. 212)</span> 4. <b>Edward's Judicial Reforms. 1274&mdash;1290.</b>&mdash;Every king of
+England since the Norman Conquest had exercised authority in a twofold
+capacity. On one hand he was the head of the nation, on the other hand
+he was the feudal lord of his vassals. Edward laid more stress than
+any former king upon his national headship. Early in his reign he
+organised the courts of law, completing the division of the <i>Curia
+Regis</i> into the three courts which existed till recent times: the
+Court of King's Bench, to deal with criminal offences reserved for the
+king's judgment, and with suits in which he was himself concerned; the
+Court of Exchequer, to deal with all matters touching the king's
+revenue; and the Court of Common Pleas, to deal with suits between
+subject and subject. Edward took care that the justice administered in
+these courts should as far as possible be real justice, and in <b>1289</b> he
+dismissed two Chief Justices and many other officials for corruption.
+In <b>1285</b> he improved the Assize of Arms of Henry II. (see p.
+<a href="#page154">154</a>), so as to be more sure of securing a national support for
+his government in time of danger.</p>
+
+<a id="chap14sec5" name="chap14sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>Edward's Legislation. 1279&mdash;1290.</b>&mdash;It was in accordance with the
+national feeling that Edward, in <b>1290</b>, banished from England the Jews,
+whose presence was most profitable to himself, but who were regarded
+as cruel tyrants by their debtors. On the other hand, Edward took care
+to assert his rights as a feudal lord. In <b>1279</b>, by the statute <i>De
+religiosis</i>, commonly known as the Statute of Mortmain, he forbade the
+gift of land to the clergy, because in their hands land was no longer
+liable to the feudal dues. In <b>1290</b>, by another statute, <i>Quia
+emptores</i>, he forbade all new sub-infeudation. If from henceforth a
+vassal wished to part with his land, the new tenant was to hold it,
+not under the vassal who gave it up, but under that vassal's lord,
+whether the lord was the king or anyone else. The object of this law
+was to increase the number of tenants-in-chief, and thus to bring a
+larger number of landowners into direct relations with the king.</p>
+
+<a id="img112" name="img112"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img112.jpg" width="400" height="565" alt="" title="">
+<p>Nave of Lichfield Cathedral, looking east. Built about
+1280.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap14sec6" name="chap14sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>Edward as a National and as a Feudal Ruler.</b>&mdash;In his government of
+England Edward had sought chiefly to strengthen his position as the
+national king of the whole people, and to depress legally and without
+violence the power of the feudal nobility. He was, however, ambitious,
+with the ambition of a man conscious of great and beneficent aims, and
+he was quite ready to enforce even unduly his personal claims to
+feudal obedience whenever it served his purpose to do so. His
+favourite motto, 'Keep troth' (<i>Pactum serva</i>), revealed his sense of
+the inviolability of a personal engagement given or received, but his
+legal mind often led him into <span class="pagenum"><a id="page213" name="page213"></a>(p. 213)</span> construing in his own favour
+engagements in which only the letter of the law was on his side,
+whilst its spirit was against him. It was chiefly in his relations
+with foreign peoples that he fell into <span class="pagenum"><a id="page214" name="page214"></a>(p. 214)</span> this error, as it was
+here that he was most strongly tempted to lay stress upon the feudal
+tie which made for him, and to ignore the importance of a national
+resistance which made against him. In dealing with Wales, for
+instance, he sent David to a cruel death, because he had broken the
+feudal tie which bound him to the king of England, feeling no sympathy
+with him as standing up for the independence of his own people.</p>
+
+<a id="chap14sec7" name="chap14sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>The Scottish Succession. 1285-1290.</b>&mdash;In the earlier part of
+Edward's reign Alexander III. was king of Scotland. Alexander's
+ancestors, indeed, had done homage to Edward's ancestors, but in <b>1189</b>
+William the Lion had purchased from Richard I. the abandonment of all
+the claim to homage for the crown of Scotland which Henry II. had
+acquired by the treaty of Falaise (see pp. <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a>).
+William's successors, however, held lands in England, and had done
+homage for them to the English kings. Edward would gladly have
+restored the old practice of homage for Scotland itself, but to this
+Alexander had never given way. To Edward there was something alluring
+in the prospect of being lord of the whole island, as it would not
+only strengthen his own personal position, but would bring two nations
+into peaceful union. Between the southern part of Scotland, indeed,
+and the northern part of England there was no great dissimilarity. On
+both sides of the border the bulk of the population was of the same
+Anglian stock, whilst, in consequence of the welcome offered by the
+Scottish kings to persons of Norman descent, the nobility was as
+completely Norman in Scotland as it was in England, many of the nobles
+indeed possessing lands on both sides of the border. A prospect of
+effecting a union by peaceful means offered itself to Edward in <b>1285</b>,
+when Alexander III. was killed by a fall from his horse near Kinghorn.
+Alexander's only descendant was Margaret, a child of his daughter and
+of King Eric of Norway. In <b>1290</b> it was agreed that she should marry
+the Prince of Wales, but that the two kingdoms should remain
+absolutely independent of one another. Unfortunately, the Maid of
+Norway, as the child was called, died on her way to Scotland, and this
+plan for establishing friendly relations between the two countries
+came to naught. If it had succeeded three centuries of war and misery
+might possibly have been avoided.</p>
+
+<a id="chap14sec8" name="chap14sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>Death of Eleanor of Castile. 1290.</b>&mdash;Another death, which happened
+in the same year, brought sorrow into Edward's domestic life. His wife
+Eleanor died in November. The corpse was brought for burial from
+Lincoln to Westminster, and the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page215" name="page215"></a>(p. 215)</span> bereaved husband ordered the
+erection of a memorial cross at each place where the body rested.</p>
+
+<a id="img113" name="img113"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 210px;">
+<img src="images/img113.jpg" width="200" height="606" alt="" title="">
+<p>Effigy of Eleanor of Castile, queen of Edward I., in
+Westminster Abbey.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap14sec9" name="chap14sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>The Award of Norham. 1291&mdash;1292.</b>&mdash;Edward, sorrowing as he was, was
+unable to neglect the affairs of State. On the death of the Maid of
+Norway there was a large number of claimants to the Scottish crown.
+The hereditary principle, which had long before been adopted in regard
+to the succession to landed property, was gradually being adopted in
+most kingdoms in regard to the succession to the crown. There were
+still, however, differences of opinion as to the manner in which
+hereditary succession ought to be reckoned, and there were now many
+claimants, of whom at least three could make out a plausible case.
+David, Earl of Huntingdon, a brother of William the Lion, had left
+three daughters. The grandson of the eldest daughter was John Balliol;
+the son of the second was Robert Bruce; the grandson of the third was
+John Hastings. Balliol maintained that he ought to succeed as being
+descended from the eldest: Bruce urged that the son of a younger
+daughter was nearer to the common ancestor, David, than the grandson
+of the elder: whilst Hastings asked that Scotland should be divided
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page216" name="page216"></a>(p. 216)</span> into three parts&mdash;according to a custom which prevailed in
+feudal estates in which the holder left only daughters&mdash;amongst the
+representatives of David's three daughters.<a id="footnotetag15" name="footnotetag15"></a><a href="#footnote15" title="Go to footnote 15"><span class="small">[15]</span></a> Every one of these
+three claimants was an English baron, and Bruce held large estates in
+both countries. The only escape from a desolating civil war seemed to
+be to appeal to Edward's arbitration, and in <b>1291</b> Edward summoned the
+Scots to meet him at Norham. He then demanded as the price of his
+arbitration the acknowledgment of his position as lord paramount of
+Scotland, in virtue of which the Scottish king, when he had once been
+chosen, was to do homage to himself as king of England. Edward, who
+might fairly have held that, in spite of the abandonment of the treaty
+of Falaise by Richard, he had a right to the old vague over-lordship
+of earlier kings, appears to have thought it right to take the
+opportunity of Scotland's weakness to renew the stricter relationship
+of homage which had been given up by Richard. At all events, the
+Scottish nobles and clergy accepted his demand, though the commonalty
+made some objection, the nature of which has not been recorded. Edward
+then investigated carefully the points at issue, and in <b>1292</b> decided
+in favour of Balliol. If he had been actuated by selfish motives he
+would certainly have adopted the suggestion of Hastings that Scotland
+ought to be divided into three kingdoms.</p>
+
+<a id="img114" name="img114"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img114.jpg" width="400" height="602" alt="" title="">
+<p>Cross erected near Northampton by Edward I. in memory
+of Queen Eleanor built between 1291 and 1294.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap14sec10" name="chap14sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>Disputes with Scotland and France. 1293&mdash;1295.</b>&mdash;The new king of
+Scotland did homage to Edward for his whole kingdom. If Edward could
+have contented himself with enforcing the ordinary obligations of
+feudal superiority all might have gone well. Unfortunately for all
+parties, he attempted to stretch them by insisting in <b>1293</b> that
+appeals from the courts of the king of Scotland should lie <span class="pagenum"><a id="page218" name="page218"></a>(p. 218)</span>
+to the courts of the king of England. Suitors found that their rights
+could not be ascertained till they had undertaken a long and costly
+journey to Westminster. A national feeling of resistance was roused
+amongst the Scots, and though Edward pressed his claims courteously,
+he continued to press them. A temper grew up in Scotland which might
+be dangerous to him if Scotland could find an ally, and an ally was
+not long in presenting himself. Philip IV. now king of France, was as
+wily and unscrupulous as Philip II. had been in the days of John.
+Edward was his vassal in Guienne and Gascony, and Philip knew how to
+turn the feudal relationship to account in France as well as Edward
+knew how to turn it to account in Scotland. The Cinque Ports<a id="footnotetag16" name="footnotetag16"></a><a href="#footnote16" title="Go to footnote 16"><span class="small">[16]</span></a> along
+the south-eastern shore of England swarmed with hardy and practised
+mariners, and there had often been sea-fights between French and
+English sailors quite independently of the two kings. In <b>1293</b> there
+was a great battle in which the French were worsted. Though Edward was
+ready to punish the offenders, Philip summoned him to appear as a
+vassal before his lord's court at Paris. In <b>1294</b>, however, an
+agreement was made between the two kings. Edward was for mere form's
+sake to surrender his French fortresses to Philip in token of
+submission, and Philip was then to return them. Philip, having thus
+got the fortresses into his hands, refused to return them. In <b>1295</b> a
+league was made between France and Scotland, which lasted for more
+than three hundred years. Its permanence was owing to the fact that it
+was a league between nations more than a league between kings.</p>
+
+<a id="chap14sec11" name="chap14sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>The Model Parliament. 1295.</b>&mdash;Edward, attacked on two sides, threw
+himself for support on the English nation. Towards the end of <b>1295</b> he
+summoned a Parliament which was in most respects the model for all
+succeeding Parliaments. It was attended not only by bishops, abbots,
+earls, and barons, by two knights from every shire, and two burgesses
+from every borough, but also by representatives of the chapters of
+cathedrals and of the parochial clergy. It cannot be said with any
+approach to certainty, whether the Parliament thus collected met in
+one House or not. As, however, the barons and knights offered an
+eleventh of the value of their movable goods, the clergy a tenth, and
+the burgesses a seventh, it is not unlikely that there was a
+separation into what in modern times would be called three Houses, at
+least for purposes of taxation. At all events, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page219" name="page219"></a>(p. 219)</span> the
+representatives of the clergy subsequently refused to sit in
+Parliament, preferring to vote money to the Crown in their own
+convocations.</p>
+
+<a id="img115" name="img115"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 210px;">
+<img src="images/img115.jpg" width="200" height="631" alt="" title="">
+<p>Sir John d'Abernoun, died 1277: from his brass at Stoke
+Dabernon: showing armour worn from about 1250 to 1300.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap14sec12" name="chap14sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>The first Conquest of Scotland. 1296.</b>&mdash;In <b>1296</b> Edward turned first
+upon Scotland. After he crossed the border Balliol sent to him
+renouncing his homage. "Has the felon fool done such folly?" said
+Edward. "If he will not come to us, we will go to him." He won a
+decisive victory over the Scots at Dunbar. Balliol surrendered his
+crown, and was carried off, never to reappear in Scotland. Edward set
+up no more vassal kings. He declared himself to be the immediate king
+of Scotland, Balliol having forfeited the crown by treason. The
+Scottish nobles did homage to him. On his return to England he left
+behind him the Earl of Surrey and Sir Hugh Cressingham as guardians of
+the kingdom, and he carried off from Scone the stone of destiny on
+which the Scottish kings had been crowned, and concerning which there
+had been an old prophecy to the effect that wherever that stone was
+Scottish kings should rule. The stone was placed, where it still
+remains, under the coronation-chair of the English kings in
+Westminster Abbey, and there were those long afterwards who deemed the
+prophecy fulfilled when the Scottish King <span class="pagenum"><a id="page220" name="page220"></a>(p. 220)</span> James VI. came to
+take his seat on that chair as James I. of England.</p>
+
+<a id="chap14sec13" name="chap14sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>The Resistance of Archbishop Winchelsey. 1296&mdash;1297.</b>&mdash;The dispute
+with France and the conquest of Scotland cost much money, and Edward,
+finding his ordinary revenue insufficient, had been driven to increase
+it by unusual means. He gathered assemblies of the merchants, and
+persuaded them without the leave of Parliament to increase the export
+duties, and he also induced the clergy in the same way to grant him
+large sums. The clergy were the first to resist. In <b>1296</b> Boniface
+VIII., a Pope who pushed to the extreme the Papal claims to the
+independence of the Church, issued the Bull, <i>Clericis laicos</i>, in
+which he declared that the clergy were not to pay taxes without the
+Pope's consent; and when at the end of the year Edward called on his
+Parliament to grant him fresh sums, Winchelsey, the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, refused, on the ground of this Bull, to allow a penny to
+be levied from the clergy. Edward, instead of arguing with him,
+directed the chief justice of the King's Bench to announce that, as
+the clergy would pay no taxes, they would no longer be protected by
+the king. The clergy now found themselves in evil case. Anyone who
+pleased could rob them or beat them, and no redress was to be had.
+They soon therefore evaded their obligation to obey the Bull, and paid
+their taxes, under the pretence that they were making presents to the
+king, on which Edward again opened his courts to them. In the days of
+Henry I. or Henry II. it would not have been possible to treat the
+clergy in this fashion. The fact was, that the mass of the people now
+looked to the king instead of to the Church for protection, and
+therefore respected the clergy less than they had done in earlier
+days.</p>
+
+<a id="chap14sec14" name="chap14sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>The 'Confirmatio Cartarum.' 1297.</b>&mdash;In <b>1297</b> Edward, having subdued
+the Scots in the preceding year, resolved to conduct one army to
+Flanders, and to send another to Gascony to maintain his rights
+against Philip IV. He therefore called on his barons to take part in
+these enterprises. Amongst those ordered to go to Gascony were Roger
+Bigod, Earl of Norfolk, and Humfrey Bohun, Earl of Hereford. They
+declared that they were only bound to follow the king himself, and
+that as Edward was not going in person to Gascony they would not go.
+"By God, Sir Earl," said the king to one of them, "you shall either go
+or hang." "By God," was the reply, "I will neither go nor hang." The
+two earls soon found support. The barons were sore because Edward's
+reforms had diminished their authority. The clergy were sore because
+of their recent treatment. The merchants were sore because of the
+exactions <span class="pagenum"><a id="page221" name="page221"></a>(p. 221)</span> to which they had been subjected. Archbishop
+Winchelsey bound the malcontents together by asking Edward to confirm
+<i>Magna Carta</i> and other charters granted by his predecessors, and by
+adding other articles now proposed for the first time, so as to
+preclude him from demanding taxes not granted by Parliament. Edward
+found that the new articles restricted his action more than it had
+been restricted by the older charters. He was deeply vexed, as he
+thought that he deserved to be trusted, and that, though he had
+exacted illegal payments, he had only done so out of necessity. He
+saw, however, that he must yield, but he could not bring himself to
+yield in person, and he therefore crossed the sea to Flanders, leaving
+the Prince of Wales to make the required concession. On October 10,
+<b>1297</b>, the <i>Confirmatio Cartarum</i>, as it was called, was issued in the
+king's name. It differed from <i>Magna Carta</i> in this, that whereas John
+had only engaged not to exact feudal revenue from his vassals without
+consent of Parliament, Edward I. also engaged not to exact customs
+duties without a Parliamentary grant. From that time no general
+revenue could be taken from the whole realm without a breach of the
+law, though the king still continued for some time to raise tallages,
+or special payments, from the tenants of his own demesne lands.</p>
+
+<a id="chap14sec15" name="chap14sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>Wallace's Rising. 1297&mdash;1304.</b>&mdash;Whilst Edward was contending with
+his own people his officers had been oppressing the Scots. They had
+treated Scotland as a conquered land, not as a country joined to
+England by equal union. Resistance began in <b>1297</b>, and a rising was
+headed by Wallace, a gentleman of moderate fortune in the western
+lowlands. Wallace's bold and vigorous attacks gained him the
+confidence of the lesser gentry and the people, though the nobles,
+mostly of Norman descent, supported the English government, and only
+joined Wallace when it was dangerous to stand aloof. In the autumn, an
+English army advancing into Scotland reached the south bank of the
+Forth near Stirling. Wallace, who showed on that day that he was
+skilful as well as brave, drew up his army on the north bank at some
+little distance from the narrow bridge over which the English must
+come if they were to attack him. When half of them had crossed, he
+fell upon that half before the troops in the rear could advance to its
+succour. Wallace's victory was complete, and he then invaded England,
+ravaging and slaughtering as far as Hexham.</p>
+
+<a id="chap14sec16" name="chap14sec16"></a>
+<p>16. <b>The Second Conquest of Scotland. 1298&mdash;1304.</b>&mdash;In <b>1298</b> Edward, who
+had been unsuccessful on the Continent, made a truce with Philip.
+Returning to England, he marched against Wallace, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page222" name="page222"></a>(p. 222)</span> and came
+up with him at Falkirk. The battle which ensued, like William's
+victory at Senlac (see p. <a href="#page096">96</a>), was a triumph of inventive
+military skill over valour content to rest upon ancient methods. The
+Scots were hardy footmen, drawn up in three rings, and provided with
+long spears. Against such a force so armed the cavalry of the feudal
+array would dash itself in vain. Edward, however, had marked in his
+Welsh wars the superiority of the long-bow drawn to the ear&mdash;not, as
+in the case of the shorter bows of older times, to the breast of the
+archer&mdash;and sending its cloth-yard shaft with a strength and swiftness
+hitherto unknown. He now brought with him a large force of bowmen
+equipped in this fashion. At Falkirk the long-bow was tried for the
+first time in any considerable battle. The effect was overwhelming: a
+shower of arrows poured upon a single point in the ring of the
+spearmen soon cleared a gap. Edward's cavalry dashed in before the
+enemy had time to close, and the victory was won. Wallace had had
+scarcely one of the Scottish nobles with him either at Stirling or at
+Falkirk, and unless all Scotland combined he could hardly be expected
+to succeed against such a warrior as Edward. Wallace's merit was that
+he did not despair of his country, and that by his patriotic vigour he
+prepared the minds of Scotsmen for a happier day. He himself fled to
+France, but Scotland struggled on without him. Some of the nobles, now
+that Wallace was no longer present to give them cause of jealousy,
+took part in the resistance, and only in <b>1304</b> did Edward after
+repeated campaigns complete his second conquest of the country.</p>
+
+<a id="chap14sec17" name="chap14sec17"></a>
+<p>17. <b>The Incorporation of Scotland with England. 1305.</b>&mdash;In <b>1305</b>
+Wallace, who had returned from France, but had taken no great part in
+the late resistance, was betrayed to the English. His barbarity in his
+raid on Northumberland in <b>1297</b> (see p. <a href="#page221">221</a>) had marked him out
+for vengeance, and he was executed at Tyburn as a traitor to the
+English king of Scotland, whose right he had never acknowledged.
+Edward then proceeded to incorporate Scotland with England. Scotland
+was to be treated very much as Wales had been treated before. There
+was to be as little harshness as possible. Nobles who had resisted
+Edward were to keep their estates on payment of fines, the Scottish
+law was to be observed, and Scots were to be chosen to represent the
+wishes of their fellow-countrymen in the Parliament at Westminster. On
+the other hand, the Scottish nobles were to surrender their castles,
+and the country was to be governed by an English Lieutenant, who,
+together with his council, had power to amend the laws.</p>
+
+<a id="chap14sec18" name="chap14sec18"></a>
+<p>18. <b>Character of Edward's Dealings with Scotland.</b>&mdash;Edward's <span class="pagenum"><a id="page223" name="page223"></a>(p. 223)</span>
+dealings with Scotland, mistaken as they were, were not those of a
+self-willed tyrant. If it be once admitted that he was really the lord
+paramount of Scotland, everything that he did may be justified upon
+feudal principles. First, Balliol forfeited his vassal crown by
+breaking his obligations as a vassal. Secondly, Edward, through the
+default of his vassal, took possession of the fief which Balliol had
+forfeited, and thus became the immediate lord of Balliol's vassals.
+Thirdly, those vassals rebelled&mdash;so at least Edward would have
+said&mdash;against their new lord. Fourthly, they thereby forfeited their
+estates to him, and he was therefore, according to his own view, in
+the right in restoring their estates to them&mdash;if he restored them at
+all&mdash;under new conditions. Satisfactory as this argument must have
+seemed to Edward, it was weak in two places. The Scots might attack it
+at its basis by retorting that Edward had never truly been lord
+paramount of Scotland at all; or they might assert that it did not
+matter whether he was so or not, because the Scottish right to
+national independence was superior to all feudal claims. It is this
+latter argument which has the most weight at the present day, and it
+seems to us strange that Edward, who had done so much to encourage the
+national growth of England, should have entirely ignored the national
+growth of Scotland. All that can be said to palliate Edward's mistake
+is that it was, at first, difficult to perceive that there was a
+Scottish nationality at all. Changes in the political aspect of
+affairs grow up unobserved, and it was not till after his death that
+all classes in Scotland were completely welded together in resistance
+to an English king. At all events, if he treated the claim of the
+Scots to national independence with contempt, he at least strove,
+according to his own notions, to benefit Scots and English alike. He
+hoped that one nation, justly ruled under one government, would grow
+up in the place of two divided peoples.</p>
+
+<a id="chap14sec19" name="chap14sec19"></a>
+<p>19. <b>Robert Bruce. 1306.</b>&mdash;It was better even for England that Edward's
+hopes should fail. Scotland would have been of little worth to its
+more powerful neighbour if it had been cowed into subjection; whereas
+when, after struggling and suffering for her independence, she offered
+herself freely as the companion and ally of England to share in common
+duties and common efforts, the gift was priceless. That Scotland was
+able to shake off the English yoke was mainly the work of Robert
+Bruce, the grandson of the Robert Bruce who had been one of the
+claimants of the Scottish crown at Norham. The Bruces, like Balliol,
+were of Norman descent, and as Balliol's rivals they had attached
+themselves to Edward. The time was now come when all chances of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page224" name="page224"></a>(p. 224)</span> Balliol's restoration were at an end, and thoughts of
+gaining the crown stirred in the mind of the younger Bruce. After
+Edward's last settlement of Scotland it was plain that there was no
+longer room for a Scottish vassal king, and Bruce was therefore driven
+to connect his own aspirations with those of the Scottish nation. He
+had, however, one powerful rival amongst the nobles. John Comyn&mdash;the
+Red Comyn, as he was called&mdash;had been one of the many claimants of the
+throne who appeared before Edward at Norham, and he still looked with
+a jealous eye upon all who disputed his title. He was, however,
+persuaded in <b>1306</b> to meet Bruce in the Grey Friars Church at Dumfries.
+As Bruce pleaded his own right to the crown, Comyn denounced him as a
+traitor to Edward. Bruce answered by driving his dagger into him. "I
+doubt," cried Bruce, as he rushed from the church, "that I have slain
+the Red Comyn." "I will mak sicker" (<i>make sure</i>), said Kirkpatrick,
+who was in attendance upon him, and, going in, completed the murder.
+Bruce made for Scone and was crowned king of Scotland in the presence
+of many of the chief nobility.</p>
+
+<a id="chap14sec20" name="chap14sec20"></a>
+<p>20. <b>Edward's Last March on Scotland and Death. 1306&mdash;1307.</b> Edward, to
+whom Bruce was but a rebel and a murderer, despatched against him the
+Earl of Pembroke who routed his forces at Methven. The revolt was
+suppressed and Bruce's supporters were carried off to English prisons,
+and their lands divided amongst English noblemen. The Countess of
+Buchan, who had taken a prominent part in Bruce's coronation, was
+subjected to an imprisonment of great severity in the castle of
+Berwick. Bruce almost alone escaped. He knew now that he had the
+greater part of the nobility as well as the people at his side, and
+even in his lonely wanderings and hairbreadth escapes he was, what
+neither Balliol nor Wallace had been, the true head of the Scottish
+nation. Before the end of <b>1306</b> he reappeared in Carrick, where his own
+possessions lay, and where the whole population was on his side, and
+inflicted heavy losses on the English garrisons. Early in July <b>1307</b>
+Edward, who himself had tarried in Cumberland, once more set out to
+take the field in person; but he was now old and worn out, and he died
+at Burgh on Sands, a few miles on the English side of the border.</p>
+
+<a id="img116" name="img116"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 210px;">
+<img src="images/img116.jpg" width="200" height="560" alt="" title="">
+<p>Edward II.; from his monument in Gloucester Cathedral.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap14sec21" name="chap14sec21"></a>
+<p>21. <b>Edward II. and Piers Gaveston. 1307&mdash;1312.</b>&mdash;The new king, Edward
+II., was as different as possible from his father. He was not wicked,
+like William II. and John, but he detested the trouble of public
+business, and thought that the only advantage of being a king was that
+he would have leisure to amuse himself. During his father's life he
+devoted himself to Piers Gaveston, a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page225" name="page225"></a>(p. 225)</span> Gascon, who encouraged
+him in his pleasures and taught him to mistrust his father. Edward I.
+banished Gaveston; Edward II., immediately on his accession, not only
+recalled him, but made him regent when he himself crossed to France to
+be married to Isabella, the daughter of Philip IV. The barons, who
+were already inclined to win back some of the authority of which
+Edward I. had deprived them, were very angry at the place taken over
+their heads by an upstart favourite, especially as Gaveston was
+ill-bred enough to make jests at their expense. The barons found a
+leader in Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, the son of that Edmund, the
+brother of Edward I., who had received the title of king of Sicily
+from the Pope (see p. <a href="#page197">197</a>). Thomas of Lancaster had very large
+estates. He was an ambitious man, who tried to play the part which had
+been played by Earl Simon without any of Simon's qualifications for
+the position. In <b>1308</b> the king yielded to the barons so far as to send
+Gaveston out of the country to Ireland as his Lieutenant. In <b>1309</b> he
+recalled him. The barons were exasperated, and in the Parliament of
+<b>1310</b> they brought forward a plan for <span class="pagenum"><a id="page226" name="page226"></a>(p. 226)</span> taking the king's
+government out of his hands, very much after the fashion of the
+Provisions of Oxford. Twenty-one barons were appointed Lords
+Ordainers, to draw up ordinances for the government of the country. In
+<b>1311</b> they produced the ordinances. Gaveston was to be banished for
+life. The king was to appoint officers only with the consent of the
+barons, without which he was not to go to war nor leave the kingdom.
+The ordinances may have been justified in so far as they restrained
+the authority of a king so incapable as Edward II. Constitutionally
+their acceptance was a retrograde step, as, like the Provisions of
+Oxford, they placed power in the hands of the barons, passing over
+Parliament as a whole. Edward agreed to the ordinances, but refused to
+surrender Gaveston. The barons took arms to enforce their will, and in
+<b>1312</b>, having captured Gaveston, they beheaded him near Warwick without
+the semblance of a trial.</p>
+
+<a id="chap14sec22" name="chap14sec22"></a>
+<p>22. <b>Success of Robert Bruce. 1307&mdash;1314.</b>&mdash;Whilst Edward and the barons
+were disputing Bruce gained ground rapidly. In <b>1313</b> Stirling was the
+only fortress of importance in Scotland still garrisoned by the
+English, and the English garrison bound itself to surrender on June
+24, <b>1314</b>, if it had not been previously relieved. Even Edward II. was
+stirred by this doleful news, and in <b>1314</b> he put himself at the head
+of an army to relieve Stirling. Lancaster, however, and all whom he
+could influence refused to follow him, on the ground that the king had
+not, in accordance with the ordinances, received permission from the
+barons to go to war. On June 24 Edward reached Bannockburn, within
+sight of Stirling. Like his father, he brought with him English
+archers as well as English horsemen, but he foolishly sent his archers
+far in advance of his horsemen, where they would be entirely
+unprotected. Bruce, on the other hand, not only had a small body of
+horse, which rode down the archers, but he strengthened the defensive
+position of his spearmen by digging pits in front of his line and
+covering them with turf. Into these pits the foremost horses of the
+English cavalry plunged. Edward's whole array was soon one mass of
+confusion, and before it could recover itself a body of gillies, or
+camp-followers, appearing over a hill was taken for a fresh Scottish
+army. The vast English host turned and fled. Stirling at once
+surrendered, and all Scotland was lost to Edward. Materially, both
+England and Scotland suffered grievously from the result of the battle
+of Bannockburn. English invasions of southern Scotland and Scottish
+invasions of northern England spread desolation far and wide, stifling
+the germs of nascent civilisation. Morally, both nations were in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page227" name="page227"></a>(p. 227)</span> end the gainers. The hardihood and self-reliance of the
+Scottish character is distinctly to be traced to those years of
+struggle against a powerful neighbour. England, too, was the better
+for being balked of its prey. No nation can suppress the liberty of
+another without endangering its own.</p>
+
+<a id="img117" name="img117"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img117.jpg" width="400" height="655" alt="" title="">
+<p>Lincoln Cathedral&mdash;the central tower; built about
+1310.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap14sec23" name="chap14sec23"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page228" name="page228"></a>(p. 228)</span> 23. <b>Lancaster's Government. 1314&mdash;1322.</b>&mdash;Edward was thrown by
+his defeat entirely under the power of Lancaster, who took the whole
+authority into his hands and placed and displaced ministers at his
+pleasure. Lancaster, however, was a selfish and incompetent ruler. He
+allowed the Scots to ravage the north of England without venturing to
+oppose them, and as he could not even keep order at home, private wars
+broke out amongst the barons. In <b>1318</b> Bruce took Berwick, the great
+border fortress against Scotland. It was rather by good luck than by
+good management that Edward was at last able to resist Lancaster.
+Edward could not exist without a personal favourite, and he found one
+in Hugh le Despenser. Despenser was at least an Englishman, which
+Gaveston had not been, and his father, Hugh le Despenser the elder,
+did his best to raise up a party to support the king. In <b>1321</b>,
+however, Parliament, under Lancaster's influence, declared against
+them and sentenced them to exile. Edward took arms for his favourites,
+and in <b>1322</b> defeated Lancaster at Boroughbridge, and then had him
+tried and beheaded at Pontefract.</p>
+
+<a id="chap14sec24" name="chap14sec24"></a>
+<p>24. <b>A Constitutional Settlement. 1322.</b>&mdash;Favourites as they were, the
+Despensers had at least the merit of seeing that the king could not
+overpower the barons by the mere assertion of his personal authority.
+At a Parliament held at York in <b>1322</b>, the king obtained the revocation
+of the ordinances, and a declaration that 'matters to be established
+for the estate of our lord the king and of his heirs, and for the
+estate of the realm and of the people, shall be treated, accorded, and
+established in Parliaments by our lord the king, and by the consent of
+the prelates, earls and barons, and commonalty of the realm, according
+as hath been hitherto accustomed.' Edward I. had in <b>1295</b> gathered a
+full Parliament, including the commons. But there was no law to
+prevent him or his successors excluding the commons on some future
+occasion. Edward II. by this declaration, issued with consent of
+Parliament, confirmed his father's practice by a legislative act.
+Unless the law were broken or repealed, no future statute could come
+into existence without the consent of the commons.</p>
+
+<a id="img118" name="img118"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 186px;">
+<img src="images/img118.jpg" width="176" height="700" alt="" title="">
+<p>Sir John de Creke; from his brass at Westley Waterless,
+Cambridgeshire: showing armour worn between 1300 and 1335 or 1340.
+Date, about 1325.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap14sec25" name="chap14sec25"></a>
+<p>25. <b>The Rule of the Despensers. 1322&mdash;1326.</b>&mdash;For some years after the
+execution of Lancaster, Edward, or rather the Despensers, retained
+power, but it was power which did not work for good. In <b>1323</b> Edward
+made a truce with Scotland, but the cessation of foreign war did not
+bring with it a cessation of troubles at home. Edward was entirely
+unable to control his favourites. The elder Despenser was covetous and
+the younger <span class="pagenum"><a id="page229" name="page229"></a>(p. 229)</span> Despenser haughty, and they both made enemies
+for themselves and the king. Queen Isabella was alienated from her
+husband, partly by his exclusive devotion to the Despensers and partly
+by the contempt which an active woman is apt to feel for a husband
+without a will of his own. In <b>1325</b> she went to France, and was soon
+followed by her eldest son, named Edward after his father. From that
+moment she conspired against her husband. In <b>1326</b> she landed,
+accompanied by her paramour, Robert Mortimer, and bringing with her
+foreign troops. The barons rose in her favour. London joined them, and
+all resistance was speedily beaten down. The elder Despenser was
+hanged by the queen at Bristol. The younger was hanged, after a form
+of trial, at Hereford.</p>
+
+<a id="chap14sec26" name="chap14sec26"></a>
+<p>26. <b>The Deposition and Murder of Edward II. 1327.</b>&mdash;Early in <b>1327</b> a
+Parliament met at Westminster. It was filled with the king's enemies,
+and under pressure from the queen and Mortimer Edward II. was
+compelled to sign a declaration of his own wrong-doing and
+incompetency, after which he formally resigned the crown. He was
+allowed to live for eight months, at the end of which he was brutally
+murdered in Berkeley Castle. The deposition of Edward II.&mdash;for his
+enforced resignation was practically nothing less than that&mdash;was the
+work of a faithless wife and of unscrupulous partisans, but at least
+they clothed their vengeance in the forms of Parliamentary action. It
+was by the action of Parliament in loosing the feudal ties by which
+vassals were bound to an <span class="pagenum"><a id="page230" name="page230"></a>(p. 230)</span> unworthy king, that it rose to the
+full position of being the representative of the nation, and at the
+same time virtually proclaimed that the wants of the nation must be
+satisfied at the expense of the feudal claims of the king. The
+national headship of the king would <span class="pagenum"><a id="page231" name="page231"></a>(p. 231)</span> from henceforward be the
+distinguishing feature of his office, whilst his feudal right to
+personal service would grow less and less important every year.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="img119" name="img119"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img119.jpg" width="400" height="551" alt="" title="">
+<p>Howden Church, Yorkshire&mdash;the west front; built about
+1310-1320. The tower was built between 1390 and 1407.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap15" name="chap15"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XV.<br>
+FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD III. TO THE TREATY OF BRETIGNI.<br>
+1327&mdash;1360.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+<p class="center">Reign of Edward III., 1327&mdash;1377</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Accession of Edward III.           <span class="right10">1327</span></li>
+<li>Beginning of the War with France   <span class="right10">1337</span></li>
+<li>Battle of Creçy                    <span class="right10">1346</span></li>
+<li>The Black Death                    <span class="right10">1348</span></li>
+<li>Battle of Poitiers                 <span class="right10">1356</span></li>
+<li>Treaty of Bretigni                 <span class="right10">1360</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap15sec1" name="chap15sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>Mortimer's Government. 1327&mdash;1330.</b>&mdash;Edward III. was only fifteen at
+his accession. For three years power was in the hands of his mother's
+paramour, Mortimer. Robert Bruce, though old and smitten with leprosy,
+was still anxious to wring from England an acknowledgment of Scottish
+independence, and, in spite of the existing truce, sent an army to
+ravage the northern counties of England. Edward led in person against
+it an English force far superior in numbers and equipment; but the
+English soldier needed many things, whilst the Scot contented himself
+with a little oatmeal carried on the back of his hardy pony. If he
+grew tired of that he had but to seize an English sheep or cow and to
+boil the flesh in the hide. Such an army was difficult to come up
+with. Fighting there was none, except once when the Scots broke into
+the English camp at night and almost succeeded in carrying off the
+young king. Mortimer was at his wits' end, and in <b>1328</b> agreed to a
+treaty acknowledging the complete independence of Scotland. It was a
+wise thing to do, but no nation likes to acknowledge failure, and
+Mortimer became widely unpopular. He succeeded indeed in breaking up a
+conspiracy against himself, and in <b>1330</b> even executed Edmund, Earl of
+Kent, a brother of Edward II. The discontented barons found another
+leader in the king, who, young as he was, had been married at fifteen
+to Philippa of Hainault. Though <span class="pagenum"><a id="page232" name="page232"></a>(p. 232)</span> he was already a father, he
+was still treated by Mortimer as a child, and was virtually kept a
+prisoner. At Nottingham he introduced a body of Mortimer's enemies
+into the castle through a secret passage in the rock on which it
+stood. His mother pleaded in vain for her favourite: "Fair son, have
+pity on the gentle Mortimer." Mortimer was hanged, and Queen Isabella
+was never again allowed to take part in public affairs.</p>
+
+<a id="chap15sec2" name="chap15sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>The French Succession. 1328&mdash;1331.</b>&mdash;Isabella's three brothers,
+Louis X., Philip V., and Charles IV., had successively reigned in
+France. Louis X. died in <b>1316</b>, leaving behind him a daughter and a
+posthumous son, who died a week after his birth. Then Philip V. seized
+the crown, his lawyers asserting that, according to the Salic law, 'no
+part of the heritage of Salic land can fall to a woman,' and that
+therefore no woman could rule in France. As a matter of fact this was
+a mere quibble of the lawyers. The Salic law had been the law of the
+Salian Franks in the fifth century, and had to do with the inheritance
+of estates, not with the inheritance of the throne of France, which
+was not at that time in existence. The quibble, however, was used on
+the right side. What Frenchmen wanted was that France should remain an
+independent nation, which it was not likely to do under a queen who
+might marry the king of another country. The rule thus laid down was
+permanently adopted in France. When Philip V. died in <b>1322</b> the throne
+passed, not to his daughter, but to his brother, Charles IV., and when
+Charles died in <b>1328</b>, to his cousin, Philip of Valois, who reigned as
+Philip VI. At that time England was still under the control of
+Mortimer and Isabella, and though Isabella, being the sister of
+Charles IV., thought of claiming the crown, not for herself, but for
+her son, Mortimer did not press the claim. In <b>1329</b> he sent Edward to
+do homage to Philip VI. for his French possessions, but Edward only
+did it with certain reservations, and in <b>1330</b> preparations for war
+were made in England. In <b>1331</b>, after Mortimer's fall, when Edward was
+his own master, he again visited France, and a treaty was concluded
+between the two kings in which he abandoned the reservations on his
+homage.</p>
+
+<a id="img120" name="img120"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img120.jpg" width="460" height="700" alt="" title="">
+<p>Effigies of Edward III. and Queen Philippa; from their
+tombs in Westminster Abbey.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap15sec3" name="chap15sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>Troubles in Scotland. 1329&mdash;1336.</b>&mdash;On his return, Edward looked in
+another direction. In <b>1329</b> Robert Bruce died, leaving his crown to his
+son, David II., a child five years old. Certain English noblemen had
+in the late treaty (see p. <a href="#page231">231</a>) been promised restoration of
+the estates of their ancestors in Scotland, and in <b>1332</b> some of them,
+finding the promise unfulfilled, offered English forces to John
+Balliol's son, Edward, to help him to the Scottish crown. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page234" name="page234"></a>(p. 234)</span>
+Aided by his English allies, Edward Balliol landed in Scotland,
+defeated the Scottish army at Dupplin, and was crowned king. Before
+the end of the year he was surprised at Annan, and fled to England to
+appeal to Edward for help. Though Edward had all the love of
+enterprise of his grandfather, Edward I., yet there was a marked
+contrast between the deliberate calculation of Edward I. and the
+almost accidental way in which Edward III. involved himself in an
+attempt to regain the lordship of Scotland. In <b>1333</b> he laid siege to
+Berwick, then in the hands of the Scots. The Scots advanced into
+England, and their spearmen crossed a marsh to attack the English
+array of knights and archers posted on the slope of Halidon Hill. The
+arrows poured like rain on their struggling columns. The Scots were
+thrown into confusion, and their whole army was almost destroyed.
+Berwick was regained, and Bannockburn, it seemed, was avenged. Edward
+not only set up Balliol as his vassal, but compelled him to yield all
+Scotland south of the Forth to be annexed to England. Such a
+settlement could not last. Balliol was as weak as his father had been,
+and the Scots, recovering courage, drove him out in <b>1334</b>. Edward
+invaded Scotland again and again. As long as he was in the country he
+was strong enough to keep his puppet on the throne, but whenever he
+returned to England David Bruce's supporters regained strength. The
+struggle promised to be lengthy unless help came to the Scots.</p>
+
+<a id="chap15sec4" name="chap15sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>Dispute with France. 1336&mdash;1337.</b>&mdash;Philip VI., like Philip IV. in
+the days of Edward I. (see p. <a href="#page218">218</a>), had his own reasons for
+not allowing the Scots to be crushed. He pursued the settled policy of
+his predecessors in attempting to bring the great fiefs into his
+power, and especially that part of Aquitaine which was still held by
+the most powerful of his vassals, the king of England. Whilst Edward
+was doing his best to bring Scotland into subjection by open war,
+Philip was doing his best to disturb Edward in his hold upon Aquitaine
+by secret intrigues and legal chicanery. Ill-feeling increased on both
+sides. Philip welcomed David Bruce and gave him protection in France,
+and in <b>1336</b> French sailors attacked English shipping and landed
+plunderers in the Isle of Wight. In <b>1337</b> Edward determined to resist,
+and the long war roughly known as the Hundred Years' War began. It was
+in reality waged to discover by an appeal to arms whether the whole of
+Aquitaine was to be incorporated with France and whether Scotland was
+to be incorporated with England. That which gave it its peculiar
+bitterness was, however, not so much the claims <span class="pagenum"><a id="page235" name="page235"></a>(p. 235)</span> of the
+kings, as the passions of their subjects. The national antagonism
+aroused by the plunderings of French sea-rovers would be invigorated
+by the plunderings of Englishmen in the fields of France.</p>
+
+<a id="chap15sec5" name="chap15sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>Edward's Allies. 1337&mdash;1338.</b>&mdash;To Edward it was merely a question of
+defending, first England, and then Aquitaine, against aggression. He
+won over, with large offers of money, the alliance of the princes of
+the Empire whose lands lay round the French frontier to the north and
+east, and even gained the support of the Emperor Lewis the Bavarian.
+His relations with Flanders were even more important. In Flanders
+there had sprung up great manufacturing towns, such as Ghent, Bruges,
+and Ypres, which worked up into cloth the wool which was the produce
+of English sheep. These wealthy towns claimed political independence,
+and thus came into collision with their feudal lord, the Count of
+Flanders. Early in the reign of Philip VI., the Count, who held the
+greater part of his lands from the king of France, had appealed to
+Philip for support, and Philip, who, unlike his wiser predecessors,
+despised the strength which he might gain from the goodwill of
+citizens in a struggle against their lords, took the part of the
+Count, and for a time crushed the citizens at the battle of Cassel.
+After a while the cities recovered themselves, and formed an alliance
+under the leadership of Jacob van Arteveldt, a Flemish nobleman, who
+had ingratiated himself with them by enrolling himself amongst the
+brewers of Ghent, and who was now successful in urging his countrymen
+to enter into friendship with Edward.</p>
+
+<a id="img121" name="img121"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img121.jpg" width="500" height="376" alt="" title="">
+<p>A knight&mdash;Sir Geoffrey Luttrell, who died
+1345&mdash;receiving his helm and pennon from his wife. Another lady holds
+his shield.</p></div>
+
+<a id="img122" name="img122"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 210px;">
+<img src="images/img122.jpg" width="200" height="614" alt="" title="">
+<p>William of Hatfield, second son of Edward III.; from
+his tomb in York Minster: showing rich costume worn by the youth of
+the upper classes about 1340. The embroidery on the tunic has been
+partly worn off on the effigy.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap15sec6" name="chap15sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>Chivalry and War.</b>&mdash;In the long run Edward's cause would be found a
+losing one, but there were circumstances which made it prevail for a
+time. In France there was a broad distinction between gentlemen on the
+one side and citizens and peasants on the other. The gentlemen
+despised all who were not of their own class. In earlier days there
+had sprung up a view of life known as chivalry, which taught that the
+knight was bound to observe the laws of honour, to fight fairly, to
+treat with courtesy a defeated enemy, and to protect women and all who
+were unable to help themselves. Ennobling as the idea was, it had been
+narrowed by the refusal of the gentlemen to extend the rules of
+chivalry beyond their own order, and they were, therefore, ready to
+exercise cruelty upon those who were not gentlemen, whilst proffering
+the most high-flown compliments to those who were. In France, too,
+this broad distinction of ranks told upon the military strength of the
+crown. The fighting force of the French king was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page236" name="page236"></a>(p. 236)</span> his feudal
+array of armour-protected cavalry, composed entirely of gentlemen, and
+aiming at deciding battles in the old fashion by the rush of horsemen.
+If foot soldiers were brought at all into the field they were, for the
+most part, ill armed and ill trained peasants, exposed to be
+helplessly slaughtered by the horsemen.</p>
+
+<a id="chap15sec7" name="chap15sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>Commerce and War.</b>&mdash;In England, on the other hand, the various
+orders of society had been welded together into a united people. The
+king and his vassals indeed still talked the language of chivalry, but
+they were wise enough to seek strength elsewhere. War had become in
+England the affair of the nation, and no longer the affair of a class.
+It must be waged with efficient archers as well as with efficient
+horsemen, the archers being drawn from the class of yeomen or free
+landed proprietors of small plots of land, which was entirely wanting
+in France. Such an army needed pay, and the large sums required for
+the purpose could only be extracted from a nation which, like the
+English, had grown comparatively rich because it was at peace within
+its own borders. Edward was compelled, if he wanted to fight, to
+encourage trade, though it is only fair to remember that he showed
+himself ready to encourage trade without any such ulterior object. He
+brought Flemish weavers into England, and did his best to improve the
+feeble woollen manufacture of the Eastern counties. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page237" name="page237"></a>(p. 237)</span> His
+great resource, however, for purposes of taxation, was the export of
+wool to the Flemish manufacturing towns. Sometimes he persuaded
+Parliament to raise the duties upon exported wool; sometimes he raised
+them, by an evasion of the law, after making a private compact with
+the merchants without consulting Parliament at all; sometimes he
+turned merchant himself and bought wool cheaply in England to sell it
+dear in Flanders. It was said of a great minister of later times that
+he made trade flourish by means of war.<a id="footnotetag17" name="footnotetag17"></a><a href="#footnote17" title="Go to footnote 17"><span class="small">[17]</span></a> It might be said with
+greater truth of Edward III. that he made war flourish by means of
+trade.</p>
+
+<a id="img123" name="img123"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img123.jpg" width="400" height="568" alt="" title="">
+<p>York Minster:&mdash;The nave, looking west, built during the
+first half of the fourteenth century. The west window was completed
+and glazed in 1338.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap15sec8" name="chap15sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>Attacks on the North of France. 1338&mdash;1340.</b>&mdash;Great as was Edward's
+advantage in having a united nation at his back, it hardly seemed in
+the first years of the war as though he knew how to use it. Though he
+had declared war against Philip in <b>1337</b>, he did not begin hostilities
+till the following year. In <b>1338</b>, after landing at Antwerp, he
+obtained from the Emperor Lewis the title of Imperial Vicar, which
+gave him a right to the military services of the vassals of the
+Empire. Crowds of German and Low Country lords pressed into his ranks,
+but they all wanted high <span class="pagenum"><a id="page239" name="page239"></a>(p. 239)</span> pay, and his resources, great as
+they were, were soon exhausted, and he had to pawn his crowns to
+satisfy their needs. These lords proved as useless as they were
+expensive. In <b>1339</b> Edward crossed the French frontier, but he could
+not induce Philip to fight, and being deserted by his German allies,
+he was obliged to return to England. He then attempted to fall back on
+the support of the Flemings, but was told by them that unless he
+formally took the title of king of France, which he had only
+occasionally done before, they could not fight for him, as the king of
+France, whoever he might be, was their superior lord, and as such had
+a claim to their services. After some hesitation, in the beginning of
+<b>1340</b>, Edward satisfied their scruples by reviving the claim which he
+had formerly abandoned, declaring himself to be, in right of his
+mother, the lawful king of France; and quartering the French arms with
+his own. A third territorial question was thus added to the other two.
+Practically Edward's answer to Philip's effort to absorb all Aquitaine
+in France was a counter-demand that all France should be absorbed in
+England.</p>
+
+<a id="img124" name="img124"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img124.jpg" width="250" height="304" alt="" title="">
+<p>Royal arms of Edward III., adopted in 1340 and used
+till about 1405. From the tomb of Edward III.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap15sec9" name="chap15sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>Battle of Sluys. 1340.</b>&mdash;Edward had not yet learnt to place
+confidence in those English archers who had served him so well at
+Halidon Hill. In <b>1340</b>, however, he found himself engaged in a conflict
+which should have taught him where his true strength lay. The French
+navy held the Channel, and had burnt Southampton. The fleet of the
+Cinque Ports was no longer sufficient to cope with the enemy. Edward
+proudly announced that he, like his progenitors, was the lord of the
+English sea on every side, and called out every vessel upon which he
+could lay hands. The result was a naval victory at Sluys, in which
+well-nigh the whole French fleet was absolutely destroyed. It was by
+the English archers that <span class="pagenum"><a id="page240" name="page240"></a>(p. 240)</span> the day was won. So complete was
+the victory that no one dared to tell the ill news to Philip, till his
+jester called out to him, "What cowards those English are!" "Because,"
+he explained, "they did not dare to leap into the sea as our brave
+Frenchmen did."</p>
+
+<a id="chap15sec10" name="chap15sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>Attacks on the West of France. 1341&mdash;1345.</b>&mdash;If Edward was to
+obtain still greater success, he had but to fight with a national
+force behind him on land as he had fought at sea; but he was slow to
+learn the lesson. Personally he was as chivalrous as Philip, and
+thought that far more could be done by the charge of knights on
+horseback than by the cloth-yard shafts of the English bowmen. For six
+more years he frittered away his strength. There was a disputed
+succession in Brittany, and one of the claimants, John of Montfort,
+ranged himself on the side of the English. There was fighting in
+Brittany and fighting on the borders of Edward's lands in Aquitaine,
+but up to the end of <b>1345</b> there was no decisive result on either side.
+In Scotland, too, things had been going so badly for Edward that in
+<b>1341</b> David Bruce had been able to return, and was now again ruling
+over his own people.</p>
+
+<a id="chap15sec11" name="chap15sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>The Campaign of Creçy. 1346.</b>&mdash;Surprising as Edward's neglect to
+force on a battle in France appears to us, it must be remembered that
+in those days it was far more difficult to bring on an engagement than
+it is in the present day. Fortified towns and castles were then almost
+impregnable, except when they were starved out; and it was therefore
+seldom necessary for a commander&mdash;on other grounds unwilling to
+fight&mdash;to risk a battle in order to save an important post from
+capture. Edward, however, does not appear to have thought that there
+was anything to be gained by fighting. In <b>1346</b> he led a large English
+army into Normandy, taking with him his eldest son, afterwards known
+as the Black Prince, at that time a lad of sixteen. It had been from
+Normandy and Calais that the fleets had put out by which the coasts of
+England had been ravaged, and Edward now deliberately ravaged
+Normandy. He then marched on, apparently intending to take refuge in
+Flanders. As the French had broken the bridges over the Seine, he was
+driven to ascend the bank of the river almost to Paris before he could
+cross. His burnings and his ravages continued till Philip, stung to
+anger, pursued him with an army more than twice as numerous as his
+own. Edward had the Somme to cross on his way, and the bridges over
+that river had been broken by the French, as those over the Seine had
+been broken; and but for the opportune discovery of a ford at Blanche
+Tache Edward would have been <span class="pagenum"><a id="page241" name="page241"></a>(p. 241)</span> obliged to fight with an
+impassable river at his back. When he was once over the Somme he
+refused&mdash;not from any considerations of generalship, but from a point
+of honour&mdash;to continue his retreat further. He halted on a gentle
+slope near the village of Creçy facing eastwards, as Philip's force
+had swept round to avoid difficulties in the ground, and was
+approaching from that direction.</p>
+
+<a id="img125" name="img125"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img125.jpg" width="500" height="183" alt="" title="">
+<p>Shooting at the butts with the long-bow.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap15sec12" name="chap15sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>The Tactics of Creçy. 1346.</b>&mdash;Great as was Edward's advantage in
+possessing an army so diverse in its composition as that which he
+commanded, it would have availed him little if he had not known how to
+order that army for battle. At once it appeared that his skill as a
+tactician was as great as his weakness as a strategist. His experience
+at Halidon Hill (see p. <a href="#page234">234</a>) had taught him that the archers
+could turn the tide of battle against any direct attack, however
+violent. He knew, too, from the tradition of Bannockburn (see p.
+<a href="#page226">226</a>), that archers could readily be crushed by a cavalry
+charge on the flank; and he was well aware that his own horsemen were
+in too small numbers to hold out against the vast host of the French
+cavalry. He therefore drew up his line of archers between the two
+villages of Creçy and Vadicourt, though his force was not large enough
+to extend from one to the other. He then ordered the bulk of his
+horsemen to dismount and to place themselves with levelled spears in
+bodies at intervals in the line of archers. The innovation was
+thoroughly reasonable, as spearmen on foot would be able to check the
+fiercest charge of horse, if only the horse could be exposed to a
+shower of arrows. The English army was drawn up in three corps, two of
+them in the front line. The Black Prince was in command of one of the
+two bodies in front, whilst the king himself took charge of the third
+corps, which acted as a reserve in the rear.</p>
+
+<a id="chap15sec13" name="chap15sec13"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page242" name="page242"></a>(p. 242)</span> 13. <b>The Battle of Creçy. August 26, 1346.</b>&mdash;When Philip drew
+nigh in the evening his host was weary and hungry. He ordered his
+knights to halt, but each one was thinking, not of obeying orders, but
+of securing a place in the front, where he might personally
+distinguish himself. Those in the rear pushed on, and in a few minutes
+the whole of the French cavalry became a disorganised mob. Then Philip
+ordered 15,000 Genoese crossbowmen to advance against the enemy. At
+the best a crossbow was inferior to the English long-bow, as it was
+weaker in its action and consumed more time between each shot. To make
+matters worse, a heavy shower of rain had wetted the strings of the
+unlucky Genoese, rendering their weapons useless. The English had
+covers for their bows, and had kept them dry. The thick shower of
+their arrows drove the Genoese back. Philip took their retreat for
+cowardice. "Kill me those scoundrels!" he cried, and the French
+knights rode in amongst them, slaughtering them at every stride. Then
+the French horsemen charged the English lines. Some one amongst the
+Black Prince's retinue took alarm, and hurried to the king to conjure
+him to advance to the son's assistance. Edward knew better. "Is he
+dead?" he asked, "or so wounded that he cannot help himself?" "No,
+sire, please God," was the reply, "but he is in a hard passage of
+arms, and he much needs your help." "Return," answered the king, "to
+those that sent you, and tell them not to send to me again so long as
+my son lives; I command them to let the boy win his spurs." The French
+were driven off with terrible slaughter, and the victory was won. It
+was a victory of foot soldiers over horse soldiers&mdash;of a nation in
+which all ranks joined heartily together over one in which all ranks
+except that of the gentry were despised. Edward III. had contributed a
+high spirit and a keen sense of honour, but it was to the influence of
+Edward I.&mdash;to his wide and far-reaching statesmanship, and his
+innovating military genius&mdash;that the victory of Creçy was really due.</p>
+
+<a id="img126" name="img126"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img126.jpg" width="600" height="248" alt="" title="">
+<p>Contemporary view of a fourteenth-century walled town.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap15sec14" name="chap15sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>Battle of Nevill's Cross, and the Siege of Calais.
+1346&mdash;1347.</b>&mdash;Whilst Edward was fighting in France, the Scots invaded
+England, but they were defeated at Nevill's Cross, and their king,
+David Bruce (David II.), taken prisoner. Edward, when the news reached
+him, had laid siege to Calais. In this siege cannon,<a id="footnotetag18" name="footnotetag18"></a><a href="#footnote18" title="Go to footnote 18"><span class="small">[18]</span></a> which had
+been used in earlier sieges of the war, were employed, but they were
+too badly made and loaded with too little gunpowder to do much damage.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page243" name="page243"></a>(p. 243)</span> In <b>1347</b> Calais was starved into surrender, and Edward, who
+regarded the town as a nest of pirates, ordered six of the principal
+burgesses to come out with ropes round their necks, as a sign that
+they were to be put to death. It was only at Queen Philippa's
+intercession that he spared their lives, but he drove every Frenchman
+out of Calais, and peopled it with his own subjects. A truce with
+Philip was agreed on, and Edward returned to England.</p>
+
+<a id="img127" name="img127"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img127.jpg" width="400" height="565" alt="" title="">
+<p>Gloucester Cathedral. The choir, looking east: built
+between 1340 and 1350.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap15sec15" name="chap15sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>Constitutional Progress. 1337&mdash;1347.</b>&mdash;Edward III. had begun his
+reign as a constitutional ruler, and on the whole he had no reason to
+regret it. In his wars with France and Scotland he had the popular
+feeling with him, and he showed his reliance on it when, in <b>1340</b>, he
+consented to the abolition of his claim to impose tallage on his
+demesne lands (see p. <a href="#page221">221</a>)&mdash;the sole fragment of
+unparliamentary taxation legally retained by the king after the
+<i>Confirmatio Cartarum</i>. In <b>1341</b> the two <span class="pagenum"><a id="page244" name="page244"></a>(p. 244)</span> Houses of Parliament
+finally separated from one another, and when Edward picked a quarrel
+with Archbishop Stratford, the Lords successfully insisted that no
+member of their House could be tried excepting by his peers. The
+Commons, on the other hand, were striving&mdash;not <span class="pagenum"><a id="page245" name="page245"></a>(p. 245)</span> always
+successfully&mdash;to maintain their hold upon taxation. In <b>1341</b> they made
+Edward a large money grant on condition of his yielding to their
+demands, and Edward (whose constitutional intentions were seldom proof
+against his wish to retain the power of the purse) shamelessly broke
+his engagement after receiving the money. On other occasions the
+Commons were more successful; yet, after all, the composition of their
+House was of more importance than any special victory they might gain.
+In it the county members&mdash;or knights of the shire&mdash;sat side by side
+with the burgesses of the towns. In no other country in Europe would
+this have been possible. The knights of the shire were gentlemen, who
+on the Continent were reckoned amongst the nobility, and despised
+townsmen far too much to sit in the same House with them. In England
+there was the same amalgamation of classes in Parliament <span class="pagenum"><a id="page246" name="page246"></a>(p. 246)</span> as
+on the battle-field. When once gentlemen and burgesses formed part of
+the same assembly, they would come to have common interests; and, in
+any struggle in which the merchants were engaged, it would be a great
+gain to them that a class of men trained to arms would be inclined to
+take their part.</p>
+
+<a id="img128" name="img128"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img128.jpg" width="400" height="518" alt="" title="">
+<p>The upper chamber or solar at Sutton Courtenay
+manor-house. Date, about 1350.</p></div>
+
+<a id="img129" name="img129"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img129.jpg" width="404" height="352" alt="" title="">
+<p>Interior of the Hall at Penshurst, Kent: showing the
+screen with minstrels' gallery over it, and the brazier for fire in
+the middle: built about 1340.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap15sec16" name="chap15sec16"></a>
+<p>16. <b>Edward's Triumph. 1347.</b>&mdash;Edward's return after the surrender of
+Calais was followed by an outburst of luxury. As the sea-rovers of
+Normandy and Calais had formerly plundered Englishmen, English
+landsmen now plundered Normandy and Calais. "There was no woman who
+had not gotten garments, furs, feather-beds, and utensils from the
+spoils." Edward surrounded himself with feasting and jollity. About
+this time he instituted the Order of the Garter, and his tournaments
+were thronged with gay knights and gayer ladies in gorgeous attires.
+The very priests caught the example, and decked themselves in
+unclerical garments. Even architecture lent itself to the prevailing
+taste for magnificence. The beautiful Decorated style which had come
+into use towards the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page247" name="page247"></a>(p. 247)</span> end of the reign of Edward I.&mdash;and
+which may be seen<a id="footnotetag19" name="footnotetag19"></a><a href="#footnote19" title="Go to footnote 19"><span class="small">[19]</span></a> in
+the central tower of Lincoln Cathedral (see
+p. <a href="#page227">227</a>), in the west front of Howden Church (see p.
+<a href="#page230">230</a>), and in the nave of York Minster (see p.
+<a href="#page328">238</a>)&mdash;was, in the reign of Edward III., superseded by the
+Perpendicular style, in which beauty of form was abandoned for the
+sake of breadth, as in the choir of Gloucester and the nave of
+Winchester (see pp. <a href="#page244">244</a>, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page248" name="page248"></a>(p. 248)</span> <a href="#page277">276</a>). Roofs become wide, as
+in the Hall of Penshurst (see p. <a href="#page246">246</a>), and consequently halls
+were larger and better adapted to crowded gatherings than those at
+Meare and Norborough (p. <a href="#page247">247</a>).</p>
+
+<a id="img130" name="img130"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img130.jpg" width="400" height="292" alt="" title="">
+<p>A small house or cottage at Meare, Somerset. Built
+about 1350.</p></div>
+
+<a id="img131" name="img131"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img131.jpg" width="500" height="290" alt="" title="">
+<p>Norborough Hall, Northamptonshire. A manor-house built
+about 1350. The dormer windows and addition to the left are of much
+later date.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap15sec17" name="chap15sec17"></a>
+<p>17. <b>The Black Death. 1348.</b>&mdash;In the midst of this luxurious society
+arrived, in <b>1348</b>, a terrible plague which had been sweeping over Asia
+and Europe, and which in modern times has been styled the Black Death.
+No plague known to history was so destructive of life. Half of the
+population certainly perished, and some think that the number of those
+who died must be reckoned at two-thirds.</p>
+
+<a id="img132" name="img132"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img132.jpg" width="500" height="155" alt="" title="">
+<p>Ploughing.</p></div>
+
+<a id="img133" name="img133"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img133.jpg" width="500" height="171" alt="" title="">
+<p>Harrowing. A boy slinging stones at the birds.</p></div>
+
+<a id="img134" name="img134"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img134.jpg" width="500" height="219" alt="" title="">
+<p>Breaking the clods with mallets.</p></div>
+
+<a id="img135" name="img135"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img135.jpg" width="500" height="208" alt="" title="">
+<p>Cutting weeds.</p></div>
+
+<a id="img136" name="img136"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img136.jpg" width="500" height="180" alt="" title="">
+<p>Reaping.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap15sec18" name="chap15sec18"></a>
+<p>18. <b>The Statute of Labourers. 1351.</b>&mdash;This enormous destruction of life
+could not fail to have important results on the economic condition of
+the country. The process of substituting money rents for labour
+service, which had begun some generations before (see p. <a href="#page168">168</a>),
+had become very general at the accession of Edward III. so that the
+demesne land which the lord kept in his own hands was on most estates
+cultivated by hired labour. Now, when at least half of the labourers
+had disappeared, those who remained, having less competition to fear,
+demanded higher wages, whilst at the same time the price of the
+produce of the soil was the same or less than it had been before. The
+question affected not merely <span class="pagenum"><a id="page249" name="page249"></a>(p. 249)</span> the great lords but the smaller
+gentry as well. The House of Commons, which was filled with the
+smaller gentry and the well-to-do townsmen&mdash;who were also employers of
+labour&mdash;was therefore as eager as the House of Lords to keep down
+wages. In <b>1351</b> the Statute of Labourers was passed, fixing a scale of
+wages at the rates which had been paid before the Black Death, and
+ordering punishments to be inflicted on those who demanded more. It is
+not necessary to suppose that the legislators had any <span class="pagenum"><a id="page250" name="page250"></a>(p. 250)</span>
+tyrannical intentions. For ages all matters relating to agriculture
+had been fixed by custom; and the labourers were outrageously
+violating custom. Custom, however, here found itself in opposition to
+the forces of nature, and though the statute was often renewed, with
+increasing penalties, it was difficult to secure obedience to it in
+the teeth of the opposition of the labourers. The chief result of the
+statute was that it introduced an element of discord between two
+classes of society.</p>
+
+<a id="img137" name="img137"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img137.jpg" width="500" height="177" alt="" title="">
+<p>Stacking corn.</p></div>
+
+<a id="img138" name="img138"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img138.jpg" width="400" height="255" alt="" title="">
+<p>Threshing corn with the flail.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap15sec19" name="chap15sec19"></a>
+<p>19. <b>The Statute of Treasons. 1352.</b>&mdash;In <b>1352</b> was passed the Statute of
+Treasons, by which the offences amounting to treason were defined, the
+chief of them being levying war against the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page251" name="page251"></a>(p. 251)</span> king. As no one
+but a great nobleman was strong enough even to think of levying war
+against the king, this statute may be regarded as a concession to the
+wealthier landowners rather than to the people at large.</p>
+
+<a id="chap15sec20" name="chap15sec20"></a>
+<p>20. <b>The Black Prince in the South of France. 1355.</b>&mdash;In <b>1350</b> Philip VI.
+of France died, and was succeeded by his son John. The truce (see p.
+<a href="#page243">243</a>) was prolonged, and it was not till <b>1355</b> that war was
+renewed. Edward himself was recalled to England by fresh troubles in
+Scotland, but the Black Prince landed at Bordeaux and marched through
+the south of France, plundering as he went. Neither father nor son
+seems to have had any idea of gaining their ends except by driving the
+French by ill-treatment into submission. "You must know," wrote a
+contemporary in describing the condition of southern Languedoc, "that
+this was, before, one of the fat countries of the world, the people
+good and simple, who did not know what war was, and no war had ever
+been waged against them before the Prince of Wales came. The English
+and Gascons found the country full and gay, the rooms furnished with
+carpets and draperies, the caskets and chests full of beautiful
+jewels; but nothing was safe from these robbers." The Prince returned
+to Bordeaux laden with spoils.</p>
+
+<a id="chap15sec21" name="chap15sec21"></a>
+<p>21. <b>The Battle of Poitiers. 1356.</b>&mdash;In <b>1356</b> the Black Prince swept over
+central France in another similar plundering expedition. He was on his
+way back with his plunder to Bordeaux with no more than 8,000 men to
+guard it when he learnt as he passed near Poitiers that King John was
+close to him with 50,000. He drew up his little force on a rising
+ground amidst thick vineyards, with a hedge in front of him behind
+which he could shelter his archers. As at Creçy, the greater part of
+the English horsemen were dismounted, and John, thinking that therein
+lay their secret of success, ordered most of his horsemen to dismount
+as well, not having discovered that though spearmen on foot could
+present a formidable resistance to a cavalry charge, they were
+entirely useless in attacking a strong position held by archers. Then
+he sent forward 300 knights who retained their horses, bidding a
+strong body of dismounted horsemen to support them. The horsemen,
+followed by the footmen, charged at a gap in the hedge, but the hedge
+on either side was lined with English bowmen, and men and horses were
+struck down. Those who survived fled and scattered their countrymen
+behind. Seeing the disorder, the Black Prince ordered the few knights
+whom he had kept on horseback to sweep round and to fall upon the
+confused crowd in the flank. The <span class="pagenum"><a id="page252" name="page252"></a>(p. 252)</span> archers advanced to second
+them, and, gallantly as the French fought, their unhorsed knights
+could accomplish nothing against the combined efforts of horse and
+foot. King John was taken prisoner and the battle was at an end.</p>
+
+<a id="chap15sec22" name="chap15sec22"></a>
+<p>22. <b>The Courtesy of the Black Prince.</b>&mdash;The Black Prince had been cruel
+to townsmen and peasants, but he was a model of chivalry, and knew how
+to deal with a captive king. At supper he stood behind John's chair
+and waited on him, praising his bravery. "All on our side," he said,
+"who have seen you and your knights, are agreed about this, and give
+you the prize and the chaplet if you will wear it." After the
+astounding victory of Poitiers, the Black Prince, instead of marching
+upon Paris, went back to Bordeaux. In <b>1357</b> he made a truce for two
+years and returned to England with his royal captive.</p>
+
+<a id="chap15sec23" name="chap15sec23"></a>
+<p>23. <b>Misery of France. 1356&mdash;1359.</b>&mdash;In <b>1356</b>, the year in which the
+Black Prince fought at Poitiers, his father ravaged Scotland. Edward,
+however, gained nothing by this fresh attempt at conquest. In his
+retreat he suffered heavy loss, and in <b>1357</b>, changing his plan, he
+replaced David Bruce (see p. <a href="#page242">242</a>) on the throne, and strove
+to win the support of the Scots instead of exasperating them by
+violence. In the meanwhile the two years' truce brought no good to
+France. The nobles wrung from the peasants the sums needed to redeem
+their relatives, who were prisoners in England, and the disbanded
+soldiers, French and English, formed themselves into free companies
+and plundered as mercilessly as the Black Prince had done in time of
+war. Worn down with oppression, the French peasants broke into a
+rebellion known as the Jacquerie, from the nickname of
+Jacques-Bonhomme, which the gentry gave to them. After committing
+unheard-of cruelties the peasants were repressed and slaughtered. An
+attempt of the States-General&mdash;a sort of French Parliament which
+occasionally met&mdash;to improve the government failed. Peace with England
+was talked of, but Edward's terms were too hard to be accepted, and in
+<b>1359</b> war began again.</p>
+
+<a id="chap15sec24" name="chap15sec24"></a>
+<p>24. <b>Edward's Last Invasion. 1359&mdash;1360.</b>&mdash;So miserably devastated was
+France that Edward, when he invaded the country in <b>1359</b>, had to take
+with him not only men and munitions of war, but large stores of
+provisions. He met no enemy in the field, but the land had been so
+wasted that his men suffered much from want of food, in spite of the
+supplies which they had taken with them. "I could not believe," wrote
+an Italian who revisited France after an absence of some years, "that
+this was the same <span class="pagenum"><a id="page253" name="page253"></a>(p. 253)</span> kingdom which I had once seen so rich and
+flourishing. Nothing presented itself to my eyes but a fearful
+solitude, an extreme poverty, land uncultivated, houses in ruins. Even
+the neighbourhood of Paris manifested everywhere marks of destruction
+and conflagration. The streets were deserted; the roads overgrown with
+weeds; the whole a vast solitude." In the spring of <b>1360</b> Edward moved
+on towards the banks of the Loire, hoping to find sustenance there.
+Near Chartres he was overtaken by a terrible storm of hail and
+thunder, and in the roar of the thunder he thought that he heard the
+voice of God reproving him for the misery which he had caused. He
+abated his demands and signed the treaty of Bretigni.</p>
+
+<a id="img139" name="img139"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img139.jpg" width="500" height="399" alt="" title="">
+<p>West front of Edington Church, Wilts: built about 1360.
+An example of the transition from the Decorated style to the
+Perpendicular.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap15sec25" name="chap15sec25"></a>
+<p>25. <b>The Treaty of Bretigni. 1360.</b>&mdash;By the treaty of Bretigni John was
+to be ransomed for an enormous sum; Edward was to surrender his claim
+to the crown of France and to the provinces north of Aquitaine,
+receiving in return the whole of the duchy of Aquitaine together with
+the districts round Calais and Ponthieu, all of them to be held in
+full sovereignty, without any feudal obligation <span class="pagenum"><a id="page254" name="page254"></a>(p. 254)</span> to the king
+of France. Probably it cost Edward little to abandon his claim to the
+French crown, which had only been an after-thought; and it was a clear
+gain to get rid of those feudal entanglements which had so frequently
+been used as a pretext of aggression against the English kings. It was
+hardly likely, however, that England would long be able to keep a
+country like Aquitaine, which was geographically part of France and in
+which French sympathies were constantly on the increase. "We will obey
+the English with our lips," said the men of Rochelle, when their town
+was surrendered, "but our hearts shall never be moved towards them."<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap16" name="chap16"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XVI.<br>
+REIGN OF EDWARD III. AFTER THE TREATY OF BRETIGNI.<br>
+1360&mdash;1377.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+<p class="center">Reign of Edward III., 1327&mdash;1377</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Battle of Navarrete               <span class="right10">1367</span></li>
+<li>Renewal of war with France        <span class="right10">1369</span></li>
+<li>Truce with France                 <span class="right10">1375</span></li>
+<li>The Good Parliament               <span class="right10">1376</span></li>
+<li>Death of Edward III.              <span class="right10">1377</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap16sec1" name="chap16sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>The First Years of Peace. 1360&mdash;1364.</b>&mdash;To hold his new provinces
+the better, Edward sent the Black Prince to govern them in <b>1363</b> with
+the title of Duke of Aquitaine. King John had been liberated soon
+after the making of the peace, and had been allowed to return to
+France on payment of part of his ransom, and on giving hostages for
+the payment of the remainder. In <b>1363</b> one of the hostages, his son,
+the Duke of Anjou, broke his parole and fled, on which John, shocked
+at such perfidy, returned to England to make excuses for him, and died
+there in <b>1364</b>. If honour, he said, were not to be found elsewhere, it
+ought to be found in the breasts of kings.</p>
+
+<a id="chap16sec2" name="chap16sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>The Spanish Troubles. 1364&mdash;1368.</b>&mdash;John's eldest son and successor,
+Charles V., known as the Wise, or the Prudent, was less chivalrous,
+but more cautious than his father, and soon found an opportunity of
+stirring up trouble for the Black Prince without exposing his own
+lands to danger. Pedro the Cruel, king of Castile, who had for some
+time been the ally of England, had murdered <span class="pagenum"><a id="page255" name="page255"></a>(p. 255)</span> his wife,
+tyrannised over his nobles, and contracted an alliance with the
+Mohammedans of Granada. The Pope having excommunicated him, his own
+illegitimate brother, Henry of Trastamara, claimed the crown, and
+sought aid of the king of France. Charles V. sent Bertrand du
+Guesclin, a rising young commander, to his help. Du Guesclin's army
+was made up of men of the Free Companies (see p. <a href="#page252">252</a>), which
+still continued to plunder France on their own account after the Peace
+of Bretigni. In this way Charles got rid of a scourge of his own
+country at the same time that he attacked an ally of the English. In
+<b>1366</b> Du Guesclin entered Spain. The tyrannical Pedro took refuge at
+Bayonne, where he begged the Black Prince to help him. The Gascon
+nobles pleaded with the Prince to reject the monster, but the Prince
+was not to be held back. "It is not a right thing or reasonable," he
+said, when they urged him to keep aloof from the unjust undertaking to
+which he invited them, "that a bastard should hold a kingdom, and
+thrust out of it, and of his heritage, a brother and heir of the land
+by legal marriage. All kings and sons of kings should never agree nor
+consent to it, for it is a great blow at the royal state." In <b>1367</b> the
+Black Prince entered Spain, and with the help of his English archers
+thoroughly defeated Henry at Navarrete. Then vengeance overtook him on
+the side on which he had sinned. Pedro was as false as he was cruel,
+and refused to pay the sums which he had engaged to furnish to the
+Prince's troops. Sickness broke out in the English ranks, and the
+Black Prince returned to Bordeaux with only a fifth part of his army,
+and with his own health irretrievably shattered. In <b>1368</b> Henry made
+his way back to Spain, defeated and slew Pedro, and undid the whole
+work of the Black Prince to the south of the Pyrenees.</p>
+
+<a id="img140" name="img140"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img140.jpg" width="300" height="135" alt="" title="">
+<p>A gold noble of Edward III., struck between <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1360
+and 1369.</p></div>
+
+<a id="img141" name="img141"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 230px;">
+<img src="images/img141.jpg" width="220" height="638" alt="" title="">
+<p>Effigy of Edward the Black Prince, from his tomb at
+Canterbury: showing the type of armour worn from 1335 to 1400.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap16sec3" name="chap16sec3"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page256" name="page256"></a>(p. 256)</span> 3. <b>The Taxation of Aquitaine. 1368&mdash;1369.</b>&mdash;Worse than this
+was in store for the Black Prince. As his soldiers clamoured for their
+wages, he levied a hearth tax to supply their needs. The Aquitanian
+Parliament declared against the tax, and appealed to the king of
+France to do them right. In <b>1369</b> Charles, who knew that the men of
+Aquitaine would be on his side, summoned the Black Prince to Paris to
+defend his conduct, on the pretext that, as there had been some
+informality in the treaty of Bretigni, he was himself still the feudal
+superior of the Duke of Aquitaine. "Willingly," replied the Black
+Prince when he received the summons, "we will go to the court of
+Paris, as the king of France orders it; but it shall be with helmet on
+head and sixty thousand men with us."</p>
+
+<a id="chap16sec4" name="chap16sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>The Renewed War. 1369&mdash;1375.</b>&mdash;Edward, by the advice of Parliament,
+resumed the title of King of France, and war broke out afresh in <b>1369</b>.
+The result of the first war had been owing to the blunders of the
+French in attacking the English archers with the feudal cavalry.
+Charles V. and his commander, Du Guesclin, resolved to fight no
+battles. Their troops hung about the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page257" name="page257"></a>(p. 257)</span> English march, cut off
+stragglers, and captured exposed towns. The English marched hither and
+thither, plundering and burning, but their armies, powerful as they
+were when attacked in a defensive position, could not succeed in
+forcing a battle, and were worn out without accomplishing anything
+worthy of their fame. The Black Prince, soured by failure and
+ill-health, having succeeded in <b>1370</b> in recapturing Limoges, ordered
+his men to spare no one in the town. "It was great pity," wrote the
+chronicler Froissart, "for men, women, and children threw themselves
+on their knees before the Prince, crying 'Mercy! mercy! gentle Sire!'"
+The Prince, who had waited at table behind a captive king, hardened
+his heart. More than three thousand&mdash;men, women and children&mdash;were
+butchered on that day. Yet the spirit of chivalry was strong within
+him, and he spared three gentlemen who fought bravely merely in order
+to sell their lives dearly. In <b>1371</b> the Black Prince was back in
+England. His eldest surviving brother, John of Gaunt&mdash;or Ghent&mdash;Duke
+of Lancaster, continued the war in France. In <b>1372</b> the English lost
+town after town. In <b>1373</b> John of Gaunt set out from Calais. He could
+plunder, but he could not make the enemy fight. "Let them go," wrote
+Charles V. to his commanders; "by burning they will not become masters
+of your heritage. Though storms rage over a land, they disperse of
+themselves. So will it be with these English." When the English
+reached the hilly centre of France food failed them. The winter came,
+and horses and men died of cold and want. A rabble of half-starved
+fugitives was all that reached Bordeaux after a march of six hundred
+miles. Aquitaine, where the inhabitants were for the most part hostile
+to the English, and did everything in their power to assist the
+French, was before long all but wholly lost, and in <b>1375</b> a truce was
+made which put an end to hostilities for a time, leaving only Calais,
+Cherbourg, Brest, Bayonne, and Bordeaux in the hands of the English.</p>
+
+<a id="chap16sec5" name="chap16sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>Anti-Papal Legislation. 1351&mdash;1366.</b>&mdash;The antagonism between England
+and France necessarily led to an antagonism between England and the
+Papacy. Since <b>1305</b> the Popes had fixed their abode at Avignon, and
+though Avignon was not yet incorporated with France, it was near
+enough to be under the control of the king of France. During the time
+of this exile from Rome, known to ardent churchmen as the Babylonian
+captivity of the Church, the Popes were regarded in England as the
+tools of the French enemy. The Papal court, too, became distinguished
+for luxury and vice, and its vast expenditure called for supplies
+which England was increasingly <span class="pagenum"><a id="page258" name="page258"></a>(p. 258)</span> loth to furnish. By a system
+of provisions, as they were called, the Pope provided&mdash;or appointed
+beforehand&mdash;his nominees to English benefices, and expected that his
+nominees would be allowed to hold the benefices to the exclusion of
+those of the patrons. In <b>1351</b> the Statute of Provisors<a id="footnotetag20" name="footnotetag20"></a><a href="#footnote20" title="Go to footnote 20"><span class="small">[20]</span></a> attempted
+to put an end to the system, but it was not immediately successful,
+and had to be re-enacted in later years. In <b>1353</b> a Statute of
+<i>Præmunire</i><a id="footnotetag21" name="footnotetag21"></a><a href="#footnote21" title="Go to footnote 21"><span class="small">[21]</span></a> was passed, in which, though the Pope's name was not
+mentioned, an attempt was made to stop suits being carried before
+foreign courts&mdash;in other words before the Papal court at Avignon.
+Another claim of the Popes was to the 1,000 marks payable annually as
+a symbol of John's vassalage, a claim most distasteful to Englishmen
+as a sign of national humiliation. Since <b>1333</b>, the year in which
+Edward took the government into his own hands, the payment had not
+been made, and in <b>1366</b> Parliament utterly rejected a claim made by the
+Pope for its revival.</p>
+
+<a id="chap16sec6" name="chap16sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>Predominance of the English Language.</b>&mdash;The national spirit which
+revealed itself in an armed struggle with the French and in a legal
+struggle with the Papacy showed itself in the increasing predominance
+of the English language. In <b>1362</b> it supplanted French in the law
+courts, and in the same year Parliament was opened with an English
+speech. French was still the language of the court, but it was
+becoming a foreign speech, pronounced very differently from the
+'French of Paris.'</p>
+
+<a id="chap16sec7" name="chap16sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>Piers the Plowman. 1362.</b>&mdash;Cruel as had been the direct results of
+the English victories in France, they had indirectly contributed to
+the overthrow of that feudalism which weighed heavily upon France and
+upon all Continental Europe. The success of the English had been the
+success of a nation strong in the union of classes. The cessation of
+the war drove the thoughts of Englishmen back upon themselves. The old
+spiritual channels had been, to a great extent, choked up. Bishops
+were busy with the king's affairs; monks had long ceased to be
+specially an example to the world; and even the friars had fallen from
+their first estate, and had found out that, though they might
+personally possess nothing, their order might be wealthy. The men who
+won victories in France came home to spend their booty in show and
+luxury. Yet, for all the splendour around, there was a general feeling
+that the times were out of joint, and this feeling was strengthened by
+a fresh inroad <span class="pagenum"><a id="page259" name="page259"></a>(p. 259)</span> of the Black Death in <b>1361</b>. To the prevalent
+yearning for a better life, a voice was given by William Langland,
+whose <i>Vision of Piers the Plowman</i> appeared in its first shape in
+<b>1362</b>. In the opening of his poem he shows to his readers the supremacy
+of the Maiden Meed&mdash;bribery&mdash;over all sorts and conditions of men, lay
+and clerical. Then he turns to the purification of this wicked world.
+They who wish to eschew evil and to do good inquire their way to
+Truth&mdash;the eternal God&mdash;and find their only guide in 'Piers the
+Plowman.' The simple men of the plough, who do honest work and live
+upright lives, know how to find the way to Truth. That way lies not
+through the inventions of the official Church, the pardons and
+indulgences set up for sale. "They who have done good shall go into
+eternal life, but they who have done evil into eternal fire."
+Langland's teaching, in short, is the same as that of the great
+Italian poet, Dante, who, earlier in the century, had cried aloud for
+the return of justice and true religion. He stands apart from Dante
+and from all others of his time in looking for help to the despised
+peasant. No doubt his peasant was idealised, as no one knew better
+than himself; but it was honesty of work in the place of dishonest
+idleness which he venerated. It was the glory of England to have
+produced such a thought far more than to have produced the men who,
+heavy with the plunder of unhappy peasants, stood boldly to their arms
+at Creçy and Poitiers. He is as yet hardly prepared to say what is the
+righteousness which leads to eternal life. It is not till he issues a
+second edition in <b>1377</b> that he can answer. To do well, he now tells
+us, is to act righteously to all in the fear of God. To do better is
+to walk in the way of love: "Behold how good a thing it is for
+brethren to dwell in unity." To do best is to live in fellowship with
+Christ and the Church, and in all humility to bring forth the fruits
+of the Divine communion.</p>
+
+<a id="chap16sec8" name="chap16sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>The Anti-Clerical Party. 1371.</b>&mdash;Langland wished to improve, not to
+overthrow, existing institutions, but for all that his work was
+profoundly revolutionary. They who call on those who have left their
+first love to return to it are seldom obeyed, but their voice is often
+welcomed by the corrupt and self-seeking crowd which is eager, after
+the fashion of birds of prey, to tear the carcase from which life has
+departed. A large party was formed in England, especially amongst the
+greater barons, which was anxious to strip the clergy of their wealth
+and power, without any thought for the better fulfilment of their
+spiritual functions. In the Parliament of <b>1371</b> bishops were declared
+unfit to hold offices of state. Amongst others who <span class="pagenum"><a id="page260" name="page260"></a>(p. 260)</span> were
+dismissed was William of Wykeham, the Bishop of Winchester. He was a
+great architect and administrator, and having been deprived of the
+Chancellorship used his wealth to found at Winchester the first great
+public school in England. By this time a Chancellor was no longer what
+he had been in earlier days (see p. <a href="#page127">127</a>), a secretary to the
+king. He was now beginning to exercise equitable jurisdiction&mdash;that is
+to say, the right of deciding suits according to equity, in cases in
+which the strict artificial rules of the ordinary courts stood in the
+way of justice.</p>
+
+<a id="img142" name="img142"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 230px;">
+<img src="images/img142.jpg" width="220" height="578" alt="" title="">
+<p>William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester, 1367-1404:
+from his tomb at Winchester.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap16sec9" name="chap16sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>The Duke of Lancaster. 1374&mdash;1376.</b>&mdash;In <b>1374</b>, as soon as the Duke of
+Lancaster returned from his disastrous campaign (see p. <a href="#page257">257</a>),
+he put himself at the head of the baronial and anti-clerical party. He
+was selfish and unprincipled, but he had enormous wealth, having
+secured the vast estates of the Lancaster family by his marriage with
+Blanche, the granddaughter of the brother of Thomas of Lancaster, the
+opponent of Edward II. Rich as he was he wished to be richer, and he
+saw his opportunity in an attack upon the higher clergy, which might
+end in depriving them not only of political power, but of much of
+their ecclesiastical property as well. His accession to the baronial
+party was of the greater importance because he was now practically the
+first man in the state. The king was suffering from softening of the
+brain, and had fallen under the influence of a greedy and unscrupulous
+mistress, Alice Perrers, whilst the Black Prince was disqualified by
+illness from taking part in the management of affairs. A bargain was
+struck between the Duke and Alice Perrers, who was able to obtain the
+consent of the helpless king to anything she pleased. She even sat on
+the bench with the judges, intimidating them into deciding in favour
+of the suitors who had bribed her most highly. It seemed as if
+Langland's <span class="pagenum"><a id="page261" name="page261"></a>(p. 261)</span> Meed (see p. <a href="#page259">259</a>) had appeared in person.
+The king's patronage was shared between her and Lancaster.</p>
+
+<a id="chap16sec10" name="chap16sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>John Wycliffe. 1366&mdash;1376.</b>&mdash;If Lancaster's character had been
+higher, he might have secured a widespread popularity, as the feeling
+of the age was adverse to the continuance of a wealthy clergy. Even as
+things were, he had on his side John Wycliffe, the most able reasoner
+and devoted reformer of his age, who, like others before and after
+him, imagined that a high spiritual enterprise could be achieved with
+the help of low and worldly politicians. Wycliffe had distinguished
+himself at Oxford, and had attracted Lancaster's notice by the ability
+of his argument against the Pope's claim to levy John's tribute (see
+p. <a href="#page258">258</a>). In <b>1374</b> he had been sent to Bruges to argue with the
+representatives of the Pope on the question of the provisions, and by
+<b>1376</b> had either issued, or was preparing to issue, his work <i>On Civil
+Lordship</i>, in which, by a curious adaptation of feudal ideas, he
+declared that all men held their possessions direct from God, as a
+vassal held his estate from his lord; and that as a vassal was bound
+to pay certain military services, failing which he lost his estate, so
+everyone who fell into mortal sin failed to pay his service to God,
+and forfeited his right to his worldly possessions. In this way
+dominion, as he said, was founded on grace&mdash;that is to say, the
+continuance of man's right to his possessions depended on his
+remaining in a state of grace. It is true that Wycliffe qualified his
+argument by alleging that he was only announcing theoretical truth,
+and that no man had a right to rob another of his holding because he
+believed him to be living in sin. It is evident, however, that men
+like Lancaster would take no heed of this distinction, and would
+welcome Wycliffe as an ally in the work of despoiling the clergy for
+their own purposes.</p>
+
+<a id="chap16sec11" name="chap16sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>Lancaster and the Black Prince. 1376.</b>&mdash;Ordinary citizens, who
+cared nothing for theories which they did not understand, were roused
+against Lancaster by the unblushing baseness of his rule. Nor was this
+all. The anti-clerical party was also a baronial party, and ever since
+the Knights Bachelors of England had turned to the future Edward I. to
+defend them against the barons who made the Provisions of Oxford (see
+p. <a href="#page199">199</a>), the country gentry and townsmen had learnt the lesson
+that they would be the first to suffer from the unchecked rule of the
+baronage. They now had the House of Commons to represent their wishes,
+but as yet the House of Commons was too weak to stand alone. At last
+it was rumoured that when the Black Prince died his young son Richard
+was to be set aside, and that Lancaster was to claim the inheritance
+of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page262" name="page262"></a>(p. 262)</span> crown, as an earlier John had claimed it in the place
+of the youthful Arthur. The Black Prince awoke from his lethargy, and
+stood forward as the leader of the Commons.</p>
+
+<a id="chap16sec12" name="chap16sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>The Good Parliament. 1376.</b>&mdash;A Parliament, known as the Good
+Parliament, met in <b>1376</b>, and, strong through the Black Prince's
+support, the Commons refused to grant supply till an account of the
+receipts and expenditure had been laid before them. "What," cried
+Lancaster, "do these base and ignoble knights attempt? Do they think
+they be the kings and princes of the land? I think they know not what
+power I am of. I will therefore, early in the morning, appear unto
+them so glorious, and will show such power among them, and with such
+vigour I will terrify them that neither they nor theirs shall dare
+henceforth to provoke me to wrath." Lancaster soon found that his
+brother was stronger than he. The Commons obtained a new Council, in
+which Wykeham was included and from which Lancaster was shut out. They
+then proceeded to accuse before the House of Lords Richard Lyons and
+Lord Latimer of embezzling the king's revenue. Lyons, accustomed to
+the past ways of the court, packed 1,000<i>l.</i> in a barrel and sent it
+to the Black Prince. The Black Prince returned the barrel and the
+money, and the Lords condemned Lyons to imprisonment. Latimer was also
+sentenced to imprisonment, but he was allowed to give bail and
+regained his liberty. These two cases are the first instances of the
+exercise of the right of impeachment&mdash;that is to say, of the
+accusation of political offenders by the Commons before the Lords.
+Alice Perrers was next driven from court.</p>
+
+<a id="img143" name="img143"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img143.jpg" width="400" height="536" alt="" title="">
+<p>Tomb of Edward III. in Westminster Abbey.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap16sec13" name="chap16sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>The Last Year of Edward III. 1376&mdash;1377.</b>&mdash;Whilst Parliament was
+still sitting the Black Prince, worn out by his exertions, died. His
+son, young Richard, was at once recognised as heir to the throne.
+Lancaster, however, regained his influence over his doting father.
+Alice Perrers and Lord Latimer found their way back to court. The
+Speaker of the House of Commons was thrown into prison. Frivolous
+charges were brought against Wykeham, who was deprived of his
+temporalities and banished from the court. In <b>1377</b> a new Parliament,
+elected under Lancaster's influence, reversed all the proceedings of
+the Good Parliament, and showed how little sympathy the baronial party
+had with the people by imposing a poll tax of 4<i>d.</i> a head on all
+except beggars, thus making the payment of a labourer and a duke
+equal. The bishops, unable to strike at Lancaster, struck at Wycliffe,
+as his creature. Wycliffe was summoned to appear before an
+ecclesiastical <span class="pagenum"><a id="page263" name="page263"></a>(p. 263)</span> court at St. Paul's, presided over by
+Courtenay, the Bishop of London. He came supported by Lancaster and a
+troop of Lancaster's followers. Hot words were exchanged between them
+and the Bishop. The London crowd took their Bishop's part and the Duke
+was compelled to flee for his life. In the summer of <b>1377</b> <span class="pagenum"><a id="page264" name="page264"></a>(p. 264)</span>
+Edward III. died, deserted by everyone, Alice Perrers making off,
+after robbing him of his finger-rings.</p>
+
+<a id="img144" name="img144"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img144.jpg" width="300" height="400" alt="" title="">
+<p>Figures of Edward, the Black Prince, and Lionel, Duke
+of Clarence, from the tomb of Edward III.; illustrating the ordinary
+costume of gentlemen at the end of the fourteenth century.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap16sec14" name="chap16sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>Ireland from the Reign of John to that of Edward II.</b>&mdash;When England
+was gradually losing its hold on France, what hold it had had on
+Ireland was gradually slipping away. Henry II. had been quite unable
+to effect in Ireland the kind of conquest which William the Conqueror
+had effected in England. William had succeeded because he had been
+able to secure order by placing himself at the head of the conquered
+nation. In Ireland, in the first place, the king was a perpetual
+absentee; and, in the second place, there was no Irish national
+organisation at the head of which he could have placed himself, even
+if he had from time to time visited the island. There were separate
+tribes, each one attached to its own chief and to its own laws and
+customs. They were unable to drive out their feudal conquerors; but in
+the outlying parts of the country, they were able to absorb them, just
+as the English in their own country absorbed their Norman conquerors.
+The difference was that in England the conquerors were absorbed into a
+nation: in Ireland they were absorbed into the several tribes. The few
+who retained the English laws and habits were, for the most part,
+confined to the part of Ireland in the neighbourhood of Dublin, which
+was specially accessible to English influences. In <b>1315</b> Edward Bruce,
+the brother of Robert Bruce, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page265" name="page265"></a>(p. 265)</span> invaded Ireland, and, though he
+was ultimately defeated and slain, he did enough to shatter the power
+of the English nobility; and it was mainly in consequence of his
+partial success that the authority of the English government was, for
+some time to come, limited to a certain district round Dublin, known
+about a century later as the English Pale, the extent of which varied
+from time to time.</p>
+
+<a id="chap16sec15" name="chap16sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>The Statute of Kilkenny. 1367.</b>&mdash;As long as the French wars lasted
+the attention of the English Government was diverted from Ireland. In
+<b>1361</b>, however, the year after the Treaty of Bretigni, the king's son,
+Lionel Duke of Clarence, was sent to extend English rule. In <b>1367</b> he
+gathered a Parliament of the English colonists. This Parliament passed
+the Statute of Kilkenny, by which the relations between the two races
+were defined. Within the Pale English laws and customs were to
+prevail, and even Irishmen living there were to be debarred from the
+use of their own language. Beyond the Pale the Irish were to be left
+to themselves, communication between the two peoples being cut off as
+much as possible. The idea of conquering Ireland was abandoned, and
+the idea of maintaining a colony on a definite part of Irish soil was
+substituted for it. The Statute of Kilkenny was, in short, a
+counterpart of the Treaty of Bretigni. In both cases Edward III.
+preferred the full maintenance of his authority over a part of a
+country to its assertion over the whole.</p>
+
+<a id="chap16sec16" name="chap16sec16"></a>
+<p>16. <b>Weakness of the English Colony. 1367&mdash;1377.</b>&mdash;It takes two to make
+a bargain, and the Irish were not to be prevented from encroaching on
+the English because the English had resolved no longer to encroach
+upon them. The renewal of the war with France in <b>1369</b> made it
+impossible to send help from England, and during the latter part of
+the reign of Edward III. the Irish pillaged freely within the English
+territory, constantly winning ground from their antagonists.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Genealogy of the more important Sons of Edward III.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="14" class="center"><span class="smcap">Edward III.</span><br>d. 1377</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edward,<br>the Black Prince,<br>d. 1376</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Lionel,<br>Duke of Clarence,<br>d. 1368</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">John of Gaunt,<br>Duke of Lancaster,<br>d. 1399</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edmund,<br>Duke of York,<br>d. 1402</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Thomas,<br>Duke of Gloucester,<br>d. 1397</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="14" class="right"><a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<a id="chap17" name="chap17"></a>
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page266" name="page266"></a>(p. 266)</span> CHAPTER XVII.<br>
+RICHARD II. AND THE SOCIAL REVOLUTION.<br>
+1377&mdash;1381.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+<p class="center">Reign of Richard II., 1377-1399</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Accession of Richard II   <span class="right10">1377</span></li>
+<li>The peasants' revolt      <span class="right10">1381</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap17sec1" name="chap17sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>The First Years of Richard II. 1377&mdash;1378.</b>&mdash;"Woe to the land,"
+quoted Langland from Ecclesiastes, in the second edition of <i>Piers the
+Plowman</i>, "when the king is a child." Richard was but ten years of age
+when he was raised to the throne. The French plundered the coast, and
+the Scots plundered the Borders. In the presence of such dangers
+Lancaster and Wykeham forgot their differences, and as Lancaster was
+too generally distrusted to allow of his acting as regent, the council
+governed in the name of the young king. Lancaster, however, took the
+lead, and renewed the war with France with but little result beyond so
+great a waste of money as to stir up Parliament to claim a control
+over the expenditure of the Crown.</p>
+
+<a id="chap17sec2" name="chap17sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>Wycliffe and the Great Schism. 1378&mdash;1381.</b>&mdash;In <b>1378</b> began the Great
+Schism. For nearly half a century from that date there were two Popes,
+one at Avignon and one at Rome. Wycliffe had been gradually losing his
+reverence for a single Pope, and he had none left for two. He was now
+busy with a translation of the Bible into English, and sent forth a
+band of "poor priests," to preach the simple gospel which he found in
+it. He was thus brought into collision with the pretensions of the
+priesthood, and was thereby led to question the doctrines on which
+their authority was based. In <b>1381</b> he declared his disbelief in the
+doctrine of transubstantiation, and thereby denied to priests that
+power "of making the body of Christ," which was held to mark them off
+from their fellow-men. In any case, so momentous an announcement would
+have cost Wycliffe the hearts of large numbers of his supporters. It
+was the more fatal to his influence as it was coincident with social
+disorders, the blame for which was certain, rightly or wrongly, to be
+laid at his door.</p>
+
+<a id="img145" name="img145"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img145.jpg" width="500" height="390" alt="" title="">
+<p>Richard II. and his first queen, Anne of Bohemia: from
+the gilt-latten effigies on their tomb in Westminster Abbey, made by
+Nicholas Broker and Godfrey Prest, coppersmiths of London, in 1395.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap17sec3" name="chap17sec3"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page267" name="page267"></a>(p. 267)</span> 3. <b>The Poll-taxes. 1379&mdash;1381.</b>&mdash;The disastrous war with
+France made fresh taxation unavoidable. In <b>1379</b> a poll-tax was imposed
+by Parliament on a graduated scale, reaching from the 6<i>l.</i> 13<i>s.</i>
+4<i>d.</i> required of a duke, to the groat or 4<i>d.</i>, representing
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page268" name="page268"></a>(p. 268)</span> in those days at least the value of 4<i>s.</i> at the present
+day, required of the poorest peasant. A second poll-tax in <b>1380</b>
+exacted no less than three groats from every peasant, and from every
+one of his unmarried children above the age of fifteen. In <b>1381</b> a
+tiler of Dartford in Kent struck dead a collector who attempted to
+investigate his daughter's age in an indecent fashion. His neighbours
+took arms to protect him. In an incredibly short time the peasants of
+the east and south of England rose in insurrection.</p>
+
+<a id="chap17sec4" name="chap17sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>The Peasants' Grievances.</b>&mdash;The peasants had other grievances
+besides the weight of taxation thrown on them by a Parliament in which
+they had no representatives. The landlords, finding it impossible to
+compel the acceptance of the low wages provided for by the Statute of
+Labourers (see p. <a href="#page248">248</a>), had attempted to help themselves in
+another way. Before the Black Death the bodily service of villeins had
+been frequently commuted into a payment of money which had been its
+fair equivalent, but which, since the rise of wages consequent upon
+the Black Death, could not command anything like the amount of labour
+surrendered. The landlords in many places now declared the bargain to
+have been unfair, and compelled the villeins to render once more the
+old bodily service. The discontent which prevailed everywhere was
+fanned not merely by the attacks made by Wycliffe's poor priests upon
+the idle and inefficient clergy, but by itinerant preachers
+unconnected with Wycliffe, who denounced the propertied classes in
+general. One of these, John Ball, a notorious assailant of the gentry,
+had been thrown into prison. His favourite question was&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem20">
+  When Adam delved and Eve span<br>
+  Who was then a gentleman?</p>
+
+<a id="chap17sec5" name="chap17sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>The Peasants' Revolt. 1381.</b>&mdash;From one end of England to another the
+revolt spread. The parks of the gentry were broken into, the deer
+killed, the fish-ponds emptied. The court-rolls which testified to the
+villeins' services were burnt, and lawyers and all others connected
+with the courts were put to death without mercy. From Kent and Essex
+100,000 enraged peasants, headed by Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, released
+John Ball from gaol and poured along the roads to London. They hoped
+to place the young Richard at their head against their enemies the
+gentry. The boy was spirited enough, and in spite of his mother's
+entreaties insisted on leaving the Tower, and being rowed across the
+Thames to meet the insurgents on the Surrey shore. Those who were with
+him, however, refused to allow him to land. The peasants had
+sympathisers <span class="pagenum"><a id="page269" name="page269"></a>(p. 269)</span> in London itself, who allowed them to break
+into the city. Lancaster's palace of the Savoy and the houses of
+lawyers and officials were sacked and burnt. All the lawyers who could
+be found were murdered, and others who were not lawyers shared their
+fate. The mob broke into the Tower, and beheaded Simon of Sudbury,
+Archbishop of Canterbury, who had, as Chancellor, proposed the
+obnoxious taxes to Parliament.</p>
+
+<a id="chap17sec6" name="chap17sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>The Suppression of the Revolt.</b>&mdash;The boy-king met the mob at
+Mile-End, and promised to abolish villeinage in England. Charters of
+manumission were drawn out and sealed, and a great part of the
+insurgents returned contentedly home. About 30,000, however, remained
+behind. When Richard came amongst them at Smithfield, Wat Tyler
+threatened him, and Walworth, the Mayor of London, slew Wat Tyler with
+his dagger. A shout for vengeance was raised. With astonishing
+presence of mind Richard rode forward. "I am your king," he said; "I
+will be your leader." His boldness inspired the insurgents with
+confidence, and caused them to desist from their threats and to return
+to their homes. In the country the gentry, encouraged by the failure
+of the insurgents in London, recovered their courage. The insurrection
+was everywhere vigorously suppressed. Richard ordered the payment of
+all services due, and revoked the charters he had granted. The judges
+on their circuits hanged the ringleaders without mercy. When
+Parliament met it directed that the charters of manumission should be
+cancelled. Lords and Commons alike stood up for the rich against the
+poor, and the boy-king was powerless to resist them, and it is
+possible that he did not wish to do so.</p>
+
+<a id="chap17sec7" name="chap17sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>Results of the Peasants' Revolt.</b>&mdash;The revolt of the peasants
+strengthened the conservative spirit in the country. The villeinage
+into which the peasants had been thrust back could not, indeed, endure
+long, because service unwillingly rendered is too expensive to be
+maintained. Men were, however, no longer in a mood to listen to
+reformers. Great noblemen, whose right to the services of their
+villeins had been denied, now made common cause with the great
+churchmen. The propertied classes, lay and clerical, instinctively saw
+that they must hang together. Wycliffe's attack on transubstantiation
+finding little response, he was obliged to retire to his parsonage at
+Lutterworth, where he laboured with his pen till his death in <b>1384</b>.
+His followers, known by the nickname of Lollards,<a id="footnotetag22" name="footnotetag22"></a><a href="#footnote22" title="Go to footnote 22"><span class="small">[22]</span></a> <span class="pagenum"><a id="page270" name="page270"></a>(p. 270)</span> were,
+however, for some time still popular amongst the poorer classes.</p>
+
+<a id="img146" name="img146"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img146.jpg" width="250" height="348" alt="" title="">
+<p>Portrait of Geoffrey Chaucer.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap17sec8" name="chap17sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>Chaucer's 'Canterbury Tales.'</b>&mdash;A combination between the great
+nobles and the higher clergy might, at the end of the fourteenth
+century, meet with temporary success; but English society was too
+diversified, and each separate portion of it was too closely linked to
+the other to make it possible for the higher classes to tyrannise over
+the others for any long time. What that society was like is best seen
+in Chaucer's <i>Canterbury Tales</i>. Chaucer was in many ways the exact
+opposite of Langland, and was the precursor of modern literature as
+Wycliffe was the precursor of modern religion. He was an inimitable
+story-teller, with an eye which nothing could escape. He was ready to
+take men as he found them, having no yearning for the purification of
+a sinful world. Heroic examples of manly constancy and of womanly
+purity and devotion, are mingled in his pages with coarse and ribald
+tales; still, coarse and ribald as some of his narratives are, Chaucer
+never attempts to make vice attractive. He takes it rather as a matter
+of course, calling, not for reproof, but for laughter, whenever those
+who are doing evil place themselves in ridiculous situations.</p>
+
+<a id="img147" name="img147"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img147.jpg" width="250" height="282" alt="" title="">
+<p>A gentleman riding out with his hawk: from the Luttrell
+Psalter.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap17sec9" name="chap17sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>The Prologue of the 'Canterbury Tales.'</b>&mdash;Whilst, however, there is
+not one of the <i>Canterbury Tales</i> which fails to bring vividly before
+the reader one aspect or another of the life of Chaucer's day, it is
+in the prologue that is especially found evidence of the close
+connection which existed between different ranks of society. Men and
+women of various classes are there represented as riding <span class="pagenum"><a id="page271" name="page271"></a>(p. 271)</span>
+together on a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Thomas of Canterbury,
+and beguiling the way by telling stories to one another. No baron,
+indeed, takes part in the pilgrimage, and the villein class is
+represented by the reeve, who was himself a person in authority, the
+mere cultivator of the soil being excluded. Yet, within these limits,
+the whole circle of society is admirably represented. The knight, just
+returned from deeds of chivalry, is on the best of terms with the
+rough-spoken miller and the reeve, whilst the clerk of Oxford, who
+would gladly learn and gladly teach, and who followed in his own life
+those precepts which he commended to his parishioners, has no
+irreconcilable quarrel with the begging friar or with the official of
+the ecclesiastical courts, whose only object is to make a gain of
+godliness.</p>
+
+<a id="chap17sec10" name="chap17sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>Chaucer and the Clergy.</b>&mdash;In his representation of the clergy,
+Chaucer shows that, like Langland, he had no reverence for the merely
+official clergy. His "poor parson of a town," indeed, is a model for
+all helpers and teachers. The parson is regardless of his own comfort,
+ever ready to toil with mind and body for his parishioners, and, above
+all, resolved to set them an example, knowing</p>
+
+<p class="poem20">
+  That if gold ruste, what schulde yren doo?<br>
+  For if a prest be foul, on whom we truste,<br>
+  No wondur is a lewid man to ruste.<a id="footnotetag23" name="footnotetag23"></a><a href="#footnote23" title="Go to footnote 23"><span class="small">[23]</span></a></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The final character given to him is:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem20">
+  A bettre preest I trowe ther nowher non is.<br>
+  He waytud after no pompe ne reverence,<br>
+  Ne maked him a spiced conscience;<a id="footnotetag24" name="footnotetag24"></a><a href="#footnote24" title="Go to footnote 24"><span class="small">[24]</span></a><br>
+  But Cristes lore, and his apostles twelve,<br>
+  He taught, and ferst he folwed<a id="footnotetag25" name="footnotetag25"></a><a href="#footnote25" title="Go to footnote 25"><span class="small">[25]</span></a> it himselve.</p>
+
+<p>The majority amongst Chaucer's clergy are, however, of a very
+different kind. There is the parish clerk, who, when he is waving
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page272" name="page272"></a>(p. 272)</span> the censer in church thinks more of the pretty women there
+than of his duty; the monk who loves hunting, and hates work and
+reading; the friar who is ready to grant absolution to any one who
+will give money to the friars; who has a word and a jest for every
+man, and presents of knives and pins for the women; who takes a
+farthing where he cannot get a penny, but turns aside from those who
+have not even a farthing to give; the pardoner, who has for sale sham
+relics&mdash;a piece of the sail of the ship which carried St. Peter on the
+sea of Galilee, and a glass of pigs' bones, which he was ready to sell
+as bones of saints, if he could thereby extract something even from
+the poorest widow. He would not, he said, work with his hands like the
+apostles. He wanted to have money, wool, cheese, and wheat at other
+people's expense. Though Wycliffe had failed to reform the Church
+there was evidently much room for a reformer.</p>
+
+<a id="img148" name="img148"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img148.jpg" width="500" height="267" alt="" title="">
+<p>Carrying corn&mdash;a cart going uphill: from the Luttrell
+Psalter.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap17sec11" name="chap17sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>Roads and Bridges.</b>&mdash;Such men as these latter did not go on
+pilgrimages through pure religious zeal. Villeins, indeed, were "bound
+to the soil," and lived and died on land which they tilled; but the
+classes above them moved about freely, and took pleasure in a
+pilgrimage, as a modern Englishman takes pleasure in a railway
+excursion. It was considered to be a pious work to make or repair
+roads and bridges, and the existence of many bridges especially was
+owing to the clergy. The most famous bridge in England, London Bridge,
+had been begun in the place of an old wooden one in <b>1176</b>&mdash;in the reign
+of Henry II.&mdash;by a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page273" name="page273"></a>(p. 273)</span> priest, Peter Colechurch, who obtained
+gifts for the purpose from notable people of all kinds. It was
+completed in <b>1209</b>, houses being built upon it in order that their
+rents might pay for keeping it in good condition. Local taxes were
+sometimes levied to maintain the roads and bridges, and in default of
+these, it was held to be the duty of the owners of land to keep the
+communications open.</p>
+
+<a id="img149" name="img149"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img149.jpg" width="600" height="230" alt="" title="">
+<p>State carriage of the fourteenth century: from the
+Luttrell Psalter.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap17sec12" name="chap17sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>Modes of Conveyance.</b>&mdash;In spite of these precautions, roads were
+often neglected, so that those who were not obliged to go on foot
+travelled almost entirely on horseback, women almost always riding
+astride like men. It was only at the end of the fourteenth century
+that a few ladies rode sideways. Kings and queens and exceedingly
+great people occasionally used lumbering but gorgeously ornamented
+carriages; but this was to enable them to appear in splendour, as this
+way of travelling must, at least in fine weather, have been far less
+agreeable than the ordinary ride. The only other wheeled vehicles
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page274" name="page274"></a>(p. 274)</span> in existence were the peasants' carts on two wheels, roughly
+made in the form of a square box either of boards or of a lighter
+framework. It was one of the grievances of the peasants that when the
+king moved from one manor to another his purveyors seized their carts
+to carry his property, and that though the purveyors were bound by
+frequently repeated statutes to pay for their hire, these statutes
+were often broken, and the carts sent back without payment for their
+use. The same purveyors often took corn and other agricultural
+produce, for which they paid little or nothing.</p>
+
+<a id="chap17sec13" name="chap17sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>Hospitality and Inns.</b>&mdash;When the king arrived in the evening at a
+town his numerous attendants were billeted upon the townsmen, without
+asking leave. Monasteries were always ready to offer hospitality to
+himself or to any great person, and even to provide rougher fare for
+the poorest stranger in a special guest-house provided for the
+purpose. In castles, the owner was usually glad to see a stranger of
+his own rank. The halls were still furnished with movable tables, as
+in the days before the Conquest (see p. <a href="#page076">76</a>), and at night
+mattresses were placed for persons of inferior rank on the floor,
+which was strewn with rushes; whilst a stranger of high rank had
+usually a bed in the solar (see p. <a href="#page245">245</a>) with the lord of the
+castle. Travellers of the middle class were not thought good enough to
+be welcomed in monasteries and castles, and were not poor enough to be
+received out of charity; and for them inns were provided. These inns
+provided beds, of which there were several in each room, and the
+guests then bought their provisions and fuel from the host, instead of
+being charged for their meals as is now the custom. From a manual of
+French conversation, written at the end of the fourteenth century for
+the use of Englishmen, it appears that cleanliness was not always to
+be found in these inns. "William," one traveller is supposed to say to
+another, "undress and wash your legs, and rub them well for the love
+of the fleas, that they may not leap on your legs; for there is a peck
+of them lying in the dust under the rushes.... Hi! the fleas bite me
+so, and do me great harm, for I have scratched my shoulders till the
+blood flows."</p>
+
+<a id="chap17sec14" name="chap17sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>Alehouses.</b>&mdash;By the roadside were alehouses for temporary
+refreshment, known by a bunch of twigs at the end of a pole, from
+which arose the saying that "Good wine needs no bush." The ale of the
+day was made without hops, which were still unknown in England, and
+ale would therefore only keep good for about five days.</p>
+
+<a id="chap17sec15" name="chap17sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>Wanderers.</b>&mdash;Besides the better class of travellers the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page275" name="page275"></a>(p. 275)</span>
+roads were frequented by wanderers of all kinds, quack doctors,
+minstrels, jugglers, beggars, and such like. Life in the country was
+dull, and even great lords took pleasure in amusements which are now
+only to be heard of at country fairs. Any one who could play or sing
+was always welcome, and the verses sung were often exceedingly coarse.
+A tumbler who could stand on his head or balance a heavy article at
+the end of a stick balanced on his chin, or the leader of a performing
+bear, was seldom turned away from the door, whilst the pedlar went
+from place to place, supplying the wants which are now satisfied in
+the shop of the village or the neighbouring town.</p>
+
+<a id="img150" name="img150"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img150.jpg" width="500" height="273" alt="" title="">
+<p>Bear-baiting: from the Luttrell Psalter.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap17sec16" name="chap17sec16"></a>
+<p>16. <b>Robbers and Criminals.</b>&mdash;The roads, indeed, were not always safe.
+Outlaws who had escaped from the punishment due to their crimes took
+refuge in the broad tracts of forest land which occupied much of the
+soil which has since been cultivated, shot the king's deer, and robbed
+merchants and wealthy travellers, leaving the poor untouched, like the
+legendary Robin Hood of an earlier date. Such robbers were highly
+esteemed by the poor, as the law from which they suffered was cruelly
+harsh, hanging being the penalty for thefts amounting to a shilling.
+Villeins who fled from service could be reclaimed by their masters,
+unless they could succeed in passing a year in a town, and
+consequently were often found amongst vagabonds who had to live as
+best they might, often enough by committing fresh crimes. Prisons, in
+which even persons guilty of no more than harmless vagabondage were
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page277" name="page277"></a>(p. 277)</span> confined, reeked with disease, and those who were, as
+wanderers or drunkards, put in the stocks, had, if an unpleasant, at
+least a less dangerous experience than the prisoner. One means of
+escape, indeed, was available to some, at least, of these
+unfortunates. They could take refuge in the sanctuaries to be found in
+churches, from which no officer of the law could take them, and,
+though the Church preserved some guilty ones from just punishment, she
+also saved many who were either innocent or who were exposed to
+punishments far too severe for their slight offences.</p>
+
+<a id="img151" name="img151"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img151.jpg" width="400" height="591" alt="" title="">
+<p>West end of the nave of Winchester Cathedral: begun by
+Bishop Edington (who built the great window) between 1360 and 1366:
+carried on by Bishop William of Wykeham from 1394 to 1416, and finally
+completed after his death.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap17sec17" name="chap17sec17"></a>
+<p>17. <b>Justices of the Peace.</b>&mdash;Even harshness is less dangerous than
+anarchy, and from time to time measures were taken to provide against
+anarchy. Before the Conquest order had been kept by making either the
+kindred or the township liable to produce offenders, and this system
+was maintained by the Norman kings. In the time of Richard I. all men
+were required to swear to keep the peace, to avoid crime, and to join
+in the hue and cry in pursuit of criminals. In the time of Henry III.
+persons called guardians of the peace were occasionally appointed to
+see that order was kept, and at the accession of Edward III. these
+officials were established for a time by Act of Parliament as
+conservators of the peace. In <b>1360</b>, the year of the Treaty of
+Bretigni, they were permanently continued, and the name of Justices of
+the Peace was given to them. They were to keep the peace in each
+county, and their number was to be made up of a lord, three or four
+gentlemen, and a lawyer, who was in those days always a cleric.<a id="footnotetag26" name="footnotetag26"></a><a href="#footnote26" title="Go to footnote 26"><span class="small">[26]</span></a>
+They were to seize and imprison, and even to try persons accused of
+crime. The king named these justices, but he had to name all of them
+except the lawyer from amongst the local landowners. In every way, in
+the fourteenth century, the chief local landowners were becoming
+prominent. The kings attempted to govern with their help, both in
+Parliament and in the counties.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap18" name="chap18"></a>
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page278" name="page278"></a>(p. 278)</span> CHAPTER XVIII.<br>
+RICHARD II. AND THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION.<br>
+1382&mdash;1399.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+<p class="center">Reign of Richard II., 1377-1399</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>The impeachment of Suffolk                     <span class="right10">1386</span></li>
+<li>The Merciless Parliament                       <span class="right10">1388</span></li>
+<li>Richard begins his constitutional government   <span class="right10">1389</span></li>
+<li>Richard's coup-d'état                          <span class="right10">1397</span></li>
+<li>Deposition of Richard                          <span class="right10">1399</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap18sec1" name="chap18sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>Progress of the War with France. 1382&mdash;1386.</b>&mdash;In <b>1382</b> Richard at
+the early age of fifteen was married to Anne of Bohemia. Though he was
+a young husband he was at all events old enough to be accused of
+disasters which he could not avoid. Not only was the war with France
+not prospering, but English influence was declining in Flanders. In
+<b>1382</b> Philip van Arteveldt, who like his father Jacob (see p.
+<a href="#page235">235</a>) headed the resistance of Ghent against the Count of
+Flanders, was defeated and slain at Roosebeke by Charles VI., the
+young king of France. In <b>1383</b> an English expedition led by Henry
+Spencer, Bishop of Norwich, under the pretext of a crusade against the
+French as the followers of the Pope of Avignon, ended in complete
+failure, and Flanders, the great purchaser of English wool, fell under
+the control of France. In <b>1385</b> Richard, indeed, invaded Scotland,
+ravaged the country and burnt Edinburgh, though without producing any
+permanent result. In <b>1386</b> a French fleet and army was gathered at
+Sluys, and an invasion of England was threatened.</p>
+
+<a id="chap18sec2" name="chap18sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>Richard's growing Unpopularity. 1385&mdash;1386.</b>&mdash;When the king returned
+from Scotland in <b>1385</b> he made a large creation of peers. He raised his
+two younger uncles to the Dukedoms of York and Gloucester; his
+Chancellor, Michael de la Pole, to the earldom of Suffolk, and his
+favourite, Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford, to the marquisate of
+Dublin, making him not long afterwards Duke of Ireland. Suffolk was an
+able and apparently an honest administrator, who upheld the king's
+prerogative against the encroachments of Parliament. Oxford was a gay
+and heedless companion of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page279" name="page279"></a>(p. 279)</span> Richard's pleasures, who
+encouraged him in unnecessary expense, and thereby provoked to
+resistance those who might have put up with an extension of the royal
+authority. That resistance, however, was to a great extent due to
+causes not of Richard's own making. Though the French in <b>1386</b>
+abandoned their attempt at invasion, the preparations to resist them
+had been costly, and Englishmen were in an unreasonable mood. Things,
+they said, had not gone so in the days of Edward III. A cry for reform
+and retrenchment, for more victories and less expense, was loudly
+raised.</p>
+
+<a id="chap18sec3" name="chap18sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>The Impeachment of Suffolk and the Commission of Regency.
+1386.</b>&mdash;The discontented found a leader in Gloucester, the youngest of
+the king's uncles. Wealthy, turbulent, and ambitious, he put himself
+at the head of all who had a grievance against the king. Lancaster had
+just sailed for Spain to prosecute a claim in right of his second wife
+to the throne of Castile, and as York was without ambition, Gloucester
+had it all his own way. Under his guidance a Parliament demanded the
+dismissal of Richard's ministers, and, on his refusal, impeached
+Suffolk. Suffolk, though probably innocent of the charges brought
+against him, was condemned and driven from power, and Commissioners of
+regency were appointed for a year to regulate the realm and the king's
+household, as the Lords Ordainers had done in the days of Edward II.
+(see p. <a href="#page226">226</a>).</p>
+
+<a id="chap18sec4" name="chap18sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>The Lords Appellant and the Merciless Parliament. 1387&mdash;1388.</b>&mdash;In
+one way the Commissioners of regency satisfied the desire of
+Englishmen. In <b>1387</b> they sent the Earl of Arundel to sea, and Arundel
+won a splendid victory over a combined fleet of French, Flemings, and
+Spaniards. Richard, on the other hand, fearing that they would prolong
+their power when their year of office was ended, consulted upon the
+legality of the commission with the judges in the presence of Suffolk
+and others of his principal supporters, amongst whom was the Duke of
+Ireland. With one voice the judges declared that Parliament might not
+put the king in tutelage. Richard then made preparations to prevent by
+force the renewal of the commission, and to punish as traitors those
+who had originated it. His intention got abroad, and five lords, the
+Duke of Gloucester, the Earls of Arundel, Nottingham, Warwick, and
+Derby, the latter being the son of the absent Lancaster, appeared at
+the head of an overwhelming force against him. The five lords
+appellant, as they were called, appealed, or accused of treason five
+of Richard's councillors before a Parliament which met at Westminster
+in <b>1388</b>, by flinging down <span class="pagenum"><a id="page280" name="page280"></a>(p. 280)</span> their gloves as a token that they
+were ready to prove the truth of their charge in single combat. The
+Duke of Ireland, attempting resistance, was defeated by Derby at
+Radcot Bridge, and finally escaped to Ireland. The Parliament, called
+by its admirers the Wonderful, and by its opponents the Merciless
+Parliament, was entirely subservient to the lords appellant, who,
+instead of meeting their antagonists in single combat, accused them
+before the House of Lords. The Duke of Ireland, Suffolk, Chief Justice
+Tresilian, and Brember, who had been Mayor of London, were condemned
+to be hanged. The two first-named had escaped to the Continent, but
+the others were put to death. The fifth councillor, the Archbishop of
+York, escaped with virtual deprivation by the Pope. Four other
+knights, amongst them Sir Simon Burley, a veteran soldier and trusted
+companion of the Black Prince, were also put to death. Richard was
+allowed nominally to retain the crown, but in reality he was subjected
+to a council in which Gloucester and his adherents were supreme.</p>
+
+<a id="chap18sec5" name="chap18sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>Richard's Restoration to Power. 1389.</b>&mdash;Richard's entire submission
+turned the scale in his favour. England had been dissatisfied with
+him, but it had never loved the rule of the great feudal lords.
+Gloucester's council was no more popular than had been the Committees
+named in the Provisions of Oxford in the reign of Henry III., or the
+Lords Ordainers in the reign of Edward II., and it fell more easily
+than any government, before or afterwards. Suddenly, on May 3, <b>1389</b>,
+Richard asked his uncle in full council how old he was. "Your
+highness," replied Gloucester, "is in your twenty-second year."
+"Then," said Richard, "I must be old enough to manage my own affairs,
+as every heir is at liberty to do when he is twenty-one." No attempt
+having been made to confute this argument, Richard dismissed the
+council, and ruled once more in person.</p>
+
+<a id="chap18sec6" name="chap18sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>Richard's Constitutional Government. 1389&mdash;1396.</b>&mdash;This sudden blow
+was followed by seven years of constitutional government. It seemed as
+if Richard had solved the problem of the relations between Crown and
+Parliament, which had perplexed so many generations of Englishmen. In
+<b>1389</b> he appointed ministers at his own pleasure, but when Parliament
+met in <b>1390</b> he commanded them to lay down their offices in order that
+no one should be deterred from bringing charges against them; and it
+was only upon finding that no one had any complaint to bring against
+them that he restored them to their posts. Nor did he show any signs
+of irritation against those by whom he had been outraged. Not only did
+he forbear to recall Suffolk and his other exiled <span class="pagenum"><a id="page281" name="page281"></a>(p. 281)</span>
+favourites, but after a little time he admitted Gloucester and his
+supporters to sit in council alongside of his own adherents.</p>
+
+<a id="chap18sec7" name="chap18sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>Livery and Maintenance. 1390.</b>&mdash;During the fourteenth century the
+importance of the House of Commons had been steadily growing, and the
+king on the one hand and the great nobles on the other had been sorely
+tempted to influence the elections unduly. The means of doing so had
+come with a change in civil relationships, the natural result of that
+change in military relationships which had given a new character to
+the wars of Edward III. (see p. <a href="#page236">236</a>). Just as the king now
+fought with paid soldiers of every rank instead of fighting with
+vassals bound by feudal tenure, so the great nobles surrounded
+themselves with retainers instead of vassals. The vassal had been on
+terms of social equality with his lord, and was bound to follow him on
+fixed terms. The retainer was an inferior, who was taken into service
+and professed himself ready to fight for his lord at all times and in
+all causes. In return his lord kept open house for his retainers,
+supplied them with coats, known as liveries, marked with his badge,
+and undertook to maintain them against all men, either by open force
+or by supporting them in their quarrels in the law courts; and this
+maintenance, as it was called, was seldom limited to the mere payment
+of expenses. The lord, by the help of his retainers, could bully
+witnesses and jurors, and wrest justice to the profit of the
+wrongdoer. As yet, indeed, the practice had not attained the
+proportions which it afterwards assumed, but it was sufficiently
+developed to draw down upon it in <b>1390</b> a statute prohibiting
+maintenance and the granting of liveries. Such a statute was not
+merely issued in defence of private persons against intimidation; it
+also helped to protect the Crown against the violence of the great
+lords. The growth of the power of the House of Commons was a good
+thing as long as the House of Commons represented the wishes of the
+community. It would be a bad thing if it merely represented knots of
+armed retainers who either voted in their own names according to the
+orders of their lords, or who frightened away those who came to vote
+for candidates whom their lords opposed.</p>
+
+<a id="chap18sec8" name="chap18sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>Richard's Domestic Policy. 1390&mdash;1391.</b>&mdash;It was therefore well for
+the community that there should be a strong and wise king capable of
+making head against the ambition of the lords. For some years Richard
+showed himself wise. Not only did he seek, by opening the council to
+his opponents, to win over the lords to take part in the peaceable
+government of the country instead of disturbing it, but he forwarded
+legislation which carried out the general <span class="pagenum"><a id="page282" name="page282"></a>(p. 282)</span> wishes of the
+country. The Statute of Provisors (see p. <a href="#page258">258</a>) was re-enacted
+and strengthened in <b>1390</b>, the Statute of Mortmain (see p. <a href="#page212">212</a>)
+in <b>1391</b>, and the Statute of Præmunire (see p. <a href="#page258">258</a>) in <b>1393</b>.</p>
+
+<a id="chap18sec9" name="chap18sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>Richard's Foreign Policy. 1389&mdash;1396.</b>&mdash;Richard's foreign policy was
+based upon a French alliance. In <b>1389</b> he made a truce with France for
+three years. Negotiations for a permanent peace were frustrated
+because the French would make no peace unless Calais were surrendered
+to them, and English feeling was against the surrender of the claims
+sanctioned by the Treaty of Bretigni. The truce was, however,
+prolonged from time to time, and in <b>1396</b>, when Richard, who was by
+that time a widower, married Isabella, the daughter of Charles VI., a
+child of eight, it was prolonged for twenty-eight years. Wise as this
+policy was, it was distasteful to Englishmen, and their
+dissatisfaction rose when they learnt that Richard had surrendered
+Brest and Cherbourg to the French. It was true that these places had
+been pledged to him for money, and that he had only given them up as
+he was bound to do when the money was paid, but his subjects drew no
+fine distinctions, and fancied that he was equally ready to surrender
+Calais and Bordeaux.</p>
+
+<a id="chap18sec10" name="chap18sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>Richard's Coup d'État. 1397.</b>&mdash;Richard knew that Gloucester was
+ready to avail himself of any widespread dissatisfaction, and that he
+had recently been allying himself with Lancaster against him. To
+please Lancaster, who had married his mistress, Catherine Swynford, as
+his third wife, Richard had legitimatised the Beauforts, his children
+by her, for all purposes except the succession of the crown, thus
+giving personal offence to Gloucester. Lancaster's son Derby, and
+Nottingham, another of the lords appellant (see p. <a href="#page279">279</a>), were
+now favourable to the king, and when rumours reached Richard that
+Gloucester was plotting against him, he resolved to anticipate the
+blow. He arrested the three of the lords appellant whom he still
+distrusted, Gloucester, Warwick, and Arundel, and charged them before
+Parliament, not with recent malpractices, of which he had probably no
+sufficient proof, but with the slaughter of his ministers in the days
+of the Merciless Parliament. Warwick was banished to the Isle of Man,
+Arundel was executed, and Gloucester imprisoned at Calais, where he
+was secretly murdered, as was generally believed by the order of the
+king. Archbishop Arundel, brother of the Earl of Arundel, was also
+banished. In such contradiction was this sudden outburst of violence
+to the prudence of Richard's recent conduct, that it has sometimes
+been supposed that, he had been dissimulating all the time. It is more
+probable that, without being actually insane, his mind had to some
+extent given way. He was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page283" name="page283"></a>(p. 283)</span> always excitable, and in his better
+days his alertness of mind carried him forward to swift decisions, as
+when he met the mob at Smithfield, and when he vindicated his
+authority from the restraint of his uncle. Signs had not been wanting
+that his native energy was no longer balanced by the restraints of
+prudence. In <b>1394</b> he had actually struck Arundel in Westminster Abbey.
+In <b>1397</b> there was much to goad him to hasty and ill-considered action.
+The year before complaints had been raised against the extravagance of
+his household. The peace which he had given to his country was made
+the subject of bitter reproach against him, and he seems to have
+believed that Gloucester was plotting to bring him back into the
+servitude to which he had been subjected by the Commissioners of
+regency.</p>
+
+<a id="chap18sec11" name="chap18sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>The Parliament of Shrewsbury. 1398.</b>&mdash;Whether Richard was mad or
+not, he at all events acted like a madman. In <b>1398</b> he summoned a
+packed Parliament to Shrewsbury, which declared all the acts of the
+Merciless Parliament to be null and void, and announced that no
+restraint could legally be put on the king. It then delegated all
+parliamentary power to a committee of twelve lords and six commoners
+chosen from the king's friends. Richard was thus made an absolute
+ruler unbound by the necessity of gathering a Parliament again. He had
+freed himself not merely from turbulent lords but also from all
+constitutional restraints.</p>
+
+<a id="chap18sec12" name="chap18sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>The Banishment of Hereford and Norfolk. 1398.</b>&mdash;Richard had shown
+favour to the two lords appellant who had taken his side. Derby became
+Duke of Hereford, and Nottingham Duke of Norfolk. Before long Hereford
+came to the king with a strange tale. Norfolk, he said, had complained
+to him that the king still distrusted them, and had suggested that
+they should guard themselves against him. Norfolk denied the truth of
+the story, and Richard ordered the two to prove their truthfulness by
+a single combat at Coventry. When the pair met in the lists in full
+armour Richard stopped the fight, and to preserve peace, as he said,
+banished Norfolk for life and Hereford for ten years, a term which was
+soon reduced to six. There was something of the unwise cunning of a
+madman in the proceeding.</p>
+
+<a id="chap18sec13" name="chap18sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>Richard's Despotism. 1398&mdash;1399.</b>&mdash;Richard, freed from all control,
+was now, in every sense of the word, despotic. He extorted money
+without a semblance of right, and even compelled men to put their
+seals to blank promises to pay, which he could fill up with any sum he
+pleased. He too, like the lords, gathered round him a vast horde of
+retainers, who wore his badge and ill-treated <span class="pagenum"><a id="page284" name="page284"></a>(p. 284)</span> his subjects
+at their pleasure. He threatened the Percies, the Earl of
+Northumberland and his son, Harry Hotspur, with exile, and sent them
+off discontented to their vast possessions in the North. Early in <b>1399</b>
+the Duke of Lancaster died. His son, the banished Hereford, was now
+Duke of Lancaster. Richard, however, seized the lands which ought to
+have descended to him from his father. Every man who had property to
+lose felt that Lancaster's cause was his own. Richard at this
+inopportune moment took occasion to sail to Ireland. He had been there
+once before in <b>1394</b> in the vain hope of protecting the English
+colonists (see p. <a href="#page265">265</a>). His first expedition had been a
+miserable failure: his second expedition was cut short by bad news
+from England.</p>
+
+<a id="img152" name="img152"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img152.jpg" width="400" height="337" alt="" title="">
+<p>Meeting of Henry of Lancaster and Richard II. at Flint:
+from Harl. MS. 1319.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap18sec14" name="chap18sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>Henry of Lancaster in England. 1399.</b>&mdash;Lancaster, with a small
+force, landed at Ravenspur, in Yorkshire, a harbour which has now
+disappeared in the sea. At first he gave out that he had come merely
+to demand his own inheritance. Then he alleged that he had come to
+redress the wrongs of the realm. Northumberland brought the Percies to
+his help. Armed men flocked to his support <span class="pagenum"><a id="page285" name="page285"></a>(p. 285)</span> in crowds. The
+Duke of York, who had been left behind by Richard as regent, accepted
+this statement and joined him with all his forces. When Richard heard
+what had happened, he sent the Earl of Salisbury from Ireland to Wales
+to summon the Welshmen to his aid. The Welshmen rallied to Salisbury,
+but the king was long in following, and when Richard landed they had
+all dispersed. Richard found himself almost alone in Conway Castle,
+whilst Lancaster had a whole kingdom at his back.</p>
+
+<a id="img153" name="img153"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img153.jpg" width="400" height="313" alt="" title="">
+<p>Henry of Lancaster claiming the throne: from Harl. MS.
+1319.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap18sec15" name="chap18sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>The Deposition of Richard and the Enthronement of Henry IV.
+1399.</b>&mdash;By lying promises Lancaster induced Richard to place himself in
+his power at Flint. "My lord," said Lancaster to him, "I have now come
+before you have sent for me. The reason is that your people commonly
+say you have ruled them very rigorously for twenty or two and twenty
+years; but, if it please God, I will help you to govern better." The
+pretence of helping the king to govern was soon abandoned. Richard was
+carried to London and thrown into the Tower. He consented, probably
+not till after he had been threatened with the fate of Edward II., to
+sign his abdication. On the following morning the act of abdication
+was read in Parliament. The throne was empty <span class="pagenum"><a id="page286" name="page286"></a>(p. 286)</span> Then Lancaster
+stepped forward. "In the name," he said, "of the Father, Son, and Holy
+Ghost, I, Henry of Lancaster, challenge this realm of England, and the
+crown with all its members and appurtenances, as I am descended by
+right line of the blood coming from the good lord King Henry the
+Third,<a id="footnotetag27" name="footnotetag27"></a><a href="#footnote27" title="Go to footnote 27"><span class="small">[27]</span></a> and through that right God of his grace hath sent me, with
+help of my kin and of my friends, to recover it, the which realm was
+in point to be undone for default of governance and undoing of the
+good laws." The assent of Parliament was given, and Lancaster took his
+seat in Richard's throne as King Henry IV.</p>
+
+<a id="img154" name="img154"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 230px;">
+<img src="images/img154.jpg" width="220" height="660" alt="" title="">
+<p>Effigy of a knight at Clehonger, showing development of
+plate armour. Date, about 1400.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap18sec16" name="chap18sec16"></a>
+<p>16. <b>Nature of the Claim of Henry IV.</b>&mdash;The claim which Henry put
+forward would certainly not bear investigation. It laid stress on
+right of descent, and it has since been thought that Henry intended to
+refer to a popular belief that his ancestor Edmund, the second son of
+Henry III., was in reality the eldest son, but had been set aside in
+favour of his younger brother, Edward I., on account of a supposed
+physical deformity from which he was known as Edmund Crouchback. As a
+matter of fact the whole story was a fable, and the name Crouchback
+had been given to Edmund not because his back was crooked, but because
+he had worn a cross on his back as a crusader (see p. <a href="#page197">197</a>).
+That Henry <span class="pagenum"><a id="page287" name="page287"></a>(p. 287)</span> should have thought it necessary to allude to
+this story, if such was really his meaning, shows the hold which the
+idea of hereditary succession had taken on the minds of Englishmen. In
+no other way could he claim hereditary right as a descendant of Henry
+III. Richard had selected as his heir Roger Mortimer, the son of the
+daughter of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, the next son of Edward III.,
+after the Black Prince, who lived to be old enough to have children.
+Roger Mortimer, indeed, had recently been killed in Ireland, but he
+had left a boy, Edmund Mortimer, who, on hereditary principles, was
+heir to the kingdom, unless the doctrine announced by Edward III. that
+a claim to the crown descended through females was to be set aside. In
+fact the real importance of the change of kings lay not in what Henry
+said, but in what he avoided saying. It was a reversion to the old
+right of election, and to the precedent set in the deposition of
+Edward II. Henry tacitly announced that in critical times, when the
+wearer of the crown was hopelessly incompetent, the nation,
+represented by Parliament, might step in and change the order of
+succession. The question at issue was not merely a personal one
+between Richard and Henry. It was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page288" name="page288"></a>(p. 288)</span> a question between
+hereditary succession leading to despotism on the one side, and to
+parliamentary choice, perhaps to anarchy, on the other. That there
+were dangers attending the latter solution of the constitutional
+problem would not be long in appearing.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2 center"><i>Books recommended for further study of Part III.</i></p>
+
+<div class="books">
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Green, J. R.</span> History of the English
+People. Vol. i. pp. 189-520.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Stubbs, W.</span> (Bishop of Oxford). Constitutional History of England. Vol.
+i. chap. xii. sections 151-155; vol. ii. chaps. ix. and x.</p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em">&mdash;&mdash;</span> The Early Plantagenets, 129-276.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Norgate</span>, Miss K. England under the Angevin Kings. Vol. ii. p. 390.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Michelet, J.</span> History of France (Middle Ages). Translated by G. H.
+Smith.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Longman, W.</span> The History of the Life and Times of Edward III.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Gairdner</span>, James. The Houses of Lancaster and York, pp. 1-64.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Rogers</span>, James E. Thorold. A History of Agriculture and Prices in
+England. Vols. i. and ii.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Cunningham, W.</span> Growth of English Industry and Commerce in the Early
+and Middle Ages, pp. 172-365.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Wakeman, H. O.</span> and <span class="smcap">Hassall, A.</span> (Editors). Essays Introductory to the
+Study of English Constitutional History.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Ashley, W. J.</span> An Introduction to English Economic History and Theory.
+Vol. i.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Jusserand, J. J.</span> English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages. Translated
+by Lucy Toulmin Smith (Miss).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Browne, M.</span> Chaucer's England.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Jessopp, A.</span>, Dr. The Coming of the Friars, and other Historic Essays.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Oman, C. W. C.</span> The Art of War in the Middle Ages.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Adams, G. B.</span> The Political History of England. Vol. ii. From the
+Norman Conquest to the Death of John (1066-1216).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Tout, T. F.</span> The Political History of England. Vol. iii. From the
+Accession of Henry III. to the Death of Edward III. (1216-1377).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap min2em">Oman, C.</span> The Political History of England. Vol. iv. From the Accession
+of Richard II. to the Death of Richard III. (1377-1485).<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page289" name="page289"></a>(p. 289)</span> PART IV.<br>
+<i>LANCASTER, YORK, AND TUDOR.</i> <b>1399&mdash;1509.</b></h2>
+
+<a id="chap19" name="chap19"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XIX.<br>
+HENRY IV. AND HENRY V.<br>
+HENRY IV., <b>1399&mdash;1413</b>. HENRY V., <b>1413&mdash;1422</b>.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Accession of Henry IV.               <span class="right10">1399</span></li>
+<li>Statute for the burning of heretics  <span class="right10">1401</span></li>
+<li>Battle of Shrewsbury                 <span class="right10">1403</span></li>
+<li>Fight at Bramham Moor                <span class="right10">1408</span></li>
+<li>Succession of Henry V.               <span class="right10">1413</span></li>
+<li>Battle of Agincourt                  <span class="right10">1415</span></li>
+<li>Treaty of Troyes                     <span class="right10">1420</span></li>
+<li>Death of Henry V.                    <span class="right10">1422</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap19sec1" name="chap19sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>Henry's First Difficulties. 1399&mdash;1400.</b>&mdash;Henry IV. fully understood
+that his only chance of maintaining himself on the throne was to rule
+with due consideration for the wishes of Parliament. His main
+difficulty, like that of his predecessor, was that the great lords
+preferred to hold their own against him individually with the help of
+their armies of retainers, instead of exercising political power in
+Parliament. In his first Parliament an angry brawl arose. The lords
+who in the last reign had taken the side of Gloucester flung their
+gloves on the floor of the House as a challenge to those who had
+supported Richard when he compassed Gloucester's death; and though
+Henry succeeded in keeping the peace for the time, a rebellion broke
+out early in <b>1400</b> in the name of Richard. Henry, like the kings before
+him, found his support against the turbulent nobles in the townsmen
+and the yeomen, and he was thus able to suppress the rebellion. Some
+of the noblemen who were caught by the excited defenders of the throne
+were butchered without mercy and without law.</p>
+
+<a id="img155" name="img155"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img155.jpg" width="400" height="685" alt="" title="">
+<p>Henry IV. and his queen, Joan of Navarre: from their
+tomb in Canterbury Cathedral.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap19sec2" name="chap19sec2"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page291" name="page291"></a>(p. 291)</span> 2. <b>Death of Richard II. 1400.</b>&mdash;A few weeks after the
+suppression of this conspiracy it was rumoured that Richard had died
+in prison at Pontefract. According to Henry's account of the matter he
+had voluntarily starved himself to death. Few, however, doubted that
+he had been put to death by Henry's orders. To prove the untruth of
+this story, Henry had the body brought to St. Paul's, where he showed
+to the people only the face of the corpse, as if this could be any
+evidence whatever. After Richard's death, if hereditary succession had
+been regarded, the person having a claim to the crown in preference to
+Henry was the young Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, the descendant of
+Lionel, Duke of Clarence (see p. <a href="#page287">287</a>). Henry therefore took
+care to keep the boy under custody during the whole of his reign.</p>
+
+<a id="img156" name="img156"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img156.jpg" width="300" height="339" alt="" title="">
+<p>Royal arms as borne by Henry IV. after about 1408, and
+by successive sovereigns down to 1603.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap19sec3" name="chap19sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>Henry IV. and the Church.</b>&mdash;Besides seeking the support of the
+commonalty, Henry sought the support of the Church. Since the rise of
+the friars at the beginning of the thirteenth century (see p.
+<a href="#page191">191</a>) the Church had produced no new orders of monks or friars.
+In the thirteenth and fourteenth she produced the schoolmen, a
+succession of great thinkers who systematised her moral and religious
+teaching. Imagining that she had no more to learn, she now attempted
+to strengthen herself by persecuting those who disbelieved her
+teaching, and after the suppression of the revolt of the peasants,
+made common cause with the landlords, who feared pecuniary loss from
+the emancipation of the villeins. This conservative alliance against
+social and religious change was the more easily made because many of
+the bishops were now members of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page292" name="page292"></a>(p. 292)</span> noble families, instead of
+springing, as had usually been the case in the better days of the
+mediæval Church, from poor or middle-class parentage. In the reign of
+Richard II. a Courtenay, a kinsman of the Earl of Devonshire, had
+become first Bishop of London (see p. <a href="#page263">263</a>), and then
+Archbishop of Canterbury. He was succeeded in his archbishopric by an
+Arundel, brother of the Earl of Arundel who had been executed by
+Richard, and Archbishop Arundel was in the days of Henry IV. the
+spokesman of the clergy.</p>
+
+<a id="img157" name="img157"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 210px;">
+<img src="images/img157.jpg" width="200" height="617" alt="" title="">
+<p>Thomas Cranley, Archbishop of Dublin, 1397-1417: from
+his brass at New College, Oxford. Showing the archiepiscopal
+mass-vestments and the cross and pall. Date, about 1400.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap19sec4" name="chap19sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>The Statute for the Burning of Heretics. 1401.</b>&mdash;In <b>1401</b> the clergy
+cried aloud for new powers. The ecclesiastical courts could condemn
+men as heretics, but had no power to burn them. Bishops and abbots
+formed the majority of the House of Lords, and though the Commons had
+not lost that craving for the wealth of the Church which had
+distinguished John of Gaunt's party, they had no sympathy with heresy.
+Accordingly the statute for the burning of heretics (<i>De hæretico
+comburendo</i>), the first English law for the suppression of religious
+opinion, was passed with the ready consent of the king and both
+Houses. The first victim was William Sawtre, a priest who held,
+amongst other things, "that after the words of consecration in the
+Eucharist the bread remains bread, and nothing more." He was burnt by
+a special order from the king and council even before the new law had
+been enacted.</p>
+
+<a id="chap19sec5" name="chap19sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>Henry IV. and Owen Glendower. 1400&mdash;1402.</b>&mdash;If Henry found it
+difficult to maintain order in England, he found it still more
+difficult to keep the peace on the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page293" name="page293"></a>(p. 293)</span> borders of Wales. In <b>1400</b>
+an English nobleman, Lord Grey of Ruthyn, seized on an estate
+belonging to Owen Glendower, a powerful Welsh gentleman. Owen
+Glendower called the Welsh to arms, ravaged Lord Grey's lands, and
+proclaimed himself Prince of Wales. For some years Wales was
+practically independent. English townsmen and yeomen were ready to
+support Henry against any sudden attempt of the nobility to crush him
+with their retainers, but they were unwilling to bear the burden of
+taxation needed for the steady performance of a national task. In the
+meanwhile Henry was constantly exposed to secret plots. In <b>1401</b> he
+found an iron with four spikes in his bed. In the autumn of <b>1402</b> he
+led an expedition into Wales, but storms of rain and snow forced him
+back. His English followers attributed the disaster to the evil
+spirits which, as they fully believed, were at the command of the
+wizard Glendower.</p>
+
+<a id="chap19sec6" name="chap19sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>The Rebellion of the Percies. 1402&mdash;1404.</b>&mdash;The Scots were not
+forgetful of the advantages to be derived from the divisions of
+England. They had amongst them some one&mdash;whoever he may have
+been&mdash;whom they gave out to be King Richard, and when Henry marched
+against Wales in <b>1402</b> they invaded England. They were met by the
+Percies and defeated at Homildon Hill. The Percies had still something
+of the enormous power of the feudal barons of the eleventh century.
+Their family estates stretched over a great part of Northumberland,
+and as they were expected to shield England against Scottish invasions
+they were obliged to keep up a military retinue which might be
+employed against the king as well as in his service. It was mainly
+through their aid that Henry had seated himself on the throne. Their
+chief, the Earl of Northumberland, and his brother, the Earl of
+Worcester, were aged men, but Northumberland's son, Henry Percy&mdash;Harry
+Hotspur as he was usually called&mdash;was of a fiery temper, and
+disinclined to submit to insult. Hotspur's wife was a Mortimer, and
+her brother, Sir Edmund Mortimer, the uncle of the young Earl of
+March, had been taken prisoner by Glendower. It was noticed that
+Henry, who had ransomed other prisoners, took no steps to ransom
+Mortimer, and it was believed that he was in no hurry to set free one
+whose hereditary claim to the crown, like that of the Earl of March,
+came before his own. Other causes contributed to irritate the Percies,
+and in <b>1403</b>, bringing with them as allies the Scottish prisoners whom
+they had taken at Homildon Hill, they marched southwards against
+Henry. Southern England might not be ready adequately to support Henry
+in an invasion of Wales, but it was in no mood to allow him to be
+dethroned by the Percies. It rallied to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page294" name="page294"></a>(p. 294)</span> his side, and
+enabled him signally to defeat the Percies at Shrewsbury. Hotspur was
+killed in the fight, and his uncle, the Earl of Worcester, being
+captured, was beheaded without delay. Northumberland, who was not
+present at the battle, was committed to prison in <b>1404</b>, but was
+pardoned on promise of submission.</p>
+
+<a id="img158" name="img158"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img158.jpg" width="500" height="502" alt="" title="">
+<p>The battle of Shrewsbury: from the "Life of Richard
+Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick;" drawn by John Rous about 1485.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap19sec7" name="chap19sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>The Commons and the Church. 1404.</b>&mdash;After such a deliverance the
+Commons could not but grant some supplies. In the autumn of <b>1404</b>,
+however, they pleaded for the confiscation of the revenues of the
+higher clergy, which were sufficient, as they alleged, to support 15
+earls, 1,500 knights, 6,200 esquires, and 100 hospitals as well. The
+king refused to listen to the proposal, and money was voted in the
+ordinary way. It was the first deliberate attempt to meet the growing
+expenditure of the Crown by the confiscation of ecclesiastical
+revenue.</p>
+
+<a id="chap19sec8" name="chap19sec8"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page295" name="page295"></a>(p. 295)</span> 8. <b>The Capture of the Scottish Prince. 1405.</b>&mdash;Early in <b>1405</b>
+Henry was threatened with a fresh attack. Charles VI. of France was
+now a confirmed lunatic, and his authority had mainly fallen into the
+hands of his brother Louis, Duke of Orleans, a profligate and
+unscrupulous man who was regarded by the feudal nobility of France as
+their leader. The Duke of Orleans refused to consider himself bound to
+Henry by the truce which had been made with Richard, and, forming an
+alliance with Owen Glendower, prepared to send a fleet to his aid.
+When there was war between England and France the Scots seldom
+remained quiet, but this time Henry was freed from that danger by an
+unexpected occurrence. The reigning King of Scotland was Robert III.,
+whose father, Robert II., had been the first king of the House of
+Stuart, and had ascended the throne after the death of David Bruce, as
+being the son of his sister Margaret.<a id="footnotetag28" name="footnotetag28"></a><a href="#footnote28" title="Go to footnote 28"><span class="small">[28]</span></a> Robert III., weakly in mind
+and body, had committed to the custody of his brother, the Duke of
+Albany, his eldest son, the Duke of Rothesay, who had gained an evil
+name by his scandalous debauchery. Rothesay died in the prison in
+which his uncle had confined him, and popular rumour alleged that
+Albany had murdered him to clear the way to the throne. Robert now
+sent young James, his only surviving son, to be educated in France in
+order to save him from Albany's machinations. On his way the prince
+was captured by an English ship, and delivered to Henry, who kept him
+under guard as a hostage for the peaceful behaviour of his countrymen.
+The prince, he said, should have been sent to him to be educated, as
+he could talk French as well as the king of France. When Robert died
+soon afterwards the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page296" name="page296"></a>(p. 296)</span> captive became King James I.; but he was
+not allowed to return home, and Albany ruled Scotland as regent in his
+name.</p>
+
+<a id="chap19sec9" name="chap19sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>The Execution of Archbishop Scrope. 1405.</b>&mdash;The capture of such a
+hostage as James was the more valuable to Henry as at that very moment
+there was a fresh rising in the North, in which Scrope, the Archbishop
+of York, took a leading part. The insurgents were soon dispersed, and
+both Archbishop Scrope and Mowbray, the Earl Marshal, were captured.
+Henry had them both beheaded, though neither were tried by their
+peers, and ecclesiastics were not punishable by a secular court.
+Knowing that the insurrection had been contrived by Northumberland,
+Henry gave himself no rest till he had demolished the fortifications
+of his castles of Alnwick, Warkworth, and Prudhoe. Northumberland
+himself escaped to Scotland.</p>
+
+<a id="chap19sec10" name="chap19sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>France, Wales, and the North. 1405&mdash;1408.</b>&mdash;In <b>1405</b>, whilst Henry
+was in the North, a French fleet landed a force in Wales and seized
+Carmarthen. In <b>1406</b> the Duke of Orleans attacked the possessions still
+held by the English in Guienne, but though he plundered the country he
+could do no more. Once again fortune relieved Henry of a dangerous
+enemy. The Duke of Orleans had a rival in his cousin John the
+Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, who, in addition to his own duchy and
+county of Burgundy, was ruler of Flanders through his mother. His wise
+and firm government attached the manufacturing towns of Flanders to
+him, and the example of his government in Flanders won him favour in
+Paris and other French towns, especially in the north of France. He
+was, however, personally brutal and unscrupulous, and having entered
+into a competition for power with the Duke of Orleans, he had him
+murdered in <b>1407</b> in the streets of Paris. At once a civil war broke
+out between the Burgundian party, supported by the towns, and the
+Orleans party, which rested on the feudal nobility, and was now termed
+the party of the Armagnacs, from the Count of Armagnac, its chief
+leader after the murder of the Duke of Orleans. Henry had no longer to
+fear invasion from France. In <b>1408</b> he was freed from yet another
+enemy. The old Earl of Northumberland, who had wandered from Scotland
+to Wales, now wandered north again to try his fortunes in his own
+country. As he passed through Yorkshire he was met by the sheriff of
+the county, and defeated and slain on Bramham Moor. At the same time
+South Wales fell again under the power of the king, and though Owen
+Glendower still continued to hold out in the mountainous region round
+Snowdon, his power rapidly declined.</p>
+
+<a id="img159" name="img159"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img159.jpg" width="400" height="466" alt="" title="">
+<p>Fight in the lists with poleaxes between Richard
+Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, and Sir Pandolf Malatesta, at Verona,
+<i>temp.</i> Henry IV.: from the "Life of Richard, Earl of Warwick;" drawn
+by John Rous about 1485.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap19sec11" name="chap19sec11"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page297" name="page297"></a>(p. 297)</span> 11. <b>Henry, Prince of Wales. 1409&mdash;1410.</b>&mdash;No one had been more
+helpful to the king in these wars than his son, Henry, Prince of
+Wales. He had fought at Shrewsbury and in Wales, and had learnt to
+command as well as to fight. Young as he was&mdash;in <b>1409</b> he was but
+twenty-two&mdash;he was already seen to be a man born to have the mastery.
+He took his place in his father's council as well as in his armies in
+the field. He was skilful, resolute, always knowing his own mind,
+prompt to act as each occasion arose. He <span class="pagenum"><a id="page298" name="page298"></a>(p. 298)</span> was, moreover,
+unfeignedly religious. It seemed as if a king as great as Edward I.
+was about to ascend the throne. Yet between the character of Edward I.
+and the character of Prince Henry there was a great difference. Edward
+I. worked for the future as well as for the present. His constructive
+legislation served his country for generations after his death. Even
+his mistaken attempt to unite England and Scotland was, to some extent
+at least, an anticipation of that which was done by the Act of Union
+four hundred years after his death. The young Henry had no such power
+of building for the future. He worked for the present alone, and his
+work crumbled away almost as soon as he was in his grave. His ideas
+were the ordinary ideas of his age, and he never originated any of his
+own. In <b>1410</b>, when a heretic, Badby, was led to be burnt, the Prince
+in vain urged him to recant. As the flames blazed up, the poor wretch,
+stung by the torment, cried for mercy. The Prince bade the
+executioners drag away the blazing faggots, and offered Badby support
+for his lifetime if he would abandon his heresy. Badby refused, and
+the Prince sternly ordered the executioners to push the faggots back
+and to finish their cruel work. In that very year the House of
+Commons, which was again urging the king to confiscate the revenues of
+the clergy, even urged him also to soften the laws against the
+Lollards. The king refused, and he had no opposition to fear from the
+Prince of Wales.</p>
+
+<a id="img160" name="img160"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 210px;">
+<img src="images/img160.jpg" width="200" height="609" alt="" title="">
+<p>Costume of a judge, about 1400: from the brass of Sir
+John Cassy, Chief Baron of the Exchequer, at Deerhurst,
+Gloucestershire.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap19sec12" name="chap19sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>The Last Years of Henry IV. 1411&mdash;1413.</b>&mdash;It was not long before a
+bitter quarrel broke out between Henry IV. and his son, which lasted
+till the death of the old man. In later times stories were told how
+Prince Henry gave himself up to the society of low and debauched
+companions, how he amused himself by robbing the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page299" name="page299"></a>(p. 299)</span> receivers
+of his own rents, and how, having struck Chief Justice Gascoigne for
+sitting in judgment on one of his unruly followers, he was sent to
+prison for contempt of court. There is no real evidence in support of
+these stories; but there is good reason to believe that, though they
+were certainly exaggerated, they were not altogether without
+foundation. Since <b>1410</b> the Prince kept house in the heart of London,
+and, as a young and active man suddenly called from service in the
+field to live in the midst of the temptations of a city, he may very
+well have developed a taste for boisterous amusements, even if he did
+not fall into grosser forms of dissipation. It is certain that during
+this period of his life he ran deeply into debt, and was no longer on
+good terms with his father. Yet even the story about the Chief Justice
+goes on to say that the Prince took his punishment meekly and offered
+no resistance, and that his father thanked God that he had so upright
+a judge and so obedient a son. Political disagreement probably widened
+the breach between the King and the Prince. Henry IV. had grown
+accustomed to live from hand to mouth, and had maintained himself on
+the throne rather because Englishmen needed a king than because he was
+himself a great ruler. In his foreign policy he was swayed by the
+interests of the moment. In <b>1411</b> he helped the Burgundians against the
+Armagnacs. In <b>1412</b> he helped the Armagnacs against the Burgundians.
+Prince Henry already aimed at a steady alliance with the Burgundians,
+with a view to a policy more thoroughgoing than that of keeping a
+balance between the French parties. The king, too, was subject to
+epileptic attacks, and to a cutaneous disorder which his ill-willers
+branded by the name of leprosy. It has even been said that in <b>1412</b> the
+Prince urged his father to abdicate in his favour. If so, he had not
+long to wait for the crown. In <b>1413</b> Henry IV. died, and Henry V. sat
+upon his throne.</p>
+
+<a id="chap19sec13" name="chap19sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>Henry V. and the Lollards. 1413&mdash;1414.</b>&mdash;Henry V. was steadied by
+the duties which now devolved upon him. He indeed dismissed from the
+chancellorship Archbishop Arundel, who had supported his father
+against himself, and gave it to his half-uncle, Henry Beaufort, Bishop
+of Winchester, one of the legitimated sons of John of Gaunt and
+Catherine Swynford (see p. <a href="#page282">282</a>), but he allowed no plans of
+vengeance to take possession of his mind. His first thought was to
+show that he had confidence in his own title to the crown. He
+liberated the Earl of March, and transferred the body of Richard II.
+to a splendid tomb at Westminster, as if he had nothing to fear from
+any competitor. If there was one thing on which, as far as England was
+concerned, his heart was set, it <span class="pagenum"><a id="page300" name="page300"></a>(p. 300)</span> was on strengthening the
+religion of his ancestors. He founded three friaries and he set
+himself to crush the Lollards. Sir John Oldcastle, who bore the title
+of Lord Cobham in right of his wife, was looked up to by the Lollards
+as their chief supporter. Oldcastle was brought before Archbishop
+Arundel. Both judge and accused played their several parts with
+dignity. Arundel without angry reviling asserted the necessity of
+accepting the teaching of the Church. Oldcastle with modest firmness
+maintained the falsity of many of its doctrines. In the end he was
+excommunicated, but before any further action could be taken he
+escaped, and was nowhere to be found. His followers were so
+exasperated as to form a plot against the king's life. Early in <b>1414</b>
+Henry fell upon a crowd of them in St. Giles's Fields. Most escaped,
+but of those who were taken the greater part were hanged or burnt. The
+result was a statute giving fresh powers to the king for the
+punishment of the Lollards. Every book written by them was to be
+confiscated. Three years later (<b>1417</b>) Oldcastle was seized and burnt.
+He was the last of the Lollards to play an historical part. The
+Lollards continued to exist in secret, especially in the towns, but
+there was never again any one amongst them who combined religious
+fervour with cultivated intelligence.</p>
+
+<a id="img161" name="img161"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img161.jpg" width="250" height="324" alt="" title="">
+<p>Henry V.: from an original painting belonging to the
+Society of Antiquaries.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap19sec14" name="chap19sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>Henry's Claim to the Throne of France. 1414.</b>&mdash;Henry V. was
+resolved to uphold the old foreign policy of the days of Edward III.
+as well as the old religion. In <b>1414</b>, whilst he amused the French
+court by offers of friendship, he was in reality preparing to demand
+the crown of France as the right of the king of England, leaving out
+of sight the consideration that if the claim of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page301" name="page301"></a>(p. 301)</span> Edward III.
+had been worth anything at all, it would have descended to the Earl of
+March and not to himself. Everything seemed to combine to make easy an
+attack on France. Burgundians and Armagnacs were engaged in a
+death-struggle. In <b>1413</b> a riotous Burgundian mob had made itself
+master of Paris and the Government. Then the Armagnacs had got the
+upper hand, and the Duke of Burgundy was driven back to his own
+dominions. Henry now made an alliance with the Duke of Burgundy
+against the ruling powers, and prepared to invade the distracted land.
+Thus far he proceeded in imitation of Edward III., who had attacked
+Philip VI. in alliance with the Flemings. With Edward III., however,
+the claim to the French crown had always been a secondary
+consideration. He went to war because French sailors plundered English
+ports and the French king assisted the Scots. Henry had no such reason
+to urge. He went to war because he was young and warlike, because the
+enterprise was easy, and because foreign conquest would unite all
+Englishmen round his throne. When once the war was begun he was
+certain to carry it on in a different spirit from that of Edward III.
+Edward had gone to weaken the plunderers by plundering in return, and
+to fight battles only when they happened to come in his way. Henry
+went with the distinct resolution to conquer France and to place the
+French crown on his own head. Every step which he took was calculated
+with skill for the attainment of this end. Of immediate, perhaps of
+lifelong, success Henry was as nearly certain as it was possible to
+be. Yet, if he had remembered what had been the end of campaigns
+adorned by the brilliant victories of Creçy and Poitiers, he might
+have known that all that he could do would end in ultimate failure,
+and that the day must come when divided France would unite to cast
+out, if not himself, at least his heirs. It was significant that when
+his Chancellor, Beaufort, announced to Parliament the king's
+intention, he took for his text, after the manner of political
+speakers in those days, 'Let us work while it is called to-day.' Henry
+was not inclined, as Edward I. had been, to take thought for a distant
+morrow.</p>
+
+<a id="chap19sec15" name="chap19sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>The Invasion of France. 1415.</b>&mdash;In <b>1415</b> Henry openly made his claim
+and gathered his army at Southampton. He there detected a conspiracy
+to place the Earl of March on the throne, which had been formed by
+Lord Scrope and Sir Thomas Grey, in combination with March's
+brother-in-law, the Earl of Cambridge, a son of the Duke of York (see
+genealogy at p. <a href="#page327">327</a>), the son of Edward III. All three were
+executed, and then Henry sailed <span class="pagenum"><a id="page302" name="page302"></a>(p. 302)</span> for France. He landed at the
+mouth of the Seine and besieged Harfleur. Harfleur fell after an
+heroic defence, and the Seine valley lay open to Henry.<a id="footnotetag29" name="footnotetag29"></a><a href="#footnote29" title="Go to footnote 29"><span class="small">[29]</span></a> Over
+two-thirds of his army, however, had perished from dysentery and
+fever, and with no more, even at the highest calculation, than 15,000
+men, he was unable to take advantage of the opportunity to march upon
+Paris. His brother the Duke of Clarence, urged him to return to
+England, but Henry knew that if he went back with baffled hopes his
+throne would hardly stand the shock. He resolved to march to Calais.
+It might be that he would find a Creçy on the way.</p>
+
+<a id="chap19sec16" name="chap19sec16"></a>
+<p>16. <b>The March to Agincourt. 1415.</b>&mdash;Not a Frenchman could be found who
+would take seriously Henry's claim to be the true king of France. When
+he reached the Somme he found the bridges over the river broken, and
+he was only able to cross it by ascending it almost to its source.
+Then, bending to the left, he pushed on towards Calais. His own army
+was by this time scarcely more than 10,000 strong, and he soon learnt
+that a mighty French host of at least 50,000 men blocked the way at
+Agincourt. Though his little band was worn with hunger, he joyfully
+prepared for battle. He knew that the Duke of Burgundy had kept aloof,
+and that the Armagnac army opposed to him was a feudal host of the
+same character as that which had been defeated at Creçy. There were no
+recognised commanders, no subordination, no notion of the superior
+military power of the English archers.</p>
+
+<a id="chap19sec17" name="chap19sec17"></a>
+<p>17. <b>The Battle of Agincourt, October 25, 1415.</b>&mdash;In the early morning,
+mass was said in the English army, and Henry's scanty followers prayed
+earnestly that their king's right, as they believed it to be, might be
+shown on that day. Henry's own prayers were long and fervid. He was
+told that it was the hour of prime, the first hour of prayer. "Now,"
+he said, "is good time, for all England prayeth for us, and,
+therefore, be of good cheer." He then went forth to marshal his army.
+To a knight who wished that every brave Englishman now at home were
+there, he replied that he would not have one man more. Few as they
+were, they were in the hands of God, who could give them the victory.
+Henry's tactics were those of Creçy. He drew up his archers between
+thick woods which defended their flanks, and with sharp stakes planted
+in the ground to defend them in front, placing his dismounted horsemen
+at intervals between the bodies of archers. The French, however,
+showed no signs of attacking, and Henry, knowing that unless he cut
+his way through his soldiers would starve, threw <span class="pagenum"><a id="page303" name="page303"></a>(p. 303)</span> tactics to
+the winds and ordered his archers to advance. He had judged wisely.
+The French horsemen were on ploughed ground soaked with rain, and when
+at last they charged, the legs of their horses stuck fast in the
+clinging mud. The English arrows played thickly on them. Immovable and
+helpless, they were slaughtered as they stood. In vain their
+dismounted horsemen pushed forward in three columns upon the English
+knights. Their charge was vigorously resisted, and the archers,
+overlapping each column, drew forth the heavy leaden mallets which
+each man carried, and fell upon the helpless rout with blows which
+crashed through the iron headpieces of the Frenchmen. Such as could
+escape fled hastily to the rear, throwing into wild confusion the
+masses of their countrymen who had not as yet been engaged. The battle
+was won, but unfortunately the victory was stained by a cruel deed.
+Some French plunderers had got into the rear to seize upon the
+baggage, and Henry, believing that a fresh enemy was upon him, gave
+orders, which were promptly carried out, to slay the prisoners. The
+loss of the French was enormous, and fell heavily on their nobility,
+always eager to be foremost in fight. Amongst the prisoners who were
+spared was the young Duke of Orleans.</p>
+
+<a id="img162" name="img162"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 210px;">
+<img src="images/img162.jpg" width="200" height="643" alt="" title="">
+<p>Effigy of William Phelip, Lord Bardolf (died 1441),
+with the Garter and Lancastrian collar of SS.: from his tomb at
+Dennington, Suffolk. The type of armour here shown prevailed from
+about 1415 to 1435.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap19sec18" name="chap19sec18"></a>
+<p>18. <b>Henry's Diplomacy. 1416&mdash;1417.</b>&mdash;If Henry had not yet secured the
+crown of France, he had at least made sure of the crown of England.
+When he landed at Dover he was borne to land on the shoulders of the
+multitude. He entered London amidst wild enthusiasm. There was no fear
+of any fresh conspiracy to place the Earl of March on the throne. In
+<b>1416</b> he sent his brother, the Duke of Bedford, to secure Harfleur
+against a French attack, whilst he himself was diplomatically active
+in an attempt to win over to his side the Duke of Burgundy and
+Sigismund, King of the Romans, who actually visited him in England.
+Sigismund promised much, but had little power to fulfil his promises,
+whilst the Duke shifted backwards and forwards, looking out for his
+own advantage and giving no real help to either side. In <b>1417</b> the
+quarrels in France reached a head. The Count of Armagnac, getting into
+his possession the Dauphin Charles, a boy of fourteen, established a
+reign of terror in Paris, and the Duke of Burgundy, summoned by the
+frightened citizens to their help, levied war against the Armagnacs
+and marched to Paris.</p>
+
+<a id="chap19sec19" name="chap19sec19"></a>
+<p>19. <b>Henry's Conquest of Normandy. 1417&mdash;1419.</b>&mdash;Henry seized the
+opportunity and landed in Normandy. Caen was taken by storm, and in a
+few weeks all Normandy except Rouen had submitted to Henry. There had
+been a terrible butchery when <span class="pagenum"><a id="page304" name="page304"></a>(p. 304)</span> Caen was stormed, but when
+once submission was secured Henry took care that justice and order
+should be enforced, and that his soldiers should abstain from plunder
+and outrage. In Paris affairs were growing worse. The citizens rose
+against the Armagnacs and imprisoned all of them on whom they could
+lay hands. Then the mob burst into the prisons and massacred the
+prisoners, the Count of Armagnac himself being one of the number.
+Henry's army in the meanwhile closed round Rouen. The magistrates, to
+prolong the defence, thrust out the poorer inhabitants. Henry, who
+knew not pity when there was a practical object to be gained, thrust
+them back. During five months the poor wretches wandered about half
+starved, dying off day by day. On Christmas Day, in honour of Christ's
+nativity, Henry sent some food to the few who were left. Famine did
+its work within as well as without the walls, and on January 19, <b>1419</b>,
+Rouen, the old ducal capital of the Norman kings, surrendered to
+Henry.</p>
+
+<a id="img163" name="img163"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img163.jpg" width="400" height="486" alt="" title="">
+<p>Marriage of Henry V. and Catherine of France: from the
+'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick,' drawn by John Rous about
+1485.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap19sec20" name="chap19sec20"></a>
+<p>20. <b>The Murder of the Duke of Burgundy and the Treaty of Troyes.
+1419&mdash;1420.</b>&mdash;In the summer of <b>1419</b> English troops swept the country
+even up to the walls of Paris. Henry, however, gained more by the
+follies and crimes of his enemies than by his own skill. Terrified at
+the prospect of losing all, Burgundians <span class="pagenum"><a id="page305" name="page305"></a>(p. 305)</span> and Armagnacs seemed
+for a moment to forget their quarrel and to be ready to join together
+in defence of their common country; but the hatred in their hearts
+could not be rooted out. At a conference between the Duke of Burgundy
+and the Dauphin on the bridge of Montereau, angry words sprang easily
+to the lips of both. The Duke put his hand on the pommel of his sword,
+and some of the Dauphin's attendants, believing their master's life in
+danger, fell on the Duke and slew him. After this an agreement between
+the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page306" name="page306"></a>(p. 306)</span> factions was no longer possible. The new Duke of
+Burgundy, Philip the Good, at once joined the English against the
+Dauphin, whom he regarded as an accomplice of his father's murderers.
+Even Queen Isabella, the mother of the Dauphin, shared in the outcry
+against her own son, and in <b>1420</b> was signed the Treaty of Troyes, by
+which the Dauphin was disinherited in favour of Henry, who was to be
+king of France on the death of Charles VI. In accordance with its
+terms, Henry married Charles's daughter Catherine, and ruled France as
+regent till the time came when he was to rule it as king.</p>
+
+<a id="chap19sec21" name="chap19sec21"></a>
+<p>21. <b>The Close of the Reign of Henry V. 1420&mdash;1422.</b>&mdash;The Treaty of
+Troyes was very similar in its stipulations to that which Henry II.
+had made with Stephen at Wallingford (see p. <a href="#page137">137</a>). The result
+was, as might have been expected, totally different. Henry II. had the
+English nation behind his back. Henry V. presumed to rule over a
+foreign nation, the leaders of which had only accepted him in a
+momentary fit of passion. He never got the whole of France into his
+power. He held Paris and the North, whilst the Duke of Burgundy held
+the East. South of the Loire the Armagnacs were strong, and that part
+of France stood by the Dauphin, though even here the English possessed
+a strip of land along the sea-coast in Guienne and Gascony, and at one
+time drew over some of the lords to admit Henry's feudal supremacy. In
+<b>1420</b> Henry fancied it safe for him to return to England, but, in his
+absence, in the spring of <b>1421</b> his brother, the Duke of Clarence, was
+defeated and slain at Baugé by a force of Frenchmen and of Scottish
+auxiliaries. Clarence had forgotten that English victories had been
+due to English archery. He had plunged into the fight with his
+horsemen, and had paid the penalty for his rashness with his life.
+Henry hurried to the rescue of his followers, and drove the French
+over the Loire; though Orleans, on the north bank of that river,
+remained unconquered. Instead of laying siege to it Henry turned
+sharply round northwards to besiege Meaux, the garrison of which was
+plundering the country round Paris in the name of the Dauphin, and
+seemed likely to shake the fidelity to Henry even of Paris itself.
+Meaux held out for many months. When at last it fell, in <b>1422</b>, Henry
+was already suffering from a disease which carried him off before the
+end of the year at the age of thirty-five. Henry V. had given his life
+to the restoration of the authority of the Church in England, and to
+the establishment of his dynasty at home by means of the glory of
+foreign conquest. What man could do he did, but he could not achieve
+the impossible.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap20" name="chap20"></a>
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a id="page307" name="page307"></a>(p. 307)</span> CHAPTER XX.<br>
+HENRY VI. AND THE LOSS OF FRANCE. <b>1422&mdash;1451</b>.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+<p class="center">Reign of Henry VI., 1422-1461</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>The accession of Henry VI.                               <span class="right10">1422</span></li>
+<li>The relief of Orleans                                    <span class="right10">1429</span></li>
+<li>End of the alliance with the Duke of Burgundy            <span class="right10">1435</span></li>
+<li>Marriage of Henry VI. with Margaret of Anjou             <span class="right10">1445</span></li>
+<li>Murder of the Duke of Suffolk and Jack Cade's rebellion  <span class="right10">1450</span></li>
+<li>Loss of the last French possessions except Calais        <span class="right10">1451</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap20sec1" name="chap20sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>Bedford and Gloucester. 1422.</b>&mdash;In England Henry V. was succeeded in
+<b>1422</b> by his son, Henry VI., a child of nine months. In the same year,
+in consequence of the death of Charles VI., the infant was
+acknowledged as king of France in the north and east of that country.
+The Dauphin, holding the lands south of the Loire, and some territory
+even to the north of it, claimed to reign over the whole of France by
+hereditary right as Charles VII. Henry V. had appointed his eldest
+surviving brother, John, Duke of Bedford, regent in France, and his
+youngest brother, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, regent in England. In
+England there were no longer any parties banded against the Crown, and
+the title of the Earl of March had not a single supporter; but both
+the Privy Council and the Parliament agreed that the late king could
+not dispose of the regency by will. Holding that Bedford as the elder
+brother had the better claim, they nevertheless, in consequence of his
+absence in France, appointed Gloucester Protector, with the proviso
+that he should give up his authority to Bedford if the latter were to
+return to England. They also imposed limitations upon the authority of
+the Protector, requiring him to act by the advice of the Council.</p>
+
+<a id="chap20sec2" name="chap20sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>Bedford's Success in France. 1423&mdash;1424.</b>&mdash;The English nation was
+bent upon maintaining its supremacy in France. Bedford was a good
+warrior and an able statesman. In <b>1423</b> he prudently married the sister
+of Philip of Burgundy, hoping thereby to secure permanently the
+all-important fidelity of the Duke. His next step was to place
+difficulties in the way of the Scottish auxiliaries who poured into
+France to the help of Charles. Through his influence the captive James
+I. (see p. <a href="#page295">295</a>) was liberated and sent home to Scotland, on
+the understanding that he would prevent <span class="pagenum"><a id="page308" name="page308"></a>(p. 308)</span> his subjects from
+aiding the enemies of England. Bedford needed all the support he could
+find, as the French had lately been gaining ground. In <b>1424</b>, however,
+Bedford defeated them at Verneuil. In England it was believed that
+Verneuil was a second Agincourt, and that the French resistance would
+soon be at an end.</p>
+
+<a id="chap20sec3" name="chap20sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>Gloucester's Invasion of Hainault. 1424.</b>&mdash;Bedford's progress in
+France was checked by the folly of his brother Gloucester, who was as
+unwise and capricious as he was greedy of power. Gloucester had lately
+married Jacqueline, the heiress of Holland and Hainault, though her
+husband, the Duke of Brabant, was still living, on the plea that her
+first marriage was null on the ground of nearness of kin. In <b>1424</b>
+Gloucester overran Hainault, which was under the government of the
+Duke of Brabant, thereby giving offence to the Duke of Burgundy, who
+was a cousin and ally of the Duke of Brabant, and who had no wish to
+see the English holding a territory so near to his own county of
+Flanders. The Duke of Brabant recovered Hainault and captured
+Jacqueline, who had already been abandoned by Gloucester. A coolness
+arose between the Duke of Burgundy and the English which was never
+completely removed.</p>
+
+<a id="img164" name="img164"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img164.jpg" width="250" height="295" alt="" title="">
+<p>Henry VI.: from an original picture in the National
+Portrait Gallery.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap20sec4" name="chap20sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>Gloucester and Beaufort. 1425&mdash;1428.</b>&mdash;In England as well as on the
+Continent Gloucester's self-willed restlessness roused enemies, the
+most powerful of them being his uncle, the Chancellor, Henry Beaufort,
+Bishop of Winchester (see pp. <a href="#page301">301</a>, <a href="#page335">335</a>), a wealthy and
+ambitious prelate not without those statesmanlike qualities which were
+sadly lacking to Gloucester. If Beaufort ruled the Council, Gloucester
+had the art of making himself popular with the multitude, whose
+sympathies were not likely to be given to a bishop of the type of
+Beaufort, who practised no austerities and who had <span class="pagenum"><a id="page309" name="page309"></a>(p. 309)</span> nothing
+in him to appeal to the popular imagination. So bitter was the feud
+between Gloucester and Beaufort that in <b>1426</b> Bedford was obliged to
+visit England to keep the peace between them. Before he returned to
+France he persuaded Beaufort to surrender the chancellorship to Kemp,
+the Bishop of London, and to leave England for a time. Moreover, in
+<b>1427</b> he himself swore that as long as the king was under age the
+Council and not the Protector was to govern. When Gloucester was asked
+to take the same oath, he signed it, but refused to swear. In <b>1428</b>,
+after Bedford had returned to France, Beaufort came back, bringing
+with him from Rome the title of Cardinal, and authority to raise
+soldiers for a crusade against heretics in Bohemia. A storm was at
+once raised against him. A Cardinal, it was said, was a servant of the
+Roman See, and as no man could serve two masters, he ought not to hold
+an English bishopric or to sit in the English Council, far less to
+send to Bohemia English troops which were needed in France. Gloucester
+fancied that the opportunity of overthrowing his rival had come.
+Beaufort, however, was too prudent to press his claims. He absented
+himself from the Council and allowed the men whom he had raised for
+Bohemia to be sent to France instead. Before the end of the year the
+outcry against him died away, and, Cardinal as he was, he resumed his
+old place in the Council.</p>
+
+<a id="chap20sec5" name="chap20sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>The Siege of Orleans. 1428&mdash;1429.</b>&mdash;The time had arrived when the
+presence of every English soldier was needed in France. Bedford had
+made himself master of almost the whole country north of the Loire
+except Orleans. If he could gain that city it would be easy for him to
+overpower Charles, who kept court at Chinon. In <b>1428</b>, therefore, he
+laid siege to Orleans. The city, however, defended itself gallantly,
+though all that the French outside could hope to do was to cut off the
+supplies of the besiegers. In February <b>1429</b> they attempted to
+intercept a convoy of herrings coming from Paris for the English
+troops, but were beaten off in what was jocosely styled the Battle of
+the Herrings, and it seemed as though Orleans, and with it France
+itself, were doomed. Frenchmen were indeed weary of the foreign yoke
+and of the arrogant insolence of the rough island soldiers. Yet in
+France all military and civil organisation had hitherto come from the
+kings, and unfortunately for his subjects Charles was easy-tempered
+and entirely incapable either of carrying on war successfully or of
+inspiring that enthusiasm without which the most careful organisation
+is as the twining of ropes of sand. It would need a miracle to inspire
+Frenchmen with the belief that it was possible for them to defeat
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page310" name="page310"></a>(p. 310)</span> the victors of Agincourt and Verneuil, and yet without such
+a miracle irretrievable ruin was at hand.</p>
+
+<a id="chap20sec6" name="chap20sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>Jeanne Darc and the Relief of Orleans. 1429.</b>&mdash;The miracle was
+wrought by a young maiden of seventeen, Jeanne Darc, the daughter of a
+peasant of Domremi, in the duchy of Bar. Her home was at a distance
+from the actual scenes of war, but whilst she was still little more
+than a child, tales of horror, reaching her from afar, had filled her
+with 'pity for the realm of France' and for its young king, whom she
+idealised into the pattern of every virtue. As she brooded over the
+thought of possible deliverance, her warm imagination summoned up
+before her bright and saintly forms, St. Michael, St. Catherine, and
+St. Margaret, who bade her, the chosen of God, to go forth and save
+the king, and conduct him to Reims to be crowned and anointed with the
+holy oil from the vessel which, as men believed, had been brought down
+from heaven in days of old. At last in <b>1428</b> her native hamlet was
+burnt down by a Burgundian band. Then the voices of the saints bade
+her go to Vaucouleurs, where she would find a knight, Robert de
+Baudricourt, who would conduct her to Charles. Months passed before
+Baudricourt would do aught but scorn her message, and it was not till
+February <b>1429</b>, when the news from Orleans was most depressing, that he
+consented to take her in his train. She found Charles at Chinon, and,
+as the story goes, convinced him of her Divine mission by recognising
+him in disguise in the midst of his courtiers. Soldiers and
+theologians alike distrusted her, but her native good sense, her
+simple and earnest faith, and above all her purity of heart and life
+disarmed all opposition, and she was sent forth to lead an army to the
+relief of Orleans. She rode on horseback clothed in armour as a man,
+with a sword which she had taken from behind the altar of St.
+Catherine by her side, and a consecrated banner in her hand. She
+brought with her hope of victory, enthusiasm built on confidence in
+Divine protection, and wide-reaching patriotism. 'Pity for the realm
+of France' inspired her, and even the rough soldiers who followed her
+forsook for a time their debaucheries that they might be fit to follow
+God's holy maid. Such an army was invincible; but whilst to the French
+the maid was an instrument of the mercy of God, to the English she was
+an emissary of hell and the forerunner of defeat. On May 7 she led the
+storm of one of the English fortified posts by which the town was
+hemmed in. After a sharp attack she planted her standard on the wall.
+The English garrison was slain to a man. The line of the besiegers was
+broken through, and Orleans was saved. On the 12th the English army
+was in full retreat.</p>
+
+<a id="img165" name="img165"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img165.jpg" width="400" height="392" alt="" title="">
+<p>Fotheringhay Church, Northamptonshire. The contract for
+building it, between Edward Duke of York, and William Horwod,
+freemason, is dated September 24, 1434.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap20sec7" name="chap20sec7"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page311" name="page311"></a>(p. 311)</span> 7. <b>The Coronation of Charles VII. and the Capture of the
+Maid. 1429&mdash;1430.</b>&mdash;The Maid followed up her victory. She had at her
+side brave and skilful warriors, such as La Hire and the Bastard of
+Orleans, the illegitimate son of the murdered Louis of Orleans, and
+with their help she pressed the English hard, driving them northwards
+and defeating them at Patay. She insisted on conducting Charles to
+Reims, and he, indolently resisting at first, was carried away by her
+persistent urgency. Hostile towns opened their gates to her on the
+way, and on July 17 she saw with chastened joy the man whom she had
+saved from destruction crowned in the great cathedral of Reims. For
+her part, she was eager to push on the war, but Charles was slothful,
+and in a hurry to be back to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page312" name="page312"></a>(p. 312)</span> the pleasures of his court.
+When she led the troops to the attack of Paris, she was ordered back
+by the king, and the army sent into winter quarters. In the spring of
+<b>1430</b> the Maid was allowed again to attack the English, but she had no
+longer the support which she had once had. Many of the French soldiers
+were meanly jealous of her, and were vexed when they were told that
+they owed their victories to a woman. On the other side the Duke of
+Burgundy was frightened by the French successes into giving real aid
+to Bedford, and on May 23, in a skirmish before Compiègne, her
+countrymen doing nothing to save or to rescue her, the Maid was taken
+by Burgundian soldiers. Before the end of the year her captors sold
+her to the English, who firmly believed her to be a witch.</p>
+
+<a id="chap20sec8" name="chap20sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>The Martyrdom at Rouen. 1431.</b>&mdash;The English had no difficulty in
+finding an ecclesiastical court to judge their prisoner. Even the
+French clergy detested the Maid as having appealed to supernatural
+voices which had not been recognised by the Church; and in spite of an
+intelligent and noble defence she was condemned to be burnt. At the
+stake she behaved with heroic simplicity. When the flames curled round
+her she called upon the saints who had befriended her. Her last
+utterance was a cry of "Jesus!" An Englishman who had come to triumph
+hung his head for shame. "We are lost," he said; "we have burnt a
+saint!"</p>
+
+<a id="chap20sec9" name="chap20sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>The Last Years of the Duke of Bedford. 1431&mdash;1435.</b>&mdash;The English
+gained nothing by their unworthy vengeance. Though the personal
+presence of the Maid was no longer there to encourage her countrymen,
+they had learnt from her to cherish that 'pity for the realm of
+France' which had glowed so brightly in her own bosom. It was in vain
+that towards the end of <b>1431</b> Bedford carried the young Henry, now a
+boy of ten years, who had already been crowned in England the year
+before, to be crowned at Nôtre Dame, the cathedral of Paris. The
+Parisians were disgusted by the troop of foreigners which accompanied
+him, and their confidence was shaken when Bedford sent the king back
+to England as not venturing to trust him amongst his French subjects.
+In <b>1432</b> the armies of Charles VII. stole forwards step by step, and
+Bedford, who had no money to pay his troops, could do nothing to
+resist them. The English Parliament, which had cheerfully voted
+supplies as long as there seemed a prospect of conquering France, hung
+back from granting them when victories were no longer won. In <b>1433</b>
+Bedford was again forced to return to England to oppose the intrigues
+of Gloucester, who, though he had lost the title of Protector when the
+young king was crowned, had thrown the government <span class="pagenum"><a id="page313" name="page313"></a>(p. 313)</span> into
+confusion by his intrigues. When Bedford went back to France in <b>1434</b>
+he found the tide running strongly against him. Little more than Paris
+and Normandy were held by the English, and the Duke of Burgundy was
+inclining more and more towards the French. In <b>1435</b> a congress was
+held at Arras, under the Duke of Burgundy's presidency, in the hope
+that peace might be made. The congress, however, failed to accomplish
+anything, and soon after the English ambassadors were withdrawn
+Bedford died at Rouen. If so wise a statesman and so skilful a warrior
+had failed to hold down France, no other Englishman was likely to
+achieve the task.</p>
+
+<a id="chap20sec10" name="chap20sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>The Defection of Burgundy. 1435.</b>&mdash;After Bedford's death the Duke
+of Burgundy renounced his alliance with the English and entered into a
+league with Charles VII. In <b>1430</b>, by the death of the Duke of Brabant,
+he inherited Brabant, and in <b>1436</b> he inherited from the faithless
+Jacqueline Hainault, Holland, Zealand, and Friesland (see p.
+<a href="#page308">308</a>). He thus, being already Count of Flanders, became ruler
+over well-nigh the whole of the Netherlands in addition to his own
+territories in Burgundy. The vassal of the king of France was now a
+European potentate. England had therefore to count on the enmity of a
+ruler whose power of injuring her was indeed serious.</p>
+
+<a id="chap20sec11" name="chap20sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>The Duke of York in France. 1436&mdash;1437.</b>&mdash;Bedford's successor was
+the young Richard, Duke of York, whose father was that Earl of
+Cambridge who had been executed at Southampton (see p. <a href="#page301">301</a>);
+whilst his mother was Anne Mortimer, the sister of the Earl of March.
+As the Earl of March had died in <b>1425</b>, the Duke of York was now,
+through his mother, the heir of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, and thus, if
+hereditary right was to be regarded, heir to the throne. That a man
+with such claims should have been entrusted with such an office shows
+how firmly the victories of Henry V. had established the House of
+Lancaster in England. Disputes in the English Council, however,
+delayed his departure, and in April <b>1436</b>, before he could arrive in
+France, Paris was lost, whilst the Duke of Burgundy besieged Calais.
+England, stung by the defection of Burgundy, made an unusual effort.
+One army drove the Burgundians away from before Calais, whilst another
+under the Duke of York himself regained several fortresses in
+Normandy, and in <b>1437</b> Lord Talbot drove the Burgundians behind the
+Somme.</p>
+
+<a id="chap20sec12" name="chap20sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>The English Lose Ground. 1437&mdash;1443.</b>&mdash;Gallant as the Duke of York
+was, he was soon recalled, and in <b>1437</b> was succeeded by Richard
+Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick. Warwick, however, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page314" name="page314"></a>(p. 314)</span> failed to do
+more than to hold what his predecessor had gained, and he died in
+<b>1439</b>. Both in England and France the suffering was terrible, and
+England would find neither men nor money to support a falling cause.
+In <b>1439</b> a peace conference was held at Calais, but the English
+continued arrogantly to claim the crown of France, and peace was not
+to be had. In <b>1440</b> York was sent back, and fighting went on till <b>1443</b>,
+in which the English lost ground both in Normandy and in Guienne.</p>
+
+<a id="img166" name="img166"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img166.jpg" width="250" height="597" alt="" title="">
+<p>Gilt-latten effigy (front view) of Richard Beauchamp,
+Earl of Warwick, died 1439: from his tomb at Warwick. Made by William
+Austen, of London, founder, 1453.</p></div>
+
+<a id="img167" name="img167"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img167.jpg" width="250" height="581" alt="" title="">
+<p>Gilt-latten effigy (back view) of Richard Beauchamp,
+Earl of Warwick, died 1439: from his tomb at Warwick. Made by William
+Austen, of London, founder, 1453.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap20sec13" name="chap20sec13"></a>
+<p class="clear">13. <b>Continued Rivalry of Beaufort and Gloucester. 1439&mdash;1441.</b>&mdash;The
+chief advocate in England of the attempt to make peace at Calais in
+<b>1439</b> had been Cardinal Beaufort, whose immense wealth gave him
+authority over a Council which was always at its wits' end for money.
+Beaufort was wise enough to see that the attempt to reconquer the lost
+territory, or even to hold Normandy, was hopeless. Such a view,
+however, was not likely to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page315" name="page315"></a>(p. 315)</span> be popular. Nations, like men,
+often refuse openly to acknowledge failure long after they cease to
+take adequate means to avert it. Of the popular feeling Gloucester
+made himself the mouthpiece, and it was by his influence that
+exorbitant pretensions had been put forward at Calais. In <b>1440</b> he
+accused Beaufort of using his authority for his own private interests,
+and though Beaufort gave over to the public service a large sum of
+money which he received as the ransom of the Duke of Orleans from a
+captivity which had lasted twenty-four years (see p. <a href="#page303">303</a>),
+Gloucester virulently charged him with an unpatriotic concession to
+the enemy. Gloucester's domestic relations, on the other hand, offered
+an easy object of attack. When he deserted Jacqueline he took a
+mistress, Eleanor Cobham, and subsequently married her, which he was
+able to do without difficulty, as his union with Jacqueline was, in
+the eyes <span class="pagenum"><a id="page316" name="page316"></a>(p. 316)</span> of the Church, no marriage at all. The new Duchess
+of Gloucester being aware that if the king should die her husband
+would be next in order of succession to the throne, was anxious to
+hasten that event. It was a superstitious age, and the Duchess
+consulted an astrologer as to the time of the king's death, and
+employed a reputed witch to make a waxen image of the king under the
+belief that as the wax melted before the fire the king's life would
+waste away. In <b>1441</b> these proceedings were detected. The astrologer
+was hanged, the witch was burnt, whilst the Duchess escaped with doing
+public penance and with imprisonment for life. Gloucester <span class="pagenum"><a id="page317" name="page317"></a>(p. 317)</span>
+could not save her, but he did not lose his place in the Council,
+where he continued to advocate a war policy, though with less success
+than before.</p>
+
+<a id="img168" name="img168"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img168.jpg" width="400" height="542" alt="" title="">
+<p>Tattershall Castle, Lincolnshire: built of brick by
+Ralph, Lord Cromwell, between 1433 and 1455.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap20sec14" name="chap20sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>Beaufort and Somerset. 1442&mdash;1443.</b>&mdash;In <b>1442</b> Henry was in his
+twenty-first year. Unfeignedly religious and anxious to be at peace
+with all men, his character was far too weak and gentle to fit him for
+governing in those rough times. He had attached himself to Beaufort
+because Beaufort's policy was pacific, and because Gloucester's life
+was scandalous. Beaufort's position was secured at court, but the
+situation was not one in which a pacific statesman could hope for
+success. The French would not consent to make peace till all that they
+had lost had been recovered; yet, hardly bested as the English in
+France were, it was impossible in the teeth of English public opinion
+for any statesman, however pacific, to abandon lands still commanded
+by English garrisons. Every year, however, brought the problem nearer
+to the inevitable solution. In <b>1442</b> the French attacked the strip of
+land which was all that the English now held in Guienne and Gascony,
+and with the exception of Bordeaux and Bayonne captured almost every
+fortified town. The command in France was given to Cardinal Beaufort's
+nephew, John Beaufort, Duke of Somerset. Somerset, who was thoroughly
+incompetent, did not even leave England till the autumn of <b>1443</b>, and
+when he arrived in France accomplished nothing worthy of his office.</p>
+
+<a id="chap20sec15" name="chap20sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>The Angevin Marriage Treaty. 1444&mdash;1445.</b>&mdash;Henry now fell under the
+influence of William de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk, a descendant of the
+favourite of Richard II. Suffolk had fought bravely in France, and had
+learnt by sad experience the hopelessness of the English cause. In
+<b>1444</b>, with the consent of the king and the Parliament, he negotiated
+at Tours a truce for ten months. In order to make it more lasting
+there was to be a marriage between Henry and Margaret of Anjou. Her
+father, René, the Duke of Anjou, was titular king of Jerusalem and
+Sicily, in neither of which did he possess a foot of ground, whilst
+his duchy of Anjou was almost valueless to him in consequence of the
+forays of the English, who still held posts in Maine. Charles had the
+more readily consented to the truce, because it was understood that
+the surrender of Maine would be a condition of the marriage. In <b>1445</b>
+Suffolk led Margaret to England, where her marriage to Henry was
+solemnised. A French queen who brought with her no portion except a
+truce bought by the surrender of territory could hardly fail to be
+unpopular in England.</p>
+
+<a id="img169" name="img169"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img169.jpg" width="400" height="479" alt="" title="">
+<p>Part of Wingfield manor-house, Derbyshire: built by
+Ralph, Lord Cromwell, about 1440.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap20sec16" name="chap20sec16"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page318" name="page318"></a>(p. 318)</span> 16. <b>Deaths of Gloucester and Beaufort. 1447.</b>&mdash;The truce was
+renewed from time to time, and Suffolk's authority seemed firmly
+established. In <b>1447</b> Gloucester was charged with high treason in a
+Parliament held at Bury St. Edmunds, but before he had time to answer
+he was found dead in his bed. His death may, with strong probability,
+be ascribed to natural causes, but it was widely believed that he had
+been murdered and that Suffolk was the murderer. A few weeks later
+Gloucester's old rival, Cardinal Beaufort, the last real statesman who
+supported the throne of Henry VI., followed him to the grave, and
+Suffolk was left alone to bear the responsibility of government and
+the disgrace of failure.</p>
+
+<a id="img170" name="img170"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img170.jpg" width="500" height="358" alt="" title="">
+<p>The Divinity School, Oxford: built between 1445 and
+1454.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap20sec17" name="chap20sec17"></a>
+<p>17. <b>The Loss of the French Provinces. 1448&mdash;1449.</b>&mdash;Suffolk had
+undertaken more than he was able to fulfil. Somerset had died in <b>1444</b>,
+and Suffolk being jealous of all authority but his own, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page319" name="page319"></a>(p. 319)</span> he
+sent York to govern Ireland. He could not secure the fulfilment of the
+conditions which he had made with the king of France. The English
+commanders refused to evacuate Maine, and in <b>1448</b> a French army
+entered the province and drove out the English. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page320" name="page320"></a>(p. 320)</span> Edmund, the
+new Duke of Somerset, was sent to take the command in Normandy, which
+had formerly been held by his brother. In <b>1449</b> an Aragonese captain in
+the English service, who had no pay for his troops, having seized
+Fougères, a place on the frontier of Brittany, for the sake of the
+booty to be gained, Charles made the attack an excuse for the renewal
+of the war. So destitute was the condition in which the English forces
+were left that neither Somerset nor the warlike Talbot (see p.
+<a href="#page313">313</a>), who had recently been created Earl of Shrewsbury, was
+able to resist him. Rouen fell in <b>1450</b>, and in <b>1450</b> the whole of
+Normandy was lost. In <b>1451</b> the French attacked Bordeaux and Bayonne,
+two port-towns which, in consequence of their close commercial
+intercourse with England, had no wish to transfer their allegiance to
+Charles. England, however, sent them no succour, and before the end of
+the year they were forced to capitulate. The relics of Guienne and
+Gascony thus passed into the hands of the French, and of all the
+possessions which the kings of England had once held on the Continent
+Calais alone remained.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap21" name="chap21"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XXI.<br>
+THE LATER YEARS OF HENRY VI. <b>1450&mdash;1461</b>.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+<p class="center">Reign of Henry VI., 1422-1461</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Murder of the Duke of Suffolk and Jack Cade's rebellion     <span class="right10">1450</span></li>
+<li>First Protectorate of the Duke of York                      <span class="right10">1453</span></li>
+<li>First Battle of St. Albans and second Protectorate of the
+    Duke of York                                              <span class="right10">1455</span></li>
+<li>Battle of Blore Heath and the discomfiture of the Yorkists  <span class="right10">1459</span></li>
+<li>After a Yorkist victory at Northampton the Duke of York
+    is declared heir to the crown, but is defeated and slain
+    at Wakefield                                              <span class="right10">1460</span></li>
+<li>Battles of Mortimer's Cross, St. Albans, and Towton         <span class="right10">1461</span></li>
+<li>Coronation of Edward IV.                                    <span class="right10">1461</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap21sec1" name="chap21sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>The Growth of Inclosures.</b>&mdash;Since the insurrection of the peasants
+in <b>1381</b> (see p. <a href="#page268">268</a>) villeinage had to a great extent been
+dying out, in consequence of the difficulty felt by the lords in
+enforcing their claims. Yet the condition of the classes connected
+with the land was by no means prosperous. The lords of manors indeed
+abandoned the old system of cultivating their own lands <span class="pagenum"><a id="page321" name="page321"></a>(p. 321)</span> by
+the labour of villeins, or by labourers hired with money paid by
+villeins in commutation for bodily service. They began to let out
+their land to tenants who paid rent for it; but even the new system
+did not bring in anything like the old profit. The soil had been
+exhausted for want of a proper system of manuring, and arable land
+scarcely repaid the expenses of its cultivation. For this evil a
+remedy was found in the inclosure of lands for pasturage. This change,
+which in itself was beneficial by increasing the productiveness of the
+country, and by giving rest to the exhausted soil, became oppressive
+because all the benefit went to the lords of the manors, whilst the
+tenants of the manors were left to struggle on as best they might. Not
+only had they no share in the increase of wealth which was brought
+about by the inclosure of what had formerly been the common land of
+the manors, but the poorer amongst them had less employment than
+before, as it required fewer men to look after sheep than to grow
+corn.</p>
+
+<a id="chap21sec2" name="chap21sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>Increasing Power of the Nobility.</b>&mdash;The disproportionate increase of
+the wealth of the landowners threw into their hands a disproportionate
+amount of power. The great landowner especially was able to gather
+bands of retainers and to spread terror around him. The evil of
+liveries and maintenance, which had become prominent in the reign of
+Richard II. (see p. <a href="#page281">281</a>), had increased since his deposition.
+It was an evil which the kings were powerless to control. Again and
+again complaints were raised of 'want of governance.' Henry V. had
+abated the mischief for a time by employing the unruly elements in his
+wars in France, but it was a remedy which, when defeat succeeded
+victory, only increased the disease which it was meant to cure. When
+France was lost bands of unruly men accustomed to deeds of violence
+poured back into England, where they became retainers of the great
+landowners, who with their help set king and laws at defiance.</p>
+
+<a id="chap21sec3" name="chap21sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>Case of Lord Molynes and John Paston.</b>&mdash;The difficulty of obtaining
+justice may be illustrated by a case which occurred in Norfolk. The
+manor of Gresham belonged to John Paston, a gentleman of moderate
+fortune. It was coveted by Lord Molynes, who had no legal claim to it
+whatever. Lord Molynes, however, took possession of it in <b>1448</b> with
+the strong hand. If such a thing had happened at present Paston would
+have gone to law; but to go to law implies the submitting of a case to
+a jury, and in those days a jury was not to be trusted to do justice.
+In the first place it was selected by the sheriff, and the sheriff
+took care to choose such men as would give a verdict pleasing to the
+great men whom <span class="pagenum"><a id="page322" name="page322"></a>(p. 322)</span> he wished to serve, and in the second place,
+supposing that the sheriff did not do this, a juryman who offended
+great men by giving a verdict according to his conscience, but
+contrary to their desire, ran the risk of being knocked on the head
+before he reached home. Paston accordingly, instead of going to law,
+begged Lord Molynes to behave more reasonably. Finding his entreaties
+of no avail, he took possession of a house on the manor. Lord Molynes
+merely waited till Paston was away from home, and then sent a thousand
+men, who drove out Paston's wife and pillaged and wrecked the house.
+Paston ultimately recovered the manor, but redress for the injury done
+him was not to be had.</p>
+
+<a id="chap21sec4" name="chap21sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>Suffolk's Impeachment and Murder. 1450.</b>&mdash;A government which was too
+weak to redress injuries was certain to be unpopular. The loss of the
+French possessions made it still more unpopular. The brunt of the
+public displeasure fell on Suffolk, who had just been made a duke, and
+who, through the queen's favour, was all-powerful at court. It was
+believed that he had sold himself to France, and it was known that
+whilst the country was impoverished large grants had been made to
+court favourites. An outcry was raised that the king 'should live of
+his own,' and ask for no more grants from his people. In <b>1450</b> Suffolk
+was impeached. Though the charge brought against him was a tissue of
+falsehoods, Henry did not dare to shield him entirely, and ordered him
+into banishment for five years. Suffolk, indeed, embarked for the
+Continent, but a large ship ranged up alongside of the vessel in which
+he was. Having been dragged on board amidst cries of "Welcome,
+traitor!" he was, two days afterwards, transferred to a boat, where
+his head was chopped off with six strokes of a rusty sword. His body
+was flung on the beach at Dover.</p>
+
+<a id="chap21sec5" name="chap21sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>Jack Cade's Rebellion. 1450.</b>&mdash;Suffolk's supporters remained in
+office after his death. The men of Kent rose against them, and found a
+leader in an Irish adventurer, Jack Cade, who called himself Mortimer,
+and gave out that he was an illegitimate son of the late Earl of
+March. He established himself on Blackheath at the head of 30,000 men,
+asking that the burdens of the people should be diminished, the Crown
+estates recovered, and the Duke of York recalled from Ireland to take
+the place of the present councillors. Jack Cade's rebellion, in short,
+unlike that of Wat Tyler, was a political, not a social movement. In
+demanding that the government should be placed in the hands of the
+Duke of York, Jack Cade virtually asked that the Duke should step into
+the place, not of the Council, but of the King&mdash;that is to say, that a
+ruler who <span class="pagenum"><a id="page323" name="page323"></a>(p. 323)</span> could govern should be substituted for one who
+could not, and in whose name the great families plundered England. It
+was this demand which opened the long struggle which was soon to
+devastate the country. At first it seemed as if Jack Cade would carry
+all before him. London, which had the most to gain by the
+establishment of a strong government, opened its gates to him. When,
+however, he was tested by success, he was found wanting. Striking with
+his sword the old Roman milestone known as London Stone, he cried out,
+"Now is Mortimer lord of this city." His followers gave themselves up
+to wild excesses. They beheaded Lord Say and his son-in-law, the
+Sheriff of Kent, and carried about their heads on pikes. They
+plundered houses and shops. The citizens who had invited them to enter
+now turned against them. After a fight on London Bridge the insurgents
+agreed to go home on the promise of a pardon. Jack Cade himself,
+attempting to gather fresh forces, was chased into Sussex and slain.</p>
+
+<a id="chap21sec6" name="chap21sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>Rivalry of York and Somerset. 1450&mdash;1453.</b>&mdash;In the summer of <b>1450</b>,
+Richard, Duke of York, the real leader of the opposition, came back
+from Ireland. He found that Somerset, who had just returned from
+Normandy after the final loss of that province (see p. <a href="#page320">320</a>),
+had succeeded Suffolk in the king's confidence. Somerset, however, was
+not merely the favourite of Henry and the queen. The bulk of the
+nobility was on his side, whilst York was supported by the force of
+popular discontent and by such of the nobility as cherished a personal
+grudge against Somerset and his friends. In <b>1451</b> the loss of Guienne
+and Gascony increased the weight of Somerset's unpopularity. In <b>1452</b>
+both parties took arms; but, this time, civil war was averted by a
+promise from the king that York should be admitted to the Council, and
+that Somerset should be placed in confinement till he answered the
+charges against him. On this York dismissed his army. Henry, however,
+was not allowed to keep his promise, and Somerset remained in power,
+whilst York was glad to be allowed to retire unhurt. Somerset
+attempted to recover his credit by fresh victories in France, and sent
+the old Earl of Shrewsbury to Bordeaux to reconquer Gascony.
+Shrewsbury was successful for a while, but in <b>1453</b> he was defeated and
+slain at Castillon, and the whole enterprise came to nothing.</p>
+
+<a id="chap21sec7" name="chap21sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>The First Protectorate of the Duke of York. 1453&mdash;1454.</b>&mdash;Henry's
+mind had never been strong, and in <b>1453</b> it entirely gave way. His
+insanity was probably inherited from his maternal grandfather, Charles
+VI. The queen bore him a son, named Edward, but though the infant was
+brought to his father, Henry gave no sign <span class="pagenum"><a id="page324" name="page324"></a>(p. 324)</span> of recognising his
+presence. It was necessary to place the government in other hands, and
+in <b>1454</b> the Duke of York was named Protector by the House of Lords,
+which, as the majority of its members were at that time ecclesiastics,
+did not always re-echo the sentiments of the great families. If only
+the king had remained permanently insane York might have established
+an orderly government. Henry, however, soon recovered as much sense as
+he ever had, and York's protectorate came to an end.</p>
+
+<a id="chap21sec8" name="chap21sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>The First Battle of St. Albans and the Duke of York's Second
+Protectorate.</b>&mdash;The restoration of Henry was in reality the restoration
+of Somerset. In <b>1455</b> York, fearing destruction, took arms against his
+rival. A battle was fought at St. Albans, in which Somerset was
+defeated and slain. This was the first battle in the wars known as the
+Wars of the Roses, because a red rose was the badge of the House of
+Lancaster, to which Henry belonged, and a white rose the badge of the
+House of York. After the victory York accompanied the king to London.
+Though the bulk of the nobility was against him, he had on his side
+the powerful family of the Nevills, as he had married Cicely Nevill,
+the sister of the head of that family, the Earl of Salisbury. Still
+more powerful was Salisbury's eldest son, who had married the heiress
+of the Beauchamps, Earls of Warwick, and who held the earldom of
+Warwick in right of his wife.<a id="footnotetag30" name="footnotetag30"></a><a href="#footnote30" title="Go to footnote 30"><span class="small">[30]</span></a> In June <b>1455</b> the king was again
+insane, and York was for the second time named Protector. This
+Protectorate, however, did not last long, as early in <b>1456</b> the king
+recovered his senses, and York had to resign his post.</p>
+
+<a id="img171" name="img171"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img171.jpg" width="400" height="567" alt="" title="">
+<p>A sea-fight: from the 'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl
+of Warwick:' drawn by John Rous about 1485.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap21sec9" name="chap21sec9"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page325" name="page325"></a>(p. 325)</span> 9. <b>Discomfiture of the Yorkists. 1456&mdash;1459.</b>&mdash;For two years
+Henry exercised such authority as he was capable of exercising. In
+<b>1458</b> he tried his hand at effecting a reconciliation. The chiefs
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page326" name="page326"></a>(p. 326)</span> of the two parties walked hand in hand in procession to St.
+Paul's, York himself leading the queen. The Yorkists founded masses
+for the repose of the souls of their enemies slain at St. Albans, and
+paid money to their widows. It seemed as if the old practice of the
+weregild (see p. <a href="#page032">32</a>) had been unexpectedly revived. The spirit
+which had made weregild possible was, however, no longer to be found.
+Warwick retired to Calais, of which he was governor, and sent out
+vessels to plunder the merchant ships of all nations. When he was
+summoned to Westminster to give account of his actions, a quarrel
+broke out there between his servants and those of the king. Believing
+his own life to be in danger, he made his way back to Calais. The
+Yorkists spent the winter in preparing for war. In the summer of <b>1459</b>
+Lord Audley, sent by the queen to seize the Earl of Salisbury, was
+defeated by him at Blore Heath, in Staffordshire. Later in the year
+the two parties with their whole forces prepared for a battle near
+Ludlow, but the Yorkists found themselves no match for their enemies,
+and, without fighting, York, with his second son, the Earl of Rutland,
+took refuge in Ireland. His eldest son Edward, Earl of March, with
+Salisbury and Warwick, made his way to Calais.</p>
+
+<a id="img172" name="img172"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 190px;">
+<img src="images/img172.jpg" width="180" height="633" alt="" title="">
+<p>Effigy of Sir Robert Harcourt, K.G. (died 1471): from
+his tomb at Stanton Harcourt, Oxon; showing armour worn from about
+1445 to 1480.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap21sec10" name="chap21sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>The Battle of Northampton and the Duke of York's Claim to the
+Throne. 1460.</b>&mdash;In <b>1460</b> the Yorkist Earls of Salisbury, Warwick, and
+March were once more in England. They defeated the royal army at
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page327" name="page327"></a>(p. 327)</span> Northampton and captured the king. York returned from
+Ireland, and, as soon as Parliament met, took an unexpected step. If
+hereditary descent was to count for anything, his claim to the throne
+was superior to that of Henry himself, as he was the heir of Edward
+III. through his mother Anne, the sister of the last Earl of
+March.<a id="footnotetag31" name="footnotetag31"></a><a href="#footnote31" title="Go to footnote 31"><span class="small">[31]</span></a> The Duke of York now placed his hand on the throne,
+claiming it in right of birth. The Lords decided that Henry, to whom
+they had sworn oaths of fealty, should retain the crown, but that York
+should succeed him, to the exclusion of Henry's son, Edward, Prince of
+Wales.</p>
+
+<a id="chap21sec11" name="chap21sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>The Battle of Wakefield. 1460.</b>&mdash;The struggle, which had at first
+been one between two unequal sections of the nobility, each nominally
+acknowledging Henry VI. as their king, thus came to be one between the
+Houses of Lancaster and York. The queen, savage at the wrong done to
+her son, refused to accept the compromise. Withdrawing to the North,
+she summoned to her aid the Earl of Northumberland and the Lancastrian
+lords. The North was always exposed to Scottish invasions, and the
+constant danger kept the inhabitants ready for war, and strengthened
+the authority of the great lords who led them. For the same reason the
+people of the North were ruder and less civilised than their
+fellow-countrymen in the South. Plunder and outrage did not come amiss
+to men who were frequently subjected to plunder and outrage. An army
+composed of 18,000 of these rough warriors placed <span class="pagenum"><a id="page328" name="page328"></a>(p. 328)</span> itself at
+the queen's disposal. With these she routed her enemies at Wakefield.
+York himself was slain. His son, Rutland, was stabbed to death by Lord
+Clifford, whose father had been slain at St. Albans. Salisbury was
+subsequently beheaded by the populace at Pontefract. By command of
+Margaret, York's head was cut off, and, adorned in mockery with a
+paper crown, was fixed with those of Salisbury and Rutland above one
+of the gates of York.</p>
+
+<a id="chap21sec12" name="chap21sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>The Battle of Mortimer's Cross and the Second Battle of St.
+Albans. 1461.</b>&mdash;The battle of Wakefield differed in character from the
+earlier battles of the war. They had been but conflicts between bands
+of noblemen and their armed retainers, in which the general population
+took little part, whilst the ordinary business of the country went on
+much as usual. At Wakefield not only were cruel passions developed,
+but a new danger appeared. When Margaret attempted to gain her ends
+with the help of her rude northern followers, she roused against her
+the fears of the wealthier and more prosperous South. The South found
+a leader in York's son, Edward. Though only in his nineteenth year,
+Edward showed that he had the qualities of a commander. Rapid in his
+movements, he fell upon some Lancastrian forces and defeated them on
+February 2, <b>1461</b>, at Mortimer's Cross. In the meanwhile Margaret was
+marching with her northern host upon London, plundering and destroying
+as she went. Warwick, carrying the king with him, met her on the way,
+but in the second battle of St. Albans&mdash;fought on February 17&mdash;was
+driven back, leaving the king behind him.</p>
+
+<a id="chap21sec13" name="chap21sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>The Battle of Towton and the Coronation of Edward IV. 1461.</b>&mdash;With
+a civilised army at her back, Margaret might have won her way into
+London, and established her authority, at least for a time. Her
+unbridled supporters celebrated their victory by robbery and rape, and
+Margaret was unable to lead them forward. The Londoners steeled their
+hearts against her. Edward was marching to their help, and on February
+25 he entered London. The men of the neighbouring counties flocked in
+to his support. On March 2 the crown was offered to him at Clerkenwell
+by such lords as happened to be in London. On his presenting himself
+to the multitude in Westminster Hall, he was greeted with shouts of
+"Long live the king!" Edward IV. represented to peace-loving England
+the order which had to be upheld against the barbarous host which
+Margaret and the Lancastrian lords had called to their aid. He had yet
+to justify the choice. The northern host had retreated to its own
+country, and Edward swiftly followed <span class="pagenum"><a id="page329" name="page329"></a>(p. 329)</span> it up. His advanced
+guard was surprised and driven back at Ferry Bridge; but his main army
+pressed on, and on March 29 gained a decisive victory at Towton. The
+slaughter of the defeated side was enormous. Margaret escaped with
+Henry to Scotland, and Edward, returning southwards, was crowned at
+Westminster on June 29.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap22" name="chap22"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XXII.<br>
+THE YORKIST KINGS.<br>
+EDWARD IV., <b>1461&mdash;1483</b>. EDWARD V., <b>1483</b>. RICHARD III., <b>1483&mdash;1485</b>.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Coronation of Edward IV.                               <span class="right10">1461</span></li>
+<li>Restoration of Henry VI.                               <span class="right10">1470</span></li>
+<li>Edward IV. recovers the crown&mdash;Battles of Barnet and
+    Tewkesbury                                           <span class="right10">1471</span></li>
+<li>Edward V.                                              <span class="right10">1483</span></li>
+<li>Richard III. deposes Edward V.                         <span class="right10">1483</span></li>
+<li>Richard III. killed at Bosworth                        <span class="right10">1485</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="chap22sec1" name="chap22sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>Edward IV. and the House of Commons. 1461.</b>&mdash;On June 29, <b>1461</b>,
+Edward IV. was crowned, and created his two brothers, George and
+Richard, Dukes of Clarence and Gloucester. His first Parliament
+declared the three Lancastrian kings to have been usurpers, and Henry
+VI., his wife, his son, and his chief supporters, to be traitors. At
+the end of the session Edward thanked the Commons for their support,
+and assured them of his resolution to protect them at the hazard of
+his own life. It was the first time that a king had addressed the
+Commons, and his doing so was a sign that a new era had begun, in
+which the wishes of the middle class in town and country were to
+prevail over those of the great nobles. It did not follow that the
+House of Commons would take the control of the government into its own
+hands, as it does at the present day. For a long time the election of
+the members had been carried out under pressure from the local
+nobility. If the great men in a county resolved that certain persons
+should be returned as members, those who came to the place of election
+in support of others would be driven off, and perhaps beaten or
+wounded. Consequently each House of Commons had hitherto represented
+the dominant party, Lancastrian or Yorkist, as the case might be.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page330" name="page330"></a>(p. 330)</span> Before there could be a House of Commons capable of
+governing, the interference of the nobles with elections would have to
+be brought to an end, and it was only by a strong king that their
+power could be overthrown. The strengthening of the kingship was the
+only road to future constitutional progress.</p>
+
+<a id="img173" name="img173"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 190px;">
+<img src="images/img173.jpg" width="250" height="412" alt="" title="">
+<p>Edward IV.: from an original painting belonging to the
+Society of Antiquaries.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap22sec2" name="chap22sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>Loss of the Mediæval Ideals.</b>&mdash;Before the end of the 15th century
+the English people had lost all the ideals of the middle ages. The
+attempt of Henry V. to revive the old ecclesiastical feeling had
+broken down through the race for material power opened by his French
+wars, and through the savagery of the wars of the Roses. The new
+religious feeling of Wycliffe and the nobler Lollards had perished
+with Sir John Oldcastle from the same causes. Neither the Church nor
+the opponents of the Church had any longer a sway over men's hearts.
+The clergy continued to perform their part in the services of the
+Church not indeed without belief, but without the spiritual fervour
+which influences the lives of men. The chivalry of the middle ages was
+as dead as its religion. Men spoke of women as coarsely as they spoke
+of their cattle. Human nature indeed could not be entirely crushed.
+John Paston's wife (see p. <a href="#page321">321</a>), for instance, was quaintly
+affectionate. "I would," she once wrote to her husband, "ye were at
+home, if it were for your ease ... now liever than a gown, though it
+were of scarlet." But the system of wardship (see p. <a href="#page116">116</a>) made
+marriages a matter of bargain and sale. "For very need," wrote a
+certain Stephen Scrope, "I was fain to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page331" name="page331"></a>(p. 331)</span> sell a little
+daughter I have for much less than I should." When Scrope was old he
+wished to marry Paston's young sister, and the girl was willing to
+take him if she were sure that his land was not burdened with debt.
+She would be glad enough to escape from home. Her mother kept her in
+close confinement and beat her once or twice every week, and sometimes
+twice a day, so that her head was broken in two or three places. This
+low and material view of domestic life had led to an equally low and
+material view of political life, and the cruelty which stained the
+wars of the Roses was but the outcome of a state of society in which
+no man cared much for anything except his own greatness and enjoyment.
+The ideal which shaped itself in the minds of the men of the middle
+class was a king acting as a kind of chief constable, who, by keeping
+great men in order, would allow their inferiors to make money in
+peace.</p>
+
+<a id="chap22sec3" name="chap22sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>Fresh Efforts of the Lancastrians. 1462&mdash;1465.</b>&mdash;Edward IV. only
+very partially responded to this demand. He was swift in action when a
+crisis came, and was cruel in his revenge, but he was lustful and
+indolent when the crisis was passed, and he had no statesmanlike
+abilities to lay the foundations of a powerful government. The wars
+were not ended by his victory at Towton. In <b>1462</b> Queen Margaret
+reappeared in the North, and it was not till <b>1464</b> that Warwick's
+brother, Lord Montague, thoroughly defeated her forces at Hedgeley
+Moor and Hexham; for which victories he was rewarded by Edward with
+the earldom of Northumberland, which had been forfeited by the
+Lancastrian head of the House of Percy. Montague's victory was marked
+by the usual butcheries; the Duke of Somerset, a son of the duke who
+had been slain at St. Albans, being amongst those who perished on the
+scaffold. In <b>1465</b> Henry himself was taken prisoner and lodged in the
+Tower.</p>
+
+<a id="chap22sec4" name="chap22sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>Edward's Marriage. 1464.</b>&mdash;Whilst these battles were being fought
+Edward was lingering in the South courting the young widow of Sir John
+Grey, usually known by her maiden name as Elizabeth Woodville. His
+marriage to her gave offence to his noble supporters, who disdained to
+acknowledge a queen of birth so undistinguished; and their ill-will
+was increased when they found that Edward distributed amongst his
+wife's kindred estates and preferments which they had hoped to gain
+for themselves. The queen's father became Earl Rivers and Lord
+Constable, and her brothers and sisters were enriched by marriages
+with noble wards of the Crown. One of her brothers, a youth of twenty,
+was married to the old Duchess of Norfolk, who was over eighty.</p>
+
+<a id="chap22sec5" name="chap22sec5"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page332" name="page332"></a>(p. 332)</span> 5. <b>Estrangement of Warwick. 1465&mdash;1468.</b>&mdash;No doubt there was
+as much of policy as of affection in the slight shown by Edward to the
+Yorkist nobility. Warwick&mdash;the King-maker, as he was called&mdash;had
+special cause for ill-humour. He had expected to be a King-ruler as
+well as a King-maker, and he took grave offence when he found Edward
+slipping away from his control. It seemed as if Edward had the settled
+purpose of raising up a new nobility to counterbalance the old. In
+<b>1467</b> Warwick's brother, the Archbishop of York, was deprived of the
+chancellorship. In foreign politics, too, Edward and Warwick
+disagreed. Warwick had taken up the old policy of the Beauforts, and
+was anxious for an alliance with the astute Louis XI., who had in <b>1461</b>
+succeeded his father, Charles VII., as king of France. Edward, perhaps
+with some thought passing through his head of establishing his throne
+by following in the steps of Henry V., declared for an alliance with
+Burgundy. In <b>1467</b> Warwick was allowed to go to France as an
+ambassador, whilst Edward was entertaining Burgundian ambassadors in
+England. In the same year Charles the Rash succeeded his father,
+Philip the Good (see p. <a href="#page306">306</a>), as Duke of Burgundy, and in <b>1468</b>
+married Edward's sister, Margaret. The Duke of Burgundy, the rival of
+the king of France, was the lord of the seventeen provinces of the
+Netherlands, and his friendship brought with it that peaceful
+intercourse with the manufacturing towns of Flanders which it was
+always the object of English policy to secure.</p>
+
+<a id="chap22sec6" name="chap22sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>Warwick's Alliance with Clarence. 1469&mdash;1470.</b>&mdash;Warwick, disgusted
+with Edward, found an ally in Edward's brother, Clarence, who, like
+Warwick, was jealous of the Woodvilles. Warwick had no son, and his
+two daughters, Isabel and Anne, would one day share his vast estates
+between them. Warwick gave Isabel in marriage to Clarence, and
+encouraged him to think that it might be possible to seat him&mdash;in days
+when everything seemed possible to the strong&mdash;on Edward's throne.
+Edward had by this time lost much of his popularity. His extravagant
+and luxurious life made men doubt whether anything had been gained by
+substituting him for Henry, and in <b>1469</b> and <b>1470</b> there were risings
+fomented by Warwick. In the latter year Edward, with the help of his
+cannon, the importance of which in battles was now great, struck such
+a panic into his enemies at a battle near Stamford that the place of
+action came to be known as Lose-coat Field, from the haste with which
+the fugitives stripped themselves of their armour to make their flight
+the easier. Warwick <span class="pagenum"><a id="page333" name="page333"></a>(p. 333)</span> and Clarence fled across the sea.
+Warwick was governor of Calais, but his own officer there refused to
+admit him, and he was forced to take refuge in France.</p>
+
+<a id="img174" name="img174"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img174.jpg" width="400" height="373" alt="" title="">
+<p>A fifteenth-century ship: from Harl. MS. 2278.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap22sec7" name="chap22sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>The Restoration of Henry VI. 1470.</b>&mdash;Warwick knew that he had no
+chance of recovering power without the support of the Lancastrian
+party, and, disagreeable as it was to him, he allowed Louis XI. to
+reconcile him to Queen Margaret, the wife of that Henry VI., of whom
+he had been the bitterest enemy. Louis, who dreaded Edward's alliance
+with the Duke of Burgundy, did everything to support Edward's foes,
+and sent Warwick off to England, where he was subsequently to be
+joined by the queen. Edward, who was in his most careless mood, was
+foolish enough to trust Warwick's brother, Montague, from whom he had
+taken away, not only his new earldom of Northumberland to restore it
+to the head of the Percies (see p. <a href="#page331">331</a>), but all the lands
+connected with it, and had thought to compensate him with the mere
+marquisate <span class="pagenum"><a id="page334" name="page334"></a>(p. 334)</span> of Montague, unaccompanied by any estate
+wherewith to support the dignity of his rank. Montague turned against
+him, and Edward, fearing for his life, fled to Holland. Warwick became
+master of England, and this time the King-maker drew Henry from the
+Tower and placed him once more on the throne, imbecile as he now was.</p>
+
+<a id="chap22sec8" name="chap22sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>Edward IV. recovers the Throne. 1471.</b>&mdash;In the spring of <b>1471</b> Edward
+was back in England, landing at Ravenspur, where Henry IV. had landed
+in <b>1399</b>. Like Henry IV., he lyingly declared that he had come merely
+to claim his duchy and estates. Like Henry IV., too, he found a
+supporter in an Earl of Northumberland, who was this time the Percy
+who, Lancastrian as he was, had been restored by Edward to his earldom
+at the expense of Montague. Clarence, too&mdash;false, fleeting, perjured
+Clarence, as Shakspere truly calls him&mdash;had offered to betray Warwick.
+Edward gathered a sufficient force to march unassailed to London,
+where he was enthusiastically received. Taking with him the
+unfortunate Henry he won a complete victory at Barnet. The battle was
+fought in a dense fog, and was decided by a panic caused amongst
+Warwick's men through the firing of one of their divisions into
+another. Warwick and Montague were among the slain. By this time
+Margaret had landed with a fresh army at Weymouth. Edward caught her
+and her army at Tewkesbury, where he inflicted on her a crushing
+defeat. Her son, Edward Prince of Wales, was either slain in the
+battle, or more probably murdered after the fight was over; and the
+Duke of Somerset, the brother of the duke who had been executed after
+the battle of Hexham (see p. <a href="#page331">331</a>), the last male heir of the
+House of Beaufort, as well as others, who had taken refuge in the
+abbey, were afterwards put to death, though Edward had solemnly
+promised them their lives. On the night after Edward's return to
+London Henry VI. ended his life in the Tower. There can be no
+reasonable doubt that he was murdered, and that, too, by Edward's
+directions.</p>
+
+<a id="chap22sec9" name="chap22sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>Edward IV. prepares for War with France. 1471&mdash;1474.</b>&mdash;Edward IV.
+was now all powerful. He had no competitor to fear. No descendant of
+Henry IV. remained alive. Of the Beauforts, the descendants of John of
+Gaunt by Catherine Swynford (see p. <a href="#page282">282</a>), the male line had
+perished, and the only representative was young Henry, Earl of
+Richmond, whose mother, the Lady Margaret, was the daughter of the
+first Duke of Somerset, and the cousin of the two dukes who had been
+executed after the battles of Hexham <span class="pagenum"><a id="page335" name="page335"></a>(p. 335)</span> and Tewkesbury.<a id="footnotetag32" name="footnotetag32"></a><a href="#footnote32" title="Go to footnote 32"><span class="small">[32]</span></a> His
+father, Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who died before his birth, was
+the son of a Welsh gentleman of no great mark, who had had the luck to
+marry Catherine of France, the widow of Henry V. The young Richmond
+was, however, an exile, and, as he was only fourteen years of age when
+Edward was restored, no serious danger was as yet to be apprehended
+from that side. Moreover, the slaughter amongst both the Yorkist and
+the Lancastrian nobility had, for the time, put an end to all danger
+of a rising. Edward was, therefore, at liberty to carry out his own
+foreign policy. He obtained grants from Parliament to enable him, in
+alliance with Charles of Burgundy, to make war against Louis XI. The
+grants were insufficient, and he supplemented them by a newly invented
+system of benevolences, which were nominally free gifts made to him by
+the well-to-do, but which were in reality exactions, because those
+from whom they were required dared not refuse to pay. The system
+raised little general ill will, partly because the small owners of
+property who were relieved from taxation were not touched by the
+benevolences, and partly because the end which Edward had put to the
+civil war made his government welcome. In some cases his personal
+charm counted for something. One old lady whom he asked for ten pounds
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page336" name="page336"></a>(p. 336)</span> replied that for the sake of his handsome face she would
+give him twenty. He kissed her and she at once made it forty.</p>
+
+<a id="chap22sec10" name="chap22sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>The Invasion of France. 1475.</b>&mdash;In <b>1475</b> Edward invaded France. If
+he could have secured the steady support of the Duke of Burgundy he
+might have accomplished something, but the Duke's dominions were too
+scattered to enable him to have a settled policy. He was sometimes led
+to attack the king of France, because he had interests as a French
+vassal; whilst at other times he threw all his strength into projects
+for encroachments in Germany, because he had also interests as a
+vassal of the Emperor. When Edward landed Charles was anxious to carry
+on war in Germany, and would give no help to Edward in France. Louis
+XI., who preferred a victory of diplomacy to one of force, wheedled
+Edward into a seven years' truce by a grant of 75,000 crowns, together
+with a yearly pension of 50,000, and by a promise to marry the Dauphin
+Charles to Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of the king of England.
+Louis also made presents to Edward's chief followers, and was
+delighted when the English army turned its back on France. In
+consequence of this understanding Queen Margaret recovered her
+liberty.</p>
+
+<a id="chap22sec11" name="chap22sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>Fall and Death of Clarence. 1476&mdash;1478.</b>&mdash;Soon after Edward's
+return he became suspicious of his brother Clarence, who took upon
+himself to interfere with the course of justice. In <b>1477</b> the Duke of
+Burgundy, Charles the Rash, was slain at Nancy by the Swiss, leaving
+only a daughter, Mary. Ducal Burgundy was at once seized by Louis, as
+forfeited for want of male heirs, but Franche Comté, or the county of
+Burgundy, was a part of the Empire, and therefore beyond his reach;
+and this latter district, together with the provinces of the
+Netherlands, formed a dower splendid enough to attract suitors for
+Mary's hand. Amongst these was Clarence,<a id="footnotetag33" name="footnotetag33"></a><a href="#footnote33" title="Go to footnote 33"><span class="small">[33]</span></a> now a widower. Edward,
+who had no wish to see his brother an independent sovereign, forbade
+him to proceed with his wooing. Other actions of Clarence were
+displeasing to the king, and when Parliament met, <b>1478</b>, Edward with
+his own mouth accused his brother of treason. Clarence was condemned
+to death, and perished secretly in the Tower, being, according to
+rumour, drowned in a butt of malmsey.</p>
+
+<a id="chap22sec12" name="chap22sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>The Last Years of Edward IV. 1478&mdash;1483.</b>&mdash;The remainder of
+Edward's life was spent in quiet, as far as domestic affairs were
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page337" name="page337"></a>(p. 337)</span> concerned. In foreign affairs he met with a grave
+disappointment. Mary of Burgundy had found a husband in Maximilian,
+archduke of Austria, the son of the Emperor Frederick III. In <b>1482</b> she
+died, leaving two children, Philip and Margaret. The men of Ghent set
+Maximilian at naught, and, combining with Louis, forced Maximilian in
+the treaty of Arras to promise the hand of Margaret to the Dauphin,
+and the cession of some Netherlandish territory to France. Edward died
+on April 9, <b>1483</b>, and it has been said that the treaty of Arras, which
+extended French influence in the Netherlands, brought about his death.
+It is more reasonable to attribute it to the dissoluteness of his
+life.</p>
+
+<a id="chap22sec13" name="chap22sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>Edward V. and the Duke of Gloucester. 1483.</b>&mdash;Edward IV. left two
+sons. The elder, a boy of twelve, was now Edward V., and his younger
+brother, Richard, was Duke of York.<a id="footnotetag34" name="footnotetag34"></a><a href="#footnote34" title="Go to footnote 34"><span class="small">[34]</span></a> The only grown-up man of the
+family was the youngest brother of Edward IV., Richard, Duke of
+Gloucester. Gloucester had shown himself during his brother's reign to
+be possessed of the qualities which fit a man to fulfil the duties of
+a high position. He was not only a good soldier and an able commander,
+but, unlike his brother Clarence, was entirely faithful to Edward,
+though he showed his independence by refusing to take part in Edward's
+treaty with Louis of France. He had a rare power of winning popular
+sympathy, and was most liked in Yorkshire, where he was best known. He
+had, however, grown up in a cruel and unscrupulous age, and had no
+more hesitation in clearing his way by slaughter than had Edward IV.
+or Margaret of Anjou. Though absolute proof is wanting, there is
+strong reason to believe that he took part in cutting down Prince
+Edward after the battle of Tewkesbury, and that he executed his
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page338" name="page338"></a>(p. 338)</span> brother's orders in providing for the murder of Henry VI. in
+the Tower. He made no remonstrance against, though he took no part in,
+the death of Clarence, with whom he was on bad terms, because Clarence
+claimed the whole of the estates of the King-maker, whose eldest
+daughter Isabel he had married; whereas Gloucester, having married the
+younger daughter Anne, the widow of the slaughtered son of Henry VI.
+put in a claim to half. Gloucester was now to be tried as he had never
+been tried before, his brother having appointed him by will to be the
+guardian of his young nephew and of the kingdom. If the authority thus
+conferred upon him met with general acceptance, he would probably make
+an excellent ruler. If it were questioned he would strike out, and
+show no mercy. In those hard days every man of high position must be
+either hammer or anvil, and Richard was resolved that he would not be
+the anvil.</p>
+
+<a id="chap22sec14" name="chap22sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>Fall of the Queen's Relations. 1483.</b>&mdash;The young king was at
+Ludlow, and rode up towards London, guarded by Earl Rivers, his uncle
+on his mother's side, and by his half-brother, Sir Richard Grey.
+Another half-brother, the Marquis of Dorset, was lieutenant of the
+Tower.<a id="footnotetag35" name="footnotetag35"></a><a href="#footnote35" title="Go to footnote 35"><span class="small">[35]</span></a> Gloucester had strong reasons for believing that the Greys
+intended to keep the young king in their hands and, having him crowned
+at once, so as to put an end to his own guardianship, to make
+themselves masters of the kingdom. He therefore struck the first blow.
+Accompanied by his friend and supporter, the Duke of Buckingham, he
+overtook the cavalcade, and sent Rivers and Grey prisoners to
+Pontefract. The queen-mother at once took refuge in the sanctuary at
+Westminster, whence no one could remove her without violating the
+privileges of the Church.</p>
+
+<a id="img175" name="img175"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img175.jpg" width="400" height="520" alt="" title="">
+<p>Large ship and boat of the fifteenth century. The
+mainsail of the ship has the Beauchamp arms, and the streamer the bear
+and ragged staff. From the 'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of
+Warwick,' by John Rous; drawn about 1485.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap22sec15" name="chap22sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>Execution of Lord Hastings.</b>&mdash;The young king arrived in London on
+May 4. The Council acknowledged Gloucester as Protector, and removed
+Edward to the Tower, which in those days was a place of safety rather
+than a prison. Dorset, however, had equipped a fleet, and Gloucester
+was afraid lest a fresh attempt <span class="pagenum"><a id="page339" name="page339"></a>(p. 339)</span> might be made by the queen's
+party to overthrow him. His fears were increased because Lord
+Hastings, the leading member of the Council, who had taken his part
+against the Woodvilles, now turned against him and began to intrigue
+with the queen's <span class="pagenum"><a id="page340" name="page340"></a>(p. 340)</span> supporters. Coming into the council chamber
+on June 13, he laid bare his left arm, which had been withered from
+his birth, and declared that the mischief was the effect of
+witchcraft, and that the witches were the queen and Jane Shore, who
+had been one of the many mistresses of Edward IV., and was now the
+mistress of Hastings. Hastings admitted that the queen and Jane Shore
+were worthy of punishment if they were guilty. "What!" cried
+Gloucester, "dost thou serve me with ifs and with ands? I tell thee
+they have done it, and that I will make good on thy body, traitor."
+Gloucester struck his fist on the table. Armed men rushed in, dragged
+Hastings out, and cut off his head on a log of wood. Jane Shore was
+compelled to do public penance in a white sheet. Of the causes of
+Hastings' desertion of Gloucester it is impossible to speak with
+certainty. It is a probable conjecture that he had discovered that
+Gloucester entertained the thought of making himself more than
+Protector. Young Edward's coronation would make the boy capable,
+formally at least, of exercising royal power, and as it was known that
+the boy loved his mother's relations, it was almost certain that he
+would place the Woodvilles in power. Now that Gloucester had
+imprisoned Rivers and Grey, it was certain that the first thing done
+by the Woodvilles, if they got a chance, would be to send Gloucester
+to the scaffold, and Gloucester was not the man patiently to allow
+himself to be crushed. It is ridiculous to speak of Gloucester as an
+accomplished dissembler. The story of witchcraft served its purpose,
+but it was the stupid lie of a man who had not hitherto been
+accustomed to lying.</p>
+
+<a id="chap22sec16" name="chap22sec16"></a>
+<p>16. <b>Deposition of Edward V. 1483.</b>&mdash;The execution of Hastings was
+promptly followed by the execution of Rivers and Grey. Dorset saved
+himself by escaping beyond sea. By threats Gloucester got the Duke of
+York into his hands, and lodged him with his brother in the Tower. He
+was now in a temper which would stop at no atrocity. He put up a Dr.
+Shaw to preach a sermon against Edward's claim to the throne. In those
+days if a man and woman made a contract of marriage neither of the
+contracting parties could marry another, though no actual marriage had
+taken place. Shaw declared that Edward IV. had promised marriage to
+one of his mistresses before he met Elizabeth Woodville, and that
+therefore, his marriage with Elizabeth being invalid, all his children
+by her were illegitimate, and Gloucester was the true heir to the
+throne. Further, Shaw declared that Gloucester was the only legitimate
+son of the Duke of York, both Edward IV. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page341" name="page341"></a>(p. 341)</span> and Clarence being
+the sons of their mother by some other man. That Richard should have
+authorised so base an attack upon his mother's honour shows the depth
+of infamy to which he had now sunk. At first it seemed as if he had
+lowered himself to no purpose. The hearers of the sermon, instead of
+shouting, "God save King Richard!" held their peace. At a meeting in
+the City the Duke of Buckingham told the same story as had been told
+by Shaw, and there the servants of the two dukes shouted for 'King
+Richard,' and their voice was taken as the voice of the City. On June
+25 Parliament declared Gloucester to be the lawful heir, and on July 6
+he was crowned as Richard III. The Woodvilles were not popular, and
+the bloodshed with which Richard had maintained himself against them
+was readily condoned.</p>
+
+<a id="img176" name="img176"></a>
+<div class="floatright" style="width: 260px;">
+<img src="images/img176.jpg" width="250" height="396" alt="" title="">
+<p>Richard III.: from an original painting belonging to
+the Society of Antiquaries.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap22sec17" name="chap22sec17"></a>
+<p>17. <b>Buckingham's Rebellion. 1483.</b>&mdash;Richard's enemies were chiefly to
+be found amongst the nobility. No nobleman could feel his life secure
+if he crossed Richard's path. The first to revolt was Buckingham, who
+had played the part of a king-maker, and who was disappointed because
+Richard did not reward him by conceding his claim to estates so vast
+that if he possessed them he would have been master of England.
+Buckingham, who was descended from Edward III. through his youngest
+son, the Duke of Gloucester, at first thought of challenging a right
+to the throne for himself, but afterwards determined to support the
+claim of the Earl of Richmond, the Tudor heir of the House of
+Lancaster (see p. <a href="#page334">334</a>). He was skilfully led from one step to
+another by John <span class="pagenum"><a id="page342" name="page342"></a>(p. 342)</span> Morton, Bishop of Ely, one of the ablest
+statesmen of the day. Richmond was to sail from Brittany, where he was
+in exile, and Buckingham was to raise forces in Wales, where the Welsh
+Tudors were popular, whilst other counties were to rise
+simultaneously. The rebellion came to nothing. Heavy rains caused a
+flood of the Severn, and Buckingham, in Shropshire, was cut off from
+his army in Wales. Buckingham was betrayed to Richard, and on November
+2 was beheaded at Salisbury.</p>
+
+<a id="chap22sec18" name="chap22sec18"></a>
+<p>18. <b>Murder of the Princes. 1483.</b>&mdash;At some time in the summer or autumn
+the princes in the Tower ceased to live. There had been movements in
+their favour in some counties, and there can be no reasonable doubt
+that Richard had them secretly killed. It was only by degrees that the
+truth leaked out. Wherever it was believed it roused indignation.
+Murders there had been in plenty, but the murdered as yet had been
+grown men. To butcher children was reserved for Richard alone.</p>
+
+<a id="chap22sec19" name="chap22sec19"></a>
+<p>19. <b>Richard's Government. 1484&mdash;1485.</b>&mdash;As long as the last tale of
+murder was still regarded as doubtful, Richard retained his
+popularity. In a Parliament which met in January <b>1484</b> he enacted good
+laws, amongst which was one declaring benevolences illegal. In the
+summer he was welcomed as he moved about, yet he knew that danger
+threatened. Richmond was preparing invasion and the hollow friendship
+of the English nobility was not to be trusted. In vain Richard
+scattered gifts in profusion amongst them. They took the gifts and
+hoped for deliverance. The popular goodwill grew cooler, and in the
+winter Richard, needing money, and not venturing to summon another
+Parliament, raised a forced loan. A loan not being a gift, he did not
+technically break the statute against benevolences though practically
+he set it at naught. Domestic misfortunes came to add to Richard's
+political troubles. His only son, Edward, died in <b>1484</b>. His wife,
+Anne, died in <b>1485</b>. Richard was now eager, if he had not been eager
+before, to marry his niece, Elizabeth of York, the daughter of Edward
+IV. This monstrous proposal was scouted by his own supporters, and he
+had reluctantly to abandon the scheme. If there could be queens in
+England, Elizabeth was on hereditary principles the heiress of the
+throne, unless, indeed, Richard's argument against her mother's
+marriage (see p. <a href="#page340">340</a>) was to be accepted. Richmond was
+naturally as anxious as Richard could be to win her hand, and his
+promise to marry her was the condition on which he obtained the
+support of those Yorkists who were Richard's enemies.</p>
+
+<a id="chap22sec20" name="chap22sec20"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page343" name="page343"></a>(p. 343)</span> 20. <b>Richard Defeated and Slain at Bosworth. 1485.</b>&mdash;In August
+<b>1485</b> Richmond landed at Milford Haven. As he marched on he was joined
+by considerable numbers, but on August 22 he found Richard waiting for
+him near Bosworth, with a host far larger than his own. Richard,
+however, could not count on the fidelity of his own commanders. Lord
+Stanley, who had married Richmond's widowed mother, the Lady Margaret
+(see p. <a href="#page334">334</a>), together with his brother, Sir William Stanley,
+were secretly in accord with Richmond, though they had placed
+themselves on Richard's side. When the battle began Stanley openly
+joined Richmond, whilst the Earl of Northumberland who was also
+nominally on Richard's side withdrew his forces and stood aloof.
+Knowing that defeat was certain, Richard, with the crown on his head,
+rushed into the thick of the fight and met a soldier's death. After
+the battle the fallen crown was discovered on a bush, and placed by
+Stanley, amidst shouts of 'King Henry!' on Richmond's head.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23" name="chap23"></a>
+<h3>CHAPTER XXIII.<br>
+HENRY VII. 1485&mdash;1509.</h3>
+
+<div class="header">
+<p class="center">LEADING DATES</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Accession of Henry VII.      <span class="right10">1485</span></li>
+<li>The Battle of Stoke          <span class="right10">1487</span></li>
+<li>Poynings' Acts               <span class="right10">1494</span></li>
+<li>Capture of Perkin Warbeck    <span class="right10">1497</span></li>
+<li>Alliance with Scotland       <span class="right10">1503</span></li>
+<li>Death of Henry VII.          <span class="right10">1509</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<a id="img177" name="img177"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img177.jpg" width="300" height="440" alt="" title="">
+<p>Henry VII.: from an original picture in the National
+Portrait Gallery.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap23sec1" name="chap23sec1"></a>
+<p>1. <b>The First Measures of Henry VII. 1485&mdash;1486.</b>&mdash;Henry VII. owed his
+success not to a general uprising against Richard, but to a
+combination of the nobles who had hitherto taken opposite sides. To
+secure this combination he had promised to marry Elizabeth, the
+heiress of the Yorkist family. Lest an attempt should be made to
+challenge her title, Henry imprisoned in the Tower the Earl of
+Warwick, the son of Clarence, who might possibly maintain that a
+female was incapable of inheriting. He was indeed unwilling to have it
+thought that he derived his title from a wife, and when Parliament met
+on November 7 he obtained from it a recognition of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page344" name="page344"></a>(p. 344)</span> his own
+right to the throne, though it would have puzzled the most acute
+controversialist to discover in what that right consisted. Parliament,
+therefore, contented itself with declaring that the inheritance of the
+crown was to 'be, rest, and abide in King Henry VII. and his heirs,'
+without giving any reasons why it was to be so.<a id="footnotetag36" name="footnotetag36"></a><a href="#footnote36" title="Go to footnote 36"><span class="small">[36]</span></a> As far as the
+House of Lords was concerned the attendance <span class="pagenum"><a id="page345" name="page345"></a>(p. 345)</span> when this
+declaration was made was scanty. Only twenty-nine lay peers were
+present, not because many of the great houses had become extinct, but
+because some of the principal Yorkist peers had been attainted, and
+others had been left without a summons. In the quieter times which
+followed this slur upon them was removed, and the House of Lords was
+again filled. On January 18, <b>1486</b>, Henry married Elizabeth. This
+marriage and the blending of the white and red rose in the Tudor badge
+was Henry's way of announcing that he intended to be the king of both
+parties.</p>
+
+<a id="img178" name="img178"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img178.jpg" width="300" height="393" alt="" title="">
+<p>Elizabeth of York, queen of Henry VII.: from an
+original picture in the National Portrait Gallery.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap23sec2" name="chap23sec2"></a>
+<p>2. <b>Maintenance and Livery.</b>&mdash;Henry could not maintain himself on the
+throne merely by the support of the nobility. The middle classes, as
+in the days of Edward IV., called out for a strong king, and were
+ready to overlook violence and cruelty if only order could be secured.
+Henry was shrewd enough to know that their aid was indispensable, and,
+Lancastrian as he was, he adopted the policy of the Yorkist kings.
+Economical and patient, he might succeed where Edward IV. had
+partially failed. He had no injuries to avenge, no cruelties to repay.
+He clearly saw that both the throne and the lives and properties of
+the middle classes were rendered insecure by maintenance and
+livery&mdash;the support given by <span class="pagenum"><a id="page346" name="page346"></a>(p. 346)</span> the great landowners to their
+retainers, and the granting of badges by which the retainers might
+recognise one another, and thus become as it were a uniformed army
+ready to serve their lords in the field. Against these abuses Richard
+II. had directed a statute, (see p. <a href="#page281">281</a>) and that statute had
+been confirmed by Edward IV. These laws had, however, been
+inoperative; and Henry, in his first Parliament, did not venture to do
+more than to make the peers swear to abandon their evil courses.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec3" name="chap23sec3"></a>
+<p>3. <b>Lovel's Rising. 1486.</b>&mdash;In <b>1486</b> Lord Lovel, who had been one of
+Richard's ministers, rose in arms and seized Worcester. Henry found
+warm support even in Yorkshire, where Richard had been more popular
+than elsewhere. At short warning a 'marvellous great number of
+esquires, gentlemen, and yeomen' gathered round him, and the rebellion
+was easily put down. Lovel escaped to Flanders, where he found a
+protector in Margaret, the dowager Duchess of Burgundy, the sister of
+Edward IV. and Richard III. Before long a new attack upon Henry was
+developed. For the first time an English king had to ward off danger
+from Ireland.</p>
+
+<a id="img179" name="img179"></a>
+<div class="floatleft" style="width: 210px;">
+<img src="images/img179.jpg" width="200" height="188" alt="" title="">
+<p>Tudor rose (white and red): from the gates of the
+Chapel of Henry VII.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap23sec4" name="chap23sec4"></a>
+<p>4. <b>Lancaster and York in Ireland. 1399&mdash;1485.</b>&mdash;Since the expedition of
+Richard II. no king had visited Ireland, and the English colonists
+were left to defend themselves against the Celtic tribes as best they
+might. In <b>1449</b> Richard, Duke of York, who had not at that time entered
+on his rivalry with Henry VI., was sent to Dublin as Lord Lieutenant
+(see p. <a href="#page319">319</a>) where he remained till <b>1450</b>, and gained friends
+amongst both races by his conciliatory firmness. In <b>1459</b>, after the
+break-up of his party at Ludlow (see p. <a href="#page326">326</a>), he appeared in
+Ireland in the character of a fugitive seeking for allies. Between him
+and the English colony a bargain was soon struck. They gave him troops
+which fought gallantly for him at Wakefield, and he, claiming to be
+Lord Lieutenant, assented to an act in which they asserted the
+complete legislative independence of the Parliament of the colony. The
+colony, therefore, became distinctly Yorkist. Its leader was the Earl
+of Kildare, the chief of the eastern Fitzgeralds or Geraldines, the
+Earl of Desmond being the chief of the Geraldines of the West. Between
+them was the Earl of Ormond, the chief of the Butlers, the hereditary
+foe of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page347" name="page347"></a>(p. 347)</span> Geraldines, who, probably merely because his
+rivals were Yorkist, had attached himself to the Lancastrian party.
+All three were of English descent, but all three exercised the tribal
+authority of an Irish chief, and were practically independent of
+English control. Ormond fought at Towton on the Lancastrian side, and
+was executed after the battle. Family quarrels broke out amongst his
+kindred, and for the time Kildare was supreme in the English Pale (see
+p. <a href="#page265">265</a>).</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec5" name="chap23sec5"></a>
+<p>5. <b>Insurrection of Lambert Simnel. 1487.</b>&mdash;Kildare and the colonists
+had every reason to distrust Henry, but to oppose him they needed a
+pretender. They found one in the son of an Oxford tradesman, a boy of
+ten, named Lambert Simnel, who had been persuaded to give himself out
+as the Earl of Warwick, who, as it was said, had escaped from the
+Tower. In <b>1487</b> Simnel landed in Ireland, where he was soon joined by
+Lord Lovel from Flanders, and by the Earl of Lincoln, of the family of
+Pole or De la Pole,<a id="footnotetag37" name="footnotetag37"></a><a href="#footnote37" title="Go to footnote 37"><span class="small">[37]</span></a> whose mother, Elizabeth, was the eldest sister
+of Edward IV., and who had been named by Richard III. as his heir
+after the death of his son (see p. <a href="#page342">342</a>). Lincoln and Lovel,
+after crowning Simnel at Dublin, crossed to Lancashire, taking with
+them the pretender, and 2,000 trained German soldiers under Martin
+Schwarz; as well as an Irish force furnished by Kildare. Scarcely an
+Englishman would join them, and on June 16 they were utterly defeated
+by Henry at Stoke, a village between Nottingham and Newark. Lincoln
+and Schwarz were slain. Lovel was either drowned in the Trent or,
+according to legend, was hidden in an underground vault, where he was
+at last starved to death through the neglect of the man whose duty it
+was to provide him with food. Simnel <span class="pagenum"><a id="page348" name="page348"></a>(p. 348)</span> was pardoned, and
+employed by Henry as a turnspit in his kitchen.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec6" name="chap23sec6"></a>
+<p>6. <b>The Court of Star Chamber. 1487.</b>&mdash;Nothing could serve Henry better
+than this abortive rising. At Bosworth he had been the leader of one
+party against the other. At Stoke he was the leader of the nation
+against Irishmen and Germans. He felt himself strong enough in his
+second Parliament to secure the passing of an act to ensure the
+execution of the engagements to which the lords had sworn two years
+before (see p. <a href="#page345">345</a>). A court was to be erected, consisting of
+certain specified members of the Privy Council and of two judges,
+empowered to punish with fine and imprisonment all who were guilty of
+interfering with justice by force or intrigue. The new court,
+reviving, to some extent, the disused criminal authority of the king's
+Council, sat in the Star Chamber<a id="footnotetag38" name="footnotetag38"></a><a href="#footnote38" title="Go to footnote 38"><span class="small">[38]</span></a> at Westminster. The results of
+its establishment were excellent. Wealthy landowners, the terror of
+their neighbours, who had bribed or bullied juries at their pleasure,
+and had sent their retainers to inflict punishment on those who had
+displeased them, were brought to Westminster to be tried before a
+court in which neither fear nor favour could avail them. It was the
+greatest merit of the new court that it was not dependent on a jury,
+because in those days juries were unable or unwilling to give verdicts
+according to their conscience.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec7" name="chap23sec7"></a>
+<p>7. <b>Henry VII. and Brittany. 1488&mdash;1492.</b>&mdash;Henry VII. was a lover of
+peace by calculation, and would gladly have let France alone if it had
+been possible to do so. France, however, was no longer the divided
+power which it had been in the days of Henry V. When Louis XI. died in
+<b>1483</b>, he left to his young son, Charles VIII., a territory the whole
+of which, with the exception of Brittany, was directly governed by the
+king. Charles's sister, Anne of Beaujeu, who governed in his name,
+made it the object of her policy to secure Brittany. She waged war
+successfully against its duke, Francis II., and after he died, in
+<b>1488</b>, she continued to wage war against his daughter, the Duchess
+Anne. In England there was a strong feeling against allowing the
+Duchess to be overwhelmed. At the beginning of <b>1489</b> Henry, having
+received from Parliament large supplies, sent 6,000 Englishmen to
+Anne's assistance. Maximilian&mdash;whose hold on the Netherlands, where he
+ruled in the name of his young son, Philip (see p. <a href="#page337">337</a>), was
+always slight&mdash;proposed marriage to the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page349" name="page349"></a>(p. 349)</span> young duchess, and
+in <b>1490</b> was wedded to her by proxy. He was a restless adventurer,
+always aiming at more than he had the means of accomplishing. Though
+he could not find time to go at once to Brittany to make
+good his claim, yet in <b>1491</b> he called on Henry to assist him in
+asserting it.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec8" name="chap23sec8"></a>
+<p>8. <b>Cardinal Morton's Fork. 1491.</b>&mdash;Henry, who knew how unpopular a
+general taxation was, fell back on the system of benevolences (see p.
+<a href="#page335">335</a>), excusing his conduct on the plea that the statute of
+Richard III. abolishing benevolences (see p. <a href="#page342">342</a>) was invalid,
+because Richard himself was a usurper. In gathering the benevolence
+the Chancellor, Cardinal Morton, who had been helpful to Henry in the
+days of his exile (see p. <a href="#page341">341</a>), invented a new mode of putting
+pressure on the wealthy, which became known as Cardinal Morton's fork.
+If he addressed himself to one who lived in good style, he told him
+that his mode of living showed that he could afford to give money to
+the king. If he had to do with one who appeared to be economical, he
+told him that he must have saved and could therefore afford to give
+money to the king. Before Henry could put the money thus gained to
+much use, Anne, pressed hard by the French, repudiated her formal
+marriage with Maximilian, who had never taken the trouble to visit
+her, and gave her hand to Charles VIII., who on his part refused to
+carry out his contract to marry Maximilian's daughter Margaret (see p.
+<a href="#page337">337</a>). From that time Brittany, the last of the great fiefs to
+maintain its independence, passed under the power of the king of
+France. Feudality was everywhere breaking down, and in France, as in
+England, a strong monarchy was being erected on its ruins.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec9" name="chap23sec9"></a>
+<p>9. <b>The Invasion of France. 1492.</b>&mdash;Maximilian's alliance had proved but
+a broken reed, but there was now arising a formidable power in the
+south of Europe, which might possibly give valuable support to the
+enemies of France. The peninsula to the south of the Pyrenees had
+hitherto been divided amongst various states, but in <b>1469</b> a marriage
+between Ferdinand, king of Aragon, and Isabella, the heiress of
+Castile, united the greater part under one dominion. Ferdinand and
+Isabella were, for the present, fully occupied with the conquest of
+Granada, the last remnant of the possessions of the Moors in Spain,
+and that city did not surrender till early in <b>1492</b>. In the meanwhile
+all England was indignant with the king of France on account of his
+marriage with the heiress of Brittany. Money was voted and men were
+raised, and on October 2, <b>1492</b>, Henry crossed to Calais to invade
+France. He <span class="pagenum"><a id="page350" name="page350"></a>(p. 350)</span> was, however, cool enough to discover that both
+Ferdinand and Maximilian wanted to play their own game at his expense,
+and as Anne of Beaujeu was ready to meet him half-way, he concluded a
+treaty with the French king on November 3 at Etaples, receiving large
+sums of money for abandoning a war in which he had nothing to gain. In
+<b>1493</b> the Spaniards followed Henry's example, and made a peace with
+France to their own advantage.<a id="footnotetag39" name="footnotetag39"></a><a href="#footnote39" title="Go to footnote 39"><span class="small">[39]</span></a></p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec10" name="chap23sec10"></a>
+<p>10. <b>Perkin Warbeck. 1491&mdash;1494.</b>&mdash;Henry's prudent relinquishment of a
+war of conquest was not likely to bring him popularity in England, and
+his enemies were now on the watch for another pretender to support
+against him. Such a pretender was found in Perkin Warbeck, a Fleming
+of Tournay, who had landed at Cork in the end of <b>1491</b> or the beginning
+of <b>1492</b>, and who had been pressed by the townsmen to give himself some
+name which would attach him to the Yorkist family. He allowed them to
+call him Richard, Duke of York, the younger of the princes who had
+been murdered in the Tower. He received support from Desmond, and
+probably from Kildare, upon which Henry deprived Kildare of the office
+of Lord Deputy. Perkin crossed to France, and ultimately made his way
+to Flanders, where he was supported by Margaret of Burgundy. In <b>1493</b>
+Henry demanded his surrender, and on receiving a refusal broke off
+commercial intercourse between England and Flanders. The interruption
+of trade did more harm to England than to Flanders, and gave hopes to
+the Yorkist party that it might give rise to ill-will between the
+nation and the king. For some time, however, no one gave assistance
+to Perkin, and in <b>1494</b> Charles VIII. crossed the Alps to invade Italy,
+and drew the attention of the Continental powers away from the affairs
+of England.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec11" name="chap23sec11"></a>
+<p>11. <b>Poynings' Acts. 1494.</b>&mdash;Henry seized the opportunity to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page351" name="page351"></a>(p. 351)</span>
+bring into obedience the English colony in Ireland. He sent over as
+Lord Deputy Sir Edward Poynings, a resolute and able man. At a
+Parliament held by him at Drogheda two acts were passed. By the one it
+was enacted that all English laws in force at that time should be
+obeyed in Ireland; by the other, known for many generations afterwards
+as Poynings' Law, no bill was to be laid before the Irish Parliament
+which had not been previously approved by the king and his Council in
+England. At the same time the greater part of the Statute of Kilkenny
+(see p. <a href="#page265">265</a>) was re-enacted; and restricted the authority of
+the Government at Dublin to the English Pale.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec12" name="chap23sec12"></a>
+<p>12. <b>Perkin's First Attempt on England. 1495.</b>&mdash;Henry's firm government
+in England had given offence even to men who were not Yorkists. Early
+in <b>1495</b> he discovered that Sir William Stanley, who had helped him to
+victory at Bosworth, had turned against him. Stanley, who was probably
+involved in a design for sending Perkin to invade England, was tried
+and executed. In the summer of <b>1495</b> Perkin actually arrived off Deal.
+Being no warrior, he sent a party of his followers on shore, though he
+remained himself on shipboard to see what would happen. The countrymen
+fell upon the invaders, who were all slain or captured. Then Perkin
+sailed to Ireland, was repulsed at Waterford, and ultimately took
+refuge in Scotland, where King James IV., anxious to distinguish
+himself in a war with England, acknowledged him as the Duke of York,
+and found him a wife of noble birth, Lady Catherine Gordon. It was
+probably in order to rally even the most timid around him, in face of
+such a danger, that Henry obtained the consent of Parliament to an act
+declaring that no one supporting a king in actual possession of the
+crown could be subjected to the penalty of treason in the event of
+that king's dethronement.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec13" name="chap23sec13"></a>
+<p>13. <b>The Intercursus Magnus. 1496.</b>&mdash;The danger of a Scottish invasion
+made Henry anxious to be on good terms with his neighbours. Maximilian
+had become Emperor in <b>1493</b> upon his father's death. In the
+Netherlands, however, his influence had declined, as his son, the
+young Archduke Philip, was now growing up, and claimed actually to
+rule the country which he had inherited from his mother, Mary of
+Burgundy (see p. <a href="#page337">337</a>), his father having merely the right of
+administering the government of it till he himself came of age. It was
+therefore with Philip, and not with Maximilian, that Henry concluded,
+in <b>1496</b>, a treaty known as the <i>Intercursus Magnus</i>, for the
+encouragement of trade between England and the Netherlands, each
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page352" name="page352"></a>(p. 352)</span> party engaging at the same time to give no shelter to each
+other's rebels.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec14" name="chap23sec14"></a>
+<p>14. <b>Kildare Restored to the Deputyship. 1496.</b>&mdash;In Ireland also Henry
+was careful to avert danger. The government of Poynings had not been
+entirely successful, and the Geraldines had taken good care to show
+that they could be troublesome in spite of the establishment of
+English government. The Earl of Kildare was at the time in England,
+and a story is told of some one who, having brought a long string of
+charges against him, wound up by saying that all Ireland could not
+govern the Earl, whereupon the king replied that then the Earl should
+govern all Ireland. The story is untrue, but it well represents the
+real situation. In <b>1496</b> Henry sent Kildare back as Lord Deputy. A
+bargain seems to have been struck between them. Henry abandoned his
+attempt to govern Ireland from England, and Kildare was allowed to use
+the king's name in any enterprise upon which his heart was set,
+provided that he did not support any more pretenders to the English
+throne.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec15" name="chap23sec15"></a>
+<p>15. <b>Perkin's Overthrow. 1496&mdash;1497.</b>&mdash;In the autumn of <b>1496</b> James IV.
+made an attack on England in Perkin's name, but it was no more than a
+plundering foray. Henry, however, early in <b>1497</b>, obtained from
+Parliament a grant of money, to enable him to resist any attempt to
+repeat it. This grant had unexpected consequences. The Cornishmen,
+refusing payment, marched up to Blackheath, where on June 18 they were
+overpowered by the king's troops. James IV., thinking it time to be
+quit of Perkin, sent him off by sea. In July Perkin arrived at Cork,
+but there was no shelter for him there now that Kildare was Lord
+Deputy, and in September he made his way to Cornwall. Followed by
+6,000 Cornishmen he reached Taunton, but the news of the defeat of the
+Cornish at Blackheath depressed him, and the poor coward ran away from
+his army and took sanctuary in Beaulieu Abbey. He was brought to
+London, where he publicly acknowledged himself to be an impostor.
+Henry was too humane to do more than place him in confinement.</p>
+
+<a id="img180" name="img180"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img180.jpg" width="300" height="627" alt="" title="">
+<p>Tower of St. Mary's Church, Taunton: built about 1500.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap23sec16" name="chap23sec16"></a>
+<p>16. <b>European Changes. 1494&mdash;1499.</b>&mdash;In <b>1494</b> Charles VIII. had passed
+through Italy as a conqueror to make good his claims to the kingdom of
+Naples. In <b>1495</b> he had returned to France, and in <b>1496</b> the French army
+left behind had been entirely destroyed. Yet the danger of a renewed
+attack from France made the other Continental powers anxious to unite,
+and in <b>1496</b> the Archduke Philip married Juana, the eldest daughter of
+Ferdinand <span class="pagenum"><a id="page354" name="page354"></a>(p. 354)</span> and Isabella, whilst his sister was sent to Spain
+to be married to their only son, Juan. In <b>1497</b> the death of the young
+prince led to consequences unexpected when the two marriages were
+arranged. Philip, who held Franche Comté and the Netherlands, and who
+was through his father Maximilian heir to the German dominions of the
+House of Austria, would now, that his wife had become the heiress of
+Spain, be able to transmit to his descendants the whole of the Spanish
+monarchy as well. That monarchy was no longer confined to Europe.
+Portugal at the end of the fourteenth century had led the way in
+maritime adventure, and Portuguese navigators discovered a way to
+India round the Cape of Good Hope. Spain was anxious to do as much,
+and in <b>1492</b> Columbus had discovered the West Indies, and the kings of
+Spain became masters of the untold wealth produced by the gold and
+silver mines of the New World. It was impossible but that the huge
+power thus brought into existence would one day arouse the jealousy of
+Europe. For the present, however, the danger was less than it would be
+after the deaths of Ferdinand and Isabella, as the actual combination
+of their territories with those which Philip was to inherit from
+Maximilian had not been effected. In <b>1499</b> France gave a fresh shock to
+her neighbours. Charles VIII. had died the year before, and his
+successor, Louis XII., invaded Italy and subdued the duchy of Milan,
+to which he had set up a claim. Naturally the powers jealous of France
+sought to have Henry on their side. There had been for some time a
+negotiation for a marriage between Henry's eldest son, Arthur, Prince
+of Wales, and Catherine of Aragon, the youngest daughter of Ferdinand
+and Isabella, but hitherto nothing had been concluded.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec17" name="chap23sec17"></a>
+<p>17. <b>Execution of the Earl of Warwick. 1499.</b>&mdash;Perkin had long been
+eager to free himself from prison. In <b>1498</b> he was caught attempting to
+escape, but Henry contented himself with putting him in the stocks. He
+was then removed to the Tower, where he persuaded the unhappy Earl of
+Warwick (see p. <a href="#page343">343</a>) to join him in flight. It is almost
+certain that Warwick was guilty of no more, but Henry, soured by the
+repeated attempts to dethrone him, resolved to remove him from his
+path. On trumped-up evidence Warwick was convicted and executed, and
+Perkin shared his fate.</p>
+
+<a id="img181" name="img181"></a>
+<div class="clear figcenter">
+<img src="images/img181.jpg" width="400" height="603" alt="" title="">
+<p>King's College Chapel, Cambridge (looking east). Begun
+by Henry VI. in 1441, completed by Henry VII. The screen built between
+1531 and 1535.</p></div>
+
+<a id="chap23sec18" name="chap23sec18"></a>
+<p>18. <b>Prince Arthur's Marriage and Death. 1501&mdash;1502.</b>&mdash;Warwick's death
+was the one judicial murder of Henry's reign. To the Spaniards it
+appeared to be a prudent action which had cleared away the last of
+Henry's serious competitors. The negotiations <span class="pagenum"><a id="page356" name="page356"></a>(p. 356)</span> for the
+Spanish marriage were pushed on, and in <b>1501</b> Catherine, a bride of
+fifteen, gave her hand to Arthur, a bridegroom of fourteen. In <b>1502</b>
+the prince died, and the attempt to bind England and Spain together
+seemed to have come to an end.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec19" name="chap23sec19"></a>
+<p>19. <b>The Scottish Marriage. 1503.</b>&mdash;Another marriage treaty proved
+ultimately to be of far greater importance. Henry was sufficiently
+above the prejudices of his time to be anxious to be on good terms
+with Scotland. For some time a negotiation had been in progress for a
+marriage between James IV. and Henry's daughter, Margaret. The
+marriage took place in <b>1503</b>. To the counsellors who urged that in the
+case of failure of Henry's heirs in the male line England would become
+subject to Scotland Henry shrewdly replied that there was no fear of
+that, as 'the greater would draw the less.'</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec20" name="chap23sec20"></a>
+<p>20. <b>Maritime Enterprise.</b>&mdash;Henry's chief merit was that he had
+re-established order. Commercial prosperity followed, though the
+commerce was as yet on a small scale. It is probable that the
+population of England was no more than 2,500,000. London contained but
+130,000 inhabitants, whilst Paris contained 400,000. There was no
+royal navy, as there was no royal army, but merchant vessels were
+armed to protect themselves. The company of Merchant Adventurers made
+voyages to the Baltic, and the men of Bristol sent out fleets to the
+Iceland fishery. Henry did what he could to encourage maritime
+enterprise. He had offered to take Columbus into his service before
+the great navigator closed with Spain, and in <b>1497</b> he sent the
+Venetian, John Cabot, and his sons across the Atlantic, where they
+landed in Labrador before any Spaniards had set foot on the American
+continent. England however, was as yet too poor to push these
+discoveries farther, and the lands beyond the sea were for the present
+left to Spain.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec21" name="chap23sec21"></a>
+<p>21. <b>Growth of the Royal Power.</b>&mdash;The improvement in the general
+well-being of the country had been rendered possible by the extension
+of the royal power, and the price paid for order was the falling into
+abeyance of the constitutional authority of Parliaments. The loss
+indeed was greater in appearance than in reality. In the fifteenth
+century the election of members of the House of Commons depended more
+upon the will of the great lords than upon the political sentiments of
+the community. In the first half of the sixteenth century they
+depended on the will of the king. The peculiarity of the Tudor rule
+was that its growing despotism was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page357" name="page357"></a>(p. 357)</span> exercised without the
+support of the army. It rested on the goodwill of the middle classes.
+Treading cautiously in the steps of Edward IV., Henry VII. recognised
+that in order to have a full treasury it was less dangerous to exact
+payments illegally from the few than to exact them legally from the
+many. Hence his recourse in times of trouble to benevolences. Hence,
+too, the eagerness with which he gathered in fines. The Cornish rebels
+were fined individually. The great lords who persisted in keeping
+retainers were fined. On one occasion the king visited the Earl of
+Oxford, and found, when he went away, a band of retainers drawn up to
+do him honour. "My lord," he said, "I thank you for your
+entertainment, but my attorney must speak with you." If there was a
+man in England who had deserved well of Henry it was Oxford, but
+Oxford had to pay 15,000<i>l.</i>, a sum worth perhaps 180,000<i>l.</i> at the
+present day, to atone for his offence. No services rendered to Henry
+were to excuse from obedience to the law.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec22" name="chap23sec22"></a>
+<p>22. <b>Empson and Dudley.</b>&mdash;As Henry grew older the gathering of money
+became a passion. His chief instruments were Empson and Dudley, who
+under pretence of enforcing the law established the worst of
+tyrannies. Even false charges were brought for the sake of extracting
+money. At the end of his reign Henry had accumulated a hoard of
+1,800,000<i>l.</i>, mainly gathered by injustice and oppression. The
+despotism of one man was no doubt better than the despotism of many,
+but the price paid for the change was a heavy one.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec23" name="chap23sec23"></a>
+<p>23. <b>Henry and his Daughter-in-law. 1502&mdash;1505.</b>&mdash;On the death of Prince
+Arthur in <b>1502</b>, Ferdinand and Isabella proposed that their daughter
+Catharine should marry her brother-in-law, Henry, the only surviving
+son of the king of England, though the boy was six years younger than
+herself. They had already paid half their daughter's marriage portion,
+and they believed, probably with truth, that they had little chance of
+recovering it from Henry VII., and that it would therefore be more
+economical to re-marry their daughter where they would get off with no
+more expense than the payment of the other half. Henry on the other
+hand feared lest the repayment of the first half might be demanded of
+him, and consequently welcomed the proposal. In <b>1503</b> a dispensation
+for the marriage was obtained from Pope Julius II., but in <b>1505</b>, when
+the time for the betrothal arrived, the young Henry protested, no
+doubt at his father's instigation, that he would proceed no farther.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec24" name="chap23sec24"></a>
+<p>24. <b>The Last Years of Henry VII. 1505&mdash;1509.</b>&mdash;Circumstances <span class="pagenum"><a id="page358" name="page358"></a>(p. 358)</span>
+were changed by the death of Isabella in <b>1504</b>, when her son-in-law,
+the Archduke Philip, claimed to be sovereign of Castile in right of
+his wife Juana. Philip, sailing from the Netherlands to Spain in <b>1506</b>,
+was driven into Weymouth by a storm, and Henry seized the opportunity
+of wringing from him commercial concessions as well as the surrender
+of Edmund de la Pole, a brother of the Earl of Lincoln who perished at
+Stoke, and a nephew of Edward IV. Henry was himself now a widower on
+the look-out for a rich wife, and Philip promised him the hand of his
+sister, Margaret, who had formerly been betrothed to Charles VIII.
+(see p. <a href="#page337">337</a>). Once more, however, the conditions of the game
+changed. Philip died a few months after his arrival in Spain, leaving
+a mad widow, and as Ferdinand then regained his authority Catharine's
+marriage was again discussed. Other schemes were also proposed,
+amongst them one for marrying Catharine, not to the young prince, but
+to her old father-in-law, the king. In <b>1509</b>, before any of these plans
+could take effect, Henry VII. died. He deserves to be reckoned amongst
+the kings who have accomplished much for England. If he was not
+chivalrous or imaginative, neither was the age in which he lived. His
+contemporaries needed a chief constable to keep order, and he gave
+them what they needed.</p>
+
+<a id="chap23sec25" name="chap23sec25"></a>
+<p>25. <b>Architectural Changes and the Printing Press.</b>&mdash;Architecture, which
+in England, as upon the Continent, had been the one great art of the
+Middle Ages, was already, though still instinct with beauty, giving
+signs in its over-elaboration of approaching decadence. To the tower
+of Fotheringhay Church (see p. <a href="#page311">311</a>) had succeeded the tower of
+St. Mary's, Taunton. To the roof of the nave of Winchester Cathedral
+(see p. <a href="#img151">276</a>) had succeeded the roof of the Divinity School at
+Oxford (see p. <a href="#page319">319</a>), and of the chapel of King's College,
+Cambridge (see p. <a href="#page356">355</a>). Art in this direction could go no
+farther. The new conditions in which the following age was to move
+were indicated by the discovery of America and the invention of
+printing. New objects of knowledge presented themselves, and a new
+mode of spreading knowledge was at hand. In the reign of Edward IV.,
+Caxton, the earliest English printer, set up his press at Westminster,
+and the king and his nobles came to gaze at it as at some new toy,
+little knowing how profoundly it was to modify their methods of
+government. Henry VII. had enough to do without troubling himself with
+such matters. It was his part to close an epoch of English history,
+not to open a fresh one.</p>
+
+<p class="p2 center"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page359" name="page359"></a>(p. 359)</span> <i>Books recommended for further study of Part IV.</i></p>
+
+<div class="books">
+<p><span class="min2em smcap">Green, J. R.</span> History of the English People. Vol. i. p. 521-Vol.
+     ii. p. 77.</p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em smcap">Stubbs, W.</span> (Bishop of Oxford). Constitutional History of England.
+     Vol. ii. from p. 441, and Vol. iii.</p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em smcap">Hallam, H.</span> Constitutional History of England. Vol. i. pp. 1-15.</p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em smcap">Rogers, J. E. Thorold.</span> History of Agriculture and Prices. Vols.
+     iii. and iv.</p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em smcap">Cunningham, W.</span> The Growth of English Industry and Commerce. Vol.
+     i. pp. 335-449.</p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em smcap">Wylie, J. H.</span> History of England under Henry IV.</p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em smcap">Gairdner, James.</span> Lancaster and York.</p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em">&mdash;-&mdash;-&mdash;</span> Richard III.</p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em">&mdash;-&mdash;-&mdash;</span> Henry VII.</p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em smcap">Ramsay, Sir James.</span> Lancaster and York.</p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em smcap">Oman, C.</span> The Political History of England. Vol. iv. From the
+     Accession of Richard II. to the Death of Richard III.
+     (1377-1485).</p>
+
+<p><span class="min2em smcap">Fisher, H. A. L.</span> The Political History of England. Vol. v. From
+     the Accession of Henry VII. to the Death of Henry VIII.
+     (1485-1547).<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page361" name="page361"></a>(p. 361)</span> INDEX<br>
+TO<br>
+THE FIRST VOLUME</h2>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p>
+  <span class="min3em">Aaron,</span> martyrdom of,
+<a href="#page023">23</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Aclea,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page057">57</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Acre,</span> captured by the Crusaders,
+<a href="#page161">161</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Edward I.</span> at,
+<a href="#page204">204</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Adrian IV.</span> grants Ireland to Henry II.,
+<a href="#page152">152</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Adulterine</span> castles,
+<a href="#page137">137</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Aedan,</span> king of the Scots, is defeated at Degsastan,
+<a href="#page042">42</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ælfgar,</span> earl of the Mercians,
+<a href="#page090">90</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ælfgifu,</span> wife of Eadwig,
+<a href="#page065">65</a>,
+<a href="#page067">66</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ælfheah,</span> Archbishop, murdered by the Danes,
+<a href="#page082">82</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ælfred,</span> his struggle with the Danes,
+<a href="#page058">58</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his position</span> after the Treaty of Wedmore,
+<a href="#page059">59</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">gains</span> London, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">character</span> of his work,
+<a href="#page060">60</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ælfred</span> the Ætheling, murder of,
+<a href="#page085">85</a>,
+<a href="#page086">86</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ælfthryth,</span> wife of Eadgar,
+<a href="#page078">78</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ælla,</span> king of Deira, slave-boys from his kingdom found at Rome,
+<a href="#page038">38</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Æscesdun,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page058">58</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Æthelbald,</span> king of the Mercians,
+<a href="#page053">53</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Æthelbald,</span> king of the West Saxons,
+<a href="#page057">57</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Æthelberht,</span> king of Kent, his supremacy,
+<a href="#page038">38</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">becomes</span> a Christian,
+<a href="#page039">39</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">helps</span> Augustine to set up bishoprics,
+<a href="#page040">40</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death</span> of,
+<a href="#page041">41</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Æthelberht,</span> king of the West Saxons,
+<a href="#page057">57</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Æthelflæd,</span> the Lady of the Mercians,
+<a href="#page062">62</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Æthelfrith,</span> king of North-humberland, his struggle with the northern Welsh,
+<a href="#page041">41</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeats</span> the Scots at Degsastan,
+<a href="#page042">42</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">and</span> the Kymry near Chester,
+<a href="#page043">43</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is defeated</span> and slain by Eadwine, <i>ib.</i><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Æthelred,</span> ealdorman of Mercia,
+<a href="#page060">60</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Æthelred,</span> king of the West Saxons, his struggle with the Danes,
+<a href="#page058">58</a>,
+<a href="#page062">62</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Æthelred</span> the Unready, his relations with the Danes,
+<a href="#page079">79</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">and with</span> the Normans,
+<a href="#page080">80</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">orders</span> a massacre of the Danes,
+<a href="#page081">81</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">flies</span> to Normandy,
+<a href="#page082">82</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">returns</span> and dies,
+<a href="#page083">83</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Æthelric</span> unites North-humberland,
+<a href="#page041">41</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Æthelstan,</span> reign of,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Æthelstan,</span> the Half-King,
+<a href="#page073">73</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Æthelwold</span> drives secular canons from Winchester,
+<a href="#page068">68</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Æthelwulf</span> defeats the Northmen,
+<a href="#page057">57</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Aëtius</span> refuses help to the Britons,
+<a href="#page026">26</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Agincourt,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page302">302</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Agricola,</span> campaigns of,
+<a href="#page016">16</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">forts</span> built by,
+<a href="#page017">17</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Agriculture</span> in Eadgar's time,
+<a href="#page075">75</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Aidan</span> establishes himself in Holy Island,
+<a href="#page047">47</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his relations</span> with Oswald, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">and with</span> Oswine, <i>ib.</i><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Alban,</span> martyrdom of,
+<a href="#page023">23</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Albany,</span> the Duke of, suspected of the murder of the Duke of Rothesay,
+<a href="#page295">295</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is regent</span> of Scotland,
+<a href="#page296">296</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Albigeois,</span> the, crusade against,
+<a href="#page193">193</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="albin" name="albin"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Albin,</span> probable Iberian derivation of the name, 6.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Albion,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#albin">Albin</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Alcluyd</span> (Dumbarton), the capital of Strathclyde,
+<a href="#page043">43</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Alexander,</span> bishop of Lincoln,
+<a href="#page134">134</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Alexander III.,</span> king of Scotland, death of,
+<a href="#page214">214</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Alexander III.,</span> Pope, shrinks from supporting Archbishop Thomas,
+<a href="#page145">145</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Alexander IV.,</span> Pope, confirms a grant of Sicily to Edmund Crouchback,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Allectus</span> asserts a claim to the Empire,
+<a href="#page022">22</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Alnwick,</span> Malcolm Canmore slain at,
+<a href="#page119">119</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">William</span> the Lion captured at,
+<a href="#page154">154</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">dismantled,</span>
+<a href="#page296">296</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ambresbyrig</span> (Amesbury) named from Ambrosius,
+<a href="#page034">34</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ambrosius</span> fights with the West Saxons,
+<a href="#page034">34</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ambrosius</span> Aurelianus, fights with the Jutes,
+<a href="#page027">27</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Amiens,</span> the mise of,
+<a href="#page200">200</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Anderida</span> destroyed by the South Saxons,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Andred's</span> Wood covers the Weald,
+<a href="#page027">27</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Angevin</span> kings, Church and State under,
+<a href="#page165">165</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">growth</span> of learning under,
+<a href="#page167">167</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">growth</span> of commerce under,
+<a href="#page168">168</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">architectural</span> changes under,
+<a href="#page170">170</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Angles</span> ravage Roman Britain,
+<a href="#page024">24</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">settle</span> in Britain,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">advance</span> gradually,
+<a href="#page036">36</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em"><i>see</i> <a href="#bernicia">Bernicia</a>,</span> <a href="#deira">Deira</a>, <a href="#eastanglia">East Anglia</a>, <a href="#mercia">Mercia</a>, <a href="#northhumberland">North-humberland</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Anglesea,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#mona">Mona</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Anjou,</span> Geoffrey, Count of,
+<a href="#page131">131</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">united</span> with Normandy,
+<a href="#page137">137</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">declares</span> for Arthur,
+<a href="#page174">174</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">conquered</span> by Philip II.,
+<a href="#page176">176</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">English</span> forays in,
+<a href="#page317">317</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Anne</span> of Beaujeu, policy of,
+<a href="#page348">348</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Anne</span> of Bohemia marries Richard II.,
+<a href="#page278">278</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Anne</span> of Brittany is married to Maximilian by proxy,
+<a href="#page349">349</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">married</span> to Charles VIII.,
+<a href="#page349">349</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Anselm</span> acknowledges Ælfheah to be a martyr,
+<a href="#page082">82</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">character</span> of,
+<a href="#page117">117</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">becomes</span> Archbishop of Canterbury,
+<a href="#page118">118</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">quarrels</span> with William II., <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his</span> relations with Henry I.,
+<a href="#page125">125</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Antoninus</span> Pius, wall of,
+<a href="#page017">17</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Appellant,</span> the Lords,
+<a href="#page279">279</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Aquitaine,</span> Duchy of, passes to Henry II. by his marriage,
+<a href="#page137">137</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is given</span> to Richard,
+<a href="#page155">155</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">divided</span> in language and character from the North of France,
+<a href="#page176">176</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">intrigues</span> of Philip IV. in,
+<a href="#page218">218</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">efforts</span> of Philip VI. to gain,
+<a href="#page234">234</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">ceded</span> to Edward III.,
+<a href="#page253">253</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">the Black</span> Prince made Duke of,
+<a href="#page254">254</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">resistance</span> to the Black Prince in,
+<a href="#page256">256</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">almost</span> wholly lost,
+<a href="#page257">257</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">complete</span> loss of,
+<a href="#page320">320</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="aquaesulis" name="aquaesulis"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Aquæ Sulis</span> (Bath) subdued by the West Saxons,
+<a href="#page035">35</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="archers" name="archers"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Archers</span> employed at Senlac,
+<a href="#page096">96</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">armed</span> with the long bow at Falkirk,
+<a href="#page221">221</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">improperly</span> employed at Bannockburn,
+<a href="#page226">226</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">effect of,</span> at Halidon Hill,
+<a href="#page234">234</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">drawn</span> from the yeomen,
+<a href="#page236">236</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">win</span> the battle of Creçy,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">are</span> successful at Poitiers,
+<a href="#page251">251</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Architecture</span> before the Conquest,
+<a href="#page051">51</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Norman,</span>
+<a href="#page089">89</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">under</span> the Angevins,
+<a href="#page170">170</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Early</span> English style of,
+<a href="#page207">207</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Decorated</span> and Perpendicular styles of,
+<a href="#page247">247</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">later</span> development of,
+<a href="#page358">358</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Arles,</span> Council of,
+<a href="#page023">23</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Armagnac,</span> the Count of, establishes a reign of terror,
+<a href="#page303">303</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">murder</span> of,
+<a href="#page304">304</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Armagnacs,</span> party of the, oppose the Burgundians,
+<a href="#page296">296</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">relations</span> of Henry IV. with,
+<a href="#page299">299</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">make war</span> with the Burgundians,
+<a href="#page301">301</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">insurrection</span> of the Parisians against,
+<a href="#page304">304</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Army,</span> the, the folk-moot in arms,
+<a href="#page033">33</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Ælfred's</span> organisation of,
+<a href="#page060">60</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">under</span> William I.,
+<a href="#page104">104</a>,
+<a href="#page106">106</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">reorganised</span> by Henry II.,
+<a href="#page141">141</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its</span> condition under Edward III.,
+<a href="#page236">236</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Arras,</span> congress at,
+<a href="#page313">313</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Treaty</span> of,
+<a href="#page337">337</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Arteveldt,</span> Jacob van,
+<a href="#page235">235</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Arteveldt,</span> Philip van,
+<a href="#page278">278</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Arthur,</span> legend of,
+<a href="#page033">33</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Arthur,</span> nephew of John, descent of,
+<a href="#page173">173</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">murder</span> of,
+<a href="#page174">174</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Arthur,</span> Prince of Wales, marriage and death of,
+<a href="#page356">356</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Arundel,</span> Archbishop of Canterbury, banished,
+<a href="#page282">282</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his</span> position under Henry IV.,
+<a href="#page292">292</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">deprived</span> of the Chancellorship,
+<a href="#page299">299</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Oldcastle</span> tried before,
+<a href="#page300">300</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Arundel,</span> the Earl of, opposes Richard II.,
+<a href="#page279">279</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">executed,</span>
+<a href="#page282">282</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Aryans,</span> the,
+<a href="#page005">5</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Assandun,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page083">83</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Asser,</span> life of Ælfred by,
+<a href="#page061">61</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="assizearms" name="assizearms"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Assize</span> of Arms,
+<a href="#page154">154</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Assize</span> of Clarendon, <i>see</i> <a href="#clarendon">Clarendon</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Athelney,</span> Ælfred takes refuge in,
+<a href="#page058">58</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Augustine</span> preaches to the men of Kent,
+<a href="#page039">39</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">becomes</span> Archbishop of Canterbury and founds other bishoprics,
+<a href="#page040">40</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">fails</span> to obtain the co-operation of the Welsh bishops,
+<a href="#page041">41</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Aumale,</span> Earl of, surrenders his castles to Hubert de Burgh,
+<a href="#page187">187</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Austria,</span> imprisonment of Richard I. in,
+<a href="#page161">161</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Avice</span> of Gloucester divorced by John,
+<a href="#page174">174</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Avignon,</span> the Popes at,
+<a href="#page257">257</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Badby</span> burnt as a heretic,
+<a href="#page298">298</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Badon,</span> Mount, <i>see</i> <a href="#mountbadon">Mount Badon</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Balliol,</span> Edward, wins and loses the crown of Scotland,
+<a href="#page232">232</a>,
+<a href="#page234">233</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Balliol,</span> John, descent of,
+<a href="#page215">215</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">declared</span> King of Scotland,
+<a href="#page216">216</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is defeated</span> and surrenders the crown,
+<a href="#page219">219</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bamborough,</span> Ida's fortress at,
+<a href="#page036">36</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Mowbray</span> besieged in,
+<a href="#page120">120</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bangor-iscoed,</span> monastery at,
+<a href="#page042">42</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">slaughter</span> of the monks of,
+<a href="#page043">43</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bannockburn,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page226">226</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Barnet,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page334">334</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Basques,</span> the, Iberian descent of,
+<a href="#page005">5</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bath,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#aquaesulis">Aquæ Sulis</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Battle</span> Abbey, site of,
+<a href="#page096">96</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Baugé,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page306">306</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bayeux</span> Tapestry, the,
+<a href="#page098">98</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bayonne</span> taken by the French,
+<a href="#page320">320</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bears,</span> performing,
+<a href="#page275">275</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Beaufort,</span> Henry, Bishop of Winchester, becomes Chancellor,
+<a href="#page299">299</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">invites</span> Parliament to support Henry V.,
+<a href="#page301">301</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">opposes</span> Gloucester,
+<a href="#page308">308</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">becomes</span> a cardinal,
+<a href="#page309">309</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">continues</span> his opposition to Gloucester,
+<a href="#page314">314</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">policy</span> of,
+<a href="#page317">317</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death</span> of,
+<a href="#page318">318</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bec,</span> Abbey of,
+<a href="#page089">89</a>,
+<a href="#page117">117</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Becket,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#thomasarchbishop">Thomas</a>, Archbishop of Canterbury.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bede,</span> Ecclesiastical History of,
+<a href="#page052">52</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bedford,</span> West Saxon victory at,
+<a href="#page035">35</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">castle</span> of Faukes de Breauté at,
+<a href="#page187">187</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bedford,</span> John, Duke of, brother of Henry V., sent to secure Harfleur,
+<a href="#page303">303</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Regent</span> of France,
+<a href="#page307">307</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marries</span> the Duke of Burgundy's sister, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeats</span> the French at Verneuil,
+<a href="#page308">308</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">returns</span> to England,
+<a href="#page312">312</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death</span> of,
+<a href="#page313">313</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Belgians</span> land in Britain,
+<a href="#page008">8</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bellême,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#robertbelleme">Robert of Bellême</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Benedict</span> of Nursia establishes the Benedictine rule,
+<a href="#page040">40</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Benedictines,</span> monasteries of the,
+<a href="#page128">128</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Benevolences</span> invented by Edward IV.,
+<a href="#page335">335</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">abolished</span> by Richard III.,
+<a href="#page342">342</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bensington,</span> Mercian victory at,
+<a href="#page053">53</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Berengaria</span> marries Richard I.,
+<a href="#page161">161</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bernard</span> du Guesclin, <i>see</i> <a href="#duguesclin">Du Guesclin</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="bernicia" name="bernicia"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Bernicia,</span> formation of the kingdom of,
+<a href="#page036">36</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is merged</span> for a time in North-humberland,
+<a href="#page041">41</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is untouched</span> by the preaching of Paulinus,
+<a href="#page046">46</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is finally</span> merged in North-humberland,
+<a href="#page048">48</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">maintains</span> its independence after the Danish conquest,
+<a href="#page059">59</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bertha</span> obtains from Æthelberht a disused church,
+<a href="#page038">38</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="bigod" name="bigod"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Bigod,</span> Hugh, appointed justiciar by the barons,
+<a href="#page199">199</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bigod,</span> Roger, Earl of Norfolk, resists Edward I.,
+<a href="#page220">220</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Black</span> Death, the,
+<a href="#page248">248</a>,
+<a href="#page259">259</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="blackprince" name="blackprince"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Black</span> Prince, the, fights at Creçy,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">ravages</span> the south of France, and defeats the French at Poitiers,
+<a href="#page251">251</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his courtesy</span> to King John,
+<a href="#page252">252</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is sent</span> to Aquitaine,
+<a href="#page254">254</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his expedition</span> into Spain,
+<a href="#page255">255</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">taxes</span> Aquitaine,
+<a href="#page256">256</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">loses</span> Aquitaine,
+<a href="#page257">257</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">leads</span> the Good Parliament, and dies,
+<a href="#page262">262</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Blanche</span> Tache, ford of,
+<a href="#page240">240</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Blore</span> Heath, battle of,
+<a href="#page326">326</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Boadicea,</span> insurrection of,
+<a href="#page015">15</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="bohun" name="bohun"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Bohun,</span> Humfrey, Earl of Hereford, resists Edward I.,
+<a href="#page220">220</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Boniface</span> VIII.,
+<a href="#page220">220</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Boniface</span> of Savoy, Archbishop of Canterbury,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bordeaux</span> taken by the French,
+<a href="#page320">320</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Boroughbridge,</span> defeat of Thomas of Lancaster at,
+<a href="#page228">228</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bosworth,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page343">343</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bouvines,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page181">181</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Brabant,</span> the Duke of, captures Jacqueline of Hainault,
+<a href="#page308">308</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bradford-on-Avon,</span> early stone church at,
+<a href="#page051">51</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bramham</span> Moor, defeat of Northumberland on,
+<a href="#page296">296</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Brember</span> hanged,
+<a href="#page280">280</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bretigni,</span> Treaty of,
+<a href="#page253">253</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bretwalda,</span> title of,
+<a href="#page044">44</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bridgenorth,</span> Robert of Bellême's castle at,
+<a href="#page121">121</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">besieged</span> by Henry I.,
+<a href="#page124">124</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bridges,</span> making and repair of,
+<a href="#page272">272</a>,
+<a href="#page273">273</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Brigantes,</span> the, conquest of,
+<a href="#page016">16</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Brihtnoth</span> slain at Maldon,
+<a href="#page079">79</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bristol</span> garrisoned by Robert of Gloucester,
+<a href="#page134">134</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Britain,</span> its name derived from the Britons,
+<a href="#page006">6</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">tin trade</span> opened to,
+<a href="#page008">8</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Gauls</span> and Belgians in, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Cæsar's</span> invasion of,
+<a href="#page011">11</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">trade</span> of Gaul with,
+<a href="#page012">12</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">beginning</span> of the Roman conquest of,
+<a href="#page013">13</a>-17;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">condition</span> of the Roman province of,
+<a href="#page019">19</a>-22;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">emperors</span> specially connected with,
+<a href="#page220">22</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Christianity</span> in,
+<a href="#page023">23</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">ravaged</span> by the Picts and Scots,
+<a href="#page023">23</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">and by</span> the Saxons,
+<a href="#page024">24</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">military</span> divisions of, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">end of the</span> Roman government of,
+<a href="#page025">25</a>,
+<a href="#page026">26</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is deserted</span> by the Romans,
+<a href="#page026">26</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its organisation</span> after the departure of the Romans, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">the English</span> conquest of,
+<a href="#page027">27</a>-29.<br>
+
+<a id="britons" name="britons"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Britons,</span> the, succeed the Goidels,
+<a href="#page006">6</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">languages</span> spoken by the descendants of,
+<a href="#page007">7</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">habits</span> of,
+<a href="#page009">9</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">religion</span> of,
+<a href="#page010">10</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">introduction</span> of Roman manners amongst,
+<a href="#page013">13</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">increased</span> civilisation of,
+<a href="#page021">21</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">non-existence</span> of a national feeling amongst,
+<a href="#page022">22</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">ask Honorius</span> in vain for help,
+<a href="#page025">25</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">the groans</span> of the,
+<a href="#page026">26</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">treatment</span> of, by the English conquerors,
+<a href="#page029">29</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">are better</span> treated in the West,
+<a href="#page031">31</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">slight modification</span> of English language by them,
+<a href="#page031">31</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em"><i>see</i></span> <a href="#kymry">Kymry</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Brittany,</span> its relation with Henry II.,
+<a href="#page155">155</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Edward III.</span> sends forces to,
+<a href="#page240">240</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">annexed</span> to France,
+<a href="#page349">349</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bruce,</span> Edward, invades Ireland,
+<a href="#page264">264</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bruce,</span> Robert, claims the crown of Scotland,
+<a href="#page215">215</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bruce,</span> Robert, grandson of the preceding, <i>see</i> <a href="#robert1">Robert I.</a><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Brunanburh,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Brut,</span> Layamon's,
+<a href="#page207">207</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Brythons,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#britons">Britons</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Buchan,</span> Countess of, imprisoned,
+<a href="#page224">224</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Buckingham,</span> Edward Stafford, Duke of, supports Richard III.,
+<a href="#page338">338</a>,
+<a href="#page341">341</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">executed</span> as a rebel,
+<a href="#page342">342</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Burford,</span> West Saxon victory at,
+<a href="#page053">53</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Burgundians,</span> party of the, opposed to the Armagnacs,
+<a href="#page296">296</a>,
+<a href="#page299">299</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">are friendly</span> to Henry V.,
+<a href="#page301">301</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Burgundy,</span> Charles the Rash, Duke of, marries the sister of Edward IV.,
+<a href="#page332">332</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">policy</span> of,
+<a href="#page336">336</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is slain</span> at Nancy, <i>ib.</i><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Burgundy,</span> John the Fearless, Duke of, has the Duke of Orleans murdered,
+<a href="#page296">296</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">allies</span> himself with Henry V.,
+<a href="#page301">301</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">holds</span> aloof in the campaign of Agincourt,
+<a href="#page302">302</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">makes</span> war upon the Armagnacs,
+<a href="#page303">303</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">murder</span> of,
+<a href="#page305">305</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Burgundy,</span> Philip the Good, Duke of, joins the English against the Dauphin,
+<a href="#page306">306</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">allies</span> himself with the Duke of Bedford,
+<a href="#page307">307</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">forms</span> a league with Charles VII.,
+<a href="#page313">313</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">inherits</span> territories in the Netherlands, <i>ib.</i><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Burhs</span> erected by Eadward the Elder,
+<a href="#page062">62</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Burley,</span> Sir Simon, executed,
+<a href="#page280">280</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Bury St. Edmunds,</span> foundation of the monastery at,
+<a href="#page058">58</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death</span> of Svend at,
+<a href="#page082">82</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">meeting</span> of barons at,
+<a href="#page181">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em smcap">Cade, Jack,</span> rebellion of,
+<a href="#page322">322</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cædmon,</span> poetry of,
+<a href="#page052">52</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cædwalla,</span> allied with Penda,
+<a href="#page046">46</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is defeated</span> by Oswald,
+<a href="#page047">47</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Caen,</span> burial of William I. at,
+<a href="#page114">114</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">stormed</span> by Henry V.,
+<a href="#page303">303</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Caerleon</span> upon Usk, <i>see</i> <a href="#iscasilurum">Isca Silurum</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cæsar,</span> Gaius Julius, makes war in Gaul and Germany,
+<a href="#page010">10</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">twice</span> invades Britain,
+<a href="#page011">11</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Caint,</span> the, occupied by the Cantii,
+<a href="#page008">8</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Calais</span> taken by Edward III.,
+<a href="#page243">243</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">besieged</span> by the Duke of Burgundy,
+<a href="#page313">313</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Caledonians,</span> the, wars of Agricola with,
+<a href="#page016">16</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cambridge,</span> the Earl of, execution of,
+<a href="#page301">301</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Camulodunum,</span> Cunobelin's headquarters at,
+<a href="#page012">12</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Roman</span> colony of,
+<a href="#page013">13</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">captured</span> by Boadicea,
+<a href="#page015">15</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cannon,</span> first use of,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Canterbury,</span> Æthelberht's residence at,
+<a href="#page038">38</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Augustine</span> preaches at,
+<a href="#page039">39</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">foundation</span> of the archbishopric of,
+<a href="#page040">40</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">murder</span> of Archbishop Thomas at,
+<a href="#page150">150</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Henry II.</span> does penance at,
+<a href="#page153">153</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">architecture</span> of the choir of,
+<a href="#page171">171</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">disputed</span> election of the Archbishop of,
+<a href="#page177">177</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em"><i>Canterbury Tales</i>,</span> the,
+<a href="#page270">270</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Caractacus,</span> defeat and flight of,
+<a href="#page013">13</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">capture</span> of,
+<a href="#page014">14</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Carausius</span> claims to be emperor,
+<a href="#page022">22</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Carham,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page084">84</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Carlisle</span> fortified by William II.,
+<a href="#page119">119</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Carnarvon,</span> Edward I. builds a castle at,
+<a href="#page210">210</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Carriages</span> and carts,
+<a href="#page273">273</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Carucage</span> substituted for Danegeld,
+<a href="#page162">162</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cashel,</span> synod at,
+<a href="#page152">152</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cassel,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page235">235</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cassiterides,</span> the geographical position of,
+<a href="#page008">8</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cassivelaunus,</span> resistance to Cæsar by,
+<a href="#page011">11</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Castile,</span> intervention of the Black Prince in,
+<a href="#page255">255</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">united</span> with Aragon,
+<a href="#page349">349</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Catherine</span> of Aragon married to Prince Arthur,
+<a href="#page356">356</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marriages</span> proposed for,
+<a href="#page357">357</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Catherine</span> of France marries Henry V.,
+<a href="#page306">306</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marries</span> Owen Tudor,
+<a href="#page335">335</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Catuvellauni,</span> the, position of,
+<a href="#page009">9</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">attacked</span> by Cæsar,
+<a href="#page011">11</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">subsequent</span> history of,
+<a href="#page012">12</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Caxton,</span> William, establishes a printing press at Westminster,
+<a href="#page358">358</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ceawlin</span> overruns the Severn Valley,
+<a href="#page035">35</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeated</span> at Wanborough,
+<a href="#page036">36</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Celibacy</span> of the clergy, early opinion in favour of,
+<a href="#page065">65</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">inculcated</span> at Cluny,
+<a href="#page067">67</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Celtic</span> Christianity, influence of,
+<a href="#page047">47</a>,
+<a href="#page049">49</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Celts,</span> the, succeed the Iberians in Western Europe,
+<a href="#page005">5</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">are divided</span> into two stocks,
+<a href="#page007">7</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">know their</span> conquerors as Saxons,
+<a href="#page029">29</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ceorls,</span> distinguished from Eorls,
+<a href="#page029">29</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">are the</span> tillers of the soil,
+<a href="#page030">30</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Chancellor,</span> the official position of,
+<a href="#page127">127</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">becomes</span> a judge,
+<a href="#page260">260</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Charles</span> Martel defeats the Mohammedans,
+<a href="#page054">54</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Charles</span> the Great, Emperor,
+<a href="#page055">55</a>,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Charles</span> the Simple, king of the West Franks,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">cedes</span> Normandy to Hrolf,
+<a href="#page080">80</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Charles IV.,</span> king of France, death of,
+<a href="#page232">232</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Charles V.,</span> king of France, opposes the English in Spain,
+<a href="#page255">255</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">summons</span> the Black Prince to Paris,
+<a href="#page256">256</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">renews</span> the war against the English, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">avoids</span> a battle,
+<a href="#page257">257</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Charles VI.,</span> king of France, defeats the Flemings,
+<a href="#page278">278</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">allies</span> himself with Richard II.,
+<a href="#page282">282</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">loses</span> his senses,
+<a href="#page295">295</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">disinherits</span> the Dauphin,
+<a href="#page306">306</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">dies,</span>
+<a href="#page307">307</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Charles VII.,</span> king of France, as Dauphin, falls into the hands of the Armagnacs,
+<a href="#page303">303</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is present</span> at the murder of John, Duke of Burgundy,
+<a href="#page305">305</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is disinherited,</span>
+<a href="#page306">306</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">claims</span> to succeed to the crown at his father's death,
+<a href="#page307">307</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his weakness,</span>
+<a href="#page309">309</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is helped</span> by the Maid of Orleans,
+<a href="#page310">310</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is crowned,</span>
+<a href="#page311">311</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">consents</span> to a truce,
+<a href="#page317">317</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">renews</span> the war,
+<a href="#page320">320</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Charles VIII.,</span> king of France, succeeds to the crown,
+<a href="#page348">348</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">invades</span> Italy,
+<a href="#page352">352</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death</span> of,
+<a href="#page354">354</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Château Gaillard</span> built by Richard I.,
+<a href="#page165">165</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">lost</span> by John,
+<a href="#page354">354</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Chaucer,</span> Geoffrey, his <i>Canterbury Tales</i>,
+<a href="#page270">270</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Chester</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#deva">Deva</a>) submits to William I.,
+<a href="#page103">103</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Chinon,</span> Henry II. dies at,
+<a href="#page157">157</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Chivalry,</span>
+<a href="#page235">235</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Christ Church,</span> at Canterbury, privileges of,
+<a href="#page177">177</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">expulsion</span> of the monks of,
+<a href="#page178">178</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Christianity</span> introduced into Britain,
+<a href="#page023">23</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">into</span> England,
+<a href="#page039">39</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">character</span> of early English, <i>see</i> <a href="#englandchurch">England, the Church of</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Chronicle,</span> the, begun under Ælfred,
+<a href="#page061">61</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">continued</span> at Worcester,
+<a href="#page068">68</a>,
+<a href="#page129">129</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">completed</span> at Peterborough,
+<a href="#page129">129</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Church of England,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#englandchurch">England, the Church of</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cinque Ports,</span> the,
+<a href="#page218">218</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cirencester,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#corinium">Corinium</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cistercians,</span> the, introduced into England,
+<a href="#page129">129</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">decline</span> of asceticism amongst,
+<a href="#page167">167</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">are fined</span> by John,
+<a href="#page179">179</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Clare,</span> Gilbert de, <i>see</i> <a href="#gloucesterearl">Gloucester, Earl of</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Clare,</span> Richard de, <i>see</i> <a href="#strongbow">Strongbow</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Clare,</span> Richard de, <i>see</i> <a href="#gloucesterearl">Gloucester, Earl of</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Clarence,</span> Lionel, Duke of, sent to Ireland,
+<a href="#page265">265</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Clarence, George,</span> Duke of, brother of Edward IV., created a duke,
+<a href="#page329">329</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marries</span> Warwick's daughter, and quarrels with Edward IV.,
+<a href="#page332">332</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">put to death,</span>
+<a href="#page336">336</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Clarence, Thomas,</span> Duke of, brother of Henry IV., killed at Baugé,
+<a href="#page306">306</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="clarendon" name="clarendon"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Clarendon,</span> the Constitutions of,
+<a href="#page144">144</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">the assize</span> of,
+<a href="#page146">146</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Claudius,</span> the Emperor, plans the conquest of Britain,
+<a href="#page013">13</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Clergy,</span> the, <i>see</i> <a href="#ecclescourts">Ecclesiastical Courts</a>, <a href="#englandchurch">England, Church of</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em"><i>Clericis Laicos</i>,</span> the Bull named,
+<a href="#page220">220</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Clifford,</span> Lord, stabs the Earl of Rutland,
+<a href="#page328">328</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cluny,</span> clerical celibacy inculcated at,
+<a href="#page067">67</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">reforms</span> originated at,
+<a href="#page107">107</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cnut,</span> reign of,
+<a href="#page083">83</a>-85.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cobham,</span> Eleanor, mistress and wife of the Duke of Gloucester,
+<a href="#page315">315</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">does penance</span> for witchcraft,
+<a href="#page316">316</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Colleges,</span> first foundation of, at Oxford,
+<a href="#page207">207</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Colman</span> disputes with Wilfrid,
+<a href="#page050">50</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Columba</span> founds a monastery at Iona,
+<a href="#page047">47</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Columbus</span> discovers the West Indies,
+<a href="#page354">354</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="commerce" name="commerce"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Commerce</span> between Britain and Gaul,
+<a href="#page008">8</a>,
+<a href="#page012">12</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">between</span> England and Gaul,
+<a href="#page038">38</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">under</span> the Angevin kings,
+<a href="#page168">168</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">under</span> Edward I.,
+<a href="#page211">211</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">under</span> Edward III.,
+<a href="#page235">235</a>,
+<a href="#page236">236</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">under</span> Henry VII.,
+<a href="#page351">351</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Common</span> Pleas, establishment of a separate Court of,
+<a href="#page212">212</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Commons,</span> the House of (<i>see</i> <a href="#parliament">Parliament</a>), finally separated from the Lords,
+<a href="#page243">243</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">struggle of,</span> against unparliamentary taxation,
+<a href="#page244">244</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">importance</span> of the constitution of,
+<a href="#page245">245</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">supported</span> by the Black Prince,
+<a href="#page261">261</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">influence</span> over the elections of,
+<a href="#page281">281</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">proposes</span> to confiscate Church property,
+<a href="#page294">294</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">addressed</span> by Edward IV.,
+<a href="#page329">329</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Compurgation,</span> system of,
+<a href="#page032">32</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">set aside</span> by Henry II.,
+<a href="#page146">146</a>,
+<a href="#page147">147</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Comyn,</span> John (the Red), slain by Bruce,
+<a href="#page224">224</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em"><i>Confirmatio Cartarum</i>,</span>
+<a href="#page221">221</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Conrad III.,</span> Emperor, takes part in the second Crusade,
+<a href="#page157">157</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Constance</span> of Brittany marries Geoffrey,
+<a href="#page155">155</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Constantine</span> takes an army from Britain,
+<a href="#page025">25</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Constantine,</span> king of the Scots, allies himself with Eadward,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Constantine</span> the Great becomes sole Emperor,
+<a href="#page022">22</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">acknowledges</span> Christianity as the religion of the Empire,
+<a href="#page023">23</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Constantius,</span> the Emperor,
+<a href="#page022">22</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Constitutions</span> of Clarendon,
+<a href="#page144">144</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">renounced</span> by Henry II.,
+<a href="#page153">153</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Convocations</span> of the clergy vote money,
+<a href="#page219">219</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Conway,</span> Edward I. builds a castle at,
+<a href="#page210">210</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="corinium" name="corinium"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Corinium</span> (Cirencester), West Saxon conquest of,
+<a href="#page035">35</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cornish,</span> the, derivation of the old language of,
+<a href="#page007">7</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">submit</span> to Ecgberht,
+<a href="#page055">55</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cotentin,</span> the, sold to Henry,
+<a href="#page119">119</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="countycourts" name="countycourts"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">County</span> courts derived from the shire-moots,
+<a href="#page141">141</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Courtenay,</span> Bishop of London, supported by the citizens against Lancaster,
+<a href="#page263">263</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Creçy,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page241">241</a>,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cressingham,</span> Sir Hugh, governs Scotland in the name of Edward I.,
+<a href="#page219">219</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Crown, the,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#king">King</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Crusade,</span> the first,
+<a href="#page120">120</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">the second,</span>
+<a href="#page157">157</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">the third,</span>
+<a href="#page161">161</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">against</span> the Albigeois,
+<a href="#page193">193</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">the seventh,</span>
+<a href="#page204">204</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cumberland,</span> origin of the name of,
+<a href="#page037">37</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">annexed</span> by William II.,
+<a href="#page119">119</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">left to</span> David I.,
+<a href="#page133">133</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">regained</span> by Henry II.,
+<a href="#page140">140</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cunedda,</span> extensive rule of,
+<a href="#page037">37</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cunobelin,</span> government of,
+<a href="#page012">12</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em"><i>Curia Regis</i>,</span> the, organised under Henry I.,
+<a href="#page127">127</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">strengthened</span> by Henry II.,
+<a href="#page141">141</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">powers</span> assigned by the Constitutions of Clarendon to,
+<a href="#page145">145</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">orders</span> the appointment of recognitors,
+<a href="#page147">147</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">divided</span> into three courts,
+<a href="#page212">212</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="customs" name="customs"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Customs</span> on imports and exports under Edward I.,
+<a href="#page211">211</a>,
+<a href="#page221">221</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cutha,</span>
+<a href="#page035">35</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cymbeline,</span> original of Shakspere's,
+<a href="#page012">12</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Cynric</span> captures Sorbiodunum,
+<a href="#page034">34</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<a id="danegeld" name="danegeld"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Danegeld,</span> levy of,
+<a href="#page081">81</a>; abolition of,
+<a href="#page143">143</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Danelaw,</span> the, formation of,
+<a href="#page059">59</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="danes" name="danes"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Danes,</span> the, invade England,
+<a href="#page058">58</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">make</span> peace with Ælfred,
+<a href="#page059">59</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">extent</span> of the settlements of,
+<a href="#page062">62</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">are</span> amalgamated with the English,
+<a href="#page064">64</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">relations</span> of Dunstan with,
+<a href="#page067">67</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">reappear</span> as invaders,
+<a href="#page079">79</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">conquer</span> England,
+<a href="#page081">81</a>-83;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">settle</span> in Ireland,
+<a href="#page152">152</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Darc,</span> Jeanne, delivers Orleans,
+<a href="#page310">310</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">conducts</span> Charles VII. to Rheims,
+<a href="#page311">311</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">martyrdom</span> of,
+<a href="#page312">312</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">David I.,</span> king of the Scots, invades England,
+<a href="#page131">131</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">David II.</span> (Bruce), king of Scotland,
+<a href="#page232">232</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">takes</span> refuge with Philip VI.,
+<a href="#page234">234</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">restoration</span> of,
+<a href="#page240">240</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">taken</span> prisoner at Nevill's Cross,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">restored</span> by Edward III.,
+<a href="#page252">252</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">David,</span> brother of Llewelyn, executed,
+<a href="#page140">140</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">David,</span> Earl of Huntingdon,
+<a href="#page215">215</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">David,</span> St., piety of,
+<a href="#page042">42</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Decorated</span> style, the,
+<a href="#page247">247</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Degsastan,</span> Æthelfrith's victory at,
+<a href="#page042">42</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="deira" name="deira"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Deira,</span> formation of the kingdom of,
+<a href="#page036">36</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is merged</span> for a time in North-humberland,
+<a href="#page041">41</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">accepts</span> Christianity,
+<a href="#page046">46</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is finally</span> merged in North-humberland,
+<a href="#page048">48</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Danish</span> kingdom of,
+<a href="#page062">62</a>,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Deorham,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page035">35</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="derby" name="derby"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Derby,</span> Earl of (son of John of Gaunt), opposes Richard II.,
+<a href="#page279">279</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeats</span> the Duke of Ireland,
+<a href="#page280">280</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">becomes</span> Duke of Hereford, and is banished,
+<a href="#page283">283</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">succeeds</span> to the Duchy of Lancaster,
+<a href="#page284">284</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">and forces</span> Richard II. to abdicate,
+<a href="#page285">285</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em"><i>see</i> <a href="#henry4">Henry IV.</a></span><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Dermot</span> invites Strongbow to Ireland,
+<a href="#page152">152</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Despensers,</span> the,
+<a href="#page228">228</a>,
+<a href="#page229">229</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="deva" name="deva"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Deva,</span> Roman colony of,
+<a href="#page014">14</a>,
+<a href="#page019">19</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Devizes,</span> surrender of the castle of,
+<a href="#page134">134</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em"><i>Dialogus de Scaccario</i>,</span>
+<a href="#page167">167</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Diocletian</span> reorganises the Empire,
+<a href="#page022">22</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Domesday</span> Book,
+<a href="#page111">111</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Domestic</span> life in Eadgar's time,
+<a href="#page075">75</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Domfront</span> occupied by Henry,
+<a href="#page119">119</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Dominic,</span> St.,
+<a href="#page190">190</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Dominicans</span> arrive in England,
+<a href="#page191">191</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Donald</span> Bane made king of the Scots by the Celts,
+<a href="#page119">119</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Dorchester,</span> abandonment of the see of,
+<a href="#page107">107</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Dorset,</span> Marquis of, his relations with Richard III.,
+<a href="#page338">338</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Druids,</span> character of the,
+<a href="#page010">10</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">resist</span> Suetonius,
+<a href="#page014">14</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Dublin,</span> Danish settlement in,
+<a href="#page152">152</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Du Châtel,</span> Tannegui, murders the Duke of Burgundy,
+<a href="#page305">305</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="duguesclin" name="duguesclin"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Du Guesclin,</span> Bernard, supports Henry of Trastamara,
+<a href="#page255">255</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his mode</span> of fighting with the English,
+<a href="#page256">256</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Dunbar,</span> Balliol defeated at,
+<a href="#page219">219</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Duncan II.,</span> king of the Scots,
+<a href="#page120">120</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Dunstan,</span> character and work of,
+<a href="#page065">65</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">banished</span> by Eadwig,
+<a href="#page067">67</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">becomes</span> Eadgar's Minister, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his attitude</span> towards the monks,
+<a href="#page068">68</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">supports</span> Eadward's succession,
+<a href="#page078">78</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page079">79</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Dupplin,</span> Edward Balliol's victory at,
+<a href="#page234">234</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Durham,</span> architecture of the choir and galilee of,
+<a href="#page171">171</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Eadgar,</span> reign of,
+<a href="#page067">67</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eadgar,</span> king of the Scots,
+<a href="#page121">121</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eadgar</span> the Ætheling, early years of,
+<a href="#page090">90</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">chosen</span> king,
+<a href="#page098">98</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is abandoned,</span>
+<a href="#page100">100</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="eadgyth" name="eadgyth"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Eadgyth</span> married to Eadward the Confessor,
+<a href="#page087">87</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eadgyth</span> married to Henry I.,
+<a href="#page122">122</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is known</span> as Matilda,
+<a href="#page124">124</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eadmund</span> Ironside,
+<a href="#page083">83</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eadmund,</span> king of East Anglia, killed by the Danes,
+<a href="#page058">58</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eadmund,</span> king of the English,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eadred,</span> king of the English,
+<a href="#page064">64</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eadward</span> the Confessor, his life in Normandy,
+<a href="#page085">85</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is chosen</span> king,
+<a href="#page086">86</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his relations</span> with Godwine,
+<a href="#page087">87</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">makes William</span> his heir,
+<a href="#page088">88</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">dies,</span>
+<a href="#page091">91</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eadward</span> the Elder, reign of,
+<a href="#page062">62</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his relations</span> with the Scots,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eadward</span> the Ætheling, death of,
+<a href="#page090">90</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eadward</span> the Martyr,
+<a href="#page078">78</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eadwig,</span> reign of,
+<a href="#page064">64</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his quarrel</span> with the clergy,
+<a href="#page065">65</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his marriage</span> and death,
+<a href="#page067">67</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eadwine,</span> king of North-humberland, greatness of,
+<a href="#page043">43</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marries</span> Æthelburh,
+<a href="#page044">44</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is converted</span> and slain,
+<a href="#page046">46</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eadwine,</span> son of Ælfgar, becomes Earl of the Mercians,
+<a href="#page090">90</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is present</span> at Eadgar's election,
+<a href="#page098">98</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">submits</span> to William,
+<a href="#page102">102</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is murdered,</span>
+<a href="#page103">103</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eadwinesburh,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ealdhelm</span> as a builder and teacher,
+<a href="#page051">51</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ealdormen,</span> the, are the leaders of the English conquerors,
+<a href="#page030">30</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">preside</span> over the folk-moot,
+<a href="#page033">33</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">growing</span> power of,
+<a href="#page073">73</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">their position</span> under Æthelred the Unready,
+<a href="#page079">79</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ealdred,</span> Archbishop of York, crowns William I.,
+<a href="#page100">100</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Earl,</span> title of, derivation of,
+<a href="#page064">64</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Earldoms</span> under Cnut,
+<a href="#page083">83</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">diminished</span> after the Norman Conquest,
+<a href="#page105">105</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Early English</span> architecture,
+<a href="#page171">171</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="eastanglia" name="eastanglia"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">East Anglia,</span> first settlement of,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">growth</span> of,
+<a href="#page036">36</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">comparative</span> weakness of,
+<a href="#page041">41</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its relations</span> with Ecgberht,
+<a href="#page055">55</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">overrun</span> by the Danes,
+<a href="#page058">58</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="eastsaxons" name="eastsaxons"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">East Saxons</span> establish themselves to the north of the Thames,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">capture</span> London,
+<a href="#page035">35</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em"><i>see</i> <a href="#essex">Essex</a>.</span><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Easter,</span> dispute on the mode of keeping,
+<a href="#page050">50</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ebbsfleet,</span> landing of the Jutes at,
+<a href="#page027">27</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">landing of</span> Augustine at,
+<a href="#page039">39</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="ecclescourts" name="ecclescourts"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Ecclesiastical</span> courts, jurisdiction of,
+<a href="#page106">106</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">conflict</span> of Henry II. with,
+<a href="#page142">142</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ecgberht,</span> at the court of Charles the Great,
+<a href="#page053">53</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">becomes</span> king of the West Saxons, and over-lord of the other kingdoms,
+<a href="#page055">55</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="edinburgh" name="edinburgh"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Edinburgh,</span> Eadwine builds the castle of,
+<a href="#page043">43</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">occupied</span> by the Scots,
+<a href="#page068">68</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Edmund</span> Crouchback, second son of Henry III., named king of Sicily and Naples,
+<a href="#page196">196</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">supposed</span> primogeniture of,
+<a href="#page286">286</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Education</span> in the time of Ælfred,
+<a href="#page061">61</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">in the time</span> of Dunstan,
+<a href="#page065">65</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">carried</span> on at Oxford,
+<a href="#page167">167</a>,
+<a href="#page207">207</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Edward I.,</span> appeal of the Knights Bachelors to,
+<a href="#page199">199</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">taken</span> prisoner at Lewes,
+<a href="#page201">201</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeats</span> Earl Simon at Evesham,
+<a href="#page203">203</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">takes</span> part in the seventh Crusade
+<a href="#page204">204</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">becomes</span> king,
+<a href="#page208">208</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">constitutional</span> position of,
+<a href="#page209">209</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his dealings</span> with Wales,
+<a href="#page210">210</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">finance of,</span>
+<a href="#page211">211</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">judicial</span> reforms and legislation of,
+<a href="#page212">212</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">arranges</span> for a personal union between England and Scotland,
+<a href="#page214">214</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">erects</span> the Eleanor crosses,
+<a href="#page215">215</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">awards</span> the Scottish crown to John Balliol,
+<a href="#page216">216</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his relations</span> with Philip IV.,
+<a href="#page218">218</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">summons</span> the Model Parliament,
+<a href="#page218">218</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his first</span> conquest of Scotland,
+<a href="#page219">219</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">grants</span> the <i>Confirmatio Cartarum</i>,
+<a href="#page220">220</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his second</span> conquest of Scotland,
+<a href="#page221">221</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">incorporates</span> Scotland with England,
+<a href="#page222">222</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his third</span> conquest of Scotland, and death,
+<a href="#page224">224</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Edward II.,</span> birth of,
+<a href="#page210">210</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">succeeds to</span> the crown,
+<a href="#page224">224</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marriage</span> of,
+<a href="#page225">225</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">resistance</span> of the barons to, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeated</span> at Bannockburn,
+<a href="#page226">226</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">overthrows</span> Lancaster and effects a constitutional settlement,
+<a href="#page228">228</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">deposed</span> and murdered,
+<a href="#page229">229</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Edward III.,</span> accession and marriage of,
+<a href="#page231">231</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">does homage</span> to Philip VI.,
+<a href="#page232">232</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">sets up</span> Edward Balliol in Scotland and begins war with France,
+<a href="#page234">234</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">allies</span> himself with the Emperor and the cities of Flanders,
+<a href="#page235">235</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">encourages</span> trade,
+<a href="#page236">236</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is named</span> Imperial Vicar,
+<a href="#page237">237</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">claims the</span> crown of France,
+<a href="#page239">239</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">wins the</span> battle of Sluys, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marches</span> through the north of France,
+<a href="#page240">240</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">wins the</span> battle of Creçy,
+<a href="#page241">241</a>,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">takes</span> Calais,
+<a href="#page243">243</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">constitutional</span> progress under, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">restores</span> David Bruce,
+<a href="#page252">252</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">makes peace</span> with France,
+<a href="#page253">253</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">enters on</span> a fresh war with France,
+<a href="#page256">256</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="edward4" name="edward4"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Edward IV.,</span> as Earl of March, takes part in the battle of Northampton,
+<a href="#page326">326</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">wins the</span> battle of Mortimer's Cross,
+      and is acknowledged by the Londoners as king,
+<a href="#page328">328</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">wins the</span> battle of Towton, and is crowned,
+<a href="#page329">329</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marries</span> Elizabeth Woodville, and promotes her kindred,
+<a href="#page331">331</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">allies</span> himself with Burgundy,
+<a href="#page332">332</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">loses and</span> recovers the crown,
+<a href="#page334">334</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">invents</span> benevolences,
+<a href="#page335">335</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">invades</span> France,
+<a href="#page336">336</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">puts Clarence</span> to death,
+<a href="#page336">336</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page337">337</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Edward V.</span> succeeds to the throne,
+<a href="#page337">337</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">lodged in</span> the Tower,
+<a href="#page340">340</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">deposed,</span>
+<a href="#page341">341</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">murdered,</span>
+<a href="#page342">342</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Edward,</span> Prince of Wales, <i>see</i> <a href="#blackprince">Black Prince</a>, the.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Edward,</span> Prince of Wales, son of Henry VI., birth of,
+<a href="#page323">323</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">slain at</span> Tewkesbury,
+<a href="#page334">334</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Edward,</span> Prince of Wales, son of Richard III., death of,
+<a href="#page342">342</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eleanor</span> of Aquitaine marries Henry II.,
+<a href="#page137">137</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">imprisonment</span> of,
+<a href="#page155">155</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">takes part</span> with John against Arthur,
+<a href="#page174">174</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eleanor</span> of Castile, wife of Edward I., accompanies her husband on the Crusade,
+<a href="#page204">204</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page214">214</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eleanor</span> of Provence marries Henry III.,
+<a href="#page192">192</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eleanor,</span> sister of Henry III., marries Simon de Montfort,
+<a href="#page193">193</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Elizabeth,</span> daughter of Edward IV., proposed marriage of the Dauphin to,
+<a href="#page336">336</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">proposed</span> marriage of Richard III. to,
+<a href="#page342">342</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marries</span> Henry VII.,
+<a href="#page345">345</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Elmet</span> conquered by Eadwine,
+<a href="#page043">43</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Emma</span> marries Æthelred,
+<a href="#page081">81</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Empire,</span> the Western, revived by Charles the Great,
+<a href="#page055">55</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Empson</span> and Dudley, exactions of,
+<a href="#page357">357</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">England,</span> early social and political institutions of,
+<a href="#page029">29</a>-32;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">contrasted</span> with Gaul,
+<a href="#page037">37</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">commerce</span> with Gaul renewed by,
+<a href="#page038">38</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Christianity</span> introduced into,
+<a href="#page039">39</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">growing</span> power of three kingdoms in,
+<a href="#page041">41</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">character</span> of the later conquests in,
+<a href="#page044">44</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">political</span> changes in,
+<a href="#page045">45</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">spread</span> of Christianity in,
+<a href="#page049">49</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">influence</span> of Church Councils on the political unity of,
+<a href="#page052">52</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Ecgberht's</span> over-lordship in,
+<a href="#page055">55</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">attacks</span> of the Northmen and Danes on,
+<a href="#page056">56</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its condition</span> under Ælfred,
+<a href="#page060">60</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its relations</span> with Scotland,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>,
+<a href="#page068">68</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">development</span> of the institutions of,
+<a href="#page069">69</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Danish conquest</span> of,
+<a href="#page079">79</a>-83;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Norman conquest</span> of,
+<a href="#page096">96</a>-103;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Norman</span> constitution of,
+<a href="#page113">113</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">civil war in,</span>
+<a href="#page134">134</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">pacification</span> of,
+<a href="#page137">137</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">administrative</span> reforms of Henry II. in,
+<a href="#page140">140</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">made tributary</span> to the Papacy,
+<a href="#page180">180</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">military</span> reforms in,
+<a href="#page154">154</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">effect of</span> the reign of Henry II. on,
+<a href="#page158">158</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">constitutional</span> result of the administration of Hubert Walter in,
+<a href="#page163">163</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">growth of</span> learning in,
+<a href="#page167">167</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">growth of</span> commerce in,
+<a href="#page168">168</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">architectural</span> changes in,
+<a href="#page170">170</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">the Barons'</span> Wars in,
+<a href="#page200">200</a>-203;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">architectural</span> and literary growth in,
+<a href="#page206">206</a>,
+<a href="#page207">207</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">complete</span> national unity of,
+<a href="#page208">208</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">completion</span> of the Parliamentary constitution of,
+<a href="#page218">218</a>,
+<a href="#page220">220</a>,
+<a href="#page228">228</a>,
+<a href="#page243">243</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">relieved</span> of tribute to the Papacy,
+<a href="#page258">258</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">social</span> and moral condition of, during the Wars of the Roses,
+<a href="#page330">330</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="englandchurch" name="englandchurch"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">England,</span> the Church of, Wilfrid's influence on,
+<a href="#page050">50</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">parochial</span> organisation of, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its close</span> connection with the State,
+<a href="#page052">52</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">councils of,</span> <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">organisation</span> of, after the Norman Conquest,
+<a href="#page106">106</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its relations</span> with Stephen,
+<a href="#page134">134</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">and with</span> Henry II.,
+<a href="#page149">149</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">result of</span> the Angevin reigns on,
+<a href="#page166">166</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Papal exactions</span> resisted by,
+<a href="#page194">194</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">payments</span> exacted from,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">temporary</span> Parliamentary representation of the clergy of,
+<a href="#page219">219</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">taxation</span> resisted by the clergy of,
+<a href="#page220">220</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">social</span> condition of,
+<a href="#page236">236</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">supports</span> Henry IV.,
+<a href="#page291">291</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">members of</span> noble families in the episcopate of, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">procures</span> a statute for burning heretics,
+<a href="#page292">292</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">proposal</span> to confiscate the property of,
+<a href="#page294">294</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">English,</span> the, origin of the name of,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">nature of</span> their conquest of Britain,
+<a href="#page029">29</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">village</span> settlements of, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">division</span> of ranks among, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">effect of</span> the conquest of Britain on the language of,
+<a href="#page031">31</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">early</span> political organisation of, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">early</span> judicial system of,
+<a href="#page032">32</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">position of,</span> under William I.,
+<a href="#page104">104</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">support</span> William II.,
+<a href="#page115">115</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">support</span> Henry I.
+<a href="#page124">124</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">cease to</span> be distinguished from Normans,
+<a href="#page155">155</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">reappearance</span> of their language in literature,
+<a href="#page207">207</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">predominance</span> of their language,
+<a href="#page258">258</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eorls,</span> distinguished from Ceorls,
+<a href="#page029">29</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">their</span> relation to Gesiths,
+<a href="#page030">30</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Erse,</span> a Goidelic language,
+<a href="#page007">7</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eskimos,</span> compared with palæolithic men,
+<a href="#page003">3</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="essex" name="essex"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Essex,</span> Saxon settlement in,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is dependent</span> on Kent, and accepts Christianity,
+<a href="#page040">40</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">relapses</span> into heathenism,
+<a href="#page041">41</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">comparative</span> weakness of, <i>ib.</i><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eustace,</span> Count of Boulogne, visits Eadward the Confessor,
+<a href="#page087">87</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Eustace,</span> son of Stephen, death of,
+<a href="#page137">137</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Evesham,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page203">203</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Exchequer,</span> the, organised by Roger of Salisbury,
+<a href="#page127">127</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">disorganised</span> under Stephen,
+<a href="#page134">134</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">reorganised</span> under Henry II.,
+<a href="#page140">140</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">establishment</span> of a separate Court of,
+<a href="#page212">212</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Exeter</span> taken by William I.,
+<a href="#page102">102</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Faddiley,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page035">35</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Falaise,</span> Treaty of,
+<a href="#page154">154</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">abandoned</span> by Richard I.,
+<a href="#page159">159</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Falkirk,</span> Wallace defeated at,
+<a href="#page222">222</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Faukes de Breauté,</span> banishment of,
+<a href="#page187">187</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ferdinand V.,</span> king of Aragon, marries Isabella of Castile,
+<a href="#page349">349</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ferry Bridge,</span> skirmish at,
+<a href="#page329">329</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Feudality,</span> early forms of,
+<a href="#page081">81</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">after the</span> Norman Conquest,
+<a href="#page104">104</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">organised</span> by William I.,
+<a href="#page113">113</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Flambard's</span> further organisation of,
+<a href="#page116">116</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">ideas of</span> Edward I. on,
+<a href="#page214">214</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Fitz-Osbern,</span> William, oppresses the English,
+<a href="#page102">102</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Five Boroughs,</span> the,
+<a href="#page062">62</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="flambard" name="flambard"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Flambard,</span> Ranulf, tyranny of,
+<a href="#page116">116</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">imprisonment</span> of,
+<a href="#page122">122</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">escapes,</span>
+<a href="#page124">124</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Flanders,</span> commercial intercourse with,
+<a href="#page211">211</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Edward I.</span> in,
+<a href="#page221">221</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">alliance</span> of Edward III. with,
+<a href="#page235">235</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">falls under</span> the control of France,
+<a href="#page278">278</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Flemings</span> emigrate to Wales,
+<a href="#page128">128</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">introduced</span> as weavers by Edward III.,
+<a href="#page236">236</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Folk-moot,</span> functions of the,
+<a href="#page033">33</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Fountains</span> Abbey,
+<a href="#page129">129</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">France,</span> social condition of,
+<a href="#page235">235</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">miserable</span> state of,
+<a href="#page251">251</a>,
+<a href="#page252">252</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">friendship</span> of Richard II. with,
+<a href="#page282">282</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Francis of</span> Assisi, St.,
+<a href="#page190">190</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Franciscans,</span> the, constitution of,
+<a href="#page190">190</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">arrive</span> in England,
+<a href="#page191">191</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Frederick I.,</span> Barbarossa, Emperor, supports an anti-pope,
+<a href="#page145">145</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Frederick II.,</span> Emperor, excommunication of,
+<a href="#page194">194</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page195">195</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Freemen,</span> gradual disappearance of,
+<a href="#page069">69</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">French,</span> the, Dukes of,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Hugh Capet,</span> king of,
+<a href="#page080">80</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Friars,</span> the, orders of,
+<a href="#page190">190</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">arrive in</span> England,
+<a href="#page191">191</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Fyrd, the,</span> a general army of the villagers,
+<a href="#page030">30</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Ælfred</span> reforms,
+<a href="#page060">60</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">comparative</span> disuse of,
+<a href="#page069">69</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">retained</span> after the Norman Conquest,
+<a href="#page106">106</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em"><i>see</i> <a href="#assizearms">Assize of Arms</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Gaelic</span> a Goidelic language,
+<a href="#page007">7</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gainas,</span> the, settlements of,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gainsborough,</span> origin of the name of,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Garter,</span> the order of the, institution of,
+<a href="#page246">246</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gascoigne,</span> Chief Justice,
+<a href="#page299">299</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gaul,</span> trade of Britain with,
+<a href="#page008">8</a>,
+<a href="#page012">12</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">persistency</span> of Roman civilisation in,
+<a href="#page037">37</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">renewal</span> of trade with,
+<a href="#page038">38</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gauls</span> arrive in Britain,
+<a href="#page008">8</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gaveston,</span> Piers, favoured by Edward II.,
+<a href="#page224">224</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">execution</span> of,
+<a href="#page226">226</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Geoffrey,</span> Count of Anjou, marries the Empress Matilda,
+<a href="#page131">131</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">conquers</span> Normandy,
+<a href="#page136">136</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Geoffrey</span> Fitz-Peter, Justiciar,
+<a href="#page163">163</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Geoffrey,</span> son of Henry II., marries the heiress of Brittany,
+<a href="#page155">155</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">dies,</span>
+<a href="#page156">156</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gesiths,</span> the, personal devotion of,
+<a href="#page030">30</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">their relation</span> to the Ceorls, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">their name</span> changed to that of Thegns,
+<a href="#page031">31</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gewissas,</span> the, combine with Jutes,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em"><i>see</i> <a href="#westsaxons">West Saxons</a>.</span><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ghent,</span> Jacob van Arteveldt at,
+<a href="#page235">235</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Philip van</span> Arteveldt at,
+<a href="#page278">278</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Giraldus</span> Cambrensis,
+<a href="#page167">167</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Glanvile,</span> Ranulf de, captures William the Lion,
+<a href="#page154">154</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">writes the</span> first English law-book,
+<a href="#page167">167</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Glastonbury,</span> Dunstan, abbot of,
+<a href="#page065">65</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">proceedings</span> of Dunstan at,
+<a href="#page106">106</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Glendower,</span> Owen, heads the Welsh,
+<a href="#page293">293</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">decline</span> of the power of,
+<a href="#page296">296</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="glevum" name="glevum"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Glevum</span> (Gloucester), Saxon conquest of,
+<a href="#page035">35</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gloucester,</span> Duke of (brother of Edward IV.), <i>see</i> <a href="#richard3">Richard III.</a><br>
+
+<a id="dukegloucester" name="dukegloucester"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Gloucester,</span> Duke of, Humphrey (brother of Henry V.), appointed Protector,
+<a href="#page307">307</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marries</span> Jacqueline of Hainault,
+<a href="#page308">308</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">quarrels</span> with Cardinal Beaufort,
+<a href="#page309">309</a>,
+<a href="#page314">314</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his relations</span> with Eleanor Cobham,
+<a href="#page315">315</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">advocates</span> a war policy,
+<a href="#page317">317</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page318">318</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gloucester,</span> Duke of, Thomas, son of Edward III., heads the opposition to Richard II.,
+<a href="#page279">279</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">driven from</span> power,
+<a href="#page280">280</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">murdered,</span>
+<a href="#page282">282</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="gloucesterearl" name="gloucesterearl"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Gloucester,</span> Earl of (Gilbert de Clare), allies himself with Earl Simon,
+<a href="#page200">200</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">becomes one</span> of the three Electors,
+<a href="#page201">201</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">joins Edward</span> against Simon at Evesham,
+<a href="#page203">203</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gloucester,</span> Earl of, <i>see</i> <a href="#robertg">Robert</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gloucester,</span> Earl of (Richard de Clare), quarrels with Earl Simon,
+<a href="#page199">199</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">joins Earl</span> Simon, and dies,
+<a href="#page200">200</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gloucester,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#glevum">Glevum</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Godfrey</span> of Bouillon,
+<a href="#page121">121</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Godwine</span> becomes Earl of the West Saxons,
+<a href="#page084">84</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">supports</span> Harthacnut,
+<a href="#page085">85</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">charged</span> with the murder of Ælfred,
+<a href="#page086">86</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">governs</span> under Eadward,
+<a href="#page087">87</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">outlawed,</span>
+<a href="#page088">88</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">return</span> and death of,
+<a href="#page089">89</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Goidels,</span> the, a branch of the Celts,
+<a href="#page006">6</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">languages</span> spoken by the descendants of,
+<a href="#page007">7</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Good Parliament,</span> the,
+<a href="#page262">262</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Granada,</span> conquest of,
+<a href="#page349">349</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Graupian Hill,</span> the, battle of,
+<a href="#page017">17</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="greatcouncil" name="greatcouncil"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Great Council,</span> the, composition of,
+<a href="#page113">113</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">urges</span> William to name an archbishop,
+<a href="#page117">117</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">summoned</span> to Rockingham,
+<a href="#page118">118</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">becomes</span> unimportant under Henry I.,
+<a href="#page126">126</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">frequently</span> consulted by Henry II.,
+<a href="#page141">141</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">meets</span> at Clarendon,
+<a href="#page144">144</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">remonstrates</span> with Henry III.,
+<a href="#page188">188</a>,
+<a href="#page192">192</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">refuses</span> money to Henry III.,
+<a href="#page194">194</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">begins</span> to be known as Parliament,
+<a href="#page195">195</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em"><i>see</i> <a href="#parliament">Parliament</a>.</span><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gregory I.,</span> Pope, finds English slave-boys at Rome,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">sends Augustine</span> to England,
+<a href="#page039">39</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gregory VII.,</span> Pope, his relations with William I.,
+<a href="#page107">107</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gregory IX.,</span> Pope, demands money from England,
+<a href="#page194">194</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Grey, John de,</span> nominated Archbishop of Canterbury by John,
+<a href="#page177">177</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">unpopularity</span> of,
+<a href="#page178">178</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Grey, family of,</span> favoured by Edward IV.,
+<a href="#page331">331</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Grey, Sir Thomas,</span> execution of,
+<a href="#page301">301</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Grossetête,</span> Robert, Bishop of Lincoln, opposes Henry III.,
+<a href="#page194">194</a>,
+<a href="#page195">195</a>;<br>
+   <span class="min2em"> death of,</span>
+<a href="#page197">197</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gualo,</span> legate of Honorius III.,
+<a href="#page185">185</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Guthrum</span> defeats Ælfred,
+<a href="#page058">58</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">makes peace</span> at Wedmore,
+<a href="#page059">59</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">cedes London</span> to Ælfred, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">extent of</span> the kingdom of,
+<a href="#page062">62</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gwledig,</span> British title of,
+<a href="#page026">26</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">title thought</span> to have been assumed by Eadwine,
+<a href="#page044">44</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gwynnedd</span> under Cædwalla,
+<a href="#page046">46</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Gyrth,</span> Earl of East Anglia,
+<a href="#page089">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Hadrian,</span> the Emperor, wall of,
+<a href="#page017">17</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Halidon Hill,</span> the Scots defeated at,
+<a href="#page234">234</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Harfleur</span> taken by Henry V.,
+<a href="#page302">302</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">secured</span> by the Duke of Bedford,
+<a href="#page303">303</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Harold</span> Hardrada invades England,
+<a href="#page094">94</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is slain</span> at Stamford Bridge,
+<a href="#page096">96</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Harold,</span> son of Cnut, chosen king by the Mercians,
+<a href="#page085">85</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page086">86</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Harold,</span> son of Godwine, earl of the West Saxons,
+<a href="#page089">89</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">rules</span> England under Eadward,
+<a href="#page090">90</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">chosen</span> king,
+<a href="#page091">91</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his oath</span> to William,
+<a href="#page093">93</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marches</span> into the North,
+<a href="#page094">94</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeats</span> Harold Hardrada at Stamford Bridge,
+<a href="#page095">95</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeated</span> and slain at Senlac,
+<a href="#page098">98</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Harthacnut,</span> chosen king of the West Saxons,
+<a href="#page085">85</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">comes</span> to England, and dies,
+<a href="#page086">86</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hastings,</span> battle of, <i>see</i> <a href="#senlac">Senlac</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hastings,</span> John, claims a third of Scotland,
+<a href="#page215">215</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hastings,</span> Lord, turns against Richard III.,
+<a href="#page339">339</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">execution</span> of,
+<a href="#page340">340</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Heathfield,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page046">46</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Heavenfield,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page047">47</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hedgeley Moor,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page331">331</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Helie de la Flêche</span> opposes William II.,
+<a href="#page121">121</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hengist,</span> traditional leader of the Jutes,
+<a href="#page027">27</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Henry I.</span> receives no land at his father's death,
+<a href="#page114">114</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his wars</span> with his brothers,
+<a href="#page119">119</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">accession</span> and marriage of,
+<a href="#page122">122</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">puts down</span> insurrections,
+<a href="#page124">124</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">conquers</span> Normandy,
+<a href="#page125">125</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his dispute</span> with Anselm, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">judicial</span> reforms of,
+<a href="#page127">127</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">makes war</span> in Normandy,
+<a href="#page129">129</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">loses his</span> only son,
+<a href="#page130">130</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page131">131</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Henry II.,</span> early career of,
+<a href="#page136">136</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marries</span> Eleanor,
+<a href="#page137">137</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">character</span> of,
+<a href="#page138">138</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">advances</span> Thomas of London,
+<a href="#page140">140</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">administrative</span> system of,
+<a href="#page140">140</a>-142;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">appoints</span> Thomas archbishop, and quarrels with him,
+<a href="#page143">143</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">draws</span> up the Constitutions of Clarendon,
+<a href="#page144">144</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">persecutes</span> Thomas,
+<a href="#page145">145</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">issues</span> the Assize of Clarendon,
+<a href="#page146">146</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">renews</span> the itinerant justices, and inquires into the conduct of the sheriffs,
+<a href="#page148">148</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">has young</span> Henry crowned,
+<a href="#page149">149</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">uses strong</span> language against Thomas,
+<a href="#page150">150</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">goes to</span> Ireland,
+<a href="#page151">151</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">renounces</span> the Constitutions of Clarendon,
+<a href="#page153">153</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">does penance,</span>
+<a href="#page154">154</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">issues the</span> Assize of Arms, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his domestic</span> troubles,
+<a href="#page155">155</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">takes the</span> cross and dies,
+<a href="#page157">157</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his weakness</span> on the Continent and strength in England,
+<a href="#page158">158</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">literary</span> vigour under,
+<a href="#page167">167</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Henry III.,</span> minority of,
+<a href="#page185">185</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">favours</span> Poitevins under the influence of Peter des Roches,
+<a href="#page187">187</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marries</span> Eleanor of Provence and favours Provençals,
+<a href="#page192">192</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">frequently</span> renews the Great Charter,
+<a href="#page192">192</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">quarrels</span> with Simon de Montfort,
+<a href="#page193">193</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">surrenders</span> Poitou,
+<a href="#page194">194</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is opposed</span> by Parliament,
+<a href="#page195">195</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">hopes to</span> make his second son King of Sicily,
+<a href="#page196">196</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">misgovernment</span> of,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">consents</span> to the Provisions of Oxford,
+<a href="#page198">198</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">recovers</span> power,
+<a href="#page200">200</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">taken</span> prisoner at Lewes,
+<a href="#page201">201</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">last years</span> of,
+<a href="#page204">204</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">progress</span> of the country in the reign of,
+<a href="#page206">206</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="henry4" name="henry4"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Henry IV.,</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#derby">Derby</a>) Earl of, claims the throne,
+<a href="#page286">286</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">meets with</span> difficulties,
+<a href="#page289">289</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">leans</span> on the Church,
+<a href="#page291">291</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">rebellion</span> of the Percies against,
+<a href="#page293">293</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">keeps</span> James I. as a hostage,
+<a href="#page295">295</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">suppresses</span> a rebellion in the North,
+<a href="#page296">296</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">quarrels</span> with the Prince of Wales,
+<a href="#page298">298</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page299">299</a>.
+
+  <span class="min3em">Henry IV.,</span> Emperor, resists Gregory VII.,
+<a href="#page108">108</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Henry V.,</span> career of, as Prince of Wales,
+<a href="#page297">297</a>-299;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">domestic</span> policy of,
+<a href="#page299">299</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">claims</span> the crown of France,
+<a href="#page300">300</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeats</span> the French at Agincourt,
+<a href="#page302">302</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">conquers</span> Normandy,
+<a href="#page303">303</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">forms</span> an alliance with the Duke of Burgundy, and is declared heir to the French throne,
+<a href="#page306">306</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marriage</span> and death of, <i>ib.</i><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Henry V.,</span> Emperor, marries Matilda,
+<a href="#page131">131</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Henry VI.,</span> accession of,
+<a href="#page307">307</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">crowned</span> at Westminster and Paris,
+<a href="#page312">312</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marriage</span> of,
+<a href="#page317">317</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">supports</span> Somerset,
+<a href="#page323">323</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">insanity</span> of, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">recovery</span> and renewed insanity of,
+<a href="#page324">324</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">second</span> recovery of, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">attempts</span> to reconcile the parties,
+<a href="#page325">325</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">declared</span> a traitor by Edward IV.,
+<a href="#page329">329</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">restoration</span> of,
+<a href="#page333">333</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">murder</span> of,
+<a href="#page334">334</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Henry VI.,</span> Emperor, his relations with Richard I.,
+<a href="#page161">161</a>,
+<a href="#page162">162</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="henry7" name="henry7"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Henry VII.,</span> as Earl of Richmond, genealogy of,
+<a href="#page334">334</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">invades</span> England,
+<a href="#page343">343</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeats</span> Richard III. and becomes king, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">supported</span> by the middle classes,
+<a href="#page345">345</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">suppresses</span> Lord Lovel's rising,
+<a href="#page346">346</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his relations</span> with Brittany and France,
+<a href="#page348">348</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">assailed</span> by Perkin Warbeck,
+<a href="#page350">350</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">sends Poynings</span> to Ireland,
+<a href="#page352">352</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">restores Kildare</span> to the Deputyship,
+<a href="#page352">352</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">secures</span> Warbeck, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">effects an</span> alliance with Scotland,
+<a href="#page356">356</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">encourages</span> maritime enterprise,
+<a href="#page356">356</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">fills his</span> treasury,
+<a href="#page357">357</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his alliance</span> with the Archduke Philip,
+<a href="#page358">358</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">last years</span> and death of,
+<a href="#page358">358</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Henry of Blois,</span> Bishop of Winchester,
+<a href="#page131">131</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">declares</span> against Stephen,
+<a href="#page134">134</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Henry</span> of Trastamara,
+<a href="#page255">255</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Henry,</span> son of Henry II., coronation of,
+<a href="#page149">149</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">rebellion of,</span>
+<a href="#page153">153</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page156">156</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Henry the Fowler,</span> his mode of warfare,
+<a href="#page079">79</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hereford,</span> Duke of, <i>see</i> <a href="#derby">Derby</a>, Earl of.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hereford,</span> Earl of, <i>see</i> <a href="#bohun">Bohun</a>, Humfrey.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Heretics,</span> Statute for burning,
+<a href="#page292">292</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hereward,</span> rising of,
+<a href="#page103">103</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Herrings,</span> battle of the,
+<a href="#page309">309</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hexham,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page331">331</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hii,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#iona">Iona</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hlaford,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#lord">Lord</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Homildon</span> Hill, battle of,
+<a href="#page293">293</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Honorius III.,</span> Pope, protects Henry III.,
+<a href="#page185">185</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Horsa,</span> a traditional leader of the Jutes,
+<a href="#page027">27</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Horses</span> used to carry warriors to battle,
+<a href="#page075">75</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">House-carls,</span>
+<a href="#page083">83</a>,
+<a href="#page093">93</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hrolf,</span> Duke of the Normans,
+<a href="#page080">80</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hubert,</span> Walter, administration of,
+<a href="#page163">163</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page177">177</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hubert</span> de Burgh holds Dover Castle,
+<a href="#page185">185</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">administration of,</span>
+<a href="#page186">186</a>-188.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hugh</span> Capet,
+<a href="#page080">80</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hugh</span> of Lusignan rises against John,
+<a href="#page174">174</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hugh</span> the Great, Duke of the French,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hundreds,</span> early political organisation of the,
+<a href="#page031">31</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hundred Years'</span> War, the,
+<a href="#page234">234</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hundred-moot,</span> the, organisation of,
+<a href="#page031">31</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">judicial</span> functions of,
+<a href="#page032">32</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">gradual</span> decay of,
+<a href="#page072">72</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Huntingdon,</span> David I. holds the earldom of,
+<a href="#page132">132</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Hwiccas,</span> the, split off from the West Saxons,
+<a href="#page036">36</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Iberians,</span> the,
+<a href="#page005">5</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Iceni,</span> the geographical position of,
+<a href="#page008">8</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">take part</span> with the Romans,
+<a href="#page013">13</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">roused</span> to insurrection by Boadicea,
+<a href="#page015">15</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ictis,</span> probably identified with Thanet,
+<a href="#page008">8</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ida becomes</span> king of Bernicia,
+<a href="#page036">36</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Idle, the,</span> Eadwine's victory on,
+<a href="#page043">43</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Impeachment</span> of Latimer and Lyons,
+<a href="#page262">262</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">of Suffolk,</span>
+<a href="#page322">322</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Inclosures,</span> growth of,
+<a href="#page320">320</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ine,</span> his rule in Wessex,
+<a href="#page053">53</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Innocent III.,</span> Pope, influences the election of Stephen Langton,
+<a href="#page177">177</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">puts England</span> under an interdict, and reduces John to submission,
+<a href="#page178">178</a>-180;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">declares</span> against the barons,
+<a href="#page181">181</a>-184;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">establishes</span> the Friars,
+<a href="#page190">190</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Innocent IV.</span> becomes Pope,
+<a href="#page195">195</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">wins over</span> Henry III.,
+<a href="#page196">196</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Inquisition</span> of the Sheriffs, the,
+<a href="#page148">148</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em"><i>Intercursus Magnus</i>,</span> the,
+<a href="#page351">351</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Interdict,</span> England under,
+<a href="#page178">178</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Investiture,</span> William I. claims the right of granting,
+<a href="#page108">108</a>;<br>
+   <span class="min2em">Anselm's</span> position with regard to,
+<a href="#page125">125</a>;<br>
+   <span class="min2em">compromise</span> on,
+<a href="#page126">126</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="iona" name="iona"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Iona,</span> missionaries sent forth from,
+<a href="#page047">47</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="ireland" name="ireland"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Ireland,</span> ancient language of,
+<a href="#page007">7</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Druids in,</span>
+<a href="#page010">10</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Christianity</span> introduced into,
+<a href="#page047">47</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">state of</span> civilisation in,
+<a href="#page151">151</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">partially</span> conquered by Henry II.,
+<a href="#page152">152</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">results</span> of the conquest of,
+<a href="#page264">264</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">weakness</span> of the English colony in,
+<a href="#page265">265</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">under</span> Lancaster and York,
+<a href="#page346">346</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">under</span> Henry VII.,
+<a href="#page350">350</a>,
+<a href="#page351">351</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ireland,</span> Duke of (<i>see</i> <a href="#oxford">Oxford</a>, Earl of), supports Richard II.,
+<a href="#page279">279</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is condemned</span> to death, but escapes,
+<a href="#page280">280</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Isabella</span> of Angoulême marries John,
+<a href="#page174">174</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Isabella</span> of Bavaria, Queen of France, takes part against her son,
+<a href="#page306">306</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Isabella</span> of France marries Edward II.,
+<a href="#page225">225</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">obtains</span> the deposition of her husband,
+<a href="#page229">229</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">gives power</span> to Mortimer,
+<a href="#page231">231</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is placed</span> in seclusion,
+<a href="#page232">232</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="iscasilurum" name="iscasilurum"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Isca Silurum,</span> Roman colony of,
+<a href="#page014">14</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">martyrdom</span> of Aaron at,
+<a href="#page023">23</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Isle of Wight,</span> Jutish settlements in,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">plundered</span> by the French,
+<a href="#page234">234</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Itinerant</span> justices under Henry I.,
+<a href="#page127">127</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">under</span> Henry II.,
+<a href="#page148">148</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Jacquerie,</span> the,
+<a href="#page252">252</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Jacqueline</span> of Hainault, marriage of,
+<a href="#page308">308</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">James I.,</span> king of Scotland, kept in custody by Henry IV.,
+<a href="#page295">295</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">liberation</span> of,
+<a href="#page307">307</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">James IV.,</span> king of Scotland, invades England,
+<a href="#page352">352</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marries</span> the daughter of Henry VII.,
+<a href="#page356">356</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Jerusalem</span> captured by the Crusaders,
+<a href="#page121">121</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">captured</span> by Saladin,
+<a href="#page157">157</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Richard I.</span> refuses to look at,
+<a href="#page161">161</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Jews,</span> the, encouraged by William II.,
+<a href="#page115">115</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">protected</span> by Henry I.,
+<a href="#page128">128</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">massacre</span> of,
+<a href="#page160">160</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">persecuted</span> by John,
+<a href="#page179">179</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">banished</span> by Edward I.,
+<a href="#page212">212</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Jews'</span> House, the so-called,
+<a href="#page170">170</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">John,</span> king of England, his misconduct in Ireland,
+<a href="#page156">156</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">leads</span> the opposition to William of Longchamps,
+<a href="#page161">161</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">joins</span> Philip II. against Richard,
+<a href="#page162">162</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">accession</span> of,
+<a href="#page173">173</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">loses</span> Normandy and Anjou,
+<a href="#page174">174</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">appoints</span> an Archbishop of Canterbury,
+<a href="#page177">177</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">quarrels</span> with the Pope,
+<a href="#page178">178</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">submits</span> to the Pope,
+<a href="#page180">180</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">quarrels</span> with the barons,
+<a href="#page181">181</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">confirms</span> <i>Magna Carta</i>,
+<a href="#page182">182</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">makes</span> war with the barons,
+<a href="#page184">184</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">dies,</span>
+<a href="#page185">185</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">John,</span> king of France, defeated at Poitiers,
+<a href="#page251">251</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">brought</span> to England,
+<a href="#page252">252</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is liberated,</span> but returns to England and dies,
+<a href="#page254">254</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">John</span> Ball,
+<a href="#page268">268</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Judicial</span> system of the early English,
+<a href="#page031">31</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">of Eadgar,</span>
+<a href="#page072">72</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">of William I.,</span>
+<a href="#page107">107</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">of Henry I.,</span>
+<a href="#page127">127</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">of Henry II.,</span>
+<a href="#page146">146</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Judith</span> accuses Waltheof,
+<a href="#page110">110</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Jury</span> of presentment,
+<a href="#page147">147</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Jury</span> system, the, germ of,
+<a href="#page147">147</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">completed,</span>
+<a href="#page321">321</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Justices</span> of the peace, the, origin of,
+<a href="#page277">277</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Justiciar,</span> institution of the office of,
+<a href="#page116">116</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his position</span> under Henry I.,
+<a href="#page127">127</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Jutes,</span> probably ravage Roman Britain,
+<a href="#page024">24</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">subdue Kent,</span>
+<a href="#page027">27</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">settle in</span> the Isle of Wight and the mainland opposite,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Kemp,</span> Bishop of London, becomes Lord Chancellor,
+<a href="#page309">309</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Kenilworth,</span> Earl, Simon's castle at,
+<a href="#page199">199</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Kenneth,</span> king of the Scots, receives Lothian from Eadgar,
+<a href="#page068">68</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Kenneth</span> MacAlpin unites the Scots and Picts,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Kent,</span> foundation of the Jutish kingdom of,
+<a href="#page027">27</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its inhabitants</span> driven back by the West Saxons,
+<a href="#page035">35</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Gaulish</span> traders in,
+<a href="#page038">38</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">accepts</span> Christianity,
+<a href="#page039">39</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is kept</span> by Lawrence from relapsing,
+<a href="#page041">41</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">comparative</span> weakness of, <i>ib.</i><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Kent,</span> Earl of (brother of Edward II.), execution of,
+<a href="#page231">231</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Kildare,</span> Earl of, supports the Yorkists,
+<a href="#page347">347</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">supports</span> Lambert Simnel, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is deprived</span> of the Deputyship for supporting Warbeck,
+<a href="#page350">350</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">restored</span> to the Deputyship,
+<a href="#page352">352</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Kilkenny,</span> Statute of,
+<a href="#page265">265</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="king" name="king"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">King,</span> authority of the, origin of,
+<a href="#page033">33</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">effect of</span> the enlargement of the kingdoms on,
+<a href="#page045">45</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">increased</span> importance of,
+<a href="#page069">69</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">limitations</span> imposed by <i>Magna Carta</i> on,
+<a href="#page182">182</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">proposed</span> administrative restrictions on,
+<a href="#page195">195</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">effect</span> of the revolution of 1399 upon,
+<a href="#page289">289</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">King's Bench,</span> Court of,
+<a href="#page212">212</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Knights</span> Bachelors, the, appeal to Edward,
+<a href="#page199">199</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Knights</span> of the shire first admitted to Parliament,
+<a href="#page196">196</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">later</span> elections of,
+<a href="#page200">200</a>,
+<a href="#page201">201</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">importance</span> of their conjunction with borough members,
+<a href="#page245">245</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="kymry" name="kymry"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Kymry,</span> the, origin of the name,
+<a href="#page037">37</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">share</span> in the defeat of the Scots at Degsastan,
+<a href="#page042">42</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">are defeated</span> by Æthelfrith near Chester,
+<a href="#page043">43</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">geographical</span> dismemberment of, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">in alliance</span> with Penda,
+<a href="#page046">46</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">weakness of,</span>
+<a href="#page049">49</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em"><i>see</i> <a href="#welsh">Welsh</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Labourers,</span> Statute of,
+<a href="#page248">248</a>,
+<a href="#page268">268</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lambeth,</span> ford over the Thames at,
+<a href="#page020">20</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lancaster,</span> Duke of (John of Gaunt), makes unsuccessful war in France,
+<a href="#page257">257</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">heads</span> the anti-clerical party,
+<a href="#page260">260</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">opposes</span> the Black Prince,
+<a href="#page262">262</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">reverses</span> the proceedings of the Good Parliament, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">supports</span> Wycliffe,
+<a href="#page263">263</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">takes</span> the lead at the accession of Richard II.,
+<a href="#page266">266</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">goes</span> to Spain,
+<a href="#page279">279</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marries</span> Catherine Swynford,
+<a href="#page282">282</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lancaster,</span> Earl of (Thomas), opposes Edward II.,
+<a href="#page225">225</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">execution</span> of,
+<a href="#page228">228</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lanfranc</span> trusted by William I.,
+<a href="#page088">88</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">becomes</span> Archbishop of Canterbury,
+<a href="#page106">106</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">crowns</span> William II.,
+<a href="#page114">114</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page117">117</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Langland,</span> William,
+<a href="#page259">259</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Langton,</span> Stephen, chosen Archbishop of Canterbury at Rome,
+<a href="#page177">177</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">allowed</span> by John to come to England,
+<a href="#page180">180</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">produces</span> a charter of Henry I.,
+<a href="#page181">181</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his part</span> in obtaining the Great Charter,
+<a href="#page182">182</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Latimer,</span> Lord, impeached,
+<a href="#page262">262</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lawrence,</span> Archbishop of Canterbury, keeps Kent Christian,
+<a href="#page041">41</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Layamon's</span> Brut,
+<a href="#page207">207</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Leicester,</span> Anglian settlement at,
+<a href="#page036">36</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">earldom of,</span> inherited by Simon de Montfort,
+<a href="#page193">193</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Leicester,</span> Earl of, shares the Justiciar's office with Richard de Lucy,
+<a href="#page140">140</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Le Mans,</span> sieges of,
+<a href="#page121">121</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Leo IX.,</span> Papacy of,
+<a href="#page088">88</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Leofric,</span> Earl of the Mercians,
+<a href="#page085">85</a>,
+<a href="#page090">90</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Leofwine,</span> Earl of the Mercians,
+<a href="#page084">84</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Leofwine,</span> son of Godwine, earl of the shires about the Thames,
+<a href="#page090">90</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Leopold,</span> Duke of Austria, imprisons Richard I.,
+<a href="#page161">161</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lewes,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page201">201</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lewis III.</span> (the Bavarian), Emperor, supports Edward III.,
+<a href="#page235">235</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lilla</span> gives his life for his lord,
+<a href="#page044">44</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Limoges</span> taken by the Black Prince,
+<a href="#page257">257</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lincoln</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#lindum">Lindum</a>), settlement of the Lindiswaras round,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">establishment</span> of the see of,
+<a href="#page107">107</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Stephen</span> taken prisoner at,
+<a href="#page135">135</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">cathedral</span> at,
+<a href="#page171">171</a>,
+<a href="#page207">207</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lincoln,</span> Earl of, killed at Stoke,
+<a href="#page347">347</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lindiswaras,</span> settlement of,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">possible</span> advance of,
+<a href="#page036">36</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="lindum" name="lindum"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Lindum,</span> Roman city at,
+<a href="#page020">20</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Anglian</span> settlers round,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Liveries,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#maintenance">Maintenance and Livery</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Llewelyn,</span> career of,
+<a href="#page140">140</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Loidis</span> conquered by Eadwine,
+<a href="#page043">43</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lollards,</span> the, rise of,
+<a href="#page269">269</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Oldcastle's</span> leadership of,
+<a href="#page300">300</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Londinium,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#london">London</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="london" name="london"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">London,</span> early importance of the position of,
+<a href="#page020">20</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">foundation</span> of the bishopric of,
+<a href="#page040">40</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its commercial</span> position under the kings of Essex, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">acquired</span> and fortified by Ælfred,
+<a href="#page062">62</a>,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">attacked</span> by Olaf Trygvasson and Svend,
+<a href="#page079">79</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">after the</span> Conquest,
+<a href="#page127">127</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">supports</span> Stephen,
+<a href="#page131">131</a>,
+<a href="#page134">134</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">submits</span> for a time to Matilda,
+<a href="#page135">135</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">municipal</span> organisation of,
+<a href="#page169">169</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">sends troops</span> to the battle of Lewes,
+<a href="#page201">201</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Wat Tyler</span> in,
+<a href="#page269">269</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Jack Cade</span> in,
+<a href="#page323">323</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Edward IV.</span> in,
+<a href="#page328">328</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">London</span> Bridge, building of,
+<a href="#page272">272</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Long bow,</span> the, <i>see</i> <a href="#archers">Archers</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Longchamps,</span> William of, appointed a justiciar in the absence of Richard I.,
+<a href="#page159">159</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is banished,</span>
+<a href="#page161">161</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="lord" name="lord"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Lord,</span> devotion of Gesiths to their,
+<a href="#page030">30</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is expected</span> to marry, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">growth of</span> his jurisdiction,
+<a href="#page072">72</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lords,</span> House of, names the Duke of York Protector,
+<a href="#page324">324</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">decides</span> on his claim to the crown,
+<a href="#page329">329</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lose-coat</span> Field,
+<a href="#page332">332</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lothian,</span> cession of, to Scotland,
+<a href="#page068">68</a>,
+<a href="#page084">84</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Louis VI.,</span> king of France, makes war with Henry I.,
+<a href="#page129">129</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Louis VII.,</span> king of France, divorces Eleanor of Aquitaine,
+<a href="#page137">137</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">supports</span> young Henry's rebellion,
+<a href="#page153">153</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">takes part</span> in the second Crusade,
+<a href="#page157">157</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Louis</span> (afterwards Louis VIII., king of France) opposes John,
+<a href="#page184">184</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">expelled</span> from England,
+<a href="#page185">185</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Louis IX.,</span> Saint, king of France, surrenders territory to Henry III.,
+<a href="#page200">200</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">mediates</span> between Henry III. and the barons, <i>ib.</i><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Louis X.,</span> king of France, succeeded by his brother,
+<a href="#page232">232</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Louis XI.,</span> king of France, succeeds his father,
+<a href="#page332">332</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">buys off</span> Edward IV.,
+<a href="#page336">336</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Louis XII.,</span> king of France, invades Italy,
+<a href="#page354">354</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lovel, Lord,</span> insurrection of,
+<a href="#page345">345</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">supports</span> Simnel, and is defeated at Stoke,
+<a href="#page346">346</a>,
+<a href="#page347">347</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lucy,</span> Richard de, joint justiciar with the Earl of Leicester,
+<a href="#page140">140</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">makes head</span> against young Henry's rebellion,
+<a href="#page153">153</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ludlow,</span> break-up of the Yorkists at,
+<a href="#page326">326</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lynn supports</span> Stephen,
+<a href="#page134">134</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Lyons, Richard,</span> impeached,
+<a href="#page262">262</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Mad Parliament,</span> the,
+<a href="#page198">198</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em"><i>Magna Carta</i>,</span>
+<a href="#page182">182</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">partially</span> renewed at the accession of Henry III.,
+<a href="#page185">185</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">attitude</span> of Edward I. to,
+<a href="#page288">288</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Magnus,</span> king of Norway,
+<a href="#page085">85</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Maiden Castle,</span>
+<a href="#page004">4</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Maine</span> conquered by William I.,
+<a href="#page091">91</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">failures</span> of William II. in,
+<a href="#page121">121</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">conquered</span> by Philip II.,
+<a href="#page176">176</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">surrendered</span> to René by Henry VI.,
+<a href="#page317">317</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">the English</span> driven out of,
+<a href="#page319">319</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="maintenance" name="maintenance"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Maintenance</span> and livery, Statute against,
+<a href="#page281">281</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">increase</span> of,
+<a href="#page321">321</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">measures</span> of Henry VII. against,
+<a href="#page345">345</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Malcolm,</span> king of the Scots, his alliance with Eadmund,
+<a href="#page064">64</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Malcolm III.,</span> Canmore, ravages England,
+<a href="#page103">103</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">submits</span> to William I.,
+<a href="#page104">104</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page119">119</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Malcolm IV.</span> loses North-humberland and Cumberland,
+<a href="#page140">140</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Man, Isle of,</span> subdued by Eadwine,
+<a href="#page043">43</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Manfred,</span> king of Sicily and Naples,
+<a href="#page195">195</a>,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Manor courts,</span>
+<a href="#page141">141</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Mantes</span> burnt by William I.,
+<a href="#page114">114</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Manx,</span> a Goidelic language,
+<a href="#page007">7</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="march" name="march"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">March,</span> Earl of, <i>see</i> <a href="#edward4">Edward IV.</a><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">March,</span> Edmund Mortimer, Earl of, his claim to the crown,
+<a href="#page287">287</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">imprisoned</span> by Henry IV.,
+<a href="#page291">291</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">freed by</span> Henry V.,
+<a href="#page299">299</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">March,</span> Roger, Earl of, grandson of the Duke of Clarence, named heir by Richard II.,
+<a href="#page287">287</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Margaret,</span> daughter of Henry VII., married to James IV.,
+<a href="#page356">356</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Margaret</span> of Anjou marries Henry VI.,
+<a href="#page317">317</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">gives birth</span> to a son,
+<a href="#page323">323</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">puts herself</span> at the head of the Northern forces,
+<a href="#page326">326</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeats the</span> Duke of York at Wakefield, and Warwick at the second battle of St. Albans,
+<a href="#page328">328</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is defeated</span> at Towton,
+<a href="#page329">329</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is defeated</span> at Hedgeley Moor and Hexham,
+<a href="#page331">331</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">reconciled</span> to Warwick,
+<a href="#page333">333</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeated</span> at Tewkesbury,
+<a href="#page334">334</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Margaret,</span> sister of Edward IV., married to Charles the Rash,
+<a href="#page332">332</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">protects</span> Lord Lovel,
+<a href="#page346">346</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Margaret,</span> the Lady,
+<a href="#page334">334</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Margaret,</span> the Maid of Norway,
+<a href="#page214">214</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Margaret,</span> first wife of Malcolm Canmore,
+<a href="#page119">119</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Marlborough,</span> Statute of,
+<a href="#page204">204</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Marriages</span> of heiresses arranged by the lord,
+<a href="#page117">117</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Marshal,</span> Richard the,
+<a href="#page188">188</a>,
+<a href="#page189">189</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Marshal,</span> William, the, guardian of Henry III.,
+<a href="#page185">185</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Martin,</span> Master, his exactions,
+<a href="#page195">195</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Mary,</span> heiress of Burgundy,
+<a href="#page336">336</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marries</span> the Archduke Maximilian, and dies,
+<a href="#page337">337</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Maserfield,</span> Oswald slain at,
+<a href="#page048">48</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Massalia,</span> tin-trade of,
+<a href="#page008">8</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Matilda,</span> daughter of Henry I., married to the Emperor Henry V., and to Geoffrey of Anjou,
+<a href="#page131">131</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">claims</span> the crown,
+<a href="#page134">134</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">fails to</span> maintain her claim,
+<a href="#page135">135</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Matilda,</span> wife of Henry I., <i>see</i> <a href="#eadgyth">Eadgyth</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Maximilian I.,</span> Emperor, as Archduke, marries Mary of Burgundy,
+<a href="#page337">337</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marries</span> Anne of Brittany by proxy,
+<a href="#page348">348</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Maximus</span> leads an army out of Britain,
+<a href="#page025">25</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Meaux</span> besieged by Henry V.,
+<a href="#page306">306</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Mercenaries</span> employed on the Continent by Henry II.,
+<a href="#page142">142</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">temporarily</span> brought to England,
+<a href="#page153">153</a>,
+<a href="#page155">155</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">employed by</span> John,
+<a href="#page182">182</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Merchant</span> Adventurers, the,
+<a href="#page356">356</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Merchant</span> Gild, the,
+<a href="#page169">169</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="mercia" name="mercia"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Mercia,</span> first settlement of,
+<a href="#page036">36</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">comparative</span> smallness of,
+<a href="#page041">41</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">unites with</span> other districts under Penda,
+<a href="#page046">46</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">accepts Christianity,</span> and rejects the supremacy of North-humberland,
+<a href="#page048">48</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its relations</span> with Ecgberht,
+<a href="#page055">55</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its relations</span> with Ælfred,
+<a href="#page060">60</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">under Leofwine,</span>
+<a href="#page084">84</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">under Leofric,</span>
+<a href="#page085">85</a>,
+<a href="#page087">87</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">under Ælfgar</span> and Eadwine,
+<a href="#page090">90</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Mercians, the,</span> distinguished from the Middle English,
+<a href="#page036">36</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Merciless</span> Parliament, the,
+<a href="#page280">280</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Merton College,</span> foundation of,
+<a href="#page207">207</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Middle English,</span> the, first settlements of,
+<a href="#page036">36</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Middle Saxons</span> a branch of the East Saxons,
+<a href="#page035">35</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Middlesex,</span> Saxon settlement in,
+<a href="#page035">35</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ministerial</span> responsibility, proposal to establish,
+<a href="#page195">195</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Mirebeau,</span> Eleanor besieged in,
+<a href="#page174">174</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Mise of Amiens,</span> the,
+<a href="#page200">200</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Mohammedanism,</span> origin and spread of,
+<a href="#page054">54</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Molynes, Lord,</span> ill-treats John Paston,
+<a href="#page321">321</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="mona" name="mona"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Mona (Anglesey)</span> conquered by Suetonius,
+<a href="#page014">14</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Monasticism,</span> character of early,
+<a href="#page039">39</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">converts</span> made in England by,
+<a href="#page040">40</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">character</span> of Irish,
+<a href="#page047">47</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Benedictine,</span>
+<a href="#page128">128</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Monks</span> contrasted with Friars,
+<a href="#page191">191</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Montague,</span> Lord, made Earl of North-humberland,
+<a href="#page331">331</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is deprived</span> of the earldom,
+<a href="#page333">333</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">turns against</span> Edward IV., and is killed at Barnet,
+<a href="#page332">332</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Montfort,</span> de, <i>see</i> <a href="#simonmontfort">Simon de Montfort</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Morkere,</span> becomes Earl of North-humberland,
+<a href="#page090">90</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is present</span> at Eadgar's election,
+<a href="#page098">98</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">submits to</span> William,
+<a href="#page102">102</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is banished,</span>
+<a href="#page103">103</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Mortimer,</span> Edmund, <i>see</i> <a href="#march">March</a>, Earl of.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Mortimer,</span> Roger, paramour of Queen Isabella,
+<a href="#page229">229</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">governs in</span> the name of Edward III.,
+<a href="#page231">231</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is hanged,</span>
+<a href="#page232">232</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Mortimer,</span> Sir Edmund, imprisoned by Glendower,
+<a href="#page293">293</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Mortimer's</span> Cross, battle of,
+<a href="#page328">328</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Mortmain,</span> Statute of,
+<a href="#page212">212</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Morton,</span> Thomas, Bishop of Ely, afterwards Cardinal and Archbishop of Canterbury, gives advice to Buckingham,
+<a href="#page341">341</a>,
+<a href="#page342">342</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his 'fork,'</span>
+<a href="#page349">349</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="mountbadon" name="mountbadon"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Mount Badon,</span> British victory at,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Mowbray,</span> Robert of, rebellion of,
+<a href="#page120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Navarrete,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page255">255</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Navy,</span> Ælfred's,
+<a href="#page060">60</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Neolithic</span> man,
+<a href="#page003">3</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Nevill,</span> influence of the family of,
+<a href="#page324">324</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Nevill,</span> George, Archbishop of York, deprived of the Chancellorship,
+<a href="#page332">332</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Nevill's</span> Cross, battle of,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Newark,</span> death of John at,
+<a href="#page185">185</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Newcastle-on-Tyne,</span> foundation of,
+<a href="#page120">120</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">New Forest,</span> the, making of,
+<a href="#page110">110</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death</span> of William II. in,
+<a href="#page122">122</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Nigel,</span> Bishop of Ely, Treasurer of Henry I., Stephen's attack on,
+<a href="#page134">134</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is reappointed</span> Treasurer,
+<a href="#page140">140</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Norfolk,</span> origin of the name of,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Norfolk,</span> Duke of, banished by Richard II.,
+<a href="#page283">283</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Norfolk,</span> Earl of, <i>see</i> <a href="#bigod">Bigod</a>, Roger.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Norham,</span> award of the crown of Scotland at,
+<a href="#page216">216</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Norman</span> Conquest, the,
+<a href="#page096">96</a>-103.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Normandy,</span> early dukes of,
+<a href="#page080">80</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">institutions</span> of,
+<a href="#page081">81</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its condition</span> under Robert,
+<a href="#page118">118</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">pledged to</span> William II.,
+<a href="#page121">121</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">recovered</span> by Robert,
+<a href="#page124">124</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">conquered</span> by Henry I.,
+<a href="#page125">125</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">conquered</span> by Geoffrey,
+<a href="#page136">136</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Henry,</span> Duke of,
+<a href="#page137">137</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">conquered</span> by Philip II.,
+<a href="#page174">174</a>,
+<a href="#page176">176</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">invaded</span> by Edward III.,
+<a href="#page240">240</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">conquered</span> by Henry V.,
+<a href="#page303">303</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">reconquered</span> by the French,
+<a href="#page320">320</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Normans</span> favoured by Eadward,
+<a href="#page087">87</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">their style</span> of architecture,
+<a href="#page089">89</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Northampton,</span> Archbishop Thomas called to account at,
+<a href="#page145">145</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">battle of,</span>
+<a href="#page326">326</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="northhumberland" name="northhumberland"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">North-humberland,</span> component parts of,
+<a href="#page036">36</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">united</span> by Æthelric,
+<a href="#page041">41</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">divided</span> by Penda, and re-united under Oswald,
+<a href="#page047">47</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is again</span> divided, but re-united under Oswiu,
+<a href="#page048">48</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its relations</span> with Ecgberht,
+<a href="#page055">55</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">overrun</span> by the Danes,
+<a href="#page058">58</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Danish</span> kingdom in,
+<a href="#page062">62</a>,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is amalgamated</span> with England,
+<a href="#page064">64</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its condition</span> under Cnut,
+<a href="#page084">84</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">under Siward,</span>
+<a href="#page084">84</a>,
+<a href="#page087">87</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Northmen,</span> their attacks on England,
+<a href="#page056">56</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">religion of,</span>
+<a href="#page057">57</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em"><i>see</i> <a href="#danes">Danes</a>.</span><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Northumberland</span> invaded by Malcolm Canmore,
+<a href="#page119">119</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">given to</span> Henry, son of David I.
+<a href="#page133">133</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">recovered</span> by Henry II.,
+<a href="#page140">140</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Northumberland,</span> the Earl of, assists Henry IV.,
+<a href="#page284">284</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">quarrels</span> with Henry IV.,
+<a href="#page293">293</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">imprisoned</span> and pardoned,
+<a href="#page294">294</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeated</span> and slain,
+<a href="#page296">296</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Norwich,</span> establishment of the see of,
+<a href="#page107">107</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Nottingham,</span> Anglian settlement at,
+<a href="#page056">56</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">seizure</span> of Mortimer at,
+<a href="#page232">232</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Nottingham,</span> Earl of, opposes Richard II.,
+<a href="#page279">279</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is made</span> Duke of Norfolk and banished,
+<a href="#page283">283</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Oda, Archbishop,</span> advocates the celibacy of the clergy,
+<a href="#page065">65</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">separates</span> Eadwig and Ælfgifu,
+<a href="#page067">67</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Odo oppresses</span> the English,
+<a href="#page102">102</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is banished</span> by William II.,
+<a href="#page115">115</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Offa, king</span> of the Mercians, defeats the West Saxons at Bensington,
+<a href="#page053">53</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his dyke,</span>
+<a href="#page054">54</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Olaf</span> Trygvasson,
+<a href="#page079">79</a>,
+<a href="#page080">80</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Oldcastle,</span> Sir John, burnt as a Lollard,
+<a href="#page300">300</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Old Sarum,</span> earthworks of Sorbiodunum at,
+<a href="#page034">34</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ordainers,</span> the Lords,
+<a href="#page226">226</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ordeal,</span> system of,
+<a href="#page032">32</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">continued</span> by Henry II.,
+<a href="#page146">146</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ordovices,</span> the, resist the Romans,
+<a href="#page014">14</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Orleans,</span> siege of,
+<a href="#page309">309</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Orleans,</span> Duke of, Charles, captured at Agincourt,
+<a href="#page303">303</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">ransomed,</span>
+<a href="#page315">315</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Orleans,</span> Duke of, Louis, makes an alliance with Glendower,
+<a href="#page295">295</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">murdered,</span>
+<a href="#page296">296</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ormond,</span> Earl of, supports the Lancastrians,
+<a href="#page346">346</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Osric</span> governs Deira,
+<a href="#page048">48</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ostorius</span> Scapula arrives in Britain,
+<a href="#page013">13</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">conquests of,</span>
+<a href="#page014">14</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Oswald,</span> bishop of Worcester,
+<a href="#page068">68</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Oswald,</span> King of North-humberland, his greatness and piety,
+<a href="#page047">47</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is slain</span> at Maserfield,
+<a href="#page048">48</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Oswini,</span> his relations with Aidan,
+<a href="#page048">48</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is murdered,</span> <i>ib.</i><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Oswiu</span> unites North-humberland,
+<a href="#page048">48</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeats</span> Penda, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">decides</span> for Wilfrid against Colman,
+<a href="#page050">50</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Otho,</span> Cardinal, legate of Gregory IX.,
+<a href="#page194">194</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Otto I.,</span> Emperor,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Otto IV.,</span> Emperor, supports John,
+<a href="#page179">179</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeated</span> at Bouvines,
+<a href="#page181">181</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Over-lordship,</span> character of,
+<a href="#page038">38</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="oxford" name="oxford"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Oxford,</span> growth of the University of,
+<a href="#page167">167</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">the so-called</span> Mad Parliament meets at,
+<a href="#page198">198</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">thronged</span> with scholars,
+<a href="#page207">207</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Oxford,</span> Earl of (Robert de Vere), made Duke of Ireland,
+<a href="#page298">298</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em"><i>see</i> <a href="#ireland">Ireland</a>,</span> Duke of.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Palæolithic</span> man, 1.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Pandulf</span> receives John's submission,
+<a href="#page180">180</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Papacy,</span> influence of, in the time of Gregory I.,
+<a href="#page039">39</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">strength of,</span> in the eleventh century,
+<a href="#page088">88</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its position</span> in the time of Gregory VII.,
+<a href="#page107">107</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">in the time</span> of Innocent III.,
+<a href="#page178">178</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Babylonian</span> captivity of,
+<a href="#page257">257</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">England</span> relieved of tribute to,
+<a href="#page258">258</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">great schism</span> of,
+<a href="#page266">266</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Paris,</span> the capital of Hugh Capet's duchy,
+<a href="#page080">80</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">rising</span> against the Armagnacs in,
+<a href="#page304">304</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Henry VI.</span> crowned at,
+<a href="#page312">312</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">lost to</span> the English,
+<a href="#page313">313</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="parliament" name="parliament"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Parliament</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#greatcouncil">Great Council</a>, the), germ of representation in,
+<a href="#page180">180</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">first use</span> of the name of,
+<a href="#page195">195</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">scheme of</span> administrative reform proposed in, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">knights</span> of the shire elected to,
+<a href="#page196">196</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">relations</span> between the clergy and the barons,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">insists</span> on the Provisions of Oxford,
+<a href="#page197">197</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">representatives</span> of towns admitted by Earl Simon to,
+<a href="#page201">201</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">growth of,</span> under Edward I.,
+<a href="#page210">210</a>,
+<a href="#page218">218</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Scottish</span> representatives in,
+<a href="#page222">222</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">acknowledgment</span> of the legislative power of the Commons in,
+<a href="#page228">228</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">finally</span> separated into two Houses,
+<a href="#page244">244</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">opposition</span> to the clergy in,
+<a href="#page259">259</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Richard II.</span> invites complaints in,
+<a href="#page280">280</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Paston,</span> John, attacked by Lord Molynes,
+<a href="#page321">321</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">domestic</span> life of,
+<a href="#page330">330</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Patay,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page311">311</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Patrick,</span> St., introduces Christianity into Ireland,
+<a href="#page047">47</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Paulinus</span> effects conversions in Deira,
+<a href="#page046">46</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Peasants'</span> Revolt, the,
+<a href="#page268">268</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Pedro</span> the Cruel,
+<a href="#page255">255</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Pembroke,</span> Earl of, <i>see</i> <a href="#williammarshal">William the Marshal</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Penda</span> defeats Eadwine at Heathfield,
+<a href="#page046">46</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">splits up</span> North-humberland,
+<a href="#page047">47</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is defeated</span> and slain,
+<a href="#page048">48</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Penitential</span> system, the, introduced by Theodore,
+<a href="#page050">50</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Percies,</span> the, territorial influence of,
+<a href="#page293">293</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Percy,</span> Henry (Hotspur),
+<a href="#page293">293</a>,
+<a href="#page294">294</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Perpendicular</span> style, the,
+<a href="#page247">247</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Perrers,</span> Alice,
+<a href="#page260">260</a>,
+<a href="#page262">262</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Peter</span> des Roches influences Henry III.,
+<a href="#page188">188</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is dismissed,</span>
+<a href="#page189">189</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Peter</span> the Hermit,
+<a href="#page120">120</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Pevensey,</span> landing of William at,
+<a href="#page096">96</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Philip I.,</span> king of France, makes war with William I.,
+<a href="#page114">114</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Philip II.,</span> king of France, stirs up enmity between Henry II. and his sons,
+<a href="#page156">156</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">quarrels</span> with Richard I.,
+<a href="#page161">161</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">stirs up</span> John against Richard,
+<a href="#page162">162</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">supports</span> Arthur against John,
+<a href="#page174">174</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">wins Normandy</span> and Anjou from John,
+<a href="#page176">175</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">prepares</span> an invasion of England,
+<a href="#page179">179</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">wins a</span> victory at Bouvines,
+<a href="#page181">181</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Philip IV.,</span> king of France, his relations with Edward I. and with Scotland,
+<a href="#page218">218</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Philip V.,</span> king of France, succeeds in virtue of the so-called Salic law,
+<a href="#page232">232</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Philip VI.,</span> king of France, succeeds in virtue of the so-called Salic law, and receives the homage of Edward III.,
+<a href="#page232">232</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">protects</span> David Bruce,
+<a href="#page234">234</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeats</span> the Flemings at Cassel,
+<a href="#page235">235</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">avoids</span> fighting the English,
+<a href="#page239">239</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is defeated</span> at Creçy,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page251">251</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Philip,</span> the Archduke, birth of,
+<a href="#page337">337</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marries</span> Juana,
+<a href="#page352">352</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">dies,</span>
+<a href="#page358">358</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Philippa</span> of Hainault marries Edward III.,
+<a href="#page231">231</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">begs the</span> lives of the burgesses of Calais,
+<a href="#page243">243</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ph&oelig;nicians,</span> the, supposed visits to Britain of,
+<a href="#page007">7</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Picts,</span> the, ravages of,
+<a href="#page023">23</a>,
+<a href="#page026">26</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">unite</span> with the Scots,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em"><i>Piers the Plowman</i>,</span>
+<a href="#page259">259</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Pippin</span> becomes king of the Franks,
+<a href="#page054">54</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Plautius,</span> Aulus, subdues south east Britain,
+<a href="#page013">13</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Poitevins,</span> favour of Henry III. to,
+<a href="#page187">187</a>,
+<a href="#page194">194</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Poitiers,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page251">251</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Poitou,</span> John's attack on the barons of,
+<a href="#page174">174</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">submission</span> to Philip II. of part of,
+<a href="#page176">176</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">John attempts</span> to recover,
+<a href="#page180">180</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Henry III.</span> surrenders,
+<a href="#page194">194</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Poll-taxes,</span>
+<a href="#page267">267</a>,
+<a href="#page268">268</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Poor priests</span> sent out by Wycliffe,
+<a href="#page268">268</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Posidonius</span> visits Britain,
+<a href="#page008">8</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Poynings'</span> Acts,
+<a href="#page350">350</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Præmunire,</span> Statute of,
+<a href="#page258">258</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">re-enacted,</span>
+<a href="#page282">282</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Printing</span> press, the,
+<a href="#page358">358</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Prisons,</span> condition of,
+<a href="#page275">275</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Provençals</span> favoured by Henry III.,
+<a href="#page192">192</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Provisions</span> of Oxford, the,
+<a href="#page198">198</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Provisors,</span> Statute of,
+<a href="#page258">258</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">re-enacted,</span>
+<a href="#page282">282</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Puiset,</span> Hugh de, appointed a justiciar in the absence of Richard I.,
+<a href="#page159">159</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Punishments,</span> early English,
+<a href="#page032">32</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">mediæval,</span>
+<a href="#page275">275</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Purveyors,</span>
+<a href="#page274">274</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Pytheas</span> opens a trade-route to Britain,
+<a href="#page008">8</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <i>Quia emptores</i>, Statute of,
+<a href="#page212">212</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Radcot Bridge,</span> the Duke of Ireland defeated at,
+<a href="#page280">280</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Rædwald,</span> king of East Anglia,
+<a href="#page041">41</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Eadwine</span> takes refuge with,
+<a href="#page043">43</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ralph</span> de Diceto,
+<a href="#page167">167</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ralph</span> of Wader takes part in the Rising of the Earls,
+<a href="#page110">110</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ranulph</span> Flambard, <i>see</i> <a href="#flambard">Flambard</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Recognitions,</span>
+<a href="#page147">147</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Reginald</span> elected Archbishop of Canterbury by the monks,
+<a href="#page177">177</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Regni,</span> the, join Aulus Plautius,
+<a href="#page013">13</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Regular</span> clergy, the,
+<a href="#page065">65</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Rent,</span> land let for,
+<a href="#page321">321</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Representative</span> institutions, <i>see</i> <a href="#parliament">Parliament</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Retainers</span> substituted for vassals,
+<a href="#page281">281</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">increase</span> of the number of,
+<a href="#page321">321</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Rich,</span> Edmund, Archbishop of Canterbury,
+<a href="#page189">189</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Richard I.,</span> as Duke of Aquitaine,
+<a href="#page155">155</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">takes</span> the cross,
+<a href="#page157">157</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">becomes</span> King of England,
+<a href="#page159">159</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">sells</span> the homage of Scotland, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his Crusade</span> and imprisonment,
+<a href="#page161">161</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is liberated,</span>
+<a href="#page162">162</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his short</span> visit to England, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page165">165</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Richard II.,</span> proposal to set aside,
+<a href="#page261">261</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his minority,</span>
+<a href="#page266">266</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">meets</span> the insurgents,
+<a href="#page268">268</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">offers</span> to head them,
+<a href="#page269">269</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marries</span> Anne of Bohemia,
+<a href="#page278">278</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his favouritism,</span> <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">superseded</span> in his authority by a Commission of Regency,
+<a href="#page279">279</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">regains</span> power and governs constitutionally,
+<a href="#page280">280</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">makes</span> an alliance with France, and marries Isabella,
+<a href="#page282">282</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">makes</span> himself absolute, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">banishes</span> Norfolk and Hereford,
+<a href="#page283">283</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">goes</span> to Ireland,
+<a href="#page284">284</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">forced</span> to abdicate,
+<a href="#page285">285</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">murdered,</span>
+<a href="#page291">291</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">alleged</span> reappearance of,
+<a href="#page293">293</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">buried</span> at Westminster,
+<a href="#page299">299</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="richard3" name="richard3"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Richard III.</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#dukegloucester">Duke of Gloucester</a>) is created a duke,
+<a href="#page329">329</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">character</span> of,
+<a href="#page337">337</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">becomes</span> Protector,
+<a href="#page338">338</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">has Hastings</span> executed,
+<a href="#page340">340</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is crowned</span> king,
+<a href="#page341">341</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his government,</span>
+<a href="#page342">342</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeated</span> and slain,
+<a href="#page343">343</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Richard,</span> Earl of Cornwall, leads the barons against Henry III.,
+<a href="#page192">192</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">deserts</span> the barons,
+<a href="#page195">195</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">takes part</span> in summoning knights of the shire to Parliament,
+<a href="#page196">196</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is chosen</span> king of the Romans,
+<a href="#page198">198</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">hides himself</span> after the battle of Lewes,
+<a href="#page201">201</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Richard</span> Fitz-Nigel writes the <i>Dialogus de Scaccario</i>,
+<a href="#page167">167</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Richard</span> the Fearless, Duke of the Normans,
+<a href="#page080">80</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Richard</span> the Good, Duke of the Normans,
+<a href="#page081">81</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Richmond,</span> Earl of, <i>see</i> <a href="#henry7">Henry VII.</a><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Riding</span> on horseback,
+<a href="#page273">273</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Ripon,</span> architecture of the choir of,
+<a href="#page171">171</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Rising</span> of the Earls, the,
+<a href="#page110">110</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Rivers,</span> Earl, becomes Lord Constable,
+<a href="#page331">331</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">imprisoned,</span>
+<a href="#page338">338</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">executed,</span>
+<a href="#page340">340</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Roads,</span> making and repair of,
+<a href="#page272">272</a>,
+<a href="#page273">273</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="robert1" name="robert1"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Robert I.</span> (Bruce), king of Scotland, allied with Edward I.,
+<a href="#page223">223</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">slays Comyn,</span> and is crowned King of Scotland,
+<a href="#page224">224</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeats</span> Edward II. at Bannockburn,
+<a href="#page226">226</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">leprosy of,</span>
+<a href="#page231">231</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page232">232</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Robert II.,</span> king of Scotland,
+<a href="#page295">295</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Robert III.,</span> king of Scotland,
+<a href="#page295">295</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="robertg" name="robertg"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Robert,</span> Earl of Gloucester, his power in the West of England,
+<a href="#page133">133</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">declares</span> for Matilda,
+<a href="#page134">134</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">taken</span> prisoner, and exchanged for Stephen,
+<a href="#page135">135</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span> <i>ib.</i><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Robert,</span> Duke of the Normans (father of William the Conqueror),
+<a href="#page088">88</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Robert,</span> Duke of the Normans (son of William the Conqueror), incapacity of,
+<a href="#page114">114</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">rebellion</span> in England in favour of,
+<a href="#page115">115</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">goes on</span> the first Crusade,
+<a href="#page121">121</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">fails to</span> overthrow Henry I.,
+<a href="#page124">124</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeat,</span> imprisonment, and death of,
+<a href="#page125">125</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="robertbelleme" name="robertbelleme"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Robert</span> of Bellême, cruelty of,
+<a href="#page119">119</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">becomes Earl</span> of Shrewsbury,
+<a href="#page121">121</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">expelled</span> by Henry I.,
+<a href="#page124">124</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">imprisonment</span> of,
+<a href="#page125">125</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Robert</span> of Jumièges, Archbishop of Canterbury,
+<a href="#page087">87</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Robin Hood,</span> legend of,
+<a href="#page275">275</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Rochester,</span> foundation of the bishopric of,
+<a href="#page040">40</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Odo besieged</span> in,
+<a href="#page115">115</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Rockingham,</span> Council at,
+<a href="#page118">118</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Roger,</span> Archbishop of York, crowns the young Henry,
+<a href="#page149">149</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Roger,</span> Bishop of Salisbury, Minister of Henry I.,
+<a href="#page126">126</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">quarrels</span> with Stephen,
+<a href="#page134">134</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Roger,</span> Earl of Hereford, takes part in the Rising of the Earls,
+<a href="#page110">110</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Roger</span> of Hoveden,
+<a href="#page167">167</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Roger,</span> son of Roger of Salisbury,
+<a href="#page134">134</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Roman Empire,</span> the establishment of,
+<a href="#page012">12</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">continuance</span> of, in the East after its destruction in the West,
+<a href="#page027">27</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Romans,</span> the, invasion of Gaul by,
+<a href="#page010">10</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">invasion</span> of Britain by,
+<a href="#page011">11</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">commencement</span> of the conquest of Britain by,
+<a href="#page012">12</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">massacre of,</span>
+<a href="#page015">15</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">complete</span> conquest of the greater part of Britain by,
+<a href="#page017">17</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">civilisation</span> introduced into Britain by,
+<a href="#page021">21</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">end of their</span> rule in Britain,
+<a href="#page026">26</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">persistency</span> of their civilisation in Gaul,
+<a href="#page037">37</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Romney Marsh</span> divides Jutes from South Saxons,
+<a href="#page027">27</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Roosebeke,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page278">278</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Roses,</span> Wars of the, <i>see</i> <a href="#warsroses">Wars of the Roses</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Rothesay,</span> Duke of, death of,
+<a href="#page295">295</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Rouen</span> occupied by Hrolf,
+<a href="#page080">80</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">surrenders</span> to Henry V.,
+<a href="#page304">304</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">retaken</span> by the French,
+<a href="#page320">320</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Rutland,</span> Earl of (son of the Duke of York), accompanies his father to Ireland,
+<a href="#page326">326</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">murdered,</span>
+<a href="#page328">328</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">St. Albans</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#verulam">Verulam</a>), architecture of the nave of the abbey of,
+<a href="#page171">171</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">meeting</span> of a national jury at,
+<a href="#page180">180</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">the first</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page324">324</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">the second</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page328">328</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">St. John,</span> Knights of,
+<a href="#page157">157</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">St. Michael's</span> Mount, Henry besieged at,
+<a href="#page119">119</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Saladin</span> takes Jerusalem,
+<a href="#page157">157</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Saladin</span> tithe, the,
+<a href="#page157">157</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Salic law,</span> the so-called,
+<a href="#page232">232</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Salisbury,</span> great Gemot at,
+<a href="#page113">113</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">cathedral</span> at,
+<a href="#page207">207</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Salisbury,</span> Richard, Earl of, his connection with the Duke of York,
+<a href="#page324">324</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">takes part</span> in the battles of Blore Heath and Northampton,
+<a href="#page326">326</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">beheaded,</span>
+<a href="#page328">328</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Sarum,</span> Old,
+<a href="#page034">34</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Savoy,</span> the, burnt,
+<a href="#page269">269</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Saxon</span> shore, the defence of,
+<a href="#page025">25</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">over run</span> by the Jutes,
+<a href="#page027">27</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Saxons,</span> the (<i>see</i> <a href="#eastsaxons">East Saxons</a>, <a href="#southsaxons">South Saxons</a>, <a href="#westsaxons">West Saxons</a>), ravage Roman Britain,
+<a href="#page024">24</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">settle</span> in Britain,
+<a href="#page027">27</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">merge</span> their name in that of English,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">are known</span> by the Celts as Saxons,
+<a href="#page029">29</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Sawtre,</span> William, burnt as a heretic,
+<a href="#page292">292</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Say, Lord,</span> beheaded by Jack Cade,
+<a href="#page323">323</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Schwartz,</span> Martin, defeated at Stoke,
+<a href="#page347">347</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="scotland" name="scotland"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Scotland,</span> kingdom of, formed by a union of Scots and Picts,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its relations</span> with England under Eadmund,
+<a href="#page064">64</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its relations</span> with Cnut,
+<a href="#page084">84</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">with William I.,</span>
+<a href="#page104">104</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">with William II.,</span>
+<a href="#page119">119</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">with Stephen,</span>
+<a href="#page133">133</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">with Henry II.,</span>
+<a href="#page154">154</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">with Richard I.,</span>
+<a href="#page159">159</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">disputed</span> succession in,
+<a href="#page214">214</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Edward I.</span> acknowledged Lord Paramount of,
+<a href="#page216">216</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its league</span> with France,
+<a href="#page218">218</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">twice</span> conquered by Edward I.,
+<a href="#page219">219</a>,
+<a href="#page221">221</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">incorporated</span> with England,
+<a href="#page222">222</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">conquered</span> a third time by Edward I.,
+<a href="#page224">224</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">independence</span> of,
+<a href="#page226">226</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">first war</span> of Edward III. with,
+<a href="#page231">231</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">struggle</span> between Edward Balliol and David Bruce in,
+<a href="#page232">232</a>,
+<a href="#page234">234</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">accession</span> of the Stuarts to the throne of,
+<a href="#page295">295</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">assists</span> France in its wars with England,
+<a href="#page307">307</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Scots,</span> the ravages of,
+<a href="#page023">23</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">abode of,</span> in Ireland,
+<a href="#page023">23</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">renewed</span> ravages of,
+<a href="#page026">26</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">settle</span> in Argyle, and are defeated at Degsastan,
+<a href="#page042">42</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">their</span> relations with Eadward the Elder,
+<a href="#page063">63</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em"><i>see</i> <a href="#scotland">Scotland</a>.</span><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Scrope,</span> Archbishop of York, executed,
+<a href="#page296">296</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Scrope,</span> Lord, execution of,
+<a href="#page301">301</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Scutage,</span>
+<a href="#page141">141</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Secular</span> clergy, the,
+<a href="#page067">67</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Selsey,</span> landing of the South Saxons near,
+<a href="#page027">27</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="senlac" name="senlac"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Senlac,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page096">96</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Serfs,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#villeins">Villeins</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Severn,</span> West Saxon conquest of the Valley of,
+<a href="#page035">35</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Severus</span> fails in conquering the Caledonians,
+<a href="#page019">19</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Sheriffs,</span> their position in Eadgar's reign,
+<a href="#page073">73</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">weakened</span> by Henry II.,
+<a href="#page148">148</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Shires,</span> origin of,
+<a href="#page073">73</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Shire-moot,</span> the,
+<a href="#page073">73</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em"><i>see</i> <a href="#countycourts">County Courts</a>.</span><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Shore,</span> Jane, penance of,
+<a href="#page340">340</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Shrewsbury,</span> Earl of, <i>see</i> <a href="#talbot">Talbot</a>, Lord.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Shrewsbury,</span> Parliament of,
+<a href="#page283">283</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">battle of,</span>
+<a href="#page294">294</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Silchester,</span> Roman church at,
+<a href="#page023">23</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Simnel,</span> Lambert, insurrection in favour of,
+<a href="#page347">347</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="simonmontfort" name="simonmontfort"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Simon de Montfort,</span> early career of,
+<a href="#page193">193</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">takes</span> the side of the barons,
+<a href="#page195">195</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">employed</span> in Gascony,
+<a href="#page196">196</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">executes</span> the Provisions of Oxford,
+<a href="#page199">199</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">heads</span> the baronial party,
+<a href="#page200">200</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">wins</span> the battle of Lewes,
+<a href="#page201">201</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">constitutional</span> scheme of, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">killed</span> at Evesham,
+<a href="#page203">203</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">compared</span> with Archbishop Thomas,
+<a href="#page204">204</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Siward,</span> Earl of North-humberland,
+<a href="#page084">84</a>,
+<a href="#page087">87</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Slaves</span> preserved alive at the English conquest,
+<a href="#page030">30</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Sluys,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page239">239</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Somerset,</span> Welsh driven out of,
+<a href="#page053">53</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Somerset,</span> Edmund Beaufort, second Duke of, commands in Normandy,
+<a href="#page320">320</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">supported</span> by Henry VI.,
+<a href="#page323">323</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">slain</span> at St. Albans,
+<a href="#page324">324</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Somerset,</span> Edmund Beaufort, fourth Duke of, executed,
+<a href="#page334">334</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Somerset,</span> John Beaufort, first Duke of, commands in France,
+<a href="#page317">317</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">kept</span> from court by Suffolk,
+<a href="#page318">318</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">dies,</span>
+<a href="#page320">320</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Somerset,</span> Henry Beaufort, third Duke of, executed,
+<a href="#page331">331</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Sorbiodunum</span> (<i>Old Sarum</i>), the stronghold of Ambrosius,
+<a href="#page034">34</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="southsaxons" name="southsaxons"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">South Saxons,</span> the, first conquests of,
+<a href="#page027">27</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">destroy</span> Anderida,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Spain,</span> union of the kingdoms of,
+<a href="#page349">349</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">growth</span> of the monarchy of,
+<a href="#page354">354</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Spencer,</span> Henry, bishop of Norwich, leads an expedition to Flanders,
+<a href="#page278">278</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Stamford</span> Bridge, battle of,
+<a href="#page095">95</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Standard,</span> battle of the,
+<a href="#page133">133</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Stanley,</span> Lord, joins Henry VII.,
+<a href="#page343">343</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Stanley,</span> Sir William, deserts Richard III.,
+<a href="#page343">343</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">execution</span> of,
+<a href="#page351">351</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Star Chamber,</span> Court of, organisation of,
+<a href="#page348">348</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">States-General,</span> the French, meet during John's captivity,
+<a href="#page252">252</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Statute</span> of Wales,
+<a href="#page210">210</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Stephen,</span> accession of,
+<a href="#page131">131</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">makes</span> peace with the Scots,
+<a href="#page133">133</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">quarrels</span> with the barons, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">quarrels</span> with the clergy,
+<a href="#page134">134</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page135">135</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Stigand,</span> Archbishop of Canterbury,
+<a href="#page089">89</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Stirling,</span> Wallace's victory at,
+<a href="#page221">221</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Stoke,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page347">347</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Stone</span> implements,
+<a href="#page001">1</a>-4.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Strathclyde,</span> formation of the kingdom of,
+<a href="#page043">43</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is not</span> dependent on Ecgberht,
+<a href="#page055">55</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">its relations</span> with Eadmund,
+<a href="#page064">64</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="strongbow" name="strongbow"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Strongbow</span> in Ireland,
+<a href="#page152">152</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Stuart,</span> family of, inherit the throne of Scotland,
+<a href="#page295">295</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Suetonius</span> Paullinus, campaigns of,
+<a href="#page014">14</a>-16.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Suffolk,</span> origin of the name of,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Suffolk,</span> Michael de la Pole, Earl of, Chancellor of Richard II.,
+<a href="#page278">278</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">driven</span> from power,
+<a href="#page279">279</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">condemned</span> to death,
+<a href="#page280">280</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Suffolk,</span> William de la Pole, Earl of, arranges a truce with France,
+<a href="#page317">317</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">presides</span> over the government of England,
+<a href="#page318">318</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">impeached</span> and murdered,
+<a href="#page322">322</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Surrey,</span> Earl of, governs Scotland in the name of Edward I.,
+<a href="#page219">219</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Sussex,</span> conquest of,
+<a href="#page027">27</a>,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">weakness</span> of,
+<a href="#page041">41</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">accepts</span> Christianity,
+<a href="#page049">49</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Svend</span> attacks London,
+<a href="#page079">79</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">returns</span> to Denmark,
+<a href="#page080">80</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">invades</span> England,
+<a href="#page081">81</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page083">83</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Swegen,</span> son of Godwine, misconduct of,
+<a href="#page087">87</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page088">88</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Swynford,</span> Catherine, marries John of Gaunt,
+<a href="#page282">282</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<a id="talbot" name="talbot"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Talbot,</span> Lord, defeats the Burgundians,
+<a href="#page313">313</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">becomes</span> Earl of Shrewsbury,
+<a href="#page320">320</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeated</span> and slain,
+<a href="#page323">323</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Tallages</span> levied by Edward I.,
+<a href="#page221">221</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">abolished</span> by Edward III.,
+<a href="#page243">243</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Taxation,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#danegeld">Danegeld</a>, <a href="#customs">Customs</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Templars,</span> the Knights,
+<a href="#page157">157</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Tewkesbury,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page334">334</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Thames,</span> the, early ferry over,
+<a href="#page020">20</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Thanet,</span> probable identification of Ictis with,
+<a href="#page008">8</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Jutes</span> established in,
+<a href="#page027">27</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Thegns,</span> how distinguished from Gesiths,
+<a href="#page031">31</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">their</span> devotion to their lord,
+<a href="#page044">44</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">growing</span> military importance of,
+<a href="#page069">69</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Theodore,</span> Archbishop, his influence on the Church of England,
+<a href="#page050">50</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">assembles</span> the first Church Council,
+<a href="#page052">52</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Thetford,</span> removal of the see from,
+<a href="#page107">107</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="thomasarchbishop" name="thomasarchbishop"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Thomas</span> of London (Becket), Chancellor,
+<a href="#page140">140</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">being</span> appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, resists Henry II.,
+<a href="#page143">143</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">takes</span> refuge in France,
+<a href="#page145">145</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">returns</span> to England,
+<a href="#page149">149</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is murdered,</span>
+<a href="#page150">150</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Thurstan,</span> Archbishop, leads the levies at the Battle of the Standard,
+<a href="#page132">132</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Tiberias,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page157">157</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Tin, Ph&oelig;nician</span> and Greek trade in,
+<a href="#page008">8</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Tinchebrai,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page125">125</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Tintern</span> Abbey,
+<a href="#page129">129</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Togidumnus,</span> death of,
+<a href="#page013">13</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Tostig,</span> Earl of North-humberland,
+<a href="#page089">89</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">driven</span> from his earldom,
+<a href="#page090">90</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">allied</span> to Harold Hardrada,
+<a href="#page094">94</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">killed</span> at Stamford Bridge,
+<a href="#page096">96</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Touraine</span> conquered by Philip II.,
+<a href="#page176">176</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Towns,</span> growth of,
+<a href="#page062">62</a>,
+<a href="#page072">72</a>,
+<a href="#page168">168</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">condition</span> of the outskirts of,
+<a href="#page191">191</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Townships,</span> early political organisation of,
+<a href="#page031">31</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Towton,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page329">329</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Trade,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#commerce">Commerce</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Transition</span> from round-arched to Pointed architecture,
+<a href="#page171">171</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Travelling</span> modes of,
+<a href="#page273">273</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Treasons,</span> Statute of,
+<a href="#page250">250</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Trent,</span> the Anglian occupation of the Valley of,
+<a href="#page036">36</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Tresilian,</span> Chief Justice, hanged,
+<a href="#page280">280</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Trinobantes,</span> the geographical position of,
+<a href="#page008">8</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">side</span> with Cæsar,
+<a href="#page011">11</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">submit</span> to Cunobelin,
+<a href="#page012">12</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Troyes,</span> the Treaty of,
+<a href="#page306">306</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Tudor,</span> Owen, marries the widow of Henry V.,
+<a href="#page335">335</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Tumblers,</span>
+<a href="#page275">275</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Tyre in danger,</span>
+<a href="#page157">157</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Universities,</span> growth of,
+<a href="#page167">167</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Urban II.,</span> Pope, supported by Lanfranc,
+<a href="#page118">118</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">preaches</span> a Crusade,
+<a href="#page120">120</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Uriconium,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#viriconium">Viriconium</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Valence,</span> William de, resists the Provisions of Oxford,
+<a href="#page199">199</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Val-ès-dunes,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page088">88</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Verneuil,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page308">308</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="verulam" name="verulam"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Verulamium,</span> Roman city at,
+<a href="#page019">19</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">martyrdom</span> of St. Alban at,
+<a href="#page023">23</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Vicar,</span> meaning of the term,
+<a href="#page129">129</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Villages,</span> arrangements of,
+<a href="#page075">75</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="villeins" name="villeins"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Villeins,</span> the, uncertain origin of,
+<a href="#page031">31</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">increase</span> of,
+<a href="#page069">69</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">position</span> of, after the Norman conquest,
+<a href="#page102">102</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">partial</span> commutation of the services of,
+<a href="#page168">168</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">effect</span> of the Black Death upon,
+<a href="#page248">248</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">insurrection</span> of,
+<a href="#page268">268</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">take</span> refuge in towns,
+<a href="#page275">275</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">land</span> ceases to be cultivated by,
+<a href="#page320">320</a>,
+<a href="#page321">321</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="viriconium" name="viriconium"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Viriconium,</span> Roman colony at,
+<a href="#page014">14</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Vortigern</span> establishes Jutes in Thanet,
+<a href="#page027">27</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Wakefield,</span> battle of,
+<a href="#page328">328</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="wales" name="wales"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Wales</span> reduced by Harold,
+<a href="#page090">90</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Flemish</span> settlement in,
+<a href="#page128">128</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">conquered</span> by Edward I.,
+<a href="#page210">210</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">marches of,</span> <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">supports</span> Richard II.,
+<a href="#page285">285</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Wallace,</span> William, rises against Edward I.,
+<a href="#page221">221</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">execution</span> of,
+<a href="#page222">222</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Wallingford,</span> Treaty of,
+<a href="#page137">137</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Walls,</span> the Roman,
+<a href="#page017">17</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Walter</span> Map,
+<a href="#page167">167</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Waltheof,</span> Earl of Northamptonshire and Huntingdonshire,
+<a href="#page090">90</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is beheaded,</span>
+<a href="#page110">110</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Wanborough,</span> Ceawlin defeated at,
+<a href="#page036">36</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">War-band,</span> the, composed of Gesiths,
+<a href="#page030">30</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Warbeck,</span> Perkin, insurrection of,
+<a href="#page350">350</a>-352;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">execution</span> of,
+<a href="#page354">354</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Wardship,</span> nature of the lord's claim to,
+<a href="#page116">116</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">results</span> of the system,
+<a href="#page330">330</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="warsroses" name="warsroses"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Wars</span> of the Roses, origin of the name of,
+<a href="#page324">324</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">state</span> of society during,
+<a href="#page330">330</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Warwick,</span> Earl of, opposes Richard II.,
+<a href="#page279">279</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">banishment</span> of,
+<a href="#page282">282</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Warwick,</span> Earl of (son of the Duke of Clarence), imprisonment of,
+<a href="#page343">343</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">execution</span> of,
+<a href="#page354">354</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Warwick,</span> Richard Beauchamp, Earl of, regent in France,
+<a href="#page313">313</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Warwick,</span> Richard Nevill, Earl of (the King-maker), influence of,
+<a href="#page324">324</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">retires</span> to Calais, and comes back and defeats the Lancastrians at Northampton,
+<a href="#page326">326</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">estranged</span> from Edward IV.,
+<a href="#page332">332</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is reconciled</span> to Queen Margaret,
+<a href="#page333">333</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">restores</span> Henry VI., and is defeated and slain at Barnet,
+<a href="#page334">334</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Wat Tyler,</span> insurrection of,
+<a href="#page268">268</a>,
+<a href="#page269">269</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Wedmore,</span> Peace of (the so-called),
+<a href="#page059">59</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="welsh" name="welsh"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Welsh,</span> the, speak a language derived from that of the Britons,
+<a href="#page007">7</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">origin</span> of their name,
+<a href="#page031">31</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">adopt</span> the name Kymry,
+<a href="#page037">37</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeated</span> by Æthelfrith near Chester,
+<a href="#page043">43</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">split</span> up into three divisions, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">driven</span> out of Somerset,
+<a href="#page053">53</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">their</span> relations with Ecgberht,
+<a href="#page056">56</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em"><i>see</i> <a href="#wales">Wales</a>.</span><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Weregild,</span> system of,
+<a href="#page032">32</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="wessex" name="wessex"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">Wessex,</span> gradual formation of,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>,
+<a href="#page034">34</a>,
+<a href="#page035">35</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is weakened</span> by internal quarrels,
+<a href="#page041">41</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">accepts</span> Christianity,
+<a href="#page048">48</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">growing</span> unity of,
+<a href="#page053">53</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">causes</span> of the supremacy of,
+<a href="#page055">55</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">an earldom</span> under Godwine and Harold,
+<a href="#page084">84</a>,
+<a href="#page089">89</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="westsaxons" name="westsaxons"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">West</span> Saxons, the, first conquests of,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeated</span> at Mount Badon, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">occupy</span> Salisbury Plain,
+<a href="#page034">34</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">wage</span> war with the men of Kent and with the Britons of the Severn Valley,
+<a href="#page035">35</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">are</span> defeated at Faddiley, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em"><i>see</i> <a href="#wessex">Wessex</a>.</span><br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">West</span> Wales split off from other Welsh territory,
+<a href="#page042">42</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Westminster Abbey,</span> consecration of,
+<a href="#page091">91</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">coronation</span> of William I. in,
+<a href="#page100">100</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">White Ship,</span> the, wreck of,
+<a href="#page129">129</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Wilfrid</span> supports Papal authority,
+<a href="#page050">50</a>.<br>
+
+<a id="williammarshal" name="williammarshal"></a>
+  <span class="min3em">William I.</span> (the Conqueror) declared heir of Eadward the Confessor,
+<a href="#page088">88</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his rule</span> in Normandy, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">claims</span> the crown from Harold,
+<a href="#page091">91</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">lands</span> at Pevensey, and defeats Harold at Senlac,
+<a href="#page096">96</a>-98;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">crowned</span> at Westminster,
+<a href="#page100">100</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">progress</span> of his conquest,
+<a href="#page101">101</a>-103;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">devastates</span> the Vale of York,
+<a href="#page103">103</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">subdues</span> Hereward, and receives Malcolm's submission,
+<a href="#page104">104</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his method</span> of keeping English and Normans in subjection,
+<a href="#page104">104</a>-106;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his relations</span> with the Church,
+<a href="#page106">106</a>-110;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">suppresses</span> the Rising of the Earls,
+<a href="#page110">110</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">lays waste</span> the New Forest, <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">has Domesday</span> Book prepared,
+<a href="#page111">111</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">receives</span> oaths at Salisbury,
+<a href="#page113">113</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">death of,</span>
+<a href="#page114">114</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">William II.</span> (Rufus) is crowned King of England,
+<a href="#page114">114</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is supported</span> by the English against Robert,
+<a href="#page115">115</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">character of,</span> <i>ib.</i>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his treatment</span> of Anselm,
+<a href="#page117">117</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his quarrels</span> with his brothers,
+<a href="#page118">118</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">his relations</span> with Scotland,
+<a href="#page119">119</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">suppresses</span> Mowbray's rebellion,
+<a href="#page120">120</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">last years</span> of,
+<a href="#page121">121</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">is murdered,</span>
+<a href="#page122">122</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">William,</span> son of Henry I., wrecked,
+<a href="#page129">129</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">William</span> Clito, son of Robert,
+<a href="#page129">129</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">William</span> Longbeard,
+<a href="#page169">169</a>,
+<a href="#page170">170</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">William</span> of Malmesbury,
+<a href="#page129">129</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">William</span> of Newburgh,
+<a href="#page167">167</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">William the Lion,</span> king of Scotland, acknowledges himself to be a vassal of Henry II.,
+<a href="#page154">154</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">frees himself</span> from vassalage,
+<a href="#page159">159</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Winchelsey,</span> Archbishop,
+<a href="#page221">221</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Winchester,</span> secular canons driven out of
+<a href="#page068">68</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">burial</span> of William II. at,
+<a href="#page122">122</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">Stephen</span> chosen king at,
+<a href="#page131">131</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Winwæd,</span> the battle of,
+<a href="#page048">48</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Witenagemot,</span> the, constitution of,
+<a href="#page045">45</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">discussion</span> on the acceptance of Christianity in,
+<a href="#page046">46</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">constitutional</span> powers of,
+<a href="#page074">74</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">becomes</span> the Great Council,
+<a href="#page113">113</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em"><i>see</i> <a href="#greatcouncil">Great Council</a>,</span> the.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Women,</span> education of, in the Middle Ages,
+<a href="#page065">65</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Wonderful</span> Parliament, the,
+<a href="#page280">280</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Worcester,</span> secular canons driven from,
+<a href="#page068">68</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Wroxeter,</span> <i>see</i> <a href="#viriconium">Viriconium</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Wulfhere</span> maintains the independence of Mercia,
+<a href="#page048">48</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Wycliffe,</span> John, his doctrines,
+<a href="#page261">261</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">summoned</span> before an ecclesiastical court at St. Paul's,
+<a href="#page262">262</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">sends</span> out 'poor priests,' and renounces transubstantiation,
+<a href="#page266">266</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">retires,</span> and dies,
+<a href="#page269">269</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">Wykeham,</span> William of, deprived of the Chancellorship,
+<a href="#page260">260</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">restored</span> to the Council, and again dismissed,
+<a href="#page262">262</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  <span class="min3em">Yarmouth</span> supports Stephen,
+<a href="#page134">134</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">York</span> (<i>see</i> Eboracum) submits to Harold Hardrada,
+<a href="#page095">95</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">taken</span> by William I.,
+<a href="#page102">102</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">devastation</span> of the Vale of,
+<a href="#page103">103</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">massacre</span> of Jews at,
+<a href="#page160">160</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">York</span> Archbishop of, his right to crown a king questioned,
+<a href="#page149">149</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">York,</span> Archbishopric of, founded,
+<a href="#page046">46</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">York,</span> Duke of Edmund (son of Edward III.), joins Henry IV.,
+<a href="#page285">285</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">York,</span> Richard, Duke of, (father of Edward IV.), is regent in France,
+<a href="#page313">313</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">governs</span> Ireland,
+<a href="#page319">319</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">first</span> Protectorate of,
+<a href="#page323">323</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">second</span> Protectorate of,
+<a href="#page324">324</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">driven</span> to Ireland,
+<a href="#page326">326</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">claims</span> the throne,
+<a href="#page327">327</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">defeated</span> and slain,
+<a href="#page328">328</a>.<br>
+
+  <span class="min3em">York,</span> Richard, Duke of (son of Edward IV.), lodged in the Tower,
+<a href="#page341">341</a>;<br>
+    <span class="min2em">murdered,</span>
+<a href="#page342">342</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="p4 center">PRINTED BY<br>
+SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE<br>
+LONDON</p>
+
+<p class="p4"><a id="footnote1" name="footnote1"></a>
+<b>Footnote 1:</b> There were also four smaller divisions, ultimately
+increased to five. All that is known about their position is that they
+were not where they are placed in our atlases.<a href="#footnotetag1"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+
+<p><a id="footnote2" name="footnote2"></a>
+<b>Footnote 2:</b> Genealogy of the principal Northumbrian
+kings:&mdash;[<i>Note.</i>&mdash;The names of kings are in capitals. The figures
+denote the order of succession of those who ruled over the whole of
+North-humberland. Those whose names are followed by a B. or D. ruled
+only over Bernicia or Deira respectively.]</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><i>House of Bernicia</i></td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><i>House of Deira</i></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Ida B.</span></td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Iffa D.</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">1. <span class="smcap">Æthelric</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Ælla D.</span></td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Ælfric</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Æthelfrith</span></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Acha</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">3. <span class="smcap">Eadwine</span></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Osric D.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">4. <span class="smcap">Oswald</span></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">5. <span class="smcap">Oswiu</span></td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Oswini D.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag2"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><a id="footnote3" name="footnote3"></a>
+<b>Footnote 3:</b> Genealogy of the English kings from Ecgberht to Eadgar:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="12" class="center"><span class="smcap">Ecgberht</span><br>802-839</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="12" class="center"><span class="smcap">Æthelwulf</span><br>839-858</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Æthelbald</span><br>858-860</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Æthelberht</span><br>860-866</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Æthelred</span><br>866-871</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Ælfred</span><br>871-901</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Eadward<br>899-925</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Æthelflæd<br>(the <i>Lady of the Mercians</i>)</td>
+<td class="center">=</td>
+<td colspan="1">Æthelred</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Æthelstan</span><br>925-940</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Eadmund</span><br>940-946</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Eadred</span><br>946-955</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Eadwig</span><br>955-959</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Eadgar</span><br>959-975</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="12" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag3"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><a id="footnote4" name="footnote4"></a>
+<b>Footnote 4:</b> Genealogy of the English kings from Eadgar to Eadgar the
+Ætheling:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="center"><span class="smcap">Eadgar</span><br>959-975</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Eadward</span><br>the Martyr<br>975-979</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Æthelred</span><br>the Unready<br>979-1016</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Eadmund</span><br>Ironside<br>1016</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Eadward</span><br>the Confessor<br>1042-1066</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Eadward<br>the Ætheling</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Eadgar<br>the Ætheling</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag4"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><a id="footnote5" name="footnote5"></a>
+<b>Footnote 5:</b> Genealogy of the Danish kings:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Svend</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">(1) Ælfgifu</td>
+<td class="center">=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Cnut</span><br>1016-1035</td>
+<td class="center">=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Emma</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Harold</span><br>Harefoot<br>1035-1040</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Harthacnut</span><br>1040-1042</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag5"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><a id="footnote6" name="footnote6"></a>
+<b>Footnote 6:</b> Genealogical connection between the Houses of England and
+Normandy:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><i>Dukes of Normandy</i></td>
+<td colspan="13">&nbsp;</td>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Richard I.<br>the Fearless</td>
+<td colspan="13">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Richard II.<br>the Good</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">(1) <span class="smcap">Æthelred</span><br>the Unready<br>979-1016</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Emma</td>
+<td class="center">=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">(2) <span class="smcap">Cnut</span>,<br>1016-1035</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Godwine</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Richard III.</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Robert</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Ælfred</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Eadward</span><br>the Confessor<br>1042-1066</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="center">=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Eadgyth</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Harold</span><br>1066</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="11">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">William</span><br>the Conqueror<br>1066-1087</td>
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag6"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><a id="footnote7" name="footnote7"></a>
+<b>Footnote 7:</b> Genealogy of the Mercian earls:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="center">Leofwine</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="center">Leofric</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="center">Ælfgar</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Eadwine,<br>Earl of Mercia</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Morkere,<br>Earl of North-humberland</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag7"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><a id="footnote8" name="footnote8"></a>
+<b>Footnote 8:</b> Genealogy of the family of Godwine:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="center">Godwine</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Swegen</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Harold</span><br>1066</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Tostig</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Leofwine</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Gyrth</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Wulfnoth</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Eadgyth</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="center">=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Eadward<br>the Confessor</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="23" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag8"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><a id="footnote9" name="footnote9"></a>
+<b>Footnote 9:</b> Genealogy of the Conqueror's sons and grandchildren:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">William I.</span><br>1066-1087</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Matilda of Flanders</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Robert, Duke of Normandy</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">William II.</span><br>1087-1100</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry I.</span><br>1100-1135</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Adela</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Stephen of Blois</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Stephen</span><br>1135-1154</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">William Clito</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">William</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">(1) The Emperor Henry V.</td>
+<td class="center">=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Matilda</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">(2) Geoffrey Plantagenet</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry II.</span><br>1154-1189</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="14" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag9"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><a id="footnote10" name="footnote10"></a>
+<b>Footnote 10:</b> The number usually given, '1,115,' is probably an
+error.<a href="#footnotetag10"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote11" name="footnote11"></a>
+<b>Footnote 11:</b> His father's name was Becket, but at that time
+hereditary surnames had not come into use. He was once called Thomas
+Becket in his lifetime by one of his murderers as an insult.<a href="#footnotetag11"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote12" name="footnote12"></a>
+<b>Footnote 12:</b> Genealogy of the sons and grandchildren of Henry II.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry II.</span><br>1154-1189</td>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Henry<br><i>m.</i> Margaret of France</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Richard</span><br>1189-1199<br><i>m.</i> Berengaria of Navarre</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Geoffrey<br><i>m.</i> Constance of Brittany</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">John</span><br>1199-1216</td>
+<td colspan="1">=</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center">(1) Avice of Gloucester<br>(2) Isabella of Angoulême</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Arthur</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry III.</span><br>1216-1272</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag12"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><a id="footnote13" name="footnote13"></a>
+<b>Footnote 13:</b> A phrase which may serve to keep in mind the medieval
+meaning of '<i>libertas</i>' is to be found in the statement that a certain
+monastery kept up a pair of stocks '<i>pro libertate servandâ</i>'&mdash;that is
+to say, to keep up its franchise of putting offenders into the
+stocks.<a href="#footnotetag13"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote14" name="footnote14"></a>
+<b>Footnote 14:</b></p>
+
+<p class="poem20">
+  "Igitur communitas regni consulatur;<br>
+  Et quid universitas sentiat, sciatur,<br>
+  Cui leges propriæ maxime sunt notæ.<br>
+  Nec cuncti provinciæ sic sunt idiotæ,<br>
+  Quin sciant plus cæteris regni sui mores,<br>
+  Quos relinquunt posteris hii qui sunt priores."<a href="#footnotetag14"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote15" name="footnote15"></a>
+<b>Footnote 15:</b> Genealogy of the claimants of the Scottish throne:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">David I.</span><br>1124-1153</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Henry</td>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Malcolm IV.</span><br>1153-1165</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">William</span><br><span class="smcap">the Lion</span><br>1165-1214</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">David, Earl of Huntingdon</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Alexander II.</span><br>1214-1249</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Margaret<br><i>m.</i> Alan, Lord of Galloway</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Isabella<br><i>m.</i> Robert Bruce</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Ada<br><i>m.</i> Henry Hastings</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Alexander III.</span><br>1249-1285</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Devorguilla<br><i>m.</i> John Balliol</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Robert Bruce<br>the Claimant</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Henry Hastings</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Margaret<br><i>m.</i> Eric, king of Norway</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Margaret<br><i>m.</i> John, the Black Comyn</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">John Balliol</span><br>1292-1296</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Robert Bruce</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">John Hastings,<br>the Claimant</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Margaret<br>The Maid of Norway</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">John, the Red Comyn</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edward Balliol</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Robert Bruce</span><br>1306-1329</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="16" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag15"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><a id="footnote16" name="footnote16"></a>
+<b>Footnote 16:</b> Sandwich, Dover, Hythe, Romney, Hastings; to which were
+added Winchelsea and Rye as 'ancient towns,' besides several 'limbs'
+or dependencies.<a href="#footnotetag16"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote17" name="footnote17"></a>
+<b>Footnote 17:</b> See the inscription on the monument to the elder Pitt in
+the Guildhall, in the City of London.<a href="#footnotetag17"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote18" name="footnote18"></a>
+<b>Footnote 18:</b> It has been said that they were used at Creçy, but this
+is uncertain.<a href="#footnotetag18"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote19" name="footnote19"></a>
+<b>Footnote 19:</b> Lichfield Cathedral (p. <a href="#page213">213</a>) is transitional.<a href="#footnotetag19"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote20" name="footnote20"></a>
+<b>Footnote 20:</b> Provisors are the persons provided or appointed to a
+benefice.<a href="#footnotetag20"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote21" name="footnote21"></a>
+<b>Footnote 21:</b> So called from the first words of the writs appointed to
+be issued under it, <i>Præmunire facias</i>; the first of these two words
+being a corruption of <i>Præmoneri</i>.<a href="#footnotetag21"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote22" name="footnote22"></a>
+<b>Footnote 22:</b> The name is said to have been derived from a low German
+word, <i>lollen</i>, to sing, from their habit of singing, but their
+clerical opponents derived it from the Latin <i>lolium</i> (tares), as if
+they were the tares in the midst of the wheat which remained constant
+to the Church.<a href="#footnotetag22"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote23" name="footnote23"></a>
+<b>Footnote 23:</b> <i>i.e.</i>, if a priest, who is like gold, allow himself to
+rust, or fall into sloth or sin, how can he expect the 'lewid man' or
+layman, who is as iron to him, to be free from these faults?<a href="#footnotetag23"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote24" name="footnote24"></a>
+<b>Footnote 24:</b> A nice conscience; to see offence where there is none.<a href="#footnotetag24"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote25" name="footnote25"></a>
+<b>Footnote 25:</b> Followed.<a href="#footnotetag25"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote26" name="footnote26"></a>
+<b>Footnote 26:</b> Many clerics took one of the minor orders so as to
+secure the immunities of the clergy, without any intention of being
+ordained a deacon or a priest.<a href="#footnotetag26"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote27" name="footnote27"></a>
+<b>Footnote 27:</b> Genealogy of the claimants of the throne in 1399:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="16" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry III.</span><br>1216-1272</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Edward I.</span><br>1272-1307</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edmund</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Edward II.</span><br>1307-1327</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Thomas,<br>Earl of Lancaster</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Henry,<br>Earl of Lancaster</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Edward III.</span><br>1327-1377</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Henry, Duke of Lancaster</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edward,<br>the Black Prince</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Lionel,<br>Duke of Clarence</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Blanche</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">John of Gaunt,<br>Duke of Lancaster</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Richard II.</span><br>1377-1399</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Philippa</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edmund Mortimer,<br>Earl of March</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Roger Mortimer,<br>Earl of March</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry IV.</span><br>1399-1413</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Edmund Mortimer,<br>Earl of March</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="16" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag27"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><a id="footnote28" name="footnote28"></a>
+<b>Footnote 28:</b> Genealogy of the kings of Scotland from Robert Bruce to
+James I.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Robert I.</span>, Bruce<br>(1306-1329)</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">David II.</span><br>(1329-1370)</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Margaret</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Walter Stewart</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">Robert II.</span>, Stewart or Stuart<br>(1370-1390)</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Robert III.</span><br>(1390-1406)</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Robert, Duke of Albany</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">David,<br>Duke of Rothesay</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">James I.</span><br>(1406-1437)</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag28"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><a id="footnote29" name="footnote29"></a>
+<b>Footnote 29:</b> Havre de Grâce was not yet in existence.<a href="#footnotetag29"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote30" name="footnote30"></a>
+<b>Footnote 30:</b> Genealogy of the Nevills:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="11">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center">John of Gaunt</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="13" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center">Thomas Montague,<br>Earl of Salisbury</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center">Ralph Nevill,<br>Earl of Westmoreland</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Joan</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class=" bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Richard Beauchamp,<br>Earl of Warwick</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Alice</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Richard,<br>Earl of Salisbury,<br>
+beheaded at Pontefract,<br>1460</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Cicely</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Richard,<br>Duke of York,<br>
+killed at Wakefield,<br>1460</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Anne</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Richard,<br>Earl of Warwick,<br>the king-maker,<br>killed at Barnet,<br>1471</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">John,<br>Marquess of Montague</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">George,<br>Archbishop of York</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="14" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag30"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><a id="footnote31" name="footnote31"></a>
+<b>Footnote 31:</b> Genealogy of the Houses of Lancaster and York:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="center"><span class="smcap">Edward III.</span><br>(1307-1377)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edward,<br>the Black Prince</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Lionel,<br>Duke of Clarence</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">John of Gaunt</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edmund,<br>Duke of York</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Richard II.</span><br>(1377-1399)</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Philippa</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edmund Mortimer,<br>Earl of March</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry IV.</span><br>(1399-1413)</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">(1) <span class="smcap">Henry V.</span><br>(1413-1422)</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">(2) John,<br>Duke of Bedford</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">(3) Thomas, Duke of Clarence</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Roger Mortimer,<br>Earl of March</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry VI.</span><br>(1422-1461)</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">(4) Humphrey,<br>Duke of Gloucester</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edmund Mortimer,<br>Earl of March</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Anne</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Richard, Earl of Cambridge</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="12">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Richard, Duke of York</td>
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="12">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Edward, Earl of March,<br>afterwards <span class="smcap">Edward IV.</span></td>
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag31"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><a id="footnote32" name="footnote32"></a>
+<b>Footnote 32:</b> Genealogy of the Beauforts and the Tudors:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">John of Gaunt</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Catherine Swynford</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">John Beaufort,<br>Earl of Somerset,<br>legitimated by Act of Parliament</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Cardinal Beaufort,<br>legitimated by Act of Parliament</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Owen Tudor</td>
+<td class="right">=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Catherine,<br>widow of Henry V.</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">John, 1st Duke of Somerset</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Edmund,<br>2nd Duke of Somerset,<br>killed at St. Albans, 1455</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edmund Tudor<br>Earl of Richmond,<br>d. 1456</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Margaret</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Henry,<br>3rd Duke of Somerset,<br>executed after the battle of Hexham<br>1464</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center">Edmund,<br>4th Duke of Somerset,<br>executed after the battle of Tewkesbury,<br>1471</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">
+<td colspan="11">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry VII.</span><br>(1485-1509)</td>
+<td colspan="10">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="15" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag32"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><a id="footnote33" name="footnote33"></a>
+<b>Footnote 33:</b> Mary was the child of an earlier wife of Charles the
+Bold than Margaret the sister of Edward IV. and Clarence, and the
+latter was therefore not related to her.<a href="#footnotetag33"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote34" name="footnote34"></a>
+<b>Footnote 34:</b> Genealogy of the Yorkist Kings:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="center">Richard, Duke of York,<br>killed at Wakefield, 1460</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Elizabeth Woodville</td>
+<td colspan="1">=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Edward IV.</span><br>(1461-1483)</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Margaret</td>
+<td colspan="1">=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Charles,<br>the Rash,<br>Duke of Burgundy</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">George<br>Duke of Clarence,<br>d. 1478</td>
+<td colspan="1">=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Isabel Nevil </td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Richard III.</span><br>Duke of
+Gloucester,<br>afterwards king,<br>m. to Anne Nevill<br>(1483-1485)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Elizabeth,<br>m. to Henry VII.</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Edward V.</span>,<br>murdered 1483</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Richard,<br>Duke of York,<br>murdered 1483</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edward,<br>Earl of Warwick,<br>executed 1499</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edward,<br>d. 1484</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag34"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><a id="footnote35" name="footnote35"></a>
+<b>Footnote 35:</b> Genealogy of the Woodvilles and Greys:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="12" class="center">Richard, Earl Rivers</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Anthony Woodville,<br>Earl Rivers,<br>executed 1483</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">(1) Sir John Grey</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Elizabeth Woodville</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">(2) <span class="smcap">Edward IV.</span></td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Thomas Grey,<br>Marquis of Dorset</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Sir Richard Grey,<br>executed 1483</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Edward V.</span>,<br>murdered 1483</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="12" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag35"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><a id="footnote36" name="footnote36"></a>
+<b>Footnote 36:</b> Abbreviated genealogy of Henry VII. and his
+competitors:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="center"><span class="smcap">Edward III</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Lionel,<br> Duke of Clarence</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">John of Gaunt,<br> Duke of Lancaster</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_bottom bor_right_dot">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right_dot">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right_dot">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">George<br>Duke of Clarence</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right_dot">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right_dot">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Edward IV</span>.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edward,<br>Earl of Warwick</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right_dot">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="bor_right_dot">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Elizabeth</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry VII</span>.</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag36"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><a id="footnote37" name="footnote37"></a>
+<b>Footnote 37:</b> Genealogy of the De la Poles and Poles:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="center">Richard, Duke of York</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="9" class="bor_bottom bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="15" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Elizabeth</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">John de la Pole,<br>Duke of Suffolk</td>
+<td colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">George, Duke of Clarence,<br>died 1477</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">John de la Pole,<br>Earl of Lincoln,<br>killed at Stoke,<br>1487</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Edmund de la Pole,<br>Earl of Suffolk,<br>beheaded 1513</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Sir Richard de la Pole,<br>killed at Pavia,<br>1525</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Margaret,<br>Countess of Salisbury</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Sir Richard Pole</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="15" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="10" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Henry, Lord Montague,<br>beheaded 1538</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Reginald Pole,<br>Cardinal and Archbishop of Canterbury,<br>died 1558</td>
+<td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="20" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag37"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><a id="footnote38" name="footnote38"></a>
+<b>Footnote 38:</b> So called either because the roof was decorated with
+stars or because it was the room in which had formerly been kept
+Jewish bonds or 'starres.'<a href="#footnotetag38"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote39" name="footnote39"></a>
+<b>Footnote 39:</b> Genealogy of the Houses of Spain and Burgundy:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Family tree.">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="center">Charles the Rash,<br> Duke of Burgundy</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="center">Frederick III.,<br> Emperor</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="11">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Mary</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Maximilian I.<br>Emperor</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Ferdinand V.<br>King of Aragon</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Isabella,<br> Queen of Castile</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="1" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Margaret</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Philip</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Juana</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Catharine</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Henry VIII</span>.,<br>King of England</td>
+<td colspan="1">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_right bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="bor_bottom">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="bor_right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Charles V.,<br>Emperor</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Ferdinand I.,<br>Emperor</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center"><span class="smcap">Mary</span>,<br>Queen of England</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="16" class="right"><a href="#footnotetag39"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Student's History of England, v. 1 (of 3), 
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@@ -0,0 +1,17746 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Student's History of England, v. 1 (of 3),
+by Samuel Rawson Gardiner
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Student's History of England, v. 1 (of 3)
+       From the earliest times to the Death of King Edward VII
+
+Author: Samuel Rawson Gardiner
+
+Release Date: February 23, 2009 [EBook #28157]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ENGLAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Darren Izzard, Christine P. Travers and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected, all
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling
+has been maintained.
+
+Each page of the original book had a side note stating the time span
+treated on that page. Those side notes have been deleted.
+
+Bold text has been marked with =.]
+
+
+
+
+STUDENT'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND
+
+
+_FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE DEATH OF KING EDWARD VII_
+
+
+BY
+
+
+SAMUEL R. GARDINER, D.C.L., LL.D.
+
+LATE FELLOW OF MERTON COLLEGE, OXFORD ETC.
+
+
+
+
+VOL. I.
+
+B.C. 55--A.D. 1509
+
+
+
+
+_NEW IMPRESSION (1915)_
+
+REISSUE
+
+  LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
+  39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
+  FOURTH AVENUE & 30th STREET, NEW YORK
+  BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, AND MADRAS
+  1916
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+WORKS BY SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER.
+
+
+HISTORY OF ENGLAND, from the Accession of James I. to the Outbreak of
+the Civil War, 1603-1642. With Maps. 10 vols. crown 8vo. 5_s._ net
+each.
+
+A HISTORY OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR, 1642-1649. With Maps. 4 vols. crown
+8vo. 5_s._ net each.
+
+A HISTORY OF THE COMMONWEALTH AND THE PROTECTORATE, 1649-1656. With
+Maps. 4 vols. crown 8vo. 5_s._ net each.
+
+THE LAST YEARS OF THE PROTECTORATE, 1656-1658. By CHARLES HARDING
+FIRTH, M.A., Regius Professor of Modern History in the University of
+Oxford. With 3 Plans. 2 vols. 8vo. 24_s._ net.
+
+A STUDENT'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. From the Earliest Times to the Death
+of King Edward VII.
+
+  Vol. I. B.C. 55-A.D. 1509. With 173 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 4_s._
+
+  Vol. II. 1509-1689. With 96 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 4_s._
+
+  Vol. III. 1689-1910. With 112 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 4_s._
+
+  _Complete in One Volume, with 381 Illustrations, crown 8vo. 12s._
+
+PREPARATORY QUESTIONS ON S. R. GARDINER'S STUDENT'S HISTORY OF
+ENGLAND. By R. SOMERVELL, M.A. Crown 8vo. 1_s._
+
+SUMMARY OF ENGLISH HISTORY, based on S. R. Gardiner's 'Outline of
+English History.' Brought down to the Accession of Edward VII. By W.
+REEP. Fcp. 8vo. 6_d._
+
+A SCHOOL ATLAS OF ENGLISH HISTORY. Edited by SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER,
+D.C.L., LL.D. With 66 Coloured Maps and 22 Plans of Battles and
+Sieges. Fcp. 4to. 5_s._
+
+LONGMANS' ELEMENTARY HISTORICAL ATLAS, abridged from S. R. Gardiner's
+'School Atlas of English History.' Post 4to. 1_s._
+
+CROMWELL'S PLACE IN HISTORY. Founded on Six Lectures delivered at
+Oxford. Crown 8vo. 3_s._ 6_d._
+
+OLIVER CROMWELL. With Portrait. Crown 8vo. 5_s._ net.
+
+THE FIRST TWO STUARTS AND THE PURITAN REVOLUTION, 1603-1660. 4 Maps.
+Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR, 1618-1648. With a Map. Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+OUTLINE OF ENGLISH HISTORY, B.C. 55-A.D. 1910. With 67 Woodcuts and 17
+Maps. Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, 1789-1795. By Mrs. S. R. GARDINER. With 7 Maps.
+Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO., 39 Paternoster Row, London, New York, Bombay,
+Calcutta, and Madras.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION
+
+
+The present work is intended for such students as have already an
+elementary knowledge of the main facts of English history, and aims at
+meeting their needs by the use of plain language on the one hand, and
+by the avoidance, on the other hand, of that multiplicity of details
+which is apt to overburden the memory.
+
+At the close of the book I have treated the last eleven years, 1874 to
+1885, in a manner which precludes all expression of my own views,
+either on the characters of the actors or on the value of the work
+performed by them; and something of the same reticence will be
+observed in the pages dealing with the years immediately preceding
+1874. We have not the material before us for the formation of a final
+judgment on many points arising in the course of the narrative, and it
+is therefore better to abstain from the expression of decided opinion,
+except on matters so completely before the public as to leave no room
+for hesitation. Especially is this rule to be observed in a book
+addressed to those who are not yet at an age when independent
+investigation is possible.
+
+I hope it will be understood that in my mention of various authors I
+have had no intention of writing a history of literature, however
+brief. My object has been throughout to exhibit that side of
+literature which connects itself with the general political or
+intellectual movement of the country, and to leave unnoticed the
+purely literary or scientific qualities of the writers mentioned. This
+will explain, for instance, the total omission of the name of Roger
+Bacon, and the brief and, if regarded from a different point of view,
+the very unsatisfactory treatment of writers like Dickens and
+Thackeray.
+
+Those of my readers who have complained that no maps were to be found
+in the book may now be referred to a 'School Atlas of English
+History,' recently edited by me for Messrs. Longmans & Co. To include
+an adequate number of maps in this volume would have increased its
+size beyond all fitting limits.
+
+In the spelling of Indian names I have not adopted the modern and
+improved system of transliteration. Admirable as it is when used by
+those who are able to give the right sound to each letter, it only
+leads to mispronunciation in the mouths of those who are, as most of
+the readers of this volume will be, entirely in the dark on this
+point. The old rough method of our fathers at least ensures a fair
+approximation to the true pronunciation.
+
+My warmest thanks are due to Mr. GEORGE NUTT, of Rugby, and to the
+Rev. W. HUNT. Mr. NUTT not only looked over the proof-sheets up to the
+death of Edward I. with excellent results, but gave me most valuable
+advice as to the general arrangement of the book, founded on his own
+long experience of scholastic teaching. The Rev. W. HUNT looked over a
+considerable portion of the remaining proof-sheets, and called my
+attention to several errors and omissions which had escaped my eye.
+
+The illustrations have been selected by Mr. W. H. ST. JOHN HOPE,
+Assistant-Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries. He wishes to
+acknowledge much valuable assistance given to him in the choice of
+portraits by GEORGE SCHARF, Esq., C.B., F.S.A., who is recognised as
+the highest authority on the subject.
+
+I am indebted to Her Majesty the QUEEN for permission to engrave two
+of the portraits appearing in the following pages--viz., those of
+Bishop Fisher, on p. 393, and the Duke of Norfolk, on p. 410--the
+originals in both cases being at Windsor Castle.
+
+I have to thank Earl SPENCER for permission to engrave the portrait on
+p. 362; the Earl of ESSEX for that on p. 476; the Earl of WARWICK for
+that on p. 403; the Earl of CARLISLE for that on p. 459; the Viscount
+DILLON, F.S.A., for that on p. 376; the Hon Sir SPENCER PONSONBY-FANE,
+K.C.B., for that on p. 365; Sir JOHN FARNABY LENNARD, Bart., for that
+on p. 463; Dr. EVANS for those on pp. 2, 4, 6; EDWARD HUTH, Esq., for
+that on p. 387; Mrs. DENT, of Sudeley, for that on p. 395; H. HUCKS
+GIBBS, Esq., for that on p. 419; T. A. HOPE, Esq., for that on p. 487;
+E. B. NICHOLSON, Esq., for the portrait of Lord Burghley in the
+Bodleian Library, Oxford, engraved at p. 479; the authorities of the
+University of Cambridge for that on p. 477; of Jesus College,
+Cambridge, for that on p. 414; and of Sidney Sussex College,
+Cambridge, for that on p. 567; and the Treasurer of Christ's Hospital,
+London, for the portrait of Charles II. on p. 579. I have also to
+thank Mr. JOHN MURRAY for permission to engrave the figures on pp.
+130, 150, 160, 166, 177, 188, 260; Messrs. PARKER & Co., Oxford, for
+those on pp. 19, 51, 75, 91, 107, 128, 170, 192, 197, 230, 245, 246,
+247, 253, 409, 451; Mr. W. NIVES for those at pp. 381, 409, 451; Mr.
+J. G. WALLER for those on pp. 219, 229, 292, 298, 515; Mr. BRUCE for
+those on pp. 17, 18, 21; Messrs. POULTON & SONS, Lee, for those on pp.
+7, 132; Mr. G. A. NICHOLS, Stamford, for those on pp. 311, 316, Mr.
+G. T. CLARKE, for that on p. 74; Messrs. CARL NORMAN & Co., Tunbridge
+Wells, for that on p. 171; Mr. R. KEENE, Derby, for that on p. 318;
+the Rev. H. H. HENSON, Vicar of Barking, Essex, for the photograph of
+the monument of Sir Charles Montague on p. 507; the Science and Art
+Department for those on pp. 371, 440, 518, 612; Mr. W. H. WHEELER, of
+Oxford, for those on pp. 319, 384; Messrs. VALENTINE & SONS, Dundee,
+for those on pp. 109, 206, 213, 238, 244, 276, 355, 378, 485, 662,
+666, 668, 683, 907, 919, 937, 942; and Mr. R. KEENE, Derby, for those
+on pp. 466, 467, 469, 471.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME
+
+
+PART I.
+
+_ENGLAND BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST._
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+PREHISTORIC AND ROMAN BRITAIN.
+                                                             PAGE
+
+   1. Palaeolithic Man of the River-Drift                        1
+
+   2. Cave-dwelling Palaeolithic Man                             2
+
+   3. Neolithic Man                                             3
+
+   4. Celts and Iberians                                        5
+
+   5. The Celts in Britain                                      6
+
+   6. Goidels and Britons                                       6
+
+   7. Phoenicians and Greeks                                    7
+
+   8. Gauls and Belgians in Britain                             8
+
+   9. Culture and War                                           9
+
+  10. Religion of the Britons                                  10
+
+  11. The Romans in Gaul B.C. 55                               10
+
+  12. Caesar's First Invasion. B.C. 55                          11
+
+  13. Caesar's Second Invasion. B.C. 54                         11
+
+  14. South-eastern Britain after Caesar's Departure.
+      B.C. 54--A.D. 43                                         12
+
+  15. The Roman Empire                                         12
+
+  16. The Invasion of Aulus Plautius. A.D. 43                  12
+
+  17. The Colony of Camulodunum                                13
+
+  18. The Conquests of Ostorius Scapula                        14
+
+  19. Government of Suetonius Paullinus. 58                    14
+
+  20. Boadicea's Insurrection. 61                              15
+
+  21. The Vengeance of Suetonius                               15
+
+  22. Agricola in Britain. 78--84                              16
+
+  23. Agricola's Conquests in the North                        16
+
+  24. The Roman Walls                                          17
+
+  25. The Roman Province of Britain                            19
+
+  26. Extinction of Tribal Antagonism                          21
+
+  27. Want of National Feeling                                 22
+
+  28. Carausius and Allectus. 288--296                         22
+
+  29. Constantius and Constantine. 296--337                    22
+
+  30. Christianity in Britain                                  23
+
+  31. Weakness of the Empire                                   23
+
+  32. The Picts and Scots                                      23
+
+  33. The Saxons                                               24
+
+  34. Origin of the Saxons                                     24
+
+  35. The Roman Defence                                        24
+
+  36. End of the Roman Government. 383--410                    25
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS.
+
+   1. Britain after the Departure of the Romans.
+      410--449?                                                26
+
+   2. The Groans of the Britons                                26
+
+   3. The Conquest of Kent. 449?                               27
+
+   4. The South Saxons. 477                                    27
+
+   5. The West Saxons and the East Saxons                      28
+
+   6. The Anglian Settlements                                  28
+
+   7. Nature of the Conquest                                   28
+
+   8. The Cultivators of the Soil                              29
+
+   9. Eorls, Ceorls, Gesiths                                   29
+
+  10. The Gesiths and the Villagers                            30
+
+  11. English and Welsh                                        31
+
+  12. The Township and the Hundred                             31
+
+  13. Weregild                                                 32
+
+  14. Compurgation and Ordeal                                  32
+
+  15. Punishments                                              32
+
+  16. The Folk-moot                                            33
+
+  17. The Kingship                                             33
+
+  18. The Legend of Arthur                                     33
+
+  19. The West Saxon Advance                                   34
+
+  20. Repulse of the West Saxons                               35
+
+  21. The Advance of the Angles                                36
+
+  22. The Kymry                                                36
+
+  23. Britain at the End of the Sixth Century                  37
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE STRIFE OF THE ENGLISH KINGDOMS.
+
+   1. England and the Continent                                37
+
+   2. AEthelberht's Supremacy                                   38
+
+   3. Gregory and the English                                  38
+
+   4. Augustine's Mission. 597                                 39
+
+   5. Monastic Christianity                                    39
+
+   6. The Archbishopric of Canterbury                          40
+
+   7. Death of AEthelberht. 616                                 41
+
+   8. The Three Kingdoms opposed to the Welsh                  41
+
+   9. AEthelfrith and the Kymry                                 41
+
+  10. AEthelfrith's Victories                                   42
+
+  11. The Greatness of Eadwine                                 43
+
+  12. Eadwine's Supremacy                                      44
+
+  13. Character of the later Conquests                         44
+
+  14. Political Changes                                        45
+
+  15. Eadwine's Conversion and Fall                            46
+
+  16. Oswald's Victory at Heavenfield                          47
+
+  17. Oswald and Aidan                                         47
+
+  18. Oswald's Greatness and Overthrow                         47
+
+  19. Penda's Overthrow                                        48
+
+  20. The Three Kingdoms and the Welsh                         48
+
+  21. The English Missionaries                                 49
+
+  22. Dispute between Wilfrid and Colman. 664                  49
+
+  23. Archbishop Theodore and the Penitential System           50
+
+  24. Ealdhelm and Caedmon                                      51
+
+  25. Bede. 673--735                                           52
+
+  26. Church Councils                                          52
+
+  27. Struggle between Mercia and Wessex                       52
+
+  28. Mohammedanism and the Carolingian Empire                 54
+
+  29. Ecgberht's Rule. 802--839                                54
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP AND THE STRUGGLE WITH THE DANES.
+
+   1. The West Saxon Supremacy                                 55
+
+   2. The Coming of the Northmen                               56
+
+   3. The English Coast Plundered                              57
+
+   4. The Danes in the North                                   57
+
+   5. AElfred's Struggle in Wessex. 871--878                    58
+
+   6. The Treaty of Chippenham, and its Results. 878           59
+
+   7. AElfred's Military Work                                   60
+
+   8. His Laws and Scholarship                                 60
+
+   9. Eadward the Elder. 899--925                              62
+
+  10. Eadward's Conquests                                      62
+
+  11. Eadward and the Scots                                    63
+
+  12. AEthelstan. 925--940                                      63
+
+  13. Eadmund (940--946) and Eadred (946--955)                 63
+
+  14. Danes and English                                        64
+
+  15. Eadwig. 955--959                                         64
+
+  16. Dunstan                                                  65
+
+  17. Archbishop Oda                                           65
+
+  18. Eadwig's Marriage                                        67
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+EADGAR'S ENGLAND.
+
+   1. Eadgar and Dunstan. 959--975                             67
+
+   2. The Cession of Lothian                                   68
+
+   3. Changes in English Institutions                          69
+
+   4. Growth of the King's Power                               69
+
+   5. Conversion of the Freemen into Serfs                     69
+
+   6. The Hundred-moot and the Lord's Court                    72
+
+   7. The Towns                                                72
+
+   8. The Origin of the Shires                                 73
+
+   9. The Shire-moot                                           73
+
+  10. The Ealdormen and the Witenagemot                        73
+
+  11. The Land                                                 75
+
+  12. Domestic Life                                            75
+
+  13. Food and Drink                                           75
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ENGLAND AND NORMANDY.
+
+   1. Eadward the Martyr. 975--979                             78
+
+   2. AEthelred's Early Years. 979--988                         79
+
+   3. The Return of the Danes. 984                             79
+
+   4. The Norman Dukes. 912--1002                              80
+
+   5. Political Contrast between Normandy and England          81
+
+   6. Svend's Conquest. 1002--1013                             81
+
+   7. AEthelred Restored. 1014--1016                            82
+
+   8. Eadmund Ironside. 1016                                   83
+
+   9. Cnut and the Earldoms. 1016--1035                        83
+
+  10. Cnut's Empire                                            84
+
+  11. Cnut's Government                                        84
+
+  12. The Sons of Cnut. 1035--1042                             85
+
+  13. Eadward the Confessor and Earl Godwine.
+      1042--1051                                               86
+
+  14. The Banishment of Godwine. 1051                          87
+
+  15. Visit of Duke William. 1051                              88
+
+  16. William and the Norman Church                            88
+
+  17. The Return and Death of Godwine. 1052--1053              89
+
+  18. Harold's Greatness. 1053--1066                           89
+
+  19. Harold and Eadward. 1057--1065                           90
+
+  20. Death of Eadward. 1066                                   90
+
+  21. Harold and William. 1066                                 91
+
+  22. Stamford Bridge. 1066                                    93
+
+  23. The Landing of William. 1066                             96
+
+  24. The Battle of Senlac. 1066                               96
+
+  25. William's Coronation. 1066                               98
+
+
+PART II.
+
+_THE NORMAN AND ANGEVIN KINGS._
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+WILLIAM I. 1066--1087.
+
+   1. The First Months of the Conquest. 1066--1067            101
+
+   2. The Conquest of the West and North. 1067--1069          102
+
+   3. The Completion of the Conquest. 1070                    103
+
+   4. Hereward's Revolt and the Homage of Malcolm.
+      1070--1072                                              103
+
+   5. How William kept down the English                       104
+
+   6. How William kept down the Normans                       105
+
+   7. Ecclesiastical Organisation.                            106
+
+   8. Pope Gregory VII.                                       107
+
+   9. William and Gregory VII.                                108
+
+  10. The Rising of the Earls. 1075                           110
+
+  11. The New Forest                                          110
+
+  12. Domesday Book. 1085--1086                               111
+
+  13. William's Great Councils                                112
+
+  14. The Gemot at Salisbury. 1086                            113
+
+  15. William's Death. 1087                                   114
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+WILLIAM II. 1087--1100.
+
+   1. The Accession of the Red King. 1087                     114
+
+   2. The Wickedness of the Red King                          115
+
+   3. Ranulf Flambard                                         116
+
+   4. Feudal Dues                                             116
+
+   5. Archbishop Anselm                                       117
+
+   6. The Council of Rockingham. 1095                         118
+
+   7. William II. and his Brothers                            118
+
+   8. William and Scotland. 1093--1094                        119
+
+   9. Mowbray's Rebellion. 1095                               120
+
+  10. The First Crusade. 1095--1099                           120
+
+  11. Normandy in Pledge. 1096                                121
+
+  12. The Last Years of the Red King                          121
+
+  13. The Death of the Red King. 1100                         122
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+HENRY I. AND STEPHEN.
+
+HENRY I., 1100--1135. STEPHEN, 1135--1154.
+
+   1. The Accession of Henry I. 1100                          122
+
+   2. Invasion of Robert. 1101                                124
+
+   3. Revolt of Robert of Belleme. 1102                       124
+
+   4. The Battle of Tinchebrai. 1106                          124
+
+   5. Henry and Anselm. 1100--1107                            125
+
+   6. Roger of Salisbury                                      126
+
+   7. Growth of Trade                                         127
+
+   8. The Benedictines                                        128
+
+   9. The Cistercians                                         129
+
+  10. The White Ship                                          129
+
+  11. The Last Years of Henry I.                              131
+
+  12. Stephen's Accession. 1135                               131
+
+  13. Civil War                                               133
+
+  14. Stephen's Quarrel with the Clergy. 1139                 134
+
+  15. Anarchy. 1139                                           134
+
+  16. The End of the War. 1141--1148                          135
+
+  17. Henry, Duke of the Normans. 1149                        136
+
+  18. The Last Days of Stephen. 1153--1154                    137
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+HENRY II. 1154--1189.
+
+   1. Henry's Accession. 1154                                 138
+
+   2. Pacification of England                                 138
+
+   3. Henry and Feudality                                     140
+
+   4. The Great Council and the Curia Regis                   141
+
+   5. Scutage                                                 141
+
+   6. Archbishop Thomas. 1162                                 142
+
+   7. Breach between Henry and Thomas                         143
+
+   8. The Constitutions of Clarendon. 1164                    143
+
+   9. The Persecution of Archbishop Thomas. 1164              145
+
+  10. The Assize of Clarendon. 1166                           146
+
+  11. Recognitions                                            147
+
+  12. The Germ of the Jury                                    147
+
+  13. The Itinerant Justices Revived                          148
+
+  14. The Inquisition of the Sheriffs. 1170                   148
+
+  15. The Nobles and the Church                               149
+
+  16. The Coronation of Young Henry. 1170                     149
+
+  17. The Return of Archbishop Thomas. 1170                   149
+
+  18. Murder of Archbishop Thomas. 1170                       149
+
+  19. Popular Indignation. 1171                               151
+
+  20. State of Ireland                                        151
+
+  21. Partial Conquest of Ireland. 1166--1172                 152
+
+  22. Young Henry's Coronation and the Revolt of
+      the Barons. 1172--1174                                  153
+
+  23. The Assize of Arms. 1181                                154
+
+  24. Henry II. and his Sons                                  155
+
+  25. The Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. 1187              156
+
+  26. The Last Years of Henry II. 1188--1189                  157
+
+  27. The Work of Henry II.                                   157
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+RICHARD I. 1189--1199.
+
+   1. Richard in England. 1189                                159
+
+   2. William of Longchamps. 1189--1191                       159
+
+   3. The Third Crusade. 1189--1192                           161
+
+   4. The Return of Richard. 1192--1194                       161
+
+   5. Heavy Taxation                                          162
+
+   6. The Administration of Hubert Walter. 1194--1198         163
+
+   7. Death of Richard. 1199                                  165
+
+   8. Church and State under the Angevin Kings                165
+
+   9. Growth of Learning                                      167
+
+  10. The University of Oxford                                167
+
+  11. Country and Town                                        168
+
+  12. Condition of London                                     169
+
+  13. Architectural Changes                                   170
+
+
+PART III.
+
+_THE GROWTH OF THE PARLIAMENTARY CONSTITUTION._ 1199-1399.
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+JOHN. 1199-1216.
+
+   1. The Accession of John. 1199                             173
+
+   2. John's First War with Philip II. 1199-1200              173
+
+   3. John's Misconduct in Poitou 1200-1201                   174
+
+   4. The Loss of Normandy and Anjou. 1202-1204               174
+
+   5. Causes of Philip's Success                              176
+
+   6. The Election of Stephen Langton to the
+      Archbishopric of Canterbury. 1205                       176
+
+   7. Innocent III. and Stephen Langton. 1206                 177
+
+   8. John's Quarrel with the Church. 1206-1208               178
+
+   9. England under an Interdict. 1208                        178
+
+  10. John Excommunicated. 1209                               178
+
+  11. The Pope threatens John with Deposition.
+      1212-1213                                               179
+
+  12. John's Submission. 1213                                 180
+
+  13. The Resistance of the Barons and Clergy. 1213           180
+
+  14. The Battle of Bouvines. 1214                            181
+
+  15. The Struggle between John and the Barons.
+      1214-1215                                               181
+
+  16. Magna Carta. 1215                                       182
+
+  17. War between John and the Barons. 1215-1216              184
+
+  18. Conflict between Louis and John. 1216                   184
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+HENRY III. 1216-1272.
+
+   1. Henry III. and Louis. 1216-1217                         185
+
+   2. The Renewal of the Great Charter. 1216-1217             185
+
+   3. Administration of Hubert de Burgh. 1219-1232            186
+
+   4. Administration of Peter des Roches. 1232-1234           188
+
+   5. Francis of Assisi                                       190
+
+   6. St. Dominic                                             190
+
+   7. The Coming of the Friars. 1220-1224                     191
+
+   8. Monks and Friars                                        191
+
+   9. The King's Marriage. 1236                               192
+
+  10. The Early Career of Simon de Montfort.
+      1231-1243                                               193
+
+  11. Papal Exactions. 1237-1243                              194
+
+  12. A Weak Parliamentary Opposition. 1244                   194
+
+  13. Growing Discontent. 1244-1254                           195
+
+  14. The Knights of the Shire in Parliament. 1254            196
+
+  15. Fresh Exactions. 1254-1257                              196
+
+  16. The Provisions of Oxford. 1258                          198
+
+  17. The Expulsion of the Foreigners. 1258                   199
+
+  18. Edward and the Barons. 1259                             199
+
+  19. The Breach amongst the Barons. 1259--1261               199
+
+  20. Royalist Reaction and Civil War. 1261                   200
+
+  21. The Mise of Amiens. 1264                                200
+
+  22. The Battle of Lewes. 1264                               201
+
+  23. Earl Simon's Government. 1264--1265                     201
+
+  24. The Battle of Evesham. 1265                             203
+
+  25. The Last Years of Henry III. 1265--1272                 204
+
+  26. General Progress of the Country                         206
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+EDWARD I. AND EDWARD II.
+
+EDWARD I., 1272--1307. EDWARD II., 1307--1327.
+
+   1. The First Years of Edward I. 1272--1279                 208
+
+   2. Edward I. and Wales. 1276--1284                         210
+
+   3. Customs Duties. 1275                                    210
+
+   4. Edward's Judicial Reforms. 1274--1290                   212
+
+   5. Edward's Legislation. 1279--1290                        212
+
+   6. Edward as a National and as a Feudal Ruler              212
+
+   7. The Scottish Succession. 1285--1290                     214
+
+   8. Death of Eleanor of Castile. 1290                       214
+
+   9. The Award of Norham. 1291--1292                         215
+
+  10. Disputes with Scotland and France. 1293--1295           216
+
+  11. The Model Parliament. 1295                              218
+
+  12. The First Conquest of Scotland. 1296                    219
+
+  13. The Resistance of Archbishop Winchelsey.
+      1296--1297                                              220
+
+  14. The 'Confirmatio Cartarum.' 1297                        220
+
+  15. Wallace's Rising. 1297--1304                            221
+
+  16. The Second Conquest of Scotland. 1298--1304             221
+
+  17. The Incorporation of Scotland with England. 1305        222
+
+  18. Character of Edward's Dealings with Scotland            222
+
+  19. Robert Bruce. 1306                                      223
+
+  20. Edward's Third Conquest of Scotland and Death.
+      1306--1307                                              224
+
+  21. Edward II. and Piers Gaveston. 1307--1312               224
+
+  22. Success of Robert Bruce. 1307--1314                     226
+
+  23. Lancaster's Government. 1314--1322                      228
+
+  24. A Constitutional Settlement. 1322                       228
+
+  25. The Rule of the Despensers. 1322--1326                  228
+
+  26. The Deposition and Murder of Edward II. 1327            229
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD III. TO THE TREATY OF BRETIGNI.
+
+1327--1360.
+
+   1. Mortimer's Government. 1327--1330                       231
+
+   2. The French Succession. 1328--1331                       232
+
+   3. Troubles in Scotland. 1331--1336                        232
+
+   4. Dispute with France. 1336--1337                         234
+
+   5. Edward's Allies. 1337--1338                             235
+
+   6. Chivalry and War                                        235
+
+   7. Commerce and War                                        236
+
+   8. Attacks on the North of France. 1338--1340              237
+
+   9. Battle of Sluys. 1340                                   239
+
+  10. Attacks on the West of France. 1341--1345               240
+
+  11. The Campaign of Crecy. 1346                             240
+
+  12. The Tactics of Crecy. 1346                              241
+
+  13. The Battle of Crecy. August 26, 1346                    242
+
+  14. Battle of Nevill's Cross, and the Siege of
+      Calais. 1346--1347                                      242
+
+  15. Constitutional Progress. 1337--1347                     243
+
+  16. Edward's Triumph. 1347                                  246
+
+  17. The Black Death. 1348                                   248
+
+  18. The Statute of Labourers. 1351                          248
+
+  19. The Statute of Treasons. 1352                           250
+
+  20. The Black Prince in the South of France. 1355           251
+
+  21. The Battle of Poitiers. 1356                            251
+
+  22. The Courtesy of the Black Prince                        252
+
+  23. Misery of France. 1356--1359                            252
+
+  24. Edward's Last Invasion. 1359--1360                      252
+
+  25. The Treaty of Bretigni. 1360                            253
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+REIGN OF EDWARD III. AFTER THE TREATY OF BRETIGNI.
+
+1360--1377.
+
+   1. The First Years of Peace. 1360--1364                    254
+
+   2. The Spanish Troubles. 1364--1368                        254
+
+   3. The Taxation of Aquitaine. 1368--1369                   256
+
+   4. The Renewed War. 1369--1375                             256
+
+   5. Anti-Papal Legislation. 1351--1366                      257
+
+   6. Predominance of the English Language                    258
+
+   7. Piers the Plowman. 1362                                 258
+
+   8. The Anti-Clerical Party. 1371                           259
+
+   9. The Duke of Lancaster. 1374--1376                       260
+
+  10. John Wycliffe. 1366--1376                               261
+
+  11. Lancaster and the Black Prince. 1376                    261
+
+  12. The Good Parliament. 1376                               262
+
+  13. The Last Year of Edward III. 1376--1377                 262
+
+  14. Ireland from the Reign of John to that of
+      Edward II.                                              264
+
+  15. The Statute of Kilkenny. 1367                           265
+
+  16. Weakness of the English Colony. 1367--1377              265
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+RICHARD II. AND THE SOCIAL REVOLUTION.
+
+1377--1381.
+
+   1. The First Years of Richard II. 1377--1378               266
+
+   2. Wycliffe and the Great Schism. 1378--1381               266
+
+   3. The Poll Taxes. 1379--1381                              267
+
+   4. The Peasants' Grievances                                268
+
+   5. The Peasants' Revolt. 1381                              268
+
+   6. The Suppression of the Revolt                           269
+
+   7. Results of the Peasants' Revolt                         269
+
+   8. Chaucer's 'Canterbury Tales'                            270
+
+   9. The Prologue of the 'Canterbury Tales'                  270
+
+  10. Chaucer and the Clergy                                  271
+
+  11. Roads and Bridges                                       272
+
+  12. Modes of Conveyance                                     273
+
+  13. Hospitality and Inns                                    274
+
+  14. Alehouses                                               274
+
+  15. Wanderers                                               274
+
+  16. Robbers and Criminals                                   275
+
+  17. Justices of the Peace                                   277
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+RICHARD II. AND THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION.
+
+1382--1399.
+
+   1. Progress of the War with France. 1382--1386             278
+
+   2. Richard's Growing Unpopularity. 1385--1386              278
+
+   3. The Impeachment of Suffolk and the Commission
+      of Regency. 1386                                        279
+
+   4. The Lords Appellant and the Merciless Parliament.
+      1387--1388                                              279
+
+   5. Richard's Restoration to Power. 1389                    280
+
+   6. Richard's Constitutional Government. 1389--1396         280
+
+   7. Livery and Maintenance. 1390                            281
+
+   8. Richard's Domestic Policy. 1390--1391                   281
+
+   9. Richard's Foreign Policy. 1389--1396                    282
+
+  10. Richard's Coup d'Etat. 1397                             282
+
+  11. The Parliament of Shrewsbury. 1398                      283
+
+  12. The Banishment of Hereford and Norfolk. 1398            283
+
+  13. Richard's Despotism. 1398--1399                         283
+
+  14. Henry of Lancaster in England. 1399                     284
+
+  15. The Deposition of Richard and the Enthronement
+      of Henry IV. 1399                                       285
+
+  16. Nature of the Claim of Henry IV.                        286
+
+
+PART IV.
+
+_LANCASTER, YORK, AND TUDOR._ 1399--1509.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+HENRY IV. AND HENRY V.
+
+HENRY IV., 1399--1413. HENRY V., 1413--1422.
+
+   1. Henry's First Difficulties. 1399--1400                  289
+
+   2. Death of Richard II. 1400                               291
+
+   3. Henry IV. and the Church                                291
+
+   4. The Statute for the Burning of Heretics. 1401           292
+
+   5. Henry IV. and Owen Glendower. 1400--1402                292
+
+   6. The Rebellion of the Percies. 1402--1404                293
+
+   7. The Commons and the Church. 1404                        294
+
+   8. The Capture of the Scottish Prince. 1405                295
+
+   9. The Execution of Archbishop Scrope. 1405                296
+
+  10. France, Wales, and the North. 1405--1408                296
+
+  11. Henry, Prince of Wales. 1409--1410                      297
+
+  12. The Last Years of Henry IV. 1411-1413                   298
+
+  13. Henry V. and the Lollards. 1413-1414                    299
+
+  14. Henry's Claim to the Throne of France. 1414             300
+
+  15. The Invasion of France. 1415                            301
+
+  16. The March to Agincourt. 1415                            302
+
+  17. The Battle of Agincourt, October 25, 1415               302
+
+  18. Henry's Diplomacy. 1416-1417                            303
+
+  19. Henry's Conquest of Normandy. 1417-1419                 303
+
+  20. The Murder of the Duke of Burgundy and the
+      Treaty of Troyes. 1419-1420                             304
+
+  21. The Close of the Reign of Henry V. 1420-1422            306
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+HENRY VI. AND THE LOSS OF FRANCE. 1422-1451.
+
+   1. Bedford and Gloucester. 1422                            307
+
+   2. Bedford's Success in France. 1423-1424                  307
+
+   3. Gloucester's Invasion of Hainault. 1424                 308
+
+   4. Gloucester and Beaufort. 1425-1428                      308
+
+   5. The Siege of Orleans. 1428-1429                         309
+
+   6. Jeanne Darc and the Relief of Orleans. 1429             310
+
+   7. The Coronation of Charles VII. and the Capture
+      of the Maid. 1429-1430                                  311
+
+   8. The Martyrdom at Rouen. 1431                            312
+
+   9. The Last Years of the Duke of Bedford. 1431-1435        312
+
+  10. The Defection of Burgundy. 1435                         313
+
+  11. The Duke of York in France. 1436-1437                   313
+
+  12. The English Lose Ground. 1437-1443                      313
+
+  13. Continued Rivalry of Beaufort and Gloucester.
+      1439-1441                                               314
+
+  14. Beaufort and Somerset. 1442-1443                        317
+
+  15. The Angevin Marriage Treaty. 1444-1445                  317
+
+  16. Deaths of Gloucester and Beaufort. 1447                 318
+
+  17. The Loss of the French Provinces. 1448-1449             318
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+THE LATER YEARS OF HENRY VI. 1450-1461.
+
+   1. The Growth of Inclosures                                320
+
+   2. Increasing Power of the Nobility                        321
+
+   3. Case of Lord Molynes and John Paston                    321
+
+   4. Suffolk's Impeachment and Murder. 1450                  322
+
+   5. Jack Cade's Rebellion. 1450                             322
+
+   6. Rivalry of York and Somerset. 1450-1453                 323
+
+   7. The First Protectorate of the Duke of York.
+      1453-1454                                               323
+
+   8. The First Battle of St. Albans and the Duke
+      of York's Second Protectorate                           324
+
+   9. Discomfiture of the Yorkists. 1456-1459                 325
+
+  10. The Battle of Northampton and the Duke of
+      York's Claim to the Throne. 1460                        326
+
+  11. The Battle of Wakefield. 1460                           327
+
+  12. The Battle of Mortimer's Cross and the Second
+      Battle of St. Albans. 1461                              328
+
+  13. The Battle of Towton and the Coronation of
+      Edward IV. 1461                                         328
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+THE YORKIST KINGS.
+
+1461--1485.
+
+   1. Edward IV. and the House of Commons. 1461               329
+
+   2. Loss of the Mediaeval Ideals                             330
+
+   3. Fresh Efforts of the Lancastrians. 1462--1465           331
+
+   4. Edward's Marriage. 1464                                 331
+
+   5. Estrangement of Warwick. 1465--1468                     332
+
+   6. Warwick's Alliance with Clarence. 1469--1470            332
+
+   7. The Restoration of Henry VI. 1470                       333
+
+   8. Edward IV. recovers the Throne. 1471                    334
+
+   9. Edward IV. prepares for War with France.
+      1471--1474                                              334
+
+  10. The Invasion of France. 1475                            336
+
+  11. Fall and Death of Clarence. 1476--1478                  336
+
+  12. The Last Years of Edward IV. 1478--1483                 336
+
+  13. Edward V. and the Duke of Gloucester. 1483              337
+
+  14. Fall of the Queen's Relations. 1483                     338
+
+  15. Execution of Lord Hastings                              338
+
+  16. Deposition of Edward V. 1483                            340
+
+  17. Buckingham's Rebellion. 1483                            341
+
+  18. Murder of the Princes. 1483                             342
+
+  19. Richard's Government. 1484--1485                        342
+
+  20. Richard Defeated and Slain at Bosworth. 1485            343
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+HENRY VII. 1485--1509.
+
+   1. The First Measures of Henry VII. 1485--1486             343
+
+   2. Maintenance and Livery                                  345
+
+   3. Lovel's Rising. 1486                                    346
+
+   4. Lancaster and York in Ireland. 1399--1485               346
+
+   5. Insurrection of Lambert Simnel. 1487                    347
+
+   6. The Court of Star Chamber. 1487                         348
+
+   7. Henry VII. and Brittany. 1488--1492                     348
+
+   8. Cardinal Morton's Fork. 1491                            349
+
+   9. The Invasion of France. 1492                            349
+
+  10. Perkin Warbeck. 1491--1494                              350
+
+  11. Poynings' Acts. 1494                                    350
+
+  12. Perkin's First Attempt on England. 1495                 351
+
+  13. The Intercursus Magnus. 1496                            351
+
+  14. Kildare Restored to the Deputyship. 1496                352
+
+  15. Perkin's Overthrow. 1496--1497                          352
+
+  16. European Changes. 1494--1499                            352
+
+  17. Execution of the Earl of Warwick. 1499                  354
+
+  18. Prince Arthur's Marriage and Death. 1501--1502          354
+
+  19. The Scottish Marriage. 1503                             356
+
+  20. Maritime Enterprise                                     356
+
+  21. Growth of the Royal Power                               356
+
+  22. Empson and Dudley                                       357
+
+  23. Henry and his Daughter-in-law. 1502--1505               357
+
+  24. The Last Years of Henry VII. 1505--1509                 357
+
+  25. Architectural Changes and the Printing Press            358
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+  FIG.                                                       PAGE
+
+    1. Palaeolithic flint scraper from Icklingham, Suffolk       2
+
+    2. Palaeolithic flint implement from Hoxne, Suffolk          2
+       (_From Evans's_ 'Ancient Stone Implements')
+
+    3. Engraved bone from Cresswell Crags, Derbyshire           3
+       (_From the original in the British Museum_)
+
+    4. Neolithic flint arrow-head from Rudstone, Yorks          3
+
+    5. Neolithic celt or cutting instrument from Guernsey       3
+
+    6. Neolithic axe from Winterbourn Steepleton, Dorset        4
+       (_From Evans's_ 'Ancient Stone Implements')
+
+    7. Example of early British pottery                         4
+
+    8. 9. Examples of early British pottery                     5
+       (_From Greenwell's_ 'British Barrows')
+
+   10. Bronze celt from the Isle of Harty, Kent                 6
+
+   11. Bronze lance-head found in Ireland                       6
+
+   12. Bronze caldron found in Ireland                          6
+       (_From Evans's_ 'Ancient Bronze Implements')
+
+   13. View of Stonehenge                                       7
+       (_From a photograph_)
+
+   14. Part of a British gold corselet found at Mold, now
+       in the British Museum                                    9
+       (_From the_ 'Archaeologia')
+
+   15. Bust of Julius Caesar                                    10
+       (_From the original in the British Museum_)
+
+   16. Commemorative tablet of the Second Legion found at
+       Halton Chesters on the Roman Wall                       17
+
+   17. View of part of the Roman Wall                          18
+
+   18. Ruins of a mile-castle on the Roman Wall                18
+       (_From Bruce's_ 'Handbook to the Roman Wall,' 2nd
+       edition)
+
+   19. Part of the Roman Wall at Leicester                     19
+       (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 6th edition,
+       by J. H. Parker)
+
+   20. Pediment of a Roman temple found at Bath                20
+       (_Reduced from the_ 'Archaeologia')
+
+   21. Roman altar from Rutchester                             21
+       (_From Bruce's_ 'Handbook to the Roman Wall', 2nd
+       edition)
+
+   22. Plan of the city of Old Sarum                           34
+       (_From the Ordnance Survey Plan_)
+
+   23. View of Old Sarum                                       35
+       (_Reduced from Sir R. C. Hoare's_ 'History of
+       Modern Wiltshire. Old and New Sarum')
+
+   24. Saxon church at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts                 51
+       (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 6th edition,
+       by J. H. Parker)
+
+   25. Saxon horsemen                                          53
+
+   26. Group of Saxon warriors                                 53
+       (_From_ Harl. MS. 603)
+
+   27. Remains of a viking ship from Gokstad                   56
+       (_From a photograph of the original at Christiania_)
+
+   28. Gold ring of AEthelwulf                                  57
+
+   29. Gold jewel of AElfred found at Athelney                  59
+       (_From_ 'Archaeological Journal')
+
+   30. An English vessel                                       60
+
+   31. A Saxon house                                           61
+       (_From_ Harl. MS. 603)
+
+   32. A monk driven out of the King's presence                66
+       (_From a drawing belonging to the Society of
+       Antiquaries_)
+
+   33. Rural life in the eleventh century. January to June     70
+
+   34. Rural life in the eleventh century. July to December    71
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Julius A. vi.)
+
+   35. Plan and section of a burh of the eleventh century
+       at Laughton-en-le-Morthen, Yorks                        74
+       (_From G. T. Clark's_ 'Mediaeval Military Architecture')
+
+   37. Glass tumbler                                           76
+
+   38. Drinking-glass                                          76
+
+   39. Comb and case of Scandinavian type found at York        77
+       (_From the originals in the British Museum_)
+
+   40. Martyrdom of St. Edmund by the Danes                    82
+       (_From a drawing belonging to the Society of
+       Antiquaries_)
+
+   41. First Great Seal of Eadward the Confessor (obverse)     86
+       (_From an original impression_)
+
+   42. Hunting. (From the Bayeux Tapestry)                     87
+       (_Reduced from_ 'Vetusta Monumenta,' vol. vi.)
+
+   43. Tower in the earlier style, church at Earl's Barton     91
+
+   44. Tower in the earlier style, St. Benet's church,
+       Cambridge                                               91
+       (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 6th edition,
+       by J. H. Parker)
+
+   45. Building a church in the later style                    92
+       (_From a drawing belonging to the Society of
+       Antiquaries_)
+
+   46. Normans feasting; with Odo, bishop of Bayeux,
+       saying grace.                                           93
+      (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+   47. Harold swearing upon the Relics.                        94
+       (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+   48. A Norman ship.                                          95
+       (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+   49. Norman soldiers mounted.                                95
+       (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+   50. Group of archers on foot.                               96
+       (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+   51. Men fighting with axes.                                 97
+       (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+   52. Death of Harold. (From the Bayeux Tapestry)             98
+       (_Reduced from_ 'Vetusta Monumenta,' vol. vi.)
+
+   53. Coronation of a king, _temp._ William the Conqueror     99
+       (_From a drawing belonging to the Society of
+       Antiquaries_)
+
+   54. Silver penny of William the Conqueror, struck at
+       Romney                                                 101
+       (_From an original specimen_)
+
+   54. Silver penny of William the Conqueror, struck at
+       Romney                                                 101
+       (_From an original specimen_)
+
+   55. East end of Darenth church, Kent                       107
+       (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 6th edition,
+       by J. H. Parker)
+
+   56. Part of the nave of St. Alban's abbey church           109
+       (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+   57. Facsimile of a part of Domesday Book relating to
+       Berkshire                                              112
+       (_From the original MS. in the Public Record Office_)
+
+   58. Henry I. and his queen Matilda                         123
+       (_From Hollis's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   59. Seal of Milo of Gloucester, showing mounted armed
+       figure in the reign of Henry I.                        125
+       (_From an original impression_)
+
+   60. Monument of Roger, bishop of Salisbury, died 1139      127
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   61. Porchester church, Hampshire, built about 1135         128
+       (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 7th edition,
+        by J. H. Parker)
+
+   62. Part of the nave of Durham cathedral, built about
+       1130                                                   130
+       (_From Scott's_ 'Mediaeval Architecture,' London, J.
+       Murray)
+
+   63. Keep of Rochester castle, built between 1126 and
+       1139                                                   132
+       (_From a photograph by Poulton & Sons, Lee_)
+
+   64. Keep of Castle Rising, built about 1140-50             133
+       (_From a photograph_)
+
+   65. Tower of Castor church, Northamptonshire, built about
+       1145                                                   136
+       (_From Britton's_ 'Architectural Antiquities')
+
+   66. Effigies of Henry II. and queen Eleanor                139
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   67. Ecclesiastical costume in the twelfth century          142
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero C. iv. f. 37)
+
+   68. A bishop ordaining a priest                            144
+
+   69. Small ship of the latter part of the twelfth century   146
+       (_From_ 'Harley Roll,' Y. 6)
+
+   70. Part of the choir of Canterbury cathedral, in building
+       1175-1184                                              150
+       (_From Scott's_ 'Mediaeval Architecture,' London, J.
+       Murray)
+
+   71. Mitre of archbishop Thomas of Canterbury, preserved
+       at Sens                                                153
+       (_From Shaw's_ 'Dresses and Decorations')
+
+   72. Military and civil costume of the latter part of the
+       twelfth century                                        154
+       (_From_ 'Harley Roll,' Y. 6)
+
+   73. Royal Arms of England from Richard I. to Edward III.   159
+       (_From the wall arcade, south aisle of nave,
+       Westminster Abbey_)
+
+   74. The Galilee or Lady chapel, Durham cathedral,
+       built by bishop Hugh of Puiset, between 1180 and
+       1197                                                   160
+       (_From Scott's_ 'Mediaeval Architecture,' London, J.
+       Murray)
+
+   75. Effigy of a knight in the Temple church, London,
+       showing armour of the end of the twelfth century       162
+       (_From Hollis's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   76. Effigies of Richard I. and queen Berengaria            164
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   77. Part of the choir of Ripon cathedral, built during
+       the last quarter of the twelfth century                166
+       (_From Scott's_ 'Mediaeval Architecture,' London, J.
+       Murray)
+
+   78. Lay costumes in the twelfth century                    168
+
+   79. Costume of shepherds in the twelfth century            168
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero C. iv. ff. 11 and 16)
+
+   80. Hall of Oakham castle, Rutland, built about 1185       170
+       (_From Hudson Turner's_ 'Domestic Architecture')
+
+   81. Norman house at Lincoln, called the Jews' House        171
+       (_From a photograph by Carl Norman, Tunbridge Wells_)
+
+   82. Effigies of king John and queen Isabella               175
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   83. Effigy of bishop Marshall of Exeter, died 1206         177
+       (_From Murray's_ 'Handbook to the Southern Cathedrals')
+
+   84. Parsonage house of early thirteenth-century date at
+       West Dean, Sussex                                      179
+       (_From Hudson Turner's_ 'Domestic Architecture')
+
+   85. Effigy of a knight in the Temple church, London,
+       showing armour worn between 1190 and 1225              182
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   86. Silver penny of John, struck at Dublin                 184
+       (_From an original example_)
+
+   87. Effigy of Henry III. (From his tomb at Westminster)    186
+
+   88. Effigy of William Longespee, earl of Salisbury,
+       died 1227, from his tomb at Salisbury, showing armour
+       worn from about 1225 to 1250                           187
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   89. Effigy of Simon, bishop of Exeter, died 1223           188
+       (_From Murray's_ 'Handbook to the Southern Cathedrals')
+
+   90. Beverley Minster, Yorkshire, the south transept;
+       built about 1220--1230                                 189
+       (_From Britton's_ 'Architectural Antiquities')
+
+   91. Longthorpe manor house, Northamptonshire, built
+       about 1235                                             192
+       (_From Hudson Turner's_ 'Domestic Architecture')
+
+   92. A ship in the reign of Henry III.                      193
+
+   93. A bed in the reign of Henry III.                       196
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero D. i. ff. 21 and 22 _b_)
+
+   94. Barn of thirteenth-century date at Raunds,
+       Northamptonshire                                       197
+       (_From Hudson Turner's_ 'Domestic Architecture')
+
+   95. A fight between armed and mounted knights of the time
+       of Henry III.                                          201
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero D. i. f. 4)
+
+   96. Seal of Robert Fitzwalter, showing a mounted knight
+       in complete mail armour; date about 1265               202
+       (_From an original impression_)
+
+   97. Effigy of a knight at Gosperton, showing armour worn
+       from about 1250 to 1300; date about 1270               203
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+   98. Building operations in the reign of Henry III., with
+       the king giving directions to the architect            204
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero D. i. f. 23 _b_)
+
+   99. East end of Westminster abbey church; begun by
+       Henry III. in 1245                                     205
+       (_From a photograph_)
+
+  100. Nave of Salisbury cathedral church, looking west;
+       date, between 1240 and 1250                            206
+       (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+  101. A king and labourers in the reign of Henry III.        207
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero D. i. f. 21 _b_)
+
+  102. Great Seal of Edward I. (slightly reduced)             209
+       (_From an original impression_)
+
+  103. Group of armed knights and a king in ordinary
+       dress; date, _temp._ Edward I.                         211
+       (_From_ Arundel MS. 83, f. 132)
+
+  104. Nave of Lichfield cathedral church, looking east;
+       built about 1280                                       213
+       (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+  105. Effigy of Eleanor of Castile, queen of Edward I.,
+       in Westminster abbey                                   215
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  106. Cross erected near Northampton by Edward I. in
+       memory of queen Eleanor                                217
+       (_From a photograph_)
+
+  107. Sir John d'Abernoun, died 1277, from his brass at
+       Stoke Dabernon; showing armour worn from about 1250
+       to 1300                                                219
+       (_From Waller's_ 'Monumental Brasses')
+
+  108. Edward II. from his monument in Gloucester cathedral   225
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  109. Lincoln cathedral, the central tower; built about
+       1310                                                   227
+       (_From Britton's_ 'Architectural Antiquities')
+
+  110. Sir John de Creke, from his brass at Westley
+       Waterless, Cambridgeshire; showing armour worn
+       between 1300 and 1335 or 1340; date, about 1325        229
+       (_From Waller's_ 'Monumental Brasses')
+
+  111. Howden church, Yorkshire, the west front               230
+       (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 7th
+       edition, by J. H. Parker)
+
+  112. Effigies of Edward III. and queen Philippa, from
+       their tombs in Westminster abbey                       233
+       (_From Blore's_ 'Monumental Remains')
+
+  113. A knight--Sir Geoffrey Luttrell, who died
+       1345--receiving his helm and pennon from his wife;
+       another lady holds his shield                          236
+       (_From the Luttrell Psalter_, 'Vetusta Monumenta')
+
+  114. William of Hatfield, second son of Edward III.,
+       from his tomb in York Minster                          237
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  115. York Minster, the nave, looking west                   238
+       (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+  116. Royal Arms of Edward III., from his tomb               239
+       (_From a photograph_)
+
+  117. Shooting at the butts with the long bow                241
+
+  118. Contemporary view of a fourteenth-century walled
+       town                                                   243
+       (_From the Luttrell Psalter_, 'Vetusta Monumenta')
+
+  119. Gloucester cathedral church, the choir, looking east   244
+       (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+  120. The lord's upper chamber or solar at Sutton Courtenay
+       manor-house; date, about 1350                          245
+
+  121. Interior of the hall at Penshurst, Kent; built about
+       1340                                                   246
+
+  122. A small house or cottage at Meare, Somerset; built
+       about 1350                                             247
+
+  123. Norborough Hall, Northamptonshire; built about 1350    247
+       (_From Hudson Turner's_ 'Domestic Architecture')
+
+  124. Ploughing                                              248
+
+  125. Harrowing; and a boy slinging stones at the birds      248
+
+  126. Breaking the clods with mallets                        249
+
+  127. Cutting weeds                                          249
+
+  128. Reaping                                                249
+
+  129. Stacking corn                                          250
+
+  130. Threshing corn with a flail                            250
+       (_From the Luttrell Psalter_, 'Vetusta Monumenta')
+
+  131. West front of Edington church, Wilts; built about
+       1360                                                   253
+       (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 7th edition,
+       by J. H. Parker)
+
+  132. Gold noble of Edward III.                              255
+       (_From an original example_)
+
+  133. Effigy of Edward the Black Prince; from his tomb at
+       Canterbury                                             256
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  134. William of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester
+       1367-1404; from his tomb at Winchester                 260
+       (_From Murray's_ 'Handbook to the Southern Cathedrals')
+
+  135. Tomb of Edward III. in Westminster abbey               263
+       (_From Blore's_ 'Monumental Remains')
+
+  136. Figures of Edward the Black Prince and Lionel
+       duke of Clarence; from the tomb of Edward III.         264
+       (_From Hollis's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  137. Richard II. and his first queen, Anne of Bohemia;
+       from their tomb in Westminster abbey                   267
+       (_From Hollis's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  138. Portrait of Geoffrey Chaucer                           270
+       (_From Harl MS. 4866_)
+
+  139. A gentleman riding out with his hawk                   271
+
+  140. Carrying corn, a cart going uphill                     272
+
+  141. State carriage of the fourteenth century               273
+
+  142. Bear-baiting                                           275
+       (_From the Luttrell Psalter_, 'Vetusta Monumenta')
+
+  143. West end of the nave of Winchester cathedral church    276
+       (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+  144. Meeting of Henry of Lancaster and Richard II. at
+       Flint                                                  284
+
+  145. Henry of Lancaster claiming the throne                 285
+       (_From Harl MS. 1319_)
+
+  146. Effigy of a knight at Clehonger, showing development
+       of plate armour; date about 1400                       287
+       (_From Hollis's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  147. Henry IV. and his queen Joan of Navarre; from their
+       tomb in Canterbury cathedral church                    290
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  148. Royal arms as borne from about 1408 to 1603            291
+       (_From a fifteenth-century seal_)
+
+  149. Thomas Cranley, archbishop of Dublin; from his
+       brass at New College, Oxford, showing the
+       archiepiscopal costume                                 292
+       (_From Waller's_ 'Monumental Brasses')
+
+  150. The Battle of Shrewsbury                               294
+
+  151. Fight in the lists with poleaxes                       297
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Julius E. iv. ff. 4 and 7)
+
+  152. Costume of a judge about 1400; from a brass at
+       Deerhurst                                              298
+       (_From Waller's_ 'Monumental Brasses')
+
+  153. Henry V.                                               300
+       (_From an original portrait belonging to the Society
+       of Antiquaries_)
+
+  154. Effigy of William Phelip, lord Bardolph; from
+       his tomb at Dennington, Suffolk                        304
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  155. Marriage of Henry V. and Catherine of France           305
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Julius E. iv. f. 22)
+
+  156. Henry VI.                                              308
+       (_From an original picture in the National Portrait
+       Gallery_)
+
+  157. Fotheringay church, Northamptonshire; begun in 1434    311
+       (_From a photograph by G. A. Nichols, Stamford_)
+
+  158. and 159. Front and back views of the gilt-latten
+       effigy of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, died
+       1439; from his tomb at Warwick                         314, 315
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  160. Tattershall castle, Lincolnshire; built between 1433
+       and 1455                                               316
+       (_From a photograph by G. A. Nichols, Stamford_)
+
+  161. Part of Winfield manor-house, Derbyshire; built
+       about 1440                                             318
+       (_From a photograph by R. Keene, Derby_)
+
+  162. The Divinity School, Oxford; built between 1445 and
+       1454                                                   319
+       (_From a photograph by W. H. Wheeler, Oxford_)
+
+  163. A sea-fight                                            325
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Julius E. iv. f. 18 _b_)
+
+  164. Effigy of Sir Robert Harcourt, K.G., showing
+       armour worn from about 1445 to 1480                    326
+       (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+  165. Edward IV.                                             330
+       (_From an original portrait belonging to the Society
+       of Antiquaries_)
+
+  166. A fifteenth-century ship                               333
+       (_From_ Harl. MS. 2278, f. 16)
+
+  167. Large ship and boat of the fifteenth century           339
+       (_From_ Cott. MS. Julius E. iv. f. 5)
+
+  168. Richard III.                                           341
+       (_From an original portrait belonging to the Society
+       of Antiquaries_)
+
+  169. Henry VII.                                             344
+
+  170. Elizabeth of York, queen of Henry VII.                 345
+       (_From original pictures in the National Portrait
+       Gallery_)
+
+  171. Tudor Rose; from the chapel of Henry VII.,
+       Westminster                                            346
+
+  172. Tower of St. Mary's church, Taunton; built about 1500  353
+       (_From Britton's_ 'Architectural Antiquities')
+
+  173. King's College Chapel, Cambridge; interior, looking
+       east                                                   355
+       (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+
+
+
+GENEALOGICAL TABLES
+
+
+I
+
+_ENGLISH KINGS FROM ECGBERHT TO HENRY I._
+
+
+                                  ECGBERHT
+                                   802-839
+                                      |
+                                      |
+                                  AETHELWULF
+                                   839-858
+                                      |
+             +---------------+--------+--------+-----------------+
+             |               |                 |                 |
+             |               |                 |                 |
+         AETHELBALD       AETHELBERHT         AETHELRED          AELFRED
+          858-86          860-866            866-871         871-901
+                                                                 |
+                                                                 |
+                   +---------------------------------------------+
+                   |                                             |
+                   |                                             |
+                EADWARD                                  AEthelflaed = AEthelred
+                the Elder                             (the Lady of   Ealdorman
+                 899-924                                   the        of the
+                   |                                     Mercians)   Mercians
+                   |
+                   |
+                   +--------------------+--------------------+
+                   |                    |                    |
+                   |                    |                    |
+                AETHELSTAN            EADMUND               EADRED
+                  924-940            940-946              946-955
+                                        |
+                                        |
+            +---------------------------+
+            |                           |
+          EADWIG          AEthelflaed = EADGAR  = AElfthryth
+         955-959                    | 959-975 |
+                                    |         |
+                                    |         |  Richard I.   Svend
+                                    |         |   Duke of      |
+                                    |         |  Normandy      |
+                                    |         |        |       |
+                                    |         |        |       |
+                   +----------------+         |        |       |
+                   |                          |        |       |
+                EADWARD           AElfled = AETHELRED = EMMA = CNUT
+               the Martyr                |   the    |      1016-1035
+                 975-979                 | Unready  |          |
+                                         | 979-1016 |          |
+       +---------------------------------+          |          |
+       |                                            |   +------+-----+
+       |                                            |   |            |
+    EADMUND                                         |   |            |
+    Ironside                                        |  HAROLD   HARTHACNUT
+      1016                                          | 1036-1039  1039-1042
+       |                                            |
+       |                                            |
+       |                                            |             Godwine
+       |                                            |                |
+       |                                            |                |
+       |                                            |          +------------+
+  +----+-------+                      +-------------+          |            |
+  |            |                      |             |          |            |
+ Eadmund     Eadward                AElfred        EADWARD = Eadgyth       HAROLD
+          the AEtheling               the            the                    1066
+               |                    AEtheling     Confessor
+               |                                 1042-1066
+        +------+------+
+        |             |
+     Eadgar         Margaret = Malcolm Canmore
+  the AEtheling               |
+                             |
+                          Eadgyth =   HENRY I.
+                          (Matilda)  1100-1135
+
+
+II
+
+_GENEALOGY OF THE NORMAN DUKES AND OF THE KINGS OF ENGLAND FROM THE
+CONQUEST TO HENRY VII._
+
+
+                             Hrolf
+                           912-927 (?)
+                               |
+                               |
+                       William Longsword
+                          927 (?)-943
+                               |
+                               |
+                     Richard I., the Fearless
+                            943-996
+                               |
+                               |
+                 +-------------+----------------+
+                 |                              |
+                 |                              |
+       Richard II., the Good               Emma = (1) AEthelred
+              996-1026                          | the Unready
+                 |                              |
+                 |                              |
+         +-------+--------+                     |
+         |                |                     |
+         |                |                     |
+    Richard III.        Robert                EADWARD
+     1026-1028         1028-1035           the Confessor
+                          )
+                          (
+                          )
+                      WILLIAM I
+                       1035-1087
+                    King of England
+                       1066-1087
+                           |
+                           |
+                           |
+        +--------------+---+-------+-----------------+
+        |              |           |                 |
+        |              |           |                 |
+      Robert      WILLIAM II    HENRY I.       Adela = Stephen
+      Duke of      1087-1100   1100-1135             | Count of
+      Normandy                     |                 |  Blois
+      1087-1106                    |                 |
+                                   |                 |
+                     Henry V. = Matilda = Geoffrey  STEPHEN
+                     Emperor            | Count of  1135-1154
+                                        | Anjou
+                                        |
+                                      HENRY II.
+                                     1154-1189
+                                        |
+                         +--------------+
+                         |
+      +-----------+------+------+------------+
+      |           |             |            |
+    Henry     Geoffrey      RICHARD I.     JOHN
+                            1189-1199    1199-1216
+                                             |
+                                             |
+                                         HENRY III.
+                                         1216-1272
+                                             |
+                             +---------------+
+                             |
+                         EDWARD I.
+                         1272-1307
+                             |
+                             |
+                        EDWARD II.
+                         1307-1327
+                             |
+                             |
+                        EDWARD III
+                         1327-1377
+                             |
+        +---------------+----+------------------+----------------+
+        |               |                       |                |
+        |               |                       |                |
+    Edward the       Lionel              John of Gaunt        Edmund
+    Black Prince  Duke of Clarence      Duke of Lancaster   Duke of York
+        |               |                       |                |
+    RICHARD II.    Philippa = Edmund        HENRY IV.            |
+    1377-1399               | Mortimer      1399-1412            |
+                            |  Earl of          |                |
+                            |  March        HENRY V.             |
+                            |               1413-1422            |
+                  Roger, Earl of March          |                |
+                            |               HENRY VI.            |
+                            |               1422-1461            |
+                            |                                    |
+                   +--------+--+       +-------------------------+
+                   |           |       |
+                   |           |       |
+                Edmund       Anne = Richard
+             Earl of March        | Earl of Cambridge
+                                  |
+                        Richard, Duke of York
+                                  |
+                                  |
+                      +-----------+----------+
+                      |                      |
+                      |                      |
+                  EDWARD IV.              RICHARD III.
+                  1461-1483                1483-1485
+                      |
+                      |
+               +------+------------+
+               |                   |
+            EDWARD V.          Elizabeth = HENRY VII.
+              1483                         1485-1509
+                                          (Descended from
+                                          John of Gaunt by
+                                         Catherine Swynford)
+
+
+III
+
+_GENEALOGY OF THE KINGS OF SCOTLAND FROM DUNCAN I. TO JAMES IV._
+
+
+                           DUNCAN I.
+                          (died 1057)
+                               |
+                      +--------+-----------------+
+                      |                          |
+      Margaret = MALCOLM III.~~~~~~~~~         DONALD BANE
+     sister of |    Canmore          )          1093-1094,
+      Edgar    |   1057-1093         (           restored
+     AEtheling  |                     )          1095-1098
+               |                     (
+               |                   DUNCAN II.
+      +--------+--+-----------+     1094-1095
+      |           |           |
+    EDGAR    ALEXANDER I.  DAVID I.
+  1098-1107   1107-1124    1124-1153
+                               |
+                             Henry
+                               |
+       +-----------+-----------+--------+
+       |           |                    |
+  MALCOLM IV.   WILLIAM               David
+  1153-1165     the Lion        Earl of Huntingdon
+                1165-1214                |
+                    |                 +--+---------------------+
+                    |                 |                        |
+              ALEXANDER II.        Margaret                 Isabella
+                 1214-1249            |                        |
+                                 Devorguilla = John Balliol Robert Bruce
+              ALEXANDER III.                 |                 |
+                 1249-1285           JOHN BALLIOL           Robert Bruce
+                     |                 1292-1296               |
+                 Margaret = Eric,                           ROBERT BRUCE
+                          |  King of                          1306-1329
+                          |  Norway                            |
+                          |                    +-------------+-+
+                          |                    |             |
+                       Margaret             DAVID II.      Margaret = Walter
+                    (the Maid of            1329-1370               | Stewart
+                       Norway)                                      |
+                                          +-------------------------+
+                                          |
+                             ROBERT II., Stewart or Stuart
+                                      1370-1390
+                                          |
+                                     ROBERT III.
+                                      1390-1406
+                                          |
+                                      JAMES I.
+                                      1406-1437
+                                          |
+                                      JAMES II.
+                                      1437-1460
+                                          |
+                                      JAMES III.
+                                      1460-1488
+                                          |
+                                      JAMES IV.
+                                      1488-1513
+
+
+IV
+
+_GENEALOGY OF THE KINGS OF FRANCE FROM HUGH CAPET TO LOUIS XII._
+
+
+                    Hugh the Great
+                      (died 956)
+                           |
+                       HUGH CAPET
+                        987-996
+                           |
+                         ROBERT
+                        996-1031
+                           |
+                        HENRY I.
+                       1031-1060
+                           |
+                       PHILIP I.
+                       1060-1108
+                           |
+                       LOUIS VI.
+                       1108-1137
+                           |
+                       LOUIS VII.
+                       1137-1180
+                           |
+                       PHILIP II.
+                       1180-1223
+                           |
+                      LOUIS VIII.
+                       1223-1226
+                           |
+                     (St.) LOUIS IX
+                       1226-1270
+                           |
+                      PHILIP III.
+                       1270-1285
+                           |
+                           +---------------------------------+
+                           |                                 |
+                       PHILIP IV.                          Charles
+                       1283-1314                          of Valois
+                           |                                  |
+       +---------------+---+--------+------------+            |
+       |               |            |            |        PHILIP VI
+    LOUIS X.       PHILIP V.   CHARLES IV.    Isabella    1328-1350
+    1314-1316      1316-1322    1322-1328  m. Edward II.      |
+        |              |                        |             |
+     +--+---+          |                        |             |
+     |      |         Two                   Edward III.      JOHN
+  Jeanne  JOHN     daughters                               1350-1364
+         (died seven                                           |
+          days old)                                            |
+                             +-----------------------------+---+
+                             |                             |
+                         CHARLES V.                Dukes of Burgundy
+                         1364-1380                      Philip
+                             |                             |
+       +---------------------+                             |
+       |                     |                            John
+  CHARLES VI.              Louis                           |
+   1380-1422          Duke of Orleans                    Philip
+       |                     |                             |
+  CHARLES VII.            Charles                       Charles
+   1422-1461          Duke of Orleans
+       |                     |
+   LOUIS XI.             LOUIS XII.
+   1461-1483             1498-1519
+       |
+  CHARLES VIII.
+   1483-1498
+
+
+_SHORTER AND SOMETIMES MORE DETAILED GENEALOGIES will be found in the
+following pages._
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+  Genealogy of the principal Northumbrian kings                     41
+
+      "       "  English kings from Ecgberht to Eadgar              56
+
+      "       "  English kings from Eadgar to Eadgar the AEtheling   78
+
+      "       "  Danish kings                                       83
+
+  Genealogical connection between the Houses of England and
+               Normandy                                             84
+
+  Genealogy of the Mercian Earls                                    85
+
+      "       "  family of Godwine                                  89
+
+      "       "  Conqueror's sons and children                     131
+
+      "       "  sons and grandchildren of Henry II.               156
+
+      "       "  John's sons and grandsons                         208
+
+      "       "  claimants of the Scottish throne                  216
+
+      "       "  more important sons of Edward III.                265
+
+      "       "  claimants of the throne in 1399                   286
+
+      "       "  kings of Scotland from Robert Bruce to James I.   295
+
+      "       "  Nevills                                           324
+
+      "       "  Houses of Lancaster and York                      327
+
+      "       "  Beauforts and Tudors                              335
+
+      "       "  House of York                                     337
+
+      "       "  Woodvilles and Greys                              338
+
+  Abbreviated genealogy of Henry VII. and his competitors          344
+
+  Genealogy of the Houses of Spain and Burgundy                    349
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
+
+
+PART I.
+
+_ENGLAND BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+PREHISTORIC AND ROMAN BRITAIN.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Caesar's first invasion                                       B.C. 55
+  Invasion of Aulus Plautius                                   A.D. 43
+  Recall of Agricola                                                84
+  Severus in Britain                                               208
+  End of the Roman Government                                      410
+
+
+1. =Palaeolithic Man of the River-Drift.=--Countless ages ago, there
+was a period of time to which geologists have given the name of the
+Pleistocene Age. The part of the earth's surface afterwards called
+Britain was then attached to the Continent, so that animals could pass
+over on dry land. The climate was much colder than it is now, and it
+is known from the bones which have been dug up that the country was
+inhabited by wolves, bears, mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses, and other
+creatures now extinct. No human remains have been found amongst these
+bones, but there is no doubt that men existed contemporaneously with
+their deposit, because, in the river drift, or gravel washed down by
+rivers, there have been discovered flints sharpened by chipping, which
+can only have been produced by the hand of man. The men who used them
+are known as Palaeolithic, or the men of ancient stone, because these
+stone implements are rougher and therefore older than others which
+have been discovered. These Palaeolithic men of the river drift were a
+race of stunted savages who did not cultivate the ground, but lived on
+the animals which they killed, and must have had great difficulty in
+procuring food, as they did not know how to make handles for their
+sharpened flints, and must therefore have had to hold them in their
+hands.
+
+[Illustration: Palaeolithic flint scraper from Icklingham, Suffolk.
+(Evans.)]
+
+[Illustration: Palaeolithic flint implement from Hoxne, Suffolk.]
+
+2. =Cave-dwelling Palaeolithic Man.=--This race was succeeded by
+another which dwelt in caves. They, as well as their predecessors, are
+known as Palaeolithic men, as their weapons were still very rude. As,
+however, they had learnt to make handles for them, they could
+construct arrows, harpoons, and javelins. They also made awls and
+needles of stone; and, what is more remarkable, they possessed a
+decided artistic power, which enabled them to indicate by a few
+vigorous scratches the forms of horses, mammoths, reindeer, and other
+animals. Vast heaps of rubbish still exist in various parts of Europe,
+which are found to consist of the bones, shells, and other refuse
+thrown out by these later Palaeolithic men, who had no reverence for
+the dead, casting out the bodies of their relations to decay with as
+little thought as they threw away oyster-shells or reindeer-bones.
+Traces of Palaeolithic men of this type have been found as far north as
+Derbyshire. Their descendants are no longer be met with in these
+islands. The Eskimos of the extreme north of America, however, have
+the same artistic faculty and the same disregard for the dead, and it
+has therefore been supposed that the cave-dwelling men were of the
+race to which the modern Eskimos belong.
+
+[Illustration: Engraved bone from Cresswell Crags, Derbyshire, now in
+the British Museum (full size).]
+
+[Illustration: Neolithic flint arrow-head from Rudstone, Yorks.
+(Evans.)]
+
+[Illustration: Neolithic celt or cutting instrument from Guernsey.
+(Evans.)]
+
+[Illustration: Neolithic axe from Winterbourn Steepleton, Dorset.
+(Evans.)]
+
+[Illustration: Early British Pottery.]
+
+3. =Neolithic Man.=--Ages passed away during which the climate became
+more temperate, and the earth's surface in these regions sank to a
+lower level. The seas afterwards known as the North Sea and the
+English Channel flowed over the depression; and an island was thus
+formed out of land which had once been part of the continent. After
+this process had taken place, a third race appeared, which must have
+crossed the sea in rafts or canoes, and which took the place of the
+Palaeolithic men. They are known as Neolithic, or men of the new stone
+age, because their stone implements were of a newer kind, being
+polished and more efficient than those of their predecessors. They
+had, therefore, the advantage of superior weapons, and perhaps of
+superior strength, and were able to overpower those whom they found in
+the island. With their stone axes they made clearings in the woods in
+which to place their settlements. They brought with them domestic
+animals, sheep and goats, dogs and pigs. They spun thread with spindle
+and distaff, and wove it into cloth upon a loom. They grew corn and
+manufactured a rude kind of pottery. Each tribe lived in a state of
+war with its neighbours. A tribe when attacked in force took shelter
+on the hills in places of refuge, which were surrounded by lofty
+mounds and ditches. Many of these places of refuge are still to be
+seen, as, for instance, the one which bears the name of Maiden Castle,
+near Dorchester. On the open hills, too, are still to be found the
+long barrows which the Neolithic men raised over the dead. There is
+little doubt that these men, whose way of life was so superior to that
+of their Eskimo-like predecessors, were of the race now known as
+Iberian, which at one time inhabited a great part of Western Europe,
+but which has since mingled with other races. The Basques of the
+Pyrenees are the only Iberians who still preserve anything like purity
+of descent, though even the Basques have in them blood the origin of
+which is not Iberian.
+
+[Illustration: Early British Pottery.]
+
+4. =Celts and Iberians.=--The Iberians were followed by a swarm of
+new-comers called Celts. The Celts belong to a group of races
+sometimes known as the Aryan group, to which also belong Teutons,
+Slavonians, Italians, Greeks, and the chief ancient races of Persia
+and India. The Celts were the first to arrive in the West, where they
+seized upon lands in Spain, in Gaul, and in Britain, which the
+Iberians had occupied before them. They did not, however, destroy the
+Iberians altogether. However careful a conquering tribe maybe to
+preserve the purity of its blood, it rarely succeeds in doing so. The
+conquerors are sure to preserve some of the men of the conquered race
+as slaves, and a still larger number of young and comely women who
+become the mothers of their children. In time the slaves and the
+children learn to speak the language of their masters or fathers. Thus
+every European population is derived from many races.
+
+[Illustration: Bronze celt from the Isle of Harty, Kent (1/2).]
+
+5. =The Celts in Britain.=--The Celts were fair-haired and taller than
+the Iberians, whom they conquered or displaced. They had the advantage
+of being possessed of weapons of bronze, for which even the polished
+stone weapons of the Iberians were no match. They burned instead of
+burying their dead, and raised over the ashes those round barrows
+which are still to be found intermingled with the long barrows of the
+Iberians.
+
+[Illustration: Bronze lance-head found in Ireland.]
+
+[Illustration: Bronze caldron found in Ireland.]
+
+6. =Goidels and Britons.=--The earliest known name given to this
+island was Albion. It is uncertain whether the word is of Celtic or of
+Iberian origin. The later name Britain is derived from a second swarm
+of Celts called Brythons or Britons, who after a long interval
+followed the first Celtic immigration. The descendants of these first
+immigrants are distinguished from the new-comers by the name of
+Goidels, and it is probable that they were at one time settled in
+Britain as well as in Ireland, and that they were pushed across the
+sea into Ireland by the stronger and more civilised Britons. At all
+events, when history begins Goidels were only to be found in Ireland,
+though at a later time they colonised a part of what is now known as
+Scotland, and sent some offshoots into Wales. At present the languages
+derived from that of the Goidels are the Gaelic of the Highlands, the
+Manx of the Isle of Man, and the Erse of Ireland. The only language
+now spoken in the British Isles which is derived from that of the
+Britons is the Welsh; but the old Cornish language, which was spoken
+nearly up to the close of the eighteenth century, came from the same
+stock. It is therefore likely that the Britons pushed the Goidels
+northward and westward, as the Goidels had formerly pushed the
+Iberians in the same directions. It was most likely that the Britons
+erected the huge stone circle of Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain, though
+it is not possible to speak with certainty. That of Avebury is of an
+earlier date and uncertain origin. Both were probably intended to
+serve as monuments of the dead, though it is sometimes supposed that
+they were also used as temples.
+
+[Illustration: View of Stonehenge. (From a photograph.)]
+
+7. =Phoenicians and Greeks.=--The most civilised nations of the
+ancient world were those which dwelt round the Mediterranean Sea. It
+was long supposed that the Phoenicians came to Britain from the coast
+of Syria, or from their colonies at Carthage and in the south of
+Spain, for the tin which they needed for the manufacture of bronze.
+The peninsula of Devon and Cornwall is the only part of the island
+which produces tin, and it has therefore been thought that the
+Cassiterides, or tin islands, which the Phoenicians visited, were to
+be found in that region. It has, however, been recently shown that the
+Cassiterides were most probably off the coast of Galicia, in Spain,
+and the belief that Phoenicians visited Britain for tin must therefore
+be considered to be very doubtful. The first educated visitor who
+reached Britain was Pytheas, a Greek, who was sent by the merchants of
+the Greek colony of Massalia (_Marseilles_) about =330= B.C. to make
+discoveries which might lead to the opening across Gaul of a
+trade-route between Britain and their city. It was probably in
+consequence of the information which he carried to Massalia on his
+return that there sprang up a trade in British tin. Another Greek,
+Posidonius, who came to Britain about two centuries after Pytheas,
+found this trade in full working order. The tin was brought by land
+from the present Devon or Cornwall to an island called Ictis, which
+was only accessible on foot after the tide had ebbed. This island was
+probably Thanet, which was in those days cut off from the mainland by
+an arm of the sea which could be crossed on foot at low water. From
+Thanet the tin was carried into Gaul across the straits, and was then
+conveyed in waggons to the Rhone to be floated down to the
+Mediterranean.
+
+8. =Gauls and Belgians in Britain.=--During the time when this trade
+was being carried on, tribes of Gauls and Belgians landed in Britain.
+The Gauls were certainly, and the Belgians probably, of the same
+Celtic race as that which already occupied the island. The Gauls
+settled on the east coast as far as the Fens and the Wash, whilst the
+Belgians occupied the south coast, and pushed northwards towards the
+Somerset Avon. Nothing is known of the relations between the
+new-comers and the older Celtic inhabitants. Most likely those who
+arrived last contented themselves with mastering those whom they
+defeated, without attempting to exterminate them. At all events,
+states of some extent were formed by the conquerors. Thus the Cantii
+occupied the open ground to the north of the great forest which then
+filled the valley between the chalk ranges of the North and South
+Downs; the Trinobantes dwelt between the Lea and the Essex Stour; the
+Iceni occupied the peninsula between the Fens and the sea which was
+afterwards known as East Anglia (_Norfolk_ and _Suffolk_); and the
+Catuvellauni dwelt to the west of the Trinobantes, spreading over the
+modern Hertfordshire and the neighbouring districts.
+
+[Illustration: Part of a British gold corselet found at Mold.]
+
+9. =Culture and War.=--Though there were other states in Britain, the
+tribes which have been named had the advantage of being situated on
+the south-eastern part of the island, and therefore of being in
+commercial communication with the continental Gauls of their own race
+and language. Trade increased, and brought with it the introduction of
+some things which the Britons would not have invented for themselves.
+For instance, the inhabitants of the south-east of Britain began to
+use gold coins and decorations in imitation of those which were then
+common in Gaul. Yet, in spite of these improvements, even the most
+civilised Britons were still in a rude and barbarous condition. They
+had no towns, but dwelt in scattered huts. When they were hard pressed
+by an enemy they took refuge in an open space cleared in the woods,
+and surrounded by a high earthwork crowned by a palisade and guarded
+by felled trees. When they went out to battle they dyed their faces in
+order to terrify their enemies. Their warriors made use of chariots,
+dashing in them along the front of the enemy's line till they espied
+an opening in his ranks. They then leapt down and charged on foot into
+the gap. Their charioteers in the meanwhile drove off the horses to a
+safe distance, so as to be ready to take up their comrades if the
+battle went against them.
+
+10. =Religion of the Britons.=--The Celtic races worshipped many gods.
+In Gaul, the Druids, who were the ministers of religion, taught the
+doctrine of the transmigration of souls, and even gave moral
+instruction to the young. In Ireland, and perhaps in Britain, they
+were conjurers and wizards. Both in Gaul and Britain they kept up the
+traditional belief which had once been prevalent in all parts of the
+world, that the gods could only be appeased by human sacrifices. It
+was supposed that they needed either to drink human blood or to be
+supplied with human slaves, and that the only way to give them what
+they wanted was to despatch as many human beings as possible into the
+other world. The favourite way of doing this was to construct a huge
+wicker basket in the shape of a man, to cram it with men and women,
+and to set it on fire. At other times a Druid would cut open a single
+human victim, and would imagine that he could foretell the future by
+inspecting the size and appearance of the entrails.
+
+[Illustration: Julius Caesar. (From a bust in the British Museum.)]
+
+11. =The Romans in Gaul.= B.C. =55=.--In the year =55= B.C. the Celts
+of south-eastern Britain first came in contact with a Roman army. The
+Romans were a civilised people, and had been engaged for some
+centuries in conquering the peoples living round the Mediterranean.
+They possessed disciplined armies, and a regular government. By the
+beginning of the year the Roman general, Gaius Julius Caesar, had made
+himself master of Gaul. Then, after driving back with enormous
+slaughter two German tribes which had invaded Gaul, he crossed the
+Rhine, not because he wished to conquer Germany, but because he wished
+to strike terror into the Germans in order to render them unwilling
+to renew their attack. This march into Germany seems to have suggested
+to Caesar the idea of invading Britain. It is most unlikely that he
+thought of conquering the island, as he had quite enough to do in
+Gaul. What he really wanted was to prevent the Britons from coming to
+the help of their kindred whom he had just subdued, and he would
+accomplish this object best by landing on their shores and showing
+them how formidable a Roman army was.
+
+12. =Caesar's First Invasion.= B.C. =55=.--Accordingly, towards the end
+of August, Caesar crossed the straits with about 10,000 men. There is
+some uncertainty about the place of his landing, but he probably first
+appeared off the spot at which Dover now stands, and then, being
+alarmed at the number of the Britons who had crowded to defend the
+coast, made his way by sea to the site of the modern Deal. There, too,
+his landing was opposed, but he managed to reach the shore with his
+army. He soon found, however, that the season was too advanced to
+enable him to accomplish anything. A storm having damaged his shipping
+and driven off the transports on which was embarked his cavalry, he
+returned to Gaul.
+
+13. =Caesar's Second Invasion.= B.C. =54=--Caesar had hitherto failed to
+strike terror into the Britons. In the following year he started in
+July, so as to have many weeks of fine weather before him, taking with
+him as many as 25,000 foot and 2,000 horse. After effecting a landing
+he pushed inland to the Kentish Stour, where he defeated the natives
+and captured one of their stockades. Good soldiers as the Romans were,
+they were never quite at home on the sea, and Caesar was recalled to
+the coast by the news that the waves had dashed to pieces a large
+number of his ships. As soon as he had repaired the damage he resumed
+his march. His principal opponent was Cassivelaunus, the chief of the
+tribe of the Catuvellauni, who had subdued many of the neighbouring
+tribes, and whose stronghold was a stockade near the modern St.
+Albans. This chief and his followers harassed the march of the Romans
+with the rush of their chariots. If Cassivelaunus could have counted
+upon the continued support of all his warriors, he might perhaps have
+succeeded in forcing Caesar to retreat, as the country was covered with
+wood and difficult to penetrate. Many of the tribes, however, which
+now served under him longed to free themselves from his rule. First,
+the Trinobantes and then four other tribes broke away from him and
+sought the protection of Caesar. Caesar, thus encouraged, dashed at his
+stockade and carried it by storm. Cassivelaunus abandoned the
+struggle, gave hostages to Caesar, and promised to pay a yearly
+tribute. On this Caesar returned to Gaul. Though the tribute was never
+paid, he had gained his object. He had sufficiently frightened the
+British tribes to make it unlikely that they would give him any
+annoyance in Gaul.
+
+14. =South-eastern Britain after Caesar's Departure.= B.C. =54=--A.D.
+=43=.--For nearly a century after Caesar's departure Britain was left
+to itself. The Catuvellauni recovered the predominance which they had
+lost. Their chieftain, Cunobelin, the original of Shakspere's
+Cymbeline, is thought to have been a grandson of Cassivelaunus. He
+established his power over the Trinobantes as well as over his own
+people, and made Camulodunum, the modern Colchester, his headquarters.
+Other tribes submitted to him as they had submitted to his
+grandfather. The prosperity of the inhabitants of south-eastern
+Britain increased more rapidly than the prosperity of their ancestors
+had increased before Caesar's invasion. Traders continued to flock over
+from Gaul, bringing with them a knowledge of the arts and refinements
+of civilised life, and those arts and refinements were far greater now
+that Gaul was under Roman rule than they had been when its Celtic
+tribes were still independent. Yet, in spite of the growth of trade,
+Britain was still a rude and barbarous country. Its exports were but
+cattle and hides, corn, slaves, and hunting dogs, together with a few
+dusky pearls.
+
+15. =The Roman Empire.=--The Roman state was now a monarchy. The
+Emperor was the head of the army, as well as the head of the state.
+Though he was often a cruel oppressor of the wealthy personages who
+lived in Rome itself, and whose rivalry he feared, he, for the most
+part, sought to establish his power by giving justice to the provinces
+which had once been conquered by Rome, but were now admitted to share
+in the advantages of good government which the Empire had to give. One
+consequence of the conquest of nations by Rome was that there was now
+an end to cruel wars between hostile tribes. An army was stationed on
+the frontier of the Empire to defend it against barbarian attacks. In
+the interior the Roman peace, as it was called, prevailed, and there
+was hardly any need of soldiers to keep order and to maintain
+obedience.
+
+16. =The Invasion of Aulus Plautius.= A.D. =43=.--One question which
+each Emperor had to ask himself was whether he would attempt to
+enlarge the limits of the Empire or not. For a time each Emperor had
+resolved to be content with the frontier which Caesar had left. There
+had consequently for many years been no thought of again invading
+Britain. At last the Emperor Claudius reversed this policy. There is
+reason to suppose that some of the British chiefs had made an attack
+upon the coasts of Gaul. However this may have been, Claudius in =43=
+sent Aulus Plautius against Togidumnus and Caratacus, the sons of
+Cunobelin, who were now ruling in their father's stead. Where one
+tribe has gained supremacy over others, it is always easy for a
+civilised power to gain allies amongst the tribes which have been
+subdued. Caesar had overpowered Cassivelaunus by enlisting on his side
+the revolted Trinobantes, and Aulus Plautius now enlisted on his side
+the Regni, who dwelt in the present Sussex, and the Iceni, who dwelt
+in the present Norfolk and Suffolk. With their aid, Aulus Plautius, at
+the head of 40,000 men, defeated the sons of Cunobelin. Togidumnus was
+slain, and Caratacus driven into exile. The Romans then took
+possession of their lands, and, stepping into their place, established
+over the tribes chieftains who were now dependent on the Emperor
+instead of on Togidumnus and Caratacus. Claudius himself came for a
+brief visit to receive the congratulations of the army on the victory
+which his lieutenant had won. Aulus Plautius remained in Britain till
+=47=. Before he left it the whole of the country to the south of a
+line drawn from the Wash to some point on the Severn had been
+subjugated. The mines of the Mendips and of the western peninsula were
+too tempting to be left unconquered, and it is probably their
+attraction which explains the extension of Roman power at so early a
+date over the hilly country in the west.
+
+17. =The Colony of Camulodunum.=--In =47= Aulus Plautius was succeeded
+by Ostorius Scapula. He disarmed the tribes dwelling to the west of
+the Trent, whilst he attempted to establish the Roman authority more
+firmly over those whose territory lay to the east of that river.
+Amongst these later were the Iceni, who had been hitherto allowed to
+preserve their native government in dependence on the Roman power. The
+consequence was that they rose in arms. Ostorius overpowered them, and
+then sought to strengthen his hold upon the south-east of Britain by
+founding (=51=) a Roman colony at Camulodunum, which had formerly been
+the headquarters of Cunobelin. Roman settlers--for the most part
+discharged soldiers--established themselves in the new city, bringing
+with them all that belonged to Roman life with all its conveniences
+and luxuries. Roman temples, theatres, and baths quickly rose, and
+Ostorius might fairly expect that in Britain, as in Gaul, the native
+chiefs would learn to copy the easy life of the new citizens, and
+would settle their quarrels in Roman courts of law instead of taking
+arms on their own behalf.
+
+18. =The Conquests of Ostorius Scapula.=--Ostorius, however, was soon
+involved in fresh troubles. Nothing is more difficult for a civilised
+power than to guard a frontier against barbarous tribes. Such tribes
+are accustomed to plunder one another, and they are quick to perceive
+that the order and peace which a civilised power establishes offers
+them a richer booty than is to be found elsewhere. The tribes beyond
+the line which Ostorius held were constantly breaking through to
+plunder the Roman territory, and he soon found that he must either
+allow the lands of Roman subjects to be plundered, or must carry war
+amongst the hostile tribes. He naturally chose the latter alternative,
+and the last years of his government were spent in wars with the
+Ordovices of Central Wales, and with the Silures of Southern Wales.
+The Silures were not only a most warlike people, but they were led by
+Caratacus, who had taken refuge with them after his defeat by Aulus
+Plautius in the east. The mountainous region which these two tribes
+defended made it difficult to subdue them, and though Caratacus was
+defeated (=50=), and ultimately captured and sent as a prisoner to
+Rome, Ostorius did not succeed in effectually mastering his hardy
+followers. The proof of his comparative failure lies in the fact that
+he established strong garrison towns along the frontier of the hilly
+region, which he would not have done unless he had considered it
+necessary to have a large number of soldiers ready to check any
+possible rising. At the northern end of the line was Deva (_Chester_),
+at the southern was Isca Silurum (_Caerleon upon Usk_) and in each of
+which was placed a whole legion, about 5,000 men. Between them was the
+smaller post of Uriconium, or more properly Viriconium (_Wroxeter_),
+the city of the Wrekin.
+
+19. =Government of Suetonius Paullinus.= =58.=--When Suetonius
+Paullinus arrived to take up the government, he resolved to complete
+the conquest of the west by an attack on Mona (_Anglesey_). In Mona
+was a sacred place of the Druids, who gave encouragement to the still
+independent Britons by their murderous sacrifices and their
+soothsayings. When Suetonius attempted to land (=61=), a rabble of
+women, waving torches and shrieking defiance, rushed to meet him on
+the shore. Behind them the Druids stood calling down on the intruders
+the vengeance of the gods. At first the soldiers were terrified and
+shrunk back. Then they recovered courage, and put to the sword or
+thrust into the flames the priests and their female rout. The Romans
+were tolerant of the religion of the peoples whom they subdued, but
+they could not put up with the continuance of a cruel superstition
+whose upholders preached resistance to the Roman government.
+
+20. =Boadicea's Insurrection.= =61.=--At the very moment of success
+Suetonius was recalled hurriedly to the east. Roman officers and
+traders had misused the power which had been given them by the valour
+of Roman soldiers. Might had been taken for right, and the natives
+were stripped of their lands and property at the caprice of the
+conquerors. Those of the natives to whom anything was left were called
+upon to pay a taxation far too heavy for their means. When money was
+not to be found to satisfy the tax-gatherer, a Roman usurer was always
+at hand to proffer the required sum at enormous interest, after which
+the unhappy borrower who accepted the proposal soon found himself
+unable to pay the debt, and was stripped of all that he possessed to
+satisfy the cravings of the lender. Those who resisted this oppression
+were treated as the meanest criminals. Boadicea, the widow of
+Prasutagus, who had been the chief of the Iceni, was publicly flogged,
+and her two daughters were subjected to the vilest outrage. She called
+upon the whole Celtic population of the east and south to rise against
+the foreign tyrants. Thousands answered to her call, and the angry
+host rushed to take vengeance upon the colonists of Camulodunum. The
+colonists had neglected to fortify their city, and the insurgents,
+bursting in, slew by the sword or by torture men and women alike. The
+massacre spread wherever Romans were to be found. A Roman legion
+hastening to the rescue was routed, and the small force of cavalry
+attached to it alone succeeded in making its escape. Every one of the
+foot soldiers was slaughtered on the spot. It is said that 70,000
+Romans perished in the course of a few days.
+
+21. =The Vengeance of Suetonius.=--Suetonius was no mean general, and
+he hastened back to the scene of destruction. He called on the
+commander of the legion at Isca Silurum to come to his help. Cowardice
+was rare in a Roman army, but this officer was so unnerved by terror
+that he refused to obey the orders of his general, and Suetonius had
+to march without him. He won a decisive victory at some unknown spot,
+probably not far from Camulodunum, and 80,000 Britons are reported to
+have been slain by the triumphant soldiery. Boadicea committed suicide
+by poison. The commander of the legion at Isca Silurum also put an end
+to his own life, in order to escape the punishment which he deserved.
+Suetonius had restored the Roman authority in Britain, but it was to
+his failure to control his subordinates that the insurrection had been
+due, and he was therefore promptly recalled by the Emperor Nero. From
+that time no more is heard of the injustice of the Roman government.
+
+22. =Agricola in Britain.= =78--84.=--Agricola, who arrived as
+governor in =78=, took care to deal fairly with all sorts of men, and
+to make the natives thoroughly satisfied with his rule. He completed
+the conquest of the country afterwards known as Wales, and thereby
+pushed the western frontier of Roman Britain to the sea. Yet from the
+fact that he found it necessary still to leave garrisons at Deva and
+Isca Silurum, it may be gathered that the tribes occupying the hill
+country were not so thoroughly subdued as to cease to be dangerous.
+Although the idea entertained by Ostorius of making a frontier on land
+towards the west had thus been abandoned, it was still necessary to
+provide a frontier towards the north. Even before Agricola arrived it
+had been shown to be impossible to stop at the line between the Mersey
+and the Humber. Beyond that line was the territory of the Brigantes,
+who had for some time occupied the position which in the first years
+of the Roman conquest had been occupied by the Iceni--that is to say,
+they were in friendly dependence upon Rome, without being actually
+controlled by Roman authority. Before Agricola's coming disputes had
+arisen with them, and Roman soldiers had occupied their territory.
+Agricola finished the work of conquest. He now governed the whole of
+the country as far north as to the Solway and the Tyne, and he made
+Eboracum, the name of which changed in course of time into York, the
+centre of Roman power in the northern districts. A garrison was
+established there to watch for any danger which might come from the
+extreme north, as the garrisons of Deva and Isca Silurum watched for
+dangers which might come from the west.
+
+23. =Agricola's Conquests in the North.=--Agricola thought that there
+would be no real peace unless the whole island was subdued. For seven
+years he carried on warfare with this object before him. He had
+comparatively little difficulty in reducing to obedience the country
+south of the narrow isthmus which separates the estuary of the Clyde
+from the estuary of the Forth. Before proceeding further he drew a
+line of forts across that isthmus to guard the conquered country from
+attack during his absence. He then made his way to the Tay, but he had
+not marched far up the valley of that river before he reached the edge
+of the Highlands. The Caledonians, as the Romans then called the
+inhabitants of those northern regions, were a savage race, and the
+mountains in the recesses of which they dwelt were rugged and
+inaccessible, offering but little means of support to a Roman army. In
+=84= the Caledonians, who, like all barbarians when they first come in
+contact with a civilised people, were ignorant of the strength of a
+disciplined army, came down from their fortresses in the mountains
+into the lower ground. A battle was fought near the Graupian Hill,
+which seems to have been situated at the junction of the Isla and the
+Tay. Agricola gained a complete victory, but he was unable to follow
+the fugitives into their narrow glens, and he contented himself with
+sending his fleet to circumnavigate the northern shores of the island,
+so as to mark out the limits of the land which he still hoped to
+conquer. Before the fleet returned, however, he was recalled by the
+Emperor Domitian. It has often been said that Domitian was jealous of
+his success; but it is possible that the Emperor really thought that
+the advantage to be gained by the conquest of rugged mountains would
+be more than counterbalanced by the losses which would certainly be
+incurred in consequence of the enormous difficulty of the task.
+
+[Illustration: Commemorative tablet of the Second Legion found at
+Halton Chesters on the Roman Wall.]
+
+24. =The Roman Walls.=--Agricola, in addition to his line of forts
+between the Forth and the Clyde, had erected detached forts at the
+mouth of the valleys which issue from the Highlands, in order to
+hinder the Caledonians from plundering the lower country. In =119= the
+Emperor Hadrian visited Britain. He was more disposed to defend the
+Empire than to extend it, and though he did not abandon Agricola's
+forts, he also built further south a continuous stone wall between the
+Solway and the Tyne. This wall, which, together with an earthwork of
+earlier date, formed a far stronger line of defence than the more
+northern forts, was intended to serve as a second barrier to keep out
+the wild Caledonians if they succeeded in breaking through the first.
+At a later time a lieutenant of the Emperor, Antoninus Pius, who
+afterwards became Emperor himself, connected Agricola's forts
+between the Forth and Clyde by a continuous earthwork. In =208= the
+Emperor Severus arrived in Britain, and after strengthening still
+further the earthwork between the Forth and Clyde, he attempted to
+carry out the plans of Agricola by conquering the land of the
+Caledonians. Severus, however, failed as completely as Agricola had
+failed before him, and he died soon after his return to Eboracum.
+
+[Illustration: View of part of the Roman Wall.]
+
+[Illustration: Ruins of a Turret on the Roman Wall.]
+
+[Illustration: Part of the Roman Wall at Leicester.]
+
+[Illustration: Pediment of a Roman temple found at Bath.]
+
+25. =The Roman Province of Britain.=--Very little is known of the
+history of the Roman province of Britain, except that it made
+considerable progress in civilisation. The Romans were great
+road-makers, and though their first object was to enable their
+soldiers to march easily from one part of the country to another, they
+thereby encouraged commercial intercourse. Forests were to some extent
+cleared away by the sides of the new roads, and fresh ground was
+thrown open to tillage. Mines were worked and country houses built,
+the remains of which are in some places still to be seen, and bear
+testimony to the increased well-being of a population which, excepting
+in the south-eastern part of the island, had at the arrival of the
+Romans been little removed from savagery. Cities sprang up in great
+numbers. Some of them were at first garrison towns, like Eboracum,
+Deva, and Isca Silurum. Others, like Verulamium, near the present St.
+Albans, occupied the sites of the old stockades once used as places of
+refuge by the Celts, or, like Lindum, on the top of the hill on which
+Lincoln Cathedral now stands, were placed in strongly defensible
+positions. Aquae Sulis, the modern Bath, owes its existence to its warm
+medicinal springs. The chief port of commerce was Londinium, the
+modern London. Attempts which have been made to explain its name by
+the Celtic language have failed, and it is therefore possible that an
+inhabited post existed there even before the Celts arrived. Its
+importance was, however, owing to its position, and that importance
+was not of a kind to tell before a settled system of commercial
+intercourse sprang up. London was situated on the hill on which St.
+Paul's now stands. There first, after the Thames narrowed into a
+river, the merchant found close to the stream hard ground on which he
+could land his goods. The valley for some distance above and below it
+was then filled with a wide marsh or an expanse of water. An old track
+raised above the marsh crossed the river by a ford at Lambeth, but, as
+London grew in importance, a ferry was established where London Bridge
+now stands, and the Romans, in course of time, superseded the ferry by
+a bridge. It is, therefore, no wonder that the Roman roads both from
+the north and from the south converged upon London. Just as Eboracum
+was a fitting centre for military operations directed to the defence
+of the northern frontier, London was the fitting centre of a trade
+carried on with the Continent, and the place would increase in
+importance in proportion to the increase of that trade.
+
+[Illustration: Roman altar from Rutchester.]
+
+26. =Extinction of Tribal Antagonism.=--The improvement of
+communications and the growth of trade and industry could not fail to
+influence the mind of the population. Wars between tribes, which
+before the coming of the Romans had been the main employment of the
+young and hardy, were now things of the past. The mutual hatred which
+had grown out of them had died away, and even the very names of
+Trinobantes and Brigantes were almost forgotten. Men who lived in the
+valley of the Severn came to look upon themselves as belonging to the
+same people as men who lived in the valleys of the Trent or the
+Thames. The active and enterprising young men were attracted to the
+cities, at first by the novelty of the luxurious habits in which they
+were taught to indulge, but afterwards because they were allowed to
+take part in the management of local business. In the time of the
+Emperor Caracalla, the son of Severus, every freeman born in the
+Empire was declared to be a Roman citizen, and long before that a
+large number of natives had been admitted to citizenship. In each
+district a council was formed of the wealthier and more prominent
+inhabitants, and this council had to provide for the building of
+temples, the holding of festivals, the erection of fortifications, and
+the laying out of streets. Justice was done between man and man
+according to the Roman law, which was the best law that the world had
+seen, and the higher Roman officials, who were appointed by the
+Emperor, took care that justice was done between city and city. No one
+therefore, wished to oppose the Roman government or to bring back the
+old times of barbarism.
+
+27. =Want of National Feeling.=--Great as was the progress made, there
+was something still wanting. A people is never at its best unless
+those who compose it have some object for which they can sacrifice
+themselves, and for which, if necessary, they will die. The Briton had
+ceased to be called upon to die for his tribe, and he was not expected
+to die for Britain. Britain had become a more comfortable country to
+live in, but it was not the business of its own inhabitants to guard
+it. It was a mere part of the vast Roman Empire, and it was the duty
+of the Emperors to see that the frontier was safely kept. They were so
+much afraid lest any particular province should wish to set up for
+itself and to break away from the Empire, that they took care not to
+employ soldiers born in that province for its protection. They sent
+British recruits to guard the Danube or the Euphrates, and Gauls,
+Spaniards, or Africans to guard the wall between the Solway and the
+Tyne, and the entrenchment between the Forth and the Clyde. Britons,
+therefore, looked on their own defence as something to be done for
+them by the Emperors, not as something to be done by themselves. They
+lived on friendly terms with one another, but they had nothing of what
+we now call patriotism.
+
+28. =Carausius and Allectus.= =288--296.=--In =288= Carausius, with
+the help of some pirates, seized on the government of Britain and
+threw off the authority of the Emperor. He was succeeded by Allectus,
+yet neither Carausius nor Allectus thought of making himself the head
+of a British nation. They called themselves Emperors and ruled over
+Britain alone, merely because they could not get more to rule over.
+
+29. =Constantius and Constantine.= =296--337.=--Allectus was
+overthrown and slain by Constantius, who, however, did not rule, as
+Carausius and Allectus had done, by mere right of military
+superiority. The Emperor Diocletian (=285--305=) discovered that the
+whole Empire, stretching from the Euphrates to the Atlantic, was too
+extensive for one man to govern, and he therefore decreed that there
+should in future be four governors, two principal ones named Emperors
+(_Augusti_), and two subordinate ones named Caesars. Constantius was
+first a Caesar and afterwards an Emperor. He was set to govern Spain,
+Gaul, and Britain, but he afterwards became Emperor himself, and for
+some time established himself at Eboracum (_York_). Upon his death
+(=306=), his son Constantine, after much fighting, made himself sole
+Emperor (=325=), overthrowing the system of Diocletian. Yet in one
+respect he kept up Diocletian's arrangements. He placed Spain, Gaul,
+and Britain together under a great officer called a Vicar, who
+received orders from himself and who gave orders to the officers who
+governed each of the three countries. Under the new system, as under
+the old, Britain was not treated as an independent country. It had
+still to look for protection to an officer who lived on the Continent,
+and was therefore apt to be more interested in Gaul and Spain than he
+was in Britain.
+
+30. =Christianity in Britain.=--When the Romans put down the Druids
+and their bloody sacrifices, they called the old Celtic gods by Roman
+names, but made no further alteration in religious usages. Gradually,
+however, Christianity spread amongst the Romans on the Continent, and
+merchants or soldiers who came from the Continent introduced it into
+Britain. Scarcely anything is known of its progress in the island.
+Alban is said to have been martyred at Verulamium, and Julius and
+Aaron at Isca Silurum. In =314= three British bishops attended a
+council held at Arles in Gaul. Little more than these few facts have
+been handed down, but there is no doubt that there was a settled
+Church established in the island. The Emperor Constantine acknowledged
+Christianity as the religion of the whole Empire. The remains of a
+church of this period have recently been discovered at Silchester.
+
+31. =Weakness of the Empire.=--The Roman Empire in the time of
+Constantine had the appearance rather than the reality of strength.
+Its taxation was very heavy, and there was no national enthusiasm to
+lead men to sacrifice themselves in its defence. Roman citizens became
+more and more unwilling to become soldiers at all, and the Roman
+armies were now mostly composed of barbarians. At the same time the
+barbarians outside the Empire were growing stronger, as the tribes
+often coalesced into wide confederacies for the purpose of attacking
+the Empire.
+
+32. =The Picts and Scots.=--The assailants of Britain on the north and
+the west were the Picts and Scots. The Picts were the same as the
+Caledonians of the time of Agricola. We do not know why they had
+ceased to be called Caledonians. The usual derivation of their name
+from the Latin _Pictus_, said to have been given them because they
+painted their bodies, is inaccurate. Opinions differ whether they were
+Goidels with a strong Iberian strain, or Iberians with a Goidelic
+admixture. They were probably Iberians, and at all events they were
+more savage than the Britons had been before they were influenced by
+Roman civilisation. The Scots, who afterwards settled in what is now
+known as Scotland, at that time dwelt in Ireland. Whilst the Picts,
+therefore, assailed the Roman province by land, and strove, not always
+unsuccessfully, to break through the walls which defended its northern
+frontier, the Scots crossed the Irish Sea in light boats to plunder
+and slay before armed assistance could arrive.
+
+33. =The Saxons.=--The Saxons, who were no less deadly enemies of the
+Roman government, were as fierce and restless as the Picts and Scots,
+and were better equipped and better armed. At a later time they
+established themselves in Britain as conquerors and settlers, and
+became the founders of the English nation; but at first they were only
+known as cruel and merciless pirates. In their long flat-bottomed
+vessels they swooped down upon some undefended part of the coast and
+carried off not only the property of wealthy Romans, but even men and
+women to be sold in the slave-market. The provincials who escaped
+related with peculiar horror how the Saxons were accustomed to torture
+to death one out of every ten of their captives as a sacrifice to
+their gods.
+
+34. =Origin of the Saxons.=--The Saxons were the more dangerous
+because it was impossible for the Romans to reach them in their homes.
+They were men of Teutonic race, speaking one of the languages,
+afterwards known as Low German, which were once spoken in the whole of
+North Germany. The Saxon pirates were probably drawn from the whole of
+the sea coast stretching from the north of the peninsula of Jutland to
+the mouth of the Ems, and if so, there were amongst them Jutes, whose
+homes were in Jutland itself; Angles, who inhabited Schleswig and
+Holstein; and Saxons, properly so called, who dwelt about the mouth of
+the Elbe and further to the west. All these peoples afterwards took
+part in the conquest of southern Britain, and it is not unlikely that
+they all shared in the original piratical attacks. Whether this was
+the case or not, the pirates came from creeks and inlets outside the
+Roman Empire, whose boundary was the Rhine, and they could therefore
+only be successfully repressed by a power with a good fleet, able to
+seek out the aggressors in their own homes and to stop the mischief at
+its source.
+
+35. =The Roman Defence.=--The Romans had always been weak at sea, and
+they were weaker now than they had been in earlier days. They were
+therefore obliged to content themselves with standing on the
+defensive. Since the time of Severus, Britain had been divided, for
+purposes of defence, into Upper and Lower Britain. Though there is no
+absolute certainty about the matter, it is probable that Upper
+Britain comprised the hill country of the west and north, and that
+Lower Britain was the south-eastern part of the island, marked off by
+a line drawn irregularly from the Humber to the Severn.[1] Lower
+Britain in the early days of the Roman conquest had been in no special
+need of military protection. In the fourth century it was exposed more
+than the rest of the island to the attacks of the Saxon pirates.
+Fortresses were erected between the Wash and Beachy Head at every
+point at which an inlet of the sea afforded an opening to an invader.
+The whole of this part of the coast became known as the Saxon Shore,
+because it was subjected to attacks from the Saxons, and a special
+officer known as the Count of the Saxon Shore was appointed to take
+charge of it. An officer known as the Duke of the Britains (_Dux
+Britanniarum_) commanded the armies of Upper Britain; whilst a third,
+who was a civilian, and superior in rank over the other two, was the
+Count of Britain, and had a general supervision of the whole country.
+
+    [Footnote 1: There were also four smaller divisions, ultimately
+    increased to five. All that is known about their position is that
+    they were not where they are placed in our atlases.]
+
+36. =End of the Roman Government.= =383--410.=--In =383= Maximus, who
+was probably the Duke of the Britains, was proclaimed Emperor by his
+soldiers. If he could have contented himself with defending Britain,
+it would have mattered little whether he chose to call himself an
+Emperor or a Duke. Unhappily for the inhabitants of the island, not
+only did every successful soldier want to be an Emperor, but every
+Emperor wanted to govern the whole Empire. Maximus, therefore, instead
+of remaining in Britain, carried a great part of his army across the
+sea to attempt a conquest of Gaul and Spain. Neither he nor his
+soldiers ever returned, and in consequence the Roman garrison in the
+island was deplorably weakened. Early in the fifth century an
+irruption of barbarians gave full employment to the army which
+defended Gaul, so that it was impossible to replace the forces which
+had followed Maximus by fresh troops from the Continent. The Roman
+Empire was in fact breaking up. The defence of Britain was left to the
+soldiers who remained in the island, and in =409= they proclaimed a
+certain Constantine Emperor. Constantine, like Maximus, carried his
+soldiers across the Channel in pursuit of a wider empire than he could
+find in Britain. He was himself murdered, and his soldiers, like those
+of Maximus, did not return. In =410= the Britons implored the Emperor
+Honorius to send them help. Honorius had enough to do to ward off the
+attacks of barbarians nearer Rome, and announced to the Britons that
+they must provide for their own defence. From this time Britain ceased
+to form part of the Roman Empire.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Landing of the Jutes in Thanet                              A.D. 449?
+  The West Saxons defeated at Mount Badon                          520
+  The West Saxons take Sorbiodunum                                 552
+  Battle of Deorham                                                577
+  The West Saxons defeated at Faddiley                             584
+
+
+1. =Britain after the Departure of the Romans.= =410--449=?--After the
+departure of the Romans, the Picts from the north and the Scots from
+Ireland continued their ravages, but though they caused terrible
+misery by slaughtering or dragging into slavery the inhabitants of
+many parts of the country, they did not succeed in making any
+permanent conquests. The Britons were not without a government and an
+armed force; and their later history shows that they were capable of
+carrying on war for a long time against enemies more formidable than
+the Picts and Scots. Their rulers were known by the British title
+Gwledig, and probably held power in different parts of the island as
+the successors of the Roman Duke of the Britains and of the Roman
+Count of the Saxon Shore. Their power of resistance to the Picts and
+the Scots was, however, weakened by the impossibility of turning their
+undivided attention to these marauders, as at the same time that they
+had, to defend the Roman Wall and the western coast against the Picts
+and Scots, they were exposed on the eastern coast to the attacks of
+the Saxon pirates.
+
+2. =The Groans of the Britons.=--In their misery the thoughts of the
+Britons turned to those Roman legions who had defended their fathers
+so well. In =446= they appealed to Aetius, the commander of the Roman
+armies, to deliver them from their destroyers. "The groans of the
+Britons" was the title which they gave to their appeal to him. "The
+barbarians," they wrote, "drive us to the sea; the sea drives us back
+to the barbarians; between them we are exposed to two sorts of death:
+we are either slain or drowned." Aetius had no men to spare, and he
+sent no help to the Britons. Before long the whole of Western Europe
+was overrun by barbarian tribes, the title of Emperor being retained
+only by the Roman Emperor who ruled from Constantinople over the East,
+his authority over the barbarians of the West being no more than
+nominal.
+
+3. =The Conquest of Kent.= =449=?--It had been the custom of the Roman
+Empire to employ barbarians as soldiers in their armies, and
+Vortigern, the British ruler, now followed that bad example. In or
+about =449= a band of Jutish sea-rovers landed at Ebbsfleet, in the
+Isle of Thanet. According to tradition their leaders were Hengist and
+Horsa, names signifying the horse and the mare, which were not very
+likely to have been borne by real warriors. Whatever may have been the
+names of the chiefs, Vortigern took them into his service against the
+Picts, giving them the Isle of Thanet as a dwelling-place for
+themselves. With their help he defeated the Picts, but afterwards
+found himself unable to defend himself against his fierce auxiliaries.
+Thanet was still cut off from the mainland by an arm of the sea, and
+the Jutes were strong enough to hold it against all assailants. Their
+numbers rapidly increased as shiploads of their fellows landed, and
+they crossed the strait to win fresh lands from the Britons on the
+mainland of Kent. In several battles Vortigern was overpowered. His
+rival and successor, Ambrosius Aurelianus, whose name makes it
+probable that he was an upholder of the old Roman discipline, drove
+back the Jutes in turn. He did not long keep the upper hand, and in
+=465= he was routed utterly. The defeat of the British army was
+followed by an attack upon the great fortresses which had been erected
+along the Saxon Shore in the Roman times. The Jutes had no means of
+carrying them by assault, but they starved them out one by one, and
+some twenty-three years after their first landing, the whole of the
+coast of Kent was in their hands.
+
+4. =The South Saxons.= =477.=--The conquests of the Jutes stopped at
+the inlet of the sea now filled by Romney Marsh. To the south and west
+was the impenetrable Andred's Wood, which covered what is now known as
+the Weald. At its eastern extremity stood by the sea the strong
+fortified town of Anderida, which gave its name to the wood, the most
+westerly of the fortresses of the Saxon Shore still unconquered by the
+Jutes. It was at last endangered by a fresh pirate band--not of Jutes
+but of Saxons--which landed near Selsey, and fought its way eastwards,
+conquering the South Downs and the flat land between the South Downs
+and the sea, till it reached Anderida. Anderida was starved out after
+a long blockade, and the Saxons, bursting in, 'slew all that dwelt
+therein, nor was there henceforth one Briton left.' To this day the
+Roman walls of Anderida stand round the site of the desolated city
+near the modern Pevensey. Its Saxon conquerors came to be known as the
+South Saxons, and their land as Sussex.
+
+5. =The West Saxons and the East Saxons.=--Another swarm also of
+Saxons, called Gewissas, landed on the shore of Southampton Water.
+After a time they were reinforced by a body of Jutes, and though the
+Jutes formed settlements of their own in the Isle of Wight and on the
+mainland, the difference of race and language between them and the
+Gewissas was not enough to prevent the two tribes from coalescing.
+Ultimately Gewissas and Jutes became known as West Saxons, and
+established themselves in a district roughly corresponding with the
+modern Hampshire. Then, having attempted to penetrate further west,
+they were defeated at Mount Badon, probably Badbury Rings in
+Dorsetshire. Their overthrow was so complete as to check their advance
+for more than thirty years. Whilst the coast line from the inlet of
+the sea now filled by Romney Marsh to the western edge of Hampshire
+had thus been mastered by Saxons, others of the same stock, known as
+East Saxons, seized upon the low coast to the north of the Thames.
+From them the land was called Essex. Neither Saxons nor Jutes,
+however, were as yet able to penetrate far up the valley of the
+Thames, as the Roman settlement of London, surrounded by marshes,
+still blocked the way.
+
+6. =The Anglian Settlements.=--The coast-line to the north of the East
+Saxons was seized at some unascertained dates by different groups of
+Angles. The land between the Stour and the great fen which in those
+days stretched far inland from the Wash was occupied by two of these
+groups, known as the North folk and the South folk. They gave their
+names to Norfolk and Suffolk, and at some later time combined under
+the name of East Anglians. North of the Wash were the Lindiswara--that
+is to say, the settlers about the Roman Lindum, the modern Lincoln,
+and beyond them, stretching to the Humber, were the Gainas, from whom
+is derived the name of the modern Gainsborough. To the north of the
+Humber the coast was fringed by Angle settlements which had not yet
+coalesced into one.
+
+7. =Nature of the Conquest.=--The three peoples who effected this
+conquest were afterwards known amongst themselves by the common name
+of English, a name which was originally equivalent to Angle, whilst
+amongst the whole of the remaining Celtic population they were only
+known as Saxons. The mode in which the English treated the Britons was
+very different from that of the Romans, who were a civilised people
+and aimed at governing a conquered race. The new-comers drove out the
+Britons in order to find homes for themselves, and they preferred to
+settle in the country rather than in a town. No Englishman had ever
+lived in a town in his German home, or was able to appreciate the
+advantages of the commerce and manufacture by which towns are
+supported. Nor were they inclined to allow the inhabitants of the
+Roman towns to remain unmolested in their midst. When Anderida was
+captured not a Briton escaped alive, and there is good reason to
+believe that many of the other towns fared no better, especially as
+the remains of some of them still show marks of the fire by which they
+were consumed. What took place in the country cannot be certainly
+known. Many of the British were no doubt killed. Many took refuge in
+fens or woods, or fled to those portions of the island in which their
+countrymen were still independent. It is difficult to decide to what
+extent the men who remained behind were spared, but it is impossible
+to doubt that a considerable number of women were preserved from
+slaughter. The conquerors, at their landing, must have been for the
+most part young men, and when they wanted wives, it would be far
+easier for them to seize the daughters of slain Britons than to fetch
+women from the banks of the Elbe.
+
+8. =The Cultivators of the Soil.=--When the new-comers planted
+themselves on British soil, each group of families united by kinship
+fixed its home in a separate village or township, to which was given
+the name of the kindred followed by 'ham' or 'tun,' the first word
+meaning the home or dwelling, the second the earthen mound which
+formed the defence of the community. Thus Wokingham is the home of the
+Wokings, and Wellington the 'tun' of the Wellings. Each man had a
+homestead of his own, with a strip or strips of arable land in an open
+field. Beyond the arable land was pasture and wood, common to the
+whole township, every villager being entitled to drive his cattle or
+pigs into them according to rules laid down by the whole township.
+
+9. =Eorls, Ceorls, Gesiths.=--The population was divided into Eorls
+and Ceorls. The Eorl was hereditarily distinguished by birth, and the
+Ceorl was a simple freeman without any such distinction. How the
+difference arose we do not know, but we do know that the Eorl had
+privileges which the Ceorl had not. Below the Ceorls were slaves
+taken in war or condemned to slavery as criminals. There were also men
+known as Gesiths, a word which means 'followers,' who were the
+followers of the chiefs or Ealdormen (_Eldermen_) who led the
+conquerors. The Gesiths formed the war-band of the chief. They were
+probably all of them Eorls, so that though every settler was either an
+Eorl or a Ceorl, some Eorls were also Gesiths. This war-band of
+Gesiths was composed of young men who attached themselves to the chief
+by a tie of personal devotion. It was the highest glory of the Gesith
+to die to save his chief's life. Of one Gesith it is told that, when
+he saw a murderer aiming a dagger at his chief, he, not having time to
+seize the assassin, threw his body between the blow and his chief, and
+perished rather than allow him to be killed. It was even held to be
+disgraceful for a Gesith to return from battle alive if his chief had
+been slain. The word by which the chief was known was Hlaford
+(_Lord_), which means a giver of bread, because the Gesiths ate his
+bread. They not only ate his bread, but they shared in the booty which
+he brought home. They slept in his hall, and were clothed in the
+garments woven by his wife and her maidens. A continental writer tells
+how a body of Gesiths once approached their lord with a petition that
+he should take a wife, because as long as he remained unmarried there
+was no one to make new clothes for them or to mend their old ones.
+
+10. =The Gesiths and the Villagers.=--At the time of the English
+settlement, therefore, there were two sorts of warriors amongst the
+invaders. The Ceorls, having been accustomed to till land at home,
+were quite ready to till the lands which they had newly acquired in
+Britain. They were, however, ready to defend themselves and their
+lands if they were attacked, and they were under the obligation of
+appearing in arms when needed for defence. This general army of the
+villagers was called the Fyrd. On the other hand, the Gesiths had not
+been accustomed to till land at home, but had made fighting their
+business. War, in short, which was an unwelcome accident to the Ceorl,
+was the business of life to the Gesith. The exact relationship between
+the Gesiths and the Ceorls cannot be ascertained with certainty. It is
+not improbable that the Gesiths, being the best warriors amongst their
+countrymen, sometimes obtained land granted them by their chiefs, and
+were expected in consequence to be specially ready to serve the chief
+whom they had followed from their home. It was from their relation to
+their chief that they were called Gesiths, a name gradually abandoned
+for that of Thegns, or servants, when they--as was soon the
+case--ceased to live with their chief and had houses and lands of
+their own, though they were still bound to military service. How these
+Thegns cultivated their lands is a question to which there is no
+certain answer. In later days they made use of a class of men known as
+bondmen or villeins. These bondmen were not, like slaves, the property
+of their masters. They had land of their own which they were allowed
+to cultivate for themselves on condition of spending part of their
+time in cultivating the land of their lords. It has been supposed by
+some writers that the Thegns employed bondmen from the earliest times
+of the conquest. If, however, this was the case, there arises a
+further question whether the bondmen were Englishmen or Britons. The
+whole subject is under investigation, and the evidence which exists is
+excessively scanty. It is at least certain that the further the
+conquest progressed westwards, the greater was the number of Britons
+preserved alive.
+
+11. =English and Welsh.=--The bulk of the population on the eastern
+and southern coasts was undoubtedly English. English institutions and
+English language took firm root. The conquerors looked on the Britons
+with the utmost contempt, naming them Welsh, a name which no Briton
+thought of giving to himself, but which Germans had been in the habit
+of applying somewhat contemptuously to the Celts on the Continent. So
+far as British words have entered into the English language at all,
+they have been words such as _gown_ or _curd_, which are likely to
+have been used by women, or words such as _cart_ or _pony_, which are
+likely to have been used by agricultural labourers, and the evidence
+of language may therefore be adduced in favour of the view that many
+women and many agricultural labourers were spared by the conquerors.
+
+12. =The Township and the Hundred.=--The smallest political community
+of the new settlers was the village, or, as it is commonly called, the
+township, which is still represented by the parish, the parish being
+merely a township in which ecclesiastical institutions have been
+maintained whilst political institutions have ceased to exist. The
+freemen of the township met to settle small questions between
+themselves, under the presidency of their reeve or headman. More
+important cases were brought before the hundred-moot, or meeting of
+the hundred, a district which had been inhabited, or was supposed to
+have been inhabited, either by a hundred kindred groups of the
+original settlers or by the families of a hundred warriors. This
+hundred-moot was held once a month, and was attended by four men and
+the reeve from every township, and also by the Eorls and Thegns living
+in the hundred. It not only settled disputes about property, but gave
+judgment in criminal cases as well.
+
+13. =Weregild.=--In early days, long before the English had left their
+lands beyond the sea, it was not considered to be the business of the
+community to punish crime. If any one was murdered, it was the duty of
+the kinsmen of the slain man to put to death the murderer. In course
+of time men got tired of the continual slaughter produced by this
+arrangement, and there sprang up a system according to which the
+murderer might offer to the kinsmen a sum of money known as weregild,
+or the value of a man, and if this money was accepted, then peace was
+made and all thought of vengeance was at an end. At a later time, at
+all events after the arrival of the English in this country, charges
+of murder were brought before the hundred-moot whenever the alleged
+murderer and his victim lived in the same hundred. If the accused
+person did not dispute the fact the moot sentenced him to pay a
+weregild, the amount of which differed in proportion to the rank of
+the slain man, not in proportion to the heinousness of the offence. As
+there was a weregild for murder, so there was also a graduated scale
+of payments for lesser offences. One who struck off a hand or a foot
+could buy off vengeance at a fixed rate.
+
+14. =Compurgation and Ordeal.=--A new difficulty was introduced when a
+person who was charged with crime denied his guilt. As there were no
+trained lawyers and there was no knowledge of the principles of
+evidence, the accused person was required to bring twelve men to be
+his compurgators--that is to say, to hear him swear to his own
+innocence, and then to swear in turn that his oath was true. If he
+could not find men willing to be his compurgators he could appeal to
+the judgment of the gods, which was known as the Ordeal. If he could
+walk blindfold over red-hot ploughshares, or plunge his arm into
+boiling water, and show at the end of a fixed number of days that he
+had received no harm, it was thought that the gods bore witness to his
+innocency and had as it were become his compurgators when men had
+failed him. It is quite possible that all or most of those who tried
+the ordeal failed, but as nobody would try the ordeal who could get
+compurgators, those who did not succeed must have been regarded as
+persons of bad character, so that no surprise would be expressed at
+their failure.
+
+15. =Punishments.=--When a man had failed in the ordeal there was a
+choice of punishments. If his offence was a slight one, a fine was
+deemed sufficient. If it was a very disgraceful one, such as secret
+murder, he was put to death or was degraded to slavery, in most cases
+he was declared to be a 'wolf's-head'--that is to say, he was outlawed
+and driven into the woods, where, as the protection of the community
+was withdrawn from him, anyone might kill him without fear of
+punishment.
+
+16. =The Folk-moot.=--As the hundred-moot did justice between those
+who lived in the hundred, so the folk-moot did justice between those
+who lived in different hundreds, or were too important to be judged in
+the hundred-moot. The folk-moot was the meeting of the whole folk or
+tribe, which consisted of several hundreds. It was attended, like the
+hundred-moot, by four men and the reeve from each township, and it met
+twice a year, and was presided over by the chief or Ealdorman. The
+folk-moot met in arms, because it was a muster as well as a council
+and a court. The vote as to war and peace was taken in it, and while
+the chief alone spoke, the warriors signified their assent by clashing
+their swords against their shields.
+
+17. =The Kingship.=--How many folks or tribes settled in the island it
+is impossible to say, but there is little doubt that many of them soon
+combined. The resistance of the Britons was desperate, and it was only
+by joining together that the settlers could hope to overcome it. The
+causes which produced this amalgamation of the folks produced the
+king. It was necessary to find a man always ready to take the command
+of the united folks, and this man was called King, a name which
+signifies the man of the kinship or race at the head of which he
+stood. His authority was greater than the Ealdorman's, and his
+warriors were more numerous than those which the Ealdorman had led. He
+must come of a royal family--that is, of one supposed to be descended
+from the god Woden. As it was necessary that he should be capable of
+leading an army, it was impossible that a child could be king, and
+therefore no law of hereditary succession prevailed. On the death of a
+king the folk-moot chose his successor out of the kingly family. If
+his eldest son was a grown man of repute, the choice would almost
+certainly fall upon him. If he was a child or an invalid, some other
+kinsman of the late king would be selected.
+
+18. =The Legend of Arthur.=--Thirty-two years passed away after the
+defeat of the West Saxons at Mount Badon in =520= (see p. 28) before
+they made any further conquests. Welsh legends represent this period
+as that of the reign of Arthur. Some modern inquirers have argued that
+Arthur's kingdom was in the north, whilst others have argued that it
+was in the south. It is quite possible that the name was given by
+legend to more than one champion; at all events, there was a time when
+an Ambrosius, probably a descendant of Ambrosius Aurelianus (see p.
+27), protected the southern Britons. This stronghold was at
+Sorbiodunum, the hill fort now a grassy space known as Old Sarum, and
+his great church and monastery, where Christian priests encouraged the
+Christian Britons in their struggle against the heathen Saxons, was at
+the neighbouring Ambresbyrig (_the fortress of Ambrosius_), now
+modernised into Amesbury. Thirty-two years after the battle of Mount
+Badon the kingdom of Ambrosius had been divided amongst his
+successors, who were plunged in vice and were quarrelling with one
+another.
+
+[Illustration: _Walker & Boutallse._
+
+Plan of the city of Old Sarum, the ancient _Sorbiodunum_. The
+Cathedral is of later date.]
+
+19. =The West Saxon Advance.=--In =552= Cynric, the West Saxon king,
+attacked the divided Britons, captured Sorbiodunum, and made himself
+master of Salisbury Plain. Step by step he fought his way to the
+valley of the Thames, and when he had reached it, he turned eastwards
+to descend the river to its mouth. Here, however, he found himself
+anticipated by the East Saxons, who had captured London, and had
+settled a branch of their people under the name of the Middle Saxons
+in Middlesex. The Jutes of Kent had pushed westwards through the
+Surrey hills, but in =568= the West Saxons defeated them and drove
+them back. After this battle, the first in which the conquerors strove
+with one another, the West Saxons turned northwards, defeated the
+Britons in =571= at Bedford, and occupied the valleys of the Thame and
+Cherwell and the upper valley of the Ouse. They are next heard of much
+further west, and it has been supposed that they turned in that
+direction because they found the lower Ouse already held by Angle
+tribes. However this may have been, they crossed the Cotswolds in
+=577= under two brothers, Ceawlin and Cutha, and at Deorham defeated
+and slew three kings who ruled over the cities of Glevum
+(_Gloucester_), Corinium (_Cirencester_), and Aquae Sulis (_Bath_).
+They seized on the fertile valley of the Severn, and during the next
+few years they pressed gradually northwards. In =584= they destroyed
+and sacked the old Roman station of Viriconium. This was their last
+victory for many a year. They attempted to reach Chester, but were
+defeated at Faddiley by the Britons, who slew Cutha in the battle.
+
+[Illustration: Old Sarum from an engraving published in 1843, showing
+mound. (It is now obscured by trees from this point of view.)]
+
+20. =Repulse of the West Saxons.=--After the defeat at Faddiley the
+West Saxons split up into two peoples. Those of them who settled in
+the lower Severn valley took the name of Hwiccan, and joined the
+Britons against their own kindred. This alliance could hardly have
+taken place if the Hwiccan, in settling in the Severn valley, had
+destroyed the whole, or even a considerable part, of the Celtic
+population, though there can be little doubt that there was still
+slaughter when a battle was fought or a town taken by storm; as it is
+known that the magnificent Roman buildings at Bath were standing in
+ruins and the city untenanted many years after the capture of the
+city. At all events, the Britons, now allied with the Hwiccan,
+defeated Ceawlin at Wanborough. After this disaster, though the West
+Saxon kingdom retained its independence, it was independent within
+smaller limits than those which Ceawlin had wished to give to it. If
+he had seized Chester he would have been on the way to gain the
+mastery over all England, but he had tried to do too much in a short
+time. His people can hardly have been numerous enough to occupy in
+force a territory reaching from Southampton Water to Bedford on one
+side and to Chester on another.
+
+21. =The Advance of the Angles.=--Whilst the West Saxons were
+enlarging their boundaries in the south, the Angles were gradually
+spreading in the centre and the north. The East Anglians were stopped
+on their way to the west by the great fen, but either a branch of the
+Lindiswara or some new-comers made their way up the Trent, and
+established themselves first at Nottingham and then at Leicester, and
+called themselves the Middle English. Another body, known as the
+Mercians, or men of the mark or border-land, seized on the upper
+valley of the Trent. North of the Humber the advance was still slower.
+In =547=, five years before the West Saxons attacked Sorbiodunum, Ida,
+a chieftain of one of the scattered settlements on the coast, was
+accepted as king by all those which lay between the Tees and the
+Forth. His new kingdom was called Bernicia, and his principal fortress
+was on a rock by the sea at Bamborough. During the next fifty years he
+and his successors enlarged their borders till they reached that
+central ridge of moorland hill which is sometimes known as the Pennine
+range. The Angles between the Tees and the Humber called their country
+Deira, but though they also united under a king, their progress was as
+slow as that of the Bernicians. Bernicia and Deira together were known
+as North-humberland, the land north of the Humber, a much larger
+territory than that of the modern county of Northumberland.
+
+22. =The Kymry.=--It is probable that the cause of the slow advance of
+the northern Angles lay in the existence of a strong Celtic state in
+front. Welsh tradition speaks of a ruler named Cunedda, who after the
+departure of the Roman legions governed the territory from the Clyde
+to the south of Wales, which formed the greater part of what had once
+been known as Upper Britain. (See p. 25.) This territory was inhabited
+by a mixed population of Britons and Goidels, with an isolated body of
+Picts in Galloway. A common danger from the English fused them
+together, and as a sign of the wearing out of old distinctions, they
+took the name of Kymry, or Comrades, the name by which the Welsh are
+known amongst one another to this day, and which is also preserved in
+the name of Cumberland, though the Celtic language is no longer spoken
+there.
+
+23. =Britain at the End of the Sixth Century.=--During the sixth
+century the Kymry ceased to be governed by one ruler, but the
+chieftains of the various territories all acknowledged the supremacy
+of a descendant of Cunedda. For purposes of war they combined
+together, and as the country which they occupied was hilly and easily
+defended, the northern English discovered that they too must unite
+amongst themselves if they were to overpower the united resistance of
+the Kymry.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE STRIFE OF THE ENGLISH KINGDOMS.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Augustine's mission                                              597
+  AEthelfrith's victory at Chester                                  613
+  Penda defeats Eadwine at Heathfield                              633
+  Penda's defeat at Winwaed                                         655
+  Theodore Archbishop of Canterbury                                668
+  Offa defeats the West Saxons at Bensington                       779
+  Ecgberht returns to England                                      800
+  Death of Ecgberht                                                839
+
+
+1. =England and the Continent.=--Whatever may be the exact truth about
+the numbers of Britons saved alive by the English conquerors, there
+can be no doubt that English speech and English customs prevailed
+wherever the English settled. In Gaul, where the German Franks made
+themselves masters of the country, a different state of things
+prevailed. Roman officials continued to govern the country under
+Frankish kings, Roman bishops converted the conquerors to
+Christianity, and Roman cities maintained, as far as they could, the
+old standard of civilisation. All commercial intercourse between Gaul,
+still comparatively rich and prosperous, and Britain was for some time
+cut off by the irruption of the English, who were at first too rude
+and too much engaged in fighting to need the products of a more
+advanced race. Gradually, however, as the English settled down into
+peaceful industry along the south-eastern shores of the island, trade
+again sprang up, as it had sprung up in the wild times preceding the
+landing of Caesar. The Gaulish merchants who crossed the straits found
+themselves in Kent, and during the years in which the West Saxon
+Ceawlin was struggling with the Britons the communications between
+Kent and the Continent had become so friendly that in =584=, or a
+little later, AEthelberht, king of Kent, took to wife Bertha, the
+daughter of a Frankish king, Charibert. Bertha was a Christian, and
+brought with her a Christian bishop. She begged of her husband a
+forsaken Roman church for her own use. This church, now known as St.
+Martin's, stood outside the walls of the deserted city of Durovernum,
+the buildings of which were in ruins, except where a group of rude
+dwellings rose in a corner of the old fortifications. In these
+dwellings AEthelberht and his followers lived, and to them had been
+given the new name of Cantwarabyrig or Canterbury (_the dwelling of
+the men of Kent_). The English were heathen, but their heathenism was
+not intolerant.
+
+2. =AEthelberht's Supremacy.=--AEthelberht's authority reached far
+beyond his native Kent. Within a few years after his marriage he had
+gained a supremacy over most of the other kings to the south of the
+Humber. There is no tradition of any war between AEthelberht and these
+kings, and he certainly did not thrust them out from the leadership of
+their own peoples. The exact nature of his supremacy is, however,
+unknown to us, though it is possible that they were bound to follow
+him if he went to war with peoples not acknowledging his supremacy, in
+which case his position towards them was something of the same kind as
+that of a lord to his gesiths.
+
+3. =Gregory and the English.=--AEthelberht's position as the over-lord
+of so many kings and as the husband of a Christian wife drew upon him
+the attention of Gregory, the Bishop of Rome, or Pope. Many years
+before, as a deacon, he had been attracted by the fair faces of some
+boys from Deira exposed for sale in the Roman slave-market. He was
+told that the children were Angles. "Not Angles, but angels," he
+replied. "Who," he asked, "is their king?" Hearing that his name was
+AElla, he continued to play upon the words. "Alleluia," he said, "shall
+be sung in the land of AElla." Busy years kept him from seeking to
+fulfil his hopes, but at last the time came when he could do something
+to carry out his intentions, not in the land of AElla, but in the land
+of AEthelberht. He became Pope. In those days the Pope had far less
+authority over the Churches of Western Europe than he afterwards
+acquired, but he offered the only centre round which they could rally,
+now that the Empire had broken up into many states ruled over by
+different barbarian kings. The general habit of looking to Rome for
+authority, which had been diffused over the whole Empire whilst Rome
+was still the seat of the Emperors, made men look to the Roman Bishop
+for advice and help as they had once looked to the Roman Emperor.
+Gregory, who united to the tenderheartedness of the Christian the
+strength of will and firmness of purpose which had marked out the best
+of the Emperors, now sent Augustine to England as the leader of a band
+of missionaries.
+
+4. =Augustine's Mission. 597.=--Augustine with his companions landed
+at Ebbsfleet, in Thanet, where AEthelberht's forefathers had landed
+nearly a century and a half before. After a while AEthelberht arrived.
+Singing a litany, and bearing aloft a painting of the Saviour, the
+missionaries appeared before him. He had already learned from his
+Christian wife to respect Christians, but he was not prepared to
+forsake his own religion. He welcomed the new-comers, and told them
+that they were free to convert those who would willingly accept their
+doctrine. A place was assigned to them in Canterbury, and they were
+allowed to use Bertha's church. In the end AEthelberht himself,
+together with thousands of the Kentish men, received baptism. It was
+more by their example than by their teaching that Augustine's band won
+converts. The missionaries lived 'after the model of the primitive
+Church, giving themselves to frequent prayers, watchings, and
+fastings; preaching to all who were within their reach, disregarding
+all worldly things as matters with which they had nothing to do,
+accepting from those whom they taught just what seemed necessary for
+livelihood, living themselves altogether in accordance with what they
+taught, and with hearts prepared to suffer every adversity, or even to
+die, for that truth which they preached.'
+
+5. =Monastic Christianity.=--These missionaries were monks as well as
+preachers. The Christians of those days considered the monastic life
+to be the highest. In the early days of the Church, when the world was
+full of vice and cruelty, it seemed hardly possible to live in the
+world without being dragged down to its wickedness. Men and women,
+therefore, who wished to keep themselves pure, withdrew to hermitages
+or monasteries, where they might be removed from temptation, and might
+fit themselves for heaven by prayer and fasting. In the fifth century
+Benedict of Nursia had organised in Italy a system of life for the
+monastery which he governed, and the Benedictine rule, as it was
+called, was soon accepted in almost all the monasteries of Western
+Europe. The special feature of this rule was that it encouraged labour
+as well as prayer. It was a saying of Benedict himself that 'to labour
+is to pray.' He did not mean that labour was good in itself, but that
+monks who worked during some hours of the day would guard their minds
+against evil thoughts better than if they tried to pray all day long.
+Augustine and his companions were Benedictine monks, and their
+quietness and contentedness attracted the population amidst which they
+had settled. The religion of the heathen English was a religion which
+favoured bravery and endurance, counting the warrior who slaughtered
+most enemies as most highly favoured by the gods. The religion of
+Augustine was one of peace and self-denial. Its symbol was the cross,
+to be borne in the heart of the believer. The message brought by
+Augustine was very hard to learn. If Augustine had expected the whole
+English population to forsake entirely its evil ways and to walk in
+paths of peace, he would probably have been rejected at once. It was
+perhaps because he was a monk that he did not expect so much. A monk
+was accustomed to judge laymen by a lower standard of self-denial than
+that by which he judged himself. He would, therefore, not ask too much
+of the new converts. They must forsake the heathen temples and
+sacrifices, and must give up some particularly evil habits. The rest
+must be left to time and the example of the monks.
+
+6. =The Archbishopric of Canterbury.=--After a short stay Augustine
+revisited Gaul and came back as Archbishop of the English. AEthelberht
+gave to him a ruined church at Canterbury, and that poor church was
+named Christ Church, and became the mother church of England. From
+that day the Archbishop's See has been fixed at Canterbury. If
+Augustine in his character of monk led men by example, in his
+character of Archbishop he had to organise the Church. With
+AEthelberht's help he set up a bishopric at Rochester and another in
+London. London was now again an important trading city, which, though
+not in AEthelberht's own kingdom of Kent, formed part of the kingdom of
+Essex, which was dependent on Kent. More than these three Sees
+Augustine was unable to establish. An attempt to obtain the friendly
+co-operation of the Welsh bishops broke down because Augustine
+insisted on their adoption of Roman customs; and Lawrence, who
+succeeded to the archbishopric after Augustine's death, could do no
+more than his predecessor had done.
+
+7. =Death of AEthelberht. 616.=--In =616= AEthelberht died. The
+over-lordship of the kings of Kent ended with him, and Augustine's
+church, which had largely depended upon his influence, very nearly
+ended as well. Essex relapsed into heathenism, and it was only by
+terrifying AEthelberht's son with the vengeance of St. Peter that
+Lawrence kept him from relapsing also. On the other hand, Raedwald,
+king of the East Anglians, who succeeded to much of AEthelberht's
+authority, so far accepted Christianity as to worship Christ amongst
+his other gods.
+
+8. =The Three Kingdoms opposed to the Welsh.=--Augustine's Church
+was weak, because it depended on the kings, and had not had time to
+root itself in the affections of the people. AEthelberht's supremacy
+was also weak. The greater part of the small states which still
+existed--Sussex, Kent, Essex, East Anglia, and most of the small
+kingdoms of central England--were no longer bordered by a Celtic
+population. For them the war of conquest and defence was at an end.
+If any one of the kingdoms was to rise to permanent supremacy it
+must be one of those engaged in strenuous warfare, and as yet
+strenuous warfare was only carried on with the Welsh. The kingdoms
+which had the Welsh on their borders were three--Wessex, Mercia, and
+North-humberland, and neither Wessex nor Mercia was as yet very
+strong. Wessex was too distracted by conflicts amongst members of
+the kingly family, and Mercia was as yet too small to be of much
+account. North-humberland was therefore the first of the three to
+rise to the foremost place. Till the death of AElla, the king of
+Deira, from whose land had been carried off the slave-boys whose
+faces had charmed Gregory at Rome, Deira and Bernicia had been as
+separate as Kent and Essex. Then in =588= AEthelric of Bernicia drove
+out AElla's son and seized his kingdom of Deira, thus joining the two
+kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia (see p. 36) into one, under the new
+name of North-humberland.[2]
+
+    [Footnote 2: Genealogy of the principal Northumbrian
+    kings:--[_Note._--The names of kings are in capitals. The figures
+    denote the order of succession of those who ruled over the whole of
+    North-humberland. Those whose names are followed by a B. or D. ruled
+    only over Bernicia or Deira respectively.]
+
+     _House of Bernicia_                     _House of Deira_
+
+          IDA B.                                 Iffa D.
+            |                                       |
+            |                                ---------------
+            |                                |             |
+      1. AETHELRIC                          AELLA D.       AElfric
+            |                                |             |
+            |           ---------------------------        |
+            |           |                         |        |
+      2. AETHELFRITH = Acha                  3. EADWINE   OSRIC D.
+                    |                                      |
+               --------------                              |
+               |            |                              |
+          4. OSWALD    5. OSWIU                         OSWINI D.]
+
+9. =AEthelfrith and the Kymry.=--In =593=, four years before the
+landing of Augustine, AEthelric was succeeded by his son AEthelfrith.
+AEthelfrith began a fresh struggle with the Welsh. We know little of
+the internal history of the Welsh population, but what we do know
+shows that towards the end of the sixth century there was an
+improvement in their religious and political existence. The
+monasteries were thronged, especially the great monastery of
+Bangor-iscoed, in the modern Flintshire, which contained 2,000 monks.
+St. David and other bishops gave examples of piety. In fighting
+against AEthelfrith the warriors of the Britons were fighting for their
+last chance of independence. They still held the west from the Clyde
+to the Channel. Unhappily for them, the Severn, the Dee, and the
+Solway Firth divided their land into four portions, and if an enemy
+coming from the east could seize upon the heads of the inlets into
+which those rivers flowed he could prevent the defenders of the west
+from aiding one another. Already in =577=, by the victory of Deorham
+(see p. 35), the West Saxons had seized on the mouth of the Severn,
+and had split off the West Welsh of the south-western peninsula.
+AEthelfrith had to do with the Kymry, whose territories stretched from
+the Bristol Channel to the Clyde, and who held an outlying wedge of
+land then known as Loidis and Elmet, which now together form the West
+Riding of Yorkshire.
+
+10. =AEthelfrith's Victories.=--The long range of barren hills which
+separated AEthelfrith's kingdom from the Kymry made it difficult for
+either side to strike a serious blow at the other. In the extreme
+north, where a low valley joins the Firths of Clyde and Forth, it was
+easier for them to meet. Here the Kymry found an ally outside their
+own borders. Towards the end of the fifth century a colony of Irish
+Scots had driven out the Picts from the modern Argyle. In =603= their
+king, Aedan, bringing with him a vast army, in which Picts and the
+Kymry appear to have taken part, invaded the northern part of
+AEthelfrith's country. AEthelfrith defeated him at Degsastan, which was
+probably Dawstone, near Jedburgh. 'From that time no king of the
+Scots durst come into Britain to make war upon the English.' Having
+freed himself from the Scots in the north, AEthelfrith turned upon the
+Kymry. After a succession of struggles of which no record remains, he
+forced his way in =613= to the western sea near Chester. The Kymry had
+brought with them the 2,000 monks of their great monastery
+Bangor-iscoed, to pray for victory whilst their warriors were engaged
+in battle. AEthelfrith bade his men to slay them all. 'Whether they
+bear arms or no,' he said, 'they fight against us when they cry
+against us to their God.' The monks were slain to a man. Their
+countrymen were routed, and Chester fell into the hands of the
+English. The capture of Chester split the Kymric kingdom in two, as
+the battle of Deorham thirty-five years before had split that kingdom
+off from the West Welsh of the south-western peninsula. The Southern
+Kymry, in what is now called Wales, could no longer give help to the
+Northern Kymry between the Clyde and the Ribble, who grouped
+themselves into the kingdom of Strathclyde, the capital of which was
+Alcluyd, the modern Dumbarton. Three weak Celtic states, unable to
+assist one another, would not long be able to resist their invaders.
+
+11. =The Greatness of Eadwine.=--Powerful as AEthelfrith was, he was
+jealous of young Eadwine, a son of his father's rival, AElla of Deira.
+For some years Eadwine had been in hiding, at one time with Welsh
+princes, at another time with English kings. In =617= he took refuge
+with Raedwald, the king of the East Angles. AEthelfrith demanded the
+surrender of the fugitive. Raedwald hesitated, but at last refused.
+AEthelfrith attacked him, but was defeated and slain near the river
+Idle, at some point near Retford. Eadwine the Deiran then became king
+over the united North-humberland in the place of AEthelfrith the
+Bernician, whose sons fled for safety to the Picts beyond the Forth.
+Eadwine completed and consolidated the conquests of his predecessors.
+He placed a fortress, named after himself Eadwinesburh, or Edinburgh,
+on a rocky height near the Forth, to guard his land against a fresh
+irruption of Scots and Picts, such as that which had been turned back
+at Degsastan. He conquered from the Kymry Loidis and Elmet, and he
+launched a fleet at Chester which added to his dominions the Isle of
+Man and the greater island which was henceforth known as Anglesea, the
+island of the Angles. Eadwine assumed unwonted state. Wherever he went
+a standard was borne before him, as well as a spear decorated with a
+tuft of feathers, the ancient sign of Roman authority. It has been
+thought by some that his meaning was that he, rather than any
+Welshman, was the true Gwledig, the successor of the Duke of the
+Britains (_Dux Britanniarum_), and that the name of Bretwalda, or
+ruler of the Britons, which he is said to have borne, was only a
+translation of the Welsh Gwledig. It is true that the title of
+Bretwalda is given to other powerful kings before and after Eadwine,
+some of whom were in no sense rulers over Britons; but it is possible
+that it was taken to signify a ruler over a large part of Britain,
+though the men over whom he ruled were English, and not Britons.
+
+12. =Eadwine's Supremacy.=--Eadwine's immediate kingship did not reach
+further south than the Humber and the Dee. But before =625= he had
+brought the East Angles and the kingdoms of central England to submit
+to his over-lordship, and he hoped to make himself over-lord of the
+south as well, and thus to reduce all England to dependence on
+himself. In =625= he planned an attack upon the West Saxons, and with
+the object of winning Kent to his side, he married AEthelburh, a sister
+of the Kentish king. Kent was still the only Christian kingdom, and
+Eadwine was obliged to promise to his wife protection for her
+Christian worship. He was now free to attack the West Saxons. In
+=626=, before he set out, ambassadors arrived from their king. As
+Eadwine was listening to them, one of their number rushed forward to
+stab him. His life was saved by the devotion of Lilla, one of his
+thegns, who threw his body in the way of the assassin, and was slain
+by the stroke intended for his lord. After this Eadwine marched
+against the West Saxons. He defeated them in battle and forced them to
+acknowledge him as their over-lord. He was now over-lord of all the
+English states except Kent, and Kent had become his ally in
+consequence of his marriage.
+
+13. =Character of the later Conquests.=--Eadwine's over-lordship had
+been gained with as little difficulty as AEthelberht's had been. The
+ease with which each of them carried out their purpose can only be
+explained by the change which had taken place in the condition of the
+English. The small bodies of conquerors which had landed at different
+parts of the coast had been interested to a man in the defence of the
+lands which they had seized. Every freeman had been ready to come
+forward to defend the soil which his tribe had gained. After tribe had
+been joined to tribe, and still more after kingdom had been joined to
+kingdom, there were large numbers who ceased to have any interest in
+resisting the Welsh on what was, as far as they were concerned, a
+distant frontier. Thus, when Ceawlin was fighting to extend the West
+Saxon frontiers in the valley of the Severn, it mattered little to a
+man whose own allotted land lay on the banks of the Southampton Water
+whether or not his English kinsmen won lands from the Welsh near Bath
+or Gloucester. The first result of this change was that the king's
+war-band formed a far greater proportion of his military force than it
+had formed originally. There was still the obligation upon the whole
+body of the freemen to take arms, but it was an obligation which had
+become more difficult to fulfil, and it must often have happened that
+very few freemen took part in a battle except the local levies
+concerned in defending their own immediate neighbourhood. A military
+change of this kind would account for the undoubted fact that the
+further the English conquest penetrated to the west the less
+destructive it was of British life. The thegns, or warriors personally
+attached to the king, did not want to plough and reap with their own
+hands. They would be far better pleased to spare the lives of the
+conquered and to compel them to labour. Every step in advance was
+marked by a proportionately larger Welsh element in the population.
+
+14. =Political Changes.=--The character of the kingship was as much
+affected by the change as the character of the population. The old
+folk-moots still remained as the local courts of the smaller kingdoms,
+or of the districts out of which the larger kingdoms were composed,
+and continued to meet under the presidency of ealdormen appointed or
+approved by the king. Four men and a reeve, all of them humble
+cultivators, could not, however, be expected to walk up to York from
+the shores of the Forth, or even from the banks of the Tyne, whenever
+Eadwine needed their counsel. Their place in the larger kingdoms was
+therefore taken by the Witenagemot (_The moot of the wise men_),
+composed of the ealdormen and the chief thegns, together with the
+priests attached to the king's service in the time of heathendom, and,
+in the time of Christianity, the bishop or bishops of his kingdom. In
+one way the king was the stronger for the change. His counsellors,
+like his fighting force, were more dependent on himself than before.
+He was able to plan greater designs, and to carry out military
+enterprises at a greater distance. In another way he was the weaker
+for the change. He had less support from the bulk of his people, and
+was more likely to undertake enterprises in which they had no
+interest. The over-lordships of AEthelberht and Eadwine appear very
+imposing, but no real tie united the men of the centre of England to
+those of Kent at one time, or to those of North-humberland at another.
+Eadwine was supreme over the other kings because he had a better
+war-band than they had. If another king appeared whose war-band was
+better than his, his supremacy would disappear.
+
+15. =Eadwine's Conversion and Fall.=--In =627= Eadwine, moved by his
+wife's entreaties and the urgency of her chaplain, Paulinus, called
+upon his Witan to accept Christianity. Coifi, the priest, declared
+that he had long served his gods for naught, and would try a change of
+masters. 'The present life of man, O king,' said a thegn, 'seems to me
+in comparison of that time which is unknown to us like to the swift
+flight of a sparrow through the room wherein you sit at supper in
+winter, with your ealdormen and thegns, and a good fire in the midst,
+and storms of rain and snow without.... So this life of man appears
+for a short space, but of what went before or what is to follow we are
+utterly ignorant. If therefore this new doctrine contains something
+more certain, it seems justly to deserve to be followed.' On this
+recommendation Christianity was accepted. Paulinus was acknowledged as
+Bishop of York. The new See, which had been originally intended by
+Pope Gregory to be an archbishopric, was ultimately acknowledged as
+such, but as yet it was but a missionary station. Paulinus converted
+thousands in Deira, but the men of Bernicia were unaffected by his
+pleadings. Christianity, like the extension of all better teaching,
+brought at first not peace but the sword. The new religion was
+contemptible in the eyes of warriors. The supremacy of Eadwine was
+shaken. The men of East Anglia slew their king, who had followed his
+over-lord's example by accepting Christianity. The worst blow came
+from Mercia. Hitherto it had been only a little state on the Welsh
+border. Its king, Penda, the stoutest warrior of his day, now gathered
+under him all the central states, and founded a new Mercia which
+stretched from the Severn to the Fens. He first turned on the West
+Saxons, defeated them at Cirencester, and in =628= brought the
+territory of the Hwiccas under Mercian sway. On the other hand, East
+Anglia accepted Eadwine's supremacy and Christianity. Penda called to
+his aid Caedwalla, the king of Gwynnedd, the Snowdonian region of
+Wales. That he should have done so shows how completely AEthelfrith's
+victory at Chester, by cutting the Kymric realm in two, had put an end
+to all fears that the Kymry could ever make head against England as a
+whole. The alliance was too strong for Eadwine, and in =633=, at the
+battle of Heathfield--the modern Hatfield, in Yorkshire--the great
+king was slain and his army routed.
+
+16. =Oswald's Victory at Heavenfield.=--Penda was content to split up
+Bernicia and Deira into separate kingdoms, and to join East Anglia to
+his subject states. Caedwalla had all the wrongs of his race to avenge.
+He remained in North-humberland burning and destroying till =635=,
+when Oswald, who was a son of AEthelfrith and of Eadwine's sister, and
+therefore united the claims of the rival families, gathered the men of
+Bernicia round him, overthrew Caedwalla at Heavenfield, near the Roman
+Wall, and was gratefully accepted as king by the whole of
+North-humberland.
+
+17. =Oswald and Aidan.=--In the days of Eadwine, Oswald, as the heir
+of the rival house of Bernicia, had passed his youth in exile, and had
+been converted to Christianity in the monastery of Hii, the island now
+known as Iona. The monastery had been founded by Columba, an Irish
+Scot. Christianity had been introduced into Ireland by Patrick early
+in the fifth century. Ireland was a land of constant and cruel war
+between its tribes, and all who wished to be Christians in more than
+name withdrew themselves into monasteries, where they lived an even
+stricter and more ascetic life than the monks did in other parts of
+Western Europe. Bishops were retained in the monasteries to ordain
+priests, but they were entirely powerless. Columba's monastery at Hii
+sent its missionaries abroad, and brought Picts as well as Scots under
+the influence of Christianity. Oswald now requested its abbot, the
+successor of Columba, to send a missionary to preach the faith to the
+men of North-humberland in the place of Paulinus, who had fled when
+Eadwine was slain. The first who was sent came back reporting that the
+people were too stubborn to be converted. "Was it their stubbornness
+or your harshness?" asked the monk Aidan. "Did you forget to give them
+the milk first and then the meat?" Aidan was chosen to take the place
+of the brother who had failed. He established himself, not in an
+inland town, but in Holy Island. His life was spent in wandering
+amongst the men of the valleys opposite, winning them over by his
+gentleness and his self-denying energy. Oswald, warrior as he was, had
+almost all the gentleness and piety of Aidan. 'By reason of his
+constant habit of praying or giving thanks to the Lord he was wont
+whenever he sat to hold his hands upturned on his knees.' On one
+occasion when he sat down to a feast with Aidan by his side, he sent
+both the dainties before him and the silver dish on which they had
+been served to be divided amongst the poor. "May this hand," exclaimed
+the delighted Aidan, "never grow old!"
+
+18. =Oswald's Greatness and Overthrow.=--As a king Oswald based his
+power on the acknowledgment of his over-lordship by all the kingdoms
+which were hostile to Penda. In =635= Wessex accepted Christianity,
+and the acceptance of Christianity brought with it the acceptance of
+Oswald's supremacy. Penda was thus surrounded by enemies, but his
+courage did not fail him, and in =642= at the battle of Maserfield he
+defeated Oswald. Oswald fell in the battle, begging with his last
+words for God's mercy on the souls of his enemies.
+
+19. =Penda's Overthrow.=--After Oswald's fall Bernicia was ruled by
+his brother Oswiu. Deira, again divided from it, was governed first
+by Eadwine's cousin Osric, and then by Osric's son, Oswini, who
+acknowledged Penda as his over-lord. Oswini was a man after Aidan's
+own heart. Once he gave a horse to Aidan to carry him on his mission
+journeys. Aidan gave it away to the first beggar he met. "Is that
+son of a mare," answered Aidan to the reproaches of the king, "worth
+more in your eyes than that son of God?" Oswini fell at the bishop's
+feet and entreated his pardon. Aidan wept. "I am sure," he cried,
+"the king will not live long. I never till now saw a king humble."
+Aidan was right. In =651= Oswini was slain by the order of King
+Oswiu of Bernicia, who had long engaged in a struggle with Penda.
+Penda had for some years been burning and slaughtering in Bernicia,
+till he had turned a quarrel between himself and Oswiu into a
+national strife. Oswiu rescued Bernicia from destruction, and after
+Oswini's murder joined once more the two kingdoms together. Oswini
+was the last heir of AElla's house, and from that time there was but
+one North-humberland. In =655= Oswiu and Penda met to fight, as it
+seemed for supremacy over the whole of England, by the river Winwaed,
+near the present Leeds. The heathen Penda was defeated and slain.
+
+20. =The Three Kingdoms and the Welsh.=--For a moment it seemed as if
+England would be brought together under the rule of Oswiu. After
+Penda's death Mercia accepted Christianity, and the newly united
+Mercia was split up into its original parts ruled by several kings.
+The supremacy of Oswiu was, however, as little to be borne by the
+Mercians as the supremacy of Penda had been borne by the men of
+North-humberland. Under Wulfhere the Mercians rose in =659= against
+Oswiu. All hope of uniting England was for the present at an end. For
+about a century and a half longer there remained three larger
+kingdoms--North-humberland, Mercia, and Wessex, whilst four smaller
+ones--East Anglia, Essex, Kent, and Sussex--were usually attached
+either to Mercia or to Wessex. The failure of North-humberland to
+maintain the power was no doubt, in the first place owing to the
+absence of any common danger, the fear of which would bind together
+its populations in self-defence. The northern Kymry of Strathclyde
+were no longer formidable, and they grew less formidable as years
+passed on. The southern Kymry of Wales were too weak to threaten
+Mercia, and the Welsh of the south-western peninsula were too weak to
+threaten Wessex. It was most unlikely that any permanent union of the
+English states would be brought about till some enemy arose who was
+more terrible to them than the Welsh could any longer be.
+
+21. =The English Missionaries.=--Some preparation might, however, be
+made for the day of union by the steady growth of the Church. The
+South Saxons, secluded between the forest and the sea, were the last
+to be converted, but with them English heathenism came to an end as an
+avowed religion, though it still continued to influence the multitude
+in the form of a belief in fairies and witchcraft. Monasteries and
+nunneries sprang up on all sides. Missionaries spread over the
+country. In their mouths, and still more in their lives, Christianity
+taught what the fierce English warrior most wanted to learn, the duty
+of restraining his evil passions, and above all his cruelty. Nowhere
+in all Europe did the missionaries appeal so exclusively as they did
+in England to higher and purer motives. Nowhere but in England were to
+be found kings like Oswald and Oswini, who bowed their souls to the
+lesson of the Cross, and learned that they were not their own, but
+were placed in power that they might use their strength in helping the
+poor and needy.
+
+22. =Dispute between Wilfrid and Colman. 664.=--The lesson was all the
+better taught because those who taught it were monks. Monasticism
+brought with it an extravagant view of the life of self-denial, but
+those who had to be instructed needed to have the lesson written
+plainly so that a child might read it. The rough warrior or the rough
+peasant was more likely to abstain from drunkenness, if he had learned
+to look up to men who ate and drank barely enough to enable them to
+live; and he was more likely to treat women with gentleness and
+honour, if he had learned to look up to some women who separated
+themselves from the joys of married life that they might give
+themselves to fasting and prayer. Yet, great as the influence of the
+clergy was, it was in danger of being lessened through internal
+disputes amongst themselves. A very large part of England had been
+converted by the Celtic missionaries, and the Celtic missionaries,
+though their life and teaching was in the main the same as that of the
+Church of Canterbury and of the Churches of the Continent, differed
+from them in the shape of the tonsure and in the time at which they
+kept their Easter. These things were themselves unimportant, but it
+was of great importance that the young English Church should not be
+separated from the Churches of more civilised countries which had
+preserved much of the learning and art of the old Roman Empire. One of
+those who felt strongly the evil which would follow on such a
+separation was Wilfrid. He was scornful and self-satisfied, but he had
+travelled to Rome, and had been impressed with the ecclesiastical
+memories of the great city, and with the fervour and learning of its
+clergy. He came back resolved to bring the customs of England into
+conformity with those of the churches of the Continent. On his
+arrival, Oswiu, in =664=, gathered an assembly of the clergy of the
+north headed by Colman, Aidan's successor, to discuss the point.
+Learned arguments were poured forth on either side. Oswiu listened in
+a puzzled way. Wilfrid boasted that his mode of keeping Easter was
+derived from Peter, and that Christ had given to Peter the keys of the
+kingdom of heaven. Oswiu at once decided to follow Peter, lest when he
+came to the gate of that kingdom Peter, who held the keys, should lock
+him out. Wilfrid triumphed, and the English Church was in all outward
+matters regulated in conformity with that of Rome.
+
+23. =Archbishop Theodore and the Penitential System.=--In =668=, four
+years after Oswiu's decision was taken, Theodore of Tarsus was
+consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury at Rome by the Pope himself. When
+he arrived in England the time had come for the purely missionary
+stage of the English Church to come to an end. Hitherto the bishops
+had been few, only seven in all England. Their number was now
+increased, and they were set to work no longer merely to convert the
+heathen, but to see that the clergy did their duty amongst those who
+had been already converted. Gradually, under these bishops, a
+parochial clergy came into existence. Sometimes the freemen of a
+hamlet, or of two or three hamlets together, would demand the constant
+residence of a priest. Sometimes a lord would settle a priest to teach
+his serfs. The parish clergy attacked violence and looseness of life
+in a way different from that of the monks. The monks had given
+examples of extreme self-denial. Theodore introduced the penitential
+system of the Roman Church, and ordered that those who had committed
+sin should be excluded from sharing in the rites of the Church until
+they had done penance. They were to fast, or to repeat prayers,
+sometimes for many years, before they were readmitted to communion.
+Many centuries afterwards good men objected that these penances were
+only bodily actions, and did not necessarily bring with them any real
+repentance. In the seventh century the greater part of the population
+could only be reached by such bodily actions. They had never had any
+thought that a murder, for instance, was anything more than a
+dangerous action which might bring down on the murderer the vengeance
+of the relations of the murdered man, which might be bought off with
+the payment of a weregild of a few shillings. The murderer who was
+required by the Church to do penance was being taught that a murder
+was a sin against God and against himself, as well as an offence
+against his fellow-men. Gradually--very gradually--men would learn
+from the example of the monks and from the discipline of penance that
+they were to live for something higher than the gratification of their
+own passions.
+
+[Illustration: Saxon church at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts.]
+
+24. =Ealdhelm and Caedmon.=--When a change is good in itself, it
+usually bears fruit in unexpected ways. Theodore was a scholar as well
+as a bishop. Under his care a school grew up at Canterbury, full of
+all the learning of the Roman world. That which distinguished this
+school and others founded in imitation of it was that the scholars did
+not keep their learning to themselves, but strove to make it helpful
+to the ignorant and the poor. They learnt architecture on the
+Continent in order to raise churches of stone in the place of churches
+of wood. One of these churches is still standing at Bradford-on-Avon.
+Its builder was Ealdhelm, the abbot of Malmesbury, a teacher of all
+the knowledge of the time. Ealdhelm, learned as he was, let his heart
+go forth to the unlearned. Finding that his neighbours would not
+listen to his sermons, he sang to them on a bridge to win them to
+higher things. Like all people who cannot read, the English of those
+days loved a song. In the north, Caedmon, a rude herdsman on the lands
+of the abbey which in later days was known as Whitby, was vexed with
+himself because he could not sing. When at ale-drinkings his comrades
+pressed him to sing a song, he would leave his supper unfinished and
+return home ashamed. One night in a dream he heard a voice bidding him
+sing of the Creation. In his sleep the words came to him, and they
+remained with him when he woke. He had become a poet--a rude poet, it
+is true, but still a poet. The gift which Caedmon had acquired never
+left him. He sang of the Creation and of the whole course of God's
+providence. To the end he was unable to compose any songs which were
+not religious.
+
+25. =Bede. 673--735.=--Of all the English scholars of the time Baeda,
+usually known as 'the venerable Bede,' was the most remarkable. He was
+a monk of Jarrow on the Tyne. From his youth up he was a writer on all
+subjects embraced by the knowledge of his day. One subject he made his
+own. He was the first English historian. The title of his greatest
+work was the Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. He told how
+that nation had been converted, and of the fortunes of its Church; but
+for him the Church included the whole nation, and he told of the
+doings of kings and people, as well as of priests and monks. In this
+he was a true interpreter of the spirit of the English Church. Its
+clergy did not stand aloof from the rulers of the state, but worked
+with them as well as for them. The bishops stepped into the place of
+the heathen priests in the Witenagemots of the kings, and counselled
+them in matters of state as well as in matters of religion.
+
+26. =Church Councils.=--Bede recognised in the title of his book that
+there was such a thing as an English nation long before there was any
+political unity. Whilst kingdom was fighting against kingdom, Theodore
+in =673= assembled the first English Church council at Hertford. From
+that time such councils of the bishops and principal clergy of all
+England met whenever any ecclesiastical question required them to
+deliberate in common. The clergy at least did not meet as West Saxons
+or as Mercians. They met on behalf of the whole English Church, and
+their united consultations must have done much to spread the idea
+that, in spite of the strife between the kings, the English nation was
+really one.
+
+[Illustration: Saxon horsemen (Harl. MS. 603.)]
+
+[Illustration: Group of Saxon warriors. (Harl. MS. 603.)]
+
+27. =Struggle between Mercia and Wessex.=--Many years passed away
+before the kingdoms could be brought under one king. North-humberland
+stood apart from southern England, and during the latter half of the
+seventh century Wessex grew in power. Wessex had been weak because it
+was seldom thoroughly united. Each district was presided over by an
+AEtheling, or chief of royal blood, and it was only occasionally that
+these AEthelings submitted to the king. From time to time a strong king
+compelled the obedience of the AEthelings and carried on the old
+struggle with the western Welsh. It was not till =710= that Ine
+succeeded in driving the Welsh out of Somerset, and about the same
+time a body of the West Saxons advancing through Dorset reached
+Exeter. They took possession of half the city for themselves, and left
+the remainder to the Welsh. Ine was, however, checked by fresh
+outbreaks of the subordinate AEthelings, and in =726= he gave up the
+struggle and went on a pilgrimage to Rome. AEthelbald, king of the
+Mercians, took the opportunity to invade Wessex, and made himself
+master of the country and over-lord of all the other kingdoms south of
+the Humber. In =754= the West Saxons rose against him and defeated him
+at Burford. After a few years his successor, Offa, once more took up
+the task of making the Mercian king over-lord of southern England. In
+=775=, after a long struggle, he brought Kent as well as Essex under
+his sway. In =779= he defeated the West Saxons at Bensington, and
+pushed the Mercian frontier to the Thames. Further than that Offa did
+not venture to go, and, great as he was, the West Saxons within their
+shrunken limits continued to be independent of him. He turned his
+arms upon the Welsh, and drove them back from the Severn to the
+embankment which is known from his name as Offa's Dyke. The West
+Saxons, being freed from attack on the side of Mercia, overran Devon.
+Then there was a contest for the West Saxon crown between Beorhtric
+and Ecgberht. Beorhtric gained the upper hand, and entered into
+alliance with Offa by taking his daughter to wife. Ecgberht fled to
+the Continent.
+
+28. =Mohammedanism and the Carolingian Empire.=--A great change had
+passed over Europe since the days when a Frankish princess, by her
+marriage with the Kentish Ethelberht, had smoothed the way for the
+introduction of Christianity into England. In the first part of the
+seventh century Mohammed had preached a new religion in Arabia. He
+taught that there was one God, and that Mohammed was his prophet.
+After his death his Arab followers spread as conquerors over the
+neighbouring countries. Before the end of the century they had subdued
+Persia, Syria, and Egypt, and were pushing westwards along the north
+coast of Africa. In =711= they crossed the Straits of Gibraltar. All
+Spain, with the exception of a hilly district in the north, soon fell
+into their hands, and in =717= they crossed the Pyrenees. There can be
+little doubt that, if they had subdued Gaul, Mohammedanism and not
+Christianity would for a long time have been the prevailing religion
+in Europe. From this Europe was saved by a great Frankish warrior,
+Charles Martel (_the Hammer_), who in =732= drove the invaders back at
+a great battle between Tours and Poitiers. Charles's son, Pippin,
+dethroned the reigning family and became king of the Franks. Pippin's
+son was Charles the Great, who before he died ruled over the whole of
+Gaul and Germany, over the north and centre of Italy, and the
+north-east of Spain. His rule was favoured both by the Frankish
+warriors and by the clergy, who were glad to see so strong a bulwark
+erected against the attacks of the Mohammedans. At that time the Roman
+Empire, which had never ceased to exist at Constantinople, fell into
+the hands of Irene, the murderess of her son. In =800= the Pope,
+refusing to acknowledge that the Empire could have so unworthy a head,
+placed the Imperial crown on the head of Charles as the successor of
+the old Roman Emperors.
+
+29. =Ecgberht's Rule. 802--839.=--Though Charles did not directly
+govern England, he made his influence felt there. Offa had claimed his
+protection, and Ecgberht took refuge at his court. Ecgberht doubtless
+learned something of the art of ruling from him, and in =802= he
+returned to England. Beorhtric was by this time dead, and Ecgberht
+was accepted as king by the West Saxons. Before he died, in =839=, he
+had made himself the over-lord of all the other kingdoms. He was
+never, indeed, directly king of all England. Kent, Sussex, and Essex
+were governed by rulers of his own family appointed by himself.
+Mercia, East Anglia, and North-humberland retained their own kings,
+ruling under Ecgberht as their over-lord. Towards the west Ecgberht's
+direct government did not reach beyond the Tamar, though the Cornish
+Celts acknowledged his authority, as did the Celts of Wales. The Celts
+of Strathclyde and the Picts and Scots remained entirely independent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP AND THE STRUGGLE WITH THE DANES.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  First landing of the Danes                                       787
+  Treaty of Wedmore                                                878
+  Dependent alliance of the Scots with Eadward the Elder           925
+  Accession of Eadgar                                              959
+
+
+1. =The West Saxon Supremacy.=--It was quite possible that the power
+founded by Ecgberht might pass away as completely as did the power
+which had been founded by AEthelfrith of North-humberland or by Penda
+of Mercia. To some extent the danger was averted by the unusual
+strength of character which for six generations showed itself in the
+family of Ecgberht. For nearly a century and a half after Ecgberht's
+death no ruler arose from his line who had not great qualities as a
+warrior or as a ruler. It was no less important that these successive
+kings, with scarcely an exception, kept up a good understanding with
+the clergy, and especially with the Archbishops of Canterbury, so that
+the whole of the influence of the Church was thrown in favour of the
+political unity of England under the West Saxon line. The clergy
+wished to see the establishment of a strong national government for
+the protection of the national Church. Yet it was difficult to
+establish such a government unless other causes than the goodwill of
+the clergy had contributed to its maintenance. Peoples who have had
+little intercourse except by fighting with one another rarely unite
+heartily unless they have some common enemy to ward off, and some
+common leader to look up to in the conduct of their defence.[3]
+
+    [Footnote 3: Genealogy of the English kings from Ecgberht to
+    Eadgar:--
+
+                     ECGBERHT
+                          802-839
+                             |
+                      AETHELWULF
+                          839-858
+                             |
+         -----------------------------------------
+         |             |             |           |
+     AETHELBALD     AETHELBERHT     AETHELRED     AELFRED
+     858-860       860-866        866-871      871-901
+                                                  |
+        -------------------------------------------
+        |                                       |
+     Eadward                                AEthelflaed = AEthelred
+     899-925                           (the _Lady of the
+        |                                   Mercians_)
+        --------------------------
+        |             |          |
+     AETHELSTAN     EADMUND     EADRED
+     925-940       940-946     946-955
+                      |
+                ------------
+                |          |
+             EADWIG     EADGAR
+             955-959    959-975]
+
+[Illustration: Remains of a Viking ship, from a cairn at Gokstad. (Now
+in the University at Christiania.)]
+
+2. =The Coming of the Northmen.=--The common enemy came from the
+north. At the end of the eighth century the inhabitants of Norway and
+Denmark resembled the Angles and Saxons three or four centuries
+before. They swarmed over the sea as pirates to plunder wherever they
+could find stored-up wealth along the coasts of Western Europe. The
+Northmen were heathen still and their religion was the old religion of
+force. They loved battle even more than they loved plunder. They held
+that the warrior who was slain in fight was received by the god Odin
+in Valhalla, where immortal heroes spent their days in cutting one
+another to pieces, and were healed of their wounds in the evening that
+they might join in the nightly feast, and be able to fight again on
+the morrow. He that died in bed was condemned to a chilly and dreary
+existence in the abode of the goddess Hela, whose name is the Norse
+equivalent of Hell.
+
+[Illustration: Gold ring of AEthelwulf.]
+
+3. =The English Coast Plundered.=--Since Englishmen had settled in
+England they had lost the art of seamanship. The Northmen therefore
+were often able to plunder and sail away. They could only be attacked
+on land, and some time would pass before the Ealdorman who ruled the
+district could gather together not only his own war-band, but the
+fyrd, or levy of all men of fighting age. When at last he arrived at
+the spot on the coast where the pirates had been plundering, he often
+found that they were already gone. Yet, as time went on, the Northmen
+took courage, and pushed far enough into the interior to be attacked
+before they could regain the coast. Their first landing had been in
+=787=, before the time of Ecgberht. In Ecgberht's reign their attacks
+upon Wessex were so persistent that Ecgberht had to bring his own
+war-band to the succour of his Ealdormen. His son and successor,
+AEthelwulf, had a still harder struggle. The pirates spread their
+attacks over the whole of the southern and the eastern coast, and
+ventured to remain long enough on shore to fight a succession of
+battles. In =851= they were strong enough to remain during the whole
+winter in Thanet. The crews of no less than 350 ships landed in the
+mouth of the Thames sacked Canterbury and London. They were finally
+defeated by AEthelwulf at Aclea (_Ockley_), in Surrey. In =858=
+AEthelwulf died. Four of his sons wore the crown in succession; the two
+eldest, AEthelbald and AEthelberht, ruling only a short time.
+
+4. =The Danes in the North.=--The task of the third brother,
+AEthelred, who succeeded in =866=, was harder than his father's.
+Hitherto the Northmen had come for plunder, and had departed sooner or
+later. A fresh swarm of Danes now arrived from Denmark to settle on
+the land as conquerors. Though they did not themselves fight on
+horseback, they seized horses to betake themselves rapidly from one
+part of England to the other. Their first attack was made on the
+north, where there was no great affection for the West Saxon kings.
+They overcame the greater part of North-humberland. They beat down the
+resistance of East Anglia, and, fastening its king, Eadmund, to a
+tree, shot him to death with arrows. His countrymen counted him a
+saint, and a great monastery arose at Bury St. Edmunds in his honour.
+Everywhere the Danes plundered and burnt the monasteries, because the
+monks were weak, and their houses were rich with jewelled service
+books and golden plate. They next turned upon Mercia, and forced the
+Mercian under-king to pay tribute to them. Only Wessex, to which the
+smaller eastern states of Kent and Sussex had by this time been
+completely annexed, retained its independence.
+
+5. =AElfred's Struggle in Wessex. 871--878.=--In Wessex AEthelred strove
+hard against the invaders. He won a great victory at AEscesdun
+(_Ashdown_, near Reading), on the northern slope of the Berkshire
+Downs. After a succession of battles he was slain in =871=. Though he
+left sons of his own, he was succeeded by AElfred, his youngest
+brother. It was not the English custom to give the crown to the child
+of a king if there was any one of the kingly family more fitted to
+wear it. AElfred was no common man. In his childhood he had visited
+Rome, and had been hallowed as king by Pope Leo IV., though the
+ceremony could have had no weight in England. He had early shown a
+love of letters, and the story goes that when his mother offered a
+book with bright illuminations to the one of her children who could
+first learn to read it, the prize was won by AElfred. During AEthelred's
+reign he had little time to give to learning. He fought nobly by his
+brother's side in the battles of the day, and after he succeeded him
+he fought nobly as king at the head of his people. In =878= the Danish
+host, under its king, Guthrum, beat down all resistance. AElfred was no
+longer able to keep in the open country, and took refuge with a few
+chosen warriors in the little island of Athelney, in Somerset, then
+surrounded by the waters of the fen country through which the Parret
+flowed. After a few weeks he came forth, and with the levies of
+Somerset and Wilts and of part of Hants he utterly defeated Guthrum at
+Ethandun (? _Edington_, in Wiltshire), and stormed his camp.
+
+[Illustration: Gold jewel of AElfred found at Athelney. (Now in the
+Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.)]
+
+6. =The Treaty of Chippenham, and its Results. 878.=--After this
+defeat Guthrum and the Danes swore to a peace with AElfred at
+Chippenham. They were afterwards baptised in a body at Aller, not far
+from Athelney. Guthrum with a few of his companions then visited
+AElfred at Wedmore, a village near the southern foot of the Mendips,
+from which is taken the name by which the treaty is usually but
+wrongly known. By this treaty AElfred retained no more than Wessex,
+with its dependencies, Sussex and Kent, and the western half of
+Mercia. The remainder of England as far north as the Tees was
+surrendered to the Danes, and became known as the Danelaw, because
+Danish and not Saxon law prevailed in it. Beyond the Tees Bernicia
+maintained its independence under an English king. Though the English
+people never again had to struggle for its very existence as a
+political body, yet, in =886=, after a successful war, AElfred wrung
+from Guthrum a fresh treaty by which the Danes surrendered London and
+the surrounding district. Yet, even after this second treaty, it might
+seem as if AElfred, who only ruled over a part of England, was worse
+off than his grandfather, Ecgberht, who had ruled over the whole. In
+reality he was better off. In the larger kingdom it would have been
+almost impossible to produce the national spirit which alone could
+have permanently kept the whole together. In the smaller kingdom it
+was possible, especially as there was a strong West Saxon element in
+the south-west of Mercia in consequence of its original settlement by
+a West Saxon king after the battle of Deorham (see p. 35). Moreover,
+AElfred, taking care not to offend the old feeling of local
+independence which still existed in Mercia, appointed his son-in-law,
+AEthelred, who was a Mercian, to govern it as an ealdorman under
+himself.
+
+[Illustration: An English vessel. (Harl. MS. 603.)]
+
+7. =AElfred's Military Work.=--AElfred would hardly have been able to do
+so much unless his own character had been singularly attractive. Other
+men have been greater warriors or legislators or scholars than AElfred
+was, but no man has ever combined in his own person so much excellence
+in war, in legislation, and in scholarship. As to war, he was not only
+a daring and resolute commander, but he was an organiser of the
+military forces of his people. One chief cause of the defeats of the
+English had been the difficulty of bringing together in a short time
+the 'fyrd,' or general levy of the male population, or of keeping it
+long together when men were needed at home to till the fields. AElfred
+did his best to overcome this difficulty by ordering that half the men
+of each shire should be always ready to fight, whilst half remained at
+home. This new half-army, like his new half-kingdom, was stronger than
+the whole one had been before. To an improved army AElfred added a
+navy, and he was the first English king who defeated the Danes at sea.
+
+[Illustration: A Saxon house. (Harl. MS. 603.)]
+
+8. =His Laws and Scholarship.=--AElfred was too great a man to want to
+make every one conform to some ideal of his own choosing. It was
+enough for him to take men as they were, and to help them to become
+better. He took the old laws and customs, and then, suggesting a few
+improvements, submitted them to the approval of his Witenagemot, the
+assembly of his bishops and warriors. He knew also that men's conduct
+is influenced more by what they think than by what they are commanded
+to do. His whole land was steeped in ignorance. The monasteries had
+been the schools of learning; and many of them had been sacked by the
+Danes, their books burnt, and their inmates scattered, whilst others
+were deserted, ceasing to receive new inmates because the first duty
+of Englishmen had been to defend their homes rather than to devote
+themselves to a life of piety. Latin was the language in which the
+services of the Church were read, and in which books like Bede's
+Ecclesiastical History were written. Without a knowledge of Latin
+there could be no intercourse with the learned men of the Continent,
+who used that language still amongst themselves. Yet when the Danes
+departed from AElfred's kingdom, there were but very few priests who
+could read a page of Latin. AElfred did his best to remedy the evil. He
+called learned men to him wherever they could be found. Some of these
+were English; others, like Asser, who wrote AElfred's life, were Welsh;
+others again were Germans from beyond the sea. Yet AElfred was not
+content. It was a great thing that there should be again schools in
+England for those who could write and speak Latin, the language of the
+learned, but his heart yearned for those who could not speak anything
+but their own native tongue. He set himself to be the teacher of
+these. He himself translated Latin books for them, with the object of
+imparting knowledge, not of giving, as a modern translator would do,
+the exact sense of the author. When, therefore, he knew anything which
+was not in the books, but which he thought it good for Englishmen to
+read, he added it to his translation. Even with this he was not
+content. The books of Latin writers which he translated taught men
+about the history and geography of the Continent. They taught nothing
+about the history of England itself, of the deeds and words of the men
+who had ruled the English nation. That these things might not be
+forgotten, he bade his learned men bring together all that was known
+of the history of his people since the day when they first landed as
+pirates on the coast of Kent. The Chronicle, as it is called, is the
+earliest history which any European nation possesses in its own
+tongue. Yet, after all, such a man as AElfred is greater for what he
+was than for what he did. No other king ever showed forth so well in
+his own person the truth of the saying, 'He that would be first among
+you, let him be the servant of all.'
+
+9. =Eadward the Elder. 899--925.=--In =899= AElfred died. He had
+already fortified London as an outpost against the Danes, and he left
+to his son, Eadward, a small but strong and consolidated kingdom. The
+Danes on the other side of the frontier were not united. Guthrum's
+kingdom stretched over the old Essex and East Anglia, as well as over
+the south-eastern part of the old Mercia. The land from the Humber to
+the Nen was under the rule of Danes settled in the towns known to the
+English as the Five boroughs of Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Stamford,
+and Nottingham. In the old Deira or modern Yorkshire was a separate
+Danish kingdom. Danes, in short, settled wherever we now find the
+place-names, such as Derby and Whitby, ending in the Danish
+termination 'by' instead of in the English terminations 'ton' or
+'ham,' as in Luton and Chippenham. Yet even in these parts the bulk of
+the population was usually English, and the English population would
+everywhere welcome an English conqueror. A century earlier a Mercian
+or a North-humbrian had preferred independence to submission to a West
+Saxon king. They now preferred a West Saxon king to a Danish master,
+especially as the old royal houses were extinct, and there was no one
+but the West Saxon king to lead them against the Danes.
+
+10. =Eadward's Conquests.=--Eadward was not, like his father, a
+legislator or a scholar, but he was a great warrior. In a series of
+campaigns he subdued the Danish parts of England as far north as the
+Humber. He was aided by his brother-in-law, AEthelred, and after
+AEthelred's death by his own sister, AEthelred's widow, AEthelflaed, the
+Lady of the Mercians, one of the few warrior-women of the world. Step
+by step the brother and sister won their way, not contenting
+themselves with victories in the open country, but securing each
+district as they advanced by the erection of 'burhs' or
+fortifications. Some of these 'burhs' were placed in desolate Roman
+strongholds, such as Chester. Others were raised, like that of
+Warwick, on the mounds piled up in past times by a still earlier race.
+Others again, like that of Stafford, were placed where no fortress had
+been before. Towns, small at first, grew up in and around the 'burhs,'
+and were guarded by the courage of the townsmen themselves. Eadward,
+after his sister's death, took into his own hands the government of
+Mercia, and from that time all southern and central England was
+united under him. In =922= the Welsh kings acknowledged his supremacy.
+
+11. =Eadward and the Scots.=--Tradition assigns to Eadward a wider
+rule shortly before his death. In the middle of the ninth century the
+Picts and the intruding Scots (see p. 42) had been amalgamated under
+Keneth MacAlpin, the king of the Scots, and the new kingdom had since
+been welded together, just as Mercia and Wessex were being welded
+together by the attacks of the Danes. It is said that in =925= the
+king of the Scots, together with other northern rulers, chose Eadward
+'to father and lord.' Probably this statement only covers some act of
+alliance formed by the English king with the king of Scots and other
+lesser rulers. Nothing was more natural than that the Scottish king,
+Constantine, should wish to obtain the support of Eadward against his
+enemies; and it was also natural that if Eadward agreed to support
+him, he would require some acknowledgment of the superiority of the
+English king; but what was the precise form of the acknowledgment must
+remain uncertain. In =925= Eadward died.
+
+12. =AEthelstan. 925--940.=--Three sons of Eadward reigned in
+succession. The eldest, of illegitimate birth, was AEthelstan. Sihtric,
+the Danish king at York, owned him as over-lord, and on Sihtric's
+death in =926=, AEthelstan took Danish North-humberland under his
+direct rule. The Welsh kings were reduced to make a fuller
+acknowledgment of his supremacy than they had made to his father. He
+drove the Welsh out of the half of Exeter which had been left to them,
+and confined them to the modern Cornwall beyond the Tamar. Great
+rulers on the Continent sought his alliance. The empire of Charles the
+Great had broken up. One of AEthelstan's sisters was given to Charles
+the Simple, the king of the Western Franks; another to Hugh the Great,
+Duke of the French and lord of Paris, who, though nominally the vassal
+of the king, was equal in power to his lord, and whose son was
+afterwards the first king of modern France. A third sister was given
+to Otto, the son of Henry, the king of the Eastern Franks, from whom,
+in due time, sprang a new line of Emperors. AEthelstan's greatness drew
+upon him the jealousy of the king of the Scots and of all the northern
+kings. In =937= he defeated them all in a great battle at Brunanburh,
+of which the site is unknown. His victory was celebrated in a splendid
+war-song.
+
+13. =Eadmund (940-946) and Eadred (946-955).=--AEthelstan died in
+=940=. He was succeeded by his young brother, Eadmund, who had fought
+bravely at Brunanburh. Eadmund had to meet a general rising of the
+Danes of Mercia as well as of those of the north. After he had
+suppressed the rising he showed himself to be a great statesman as
+well as a great warrior. The relations between the king of the English
+and the king of the Scots had for some time been very uncertain.
+Little is definitely known about them but it looks as if they joined
+the English whenever they were afraid of the Danes, and joined the
+Danes whenever they were afraid of the English. Eadmund took an
+opportunity of making it to be the interest of the Scottish king
+permanently to join the English. The southern part of the kingdom of
+Strathclyde had for some time been under the English kings. In =945=
+Eadmund overran the remainder, but gave it to Malcolm on condition
+that he should be his fellow-worker by sea and land. The king of Scots
+thus entered into a position of dependent alliance towards Eadmund. A
+great step was thus taken in the direction in which the inhabitants of
+Britain afterwards walked. The dominant powers in the island were to
+be English and Scots, not English and Danes. Eadmund thought it worth
+while to conciliate the Scottish Celts rather than to endeavour to
+conquer them. The result of Eadmund's statesmanship was soon made
+manifest. He himself did not live to gather its fruits. In =946= an
+outlaw who had taken his seat at a feast in his hall slew him as he
+was attempting to drag him out by the hair. The next king, Eadred, the
+last of Eadward's sons, though sickly, had all the spirit of his race.
+He had another sharp struggle with the Danes, but in =954= he made
+himself their master. North-humberland was now thoroughly amalgamated
+with the English kingdom, and was to be governed by an Englishman,
+Oswulf, with the title of Earl, an old Danish title equivalent to the
+English Ealdorman, having nothing to do, except philologically, with
+the old English word Eorl.
+
+14. =Danes and English.=--In =955= Eadred died, having completed the
+work which AElfred had begun, and which had been carried on by his son
+and his three grandsons. England, from the Forth to the Channel, was
+under one ruler. Even the contrast between Englishmen and Danes was
+soon, for the most part, wiped out. They were both of the same
+Teutonic stock, and therefore their languages were akin to one another
+and their institutions very similar. The Danes of the north were for
+some time fiercer and less easily controlled than the English of the
+south, but there was little national distinction between them, and
+what little there was gradually passed away.
+
+15. =Eadwig. 955--959.=--Eadred was succeeded by Eadwig, the eldest
+son of his brother Eadmund. Eadwig was hardly more than fifteen years
+old, and it would be difficult for a boy to keep order amongst the
+great ealdormen and earls. At his coronation feast he gave deep
+offence by leaving his place to amuse himself with a young kinswoman,
+AElfgifu, in her mother's room, whence he was followed and dragged back
+by two ecclesiastics, one of whom was Dunstan, Abbot of Glastonbury.
+
+16. =Dunstan.=--Dunstan in his boyhood had been attached to Eadmund's
+court, but he had been driven off by the rivalry of other youths. He
+was in no way fitted to be a warrior. He loved art and song, and
+preferred a book to a sword. For such youths there was no place
+amongst the fighting laymen, and Dunstan early found the peace which
+he sought as a monk at Glastonbury. Eadmund made him abbot, but
+Dunstan had almost to create his monastery before he could rule it.
+Monasteries had nearly vanished from England in the time of the Danish
+plunderings, and the few monks who remained had very little that was
+monastic about them. Dunstan brought the old monks into order, and
+attracted new ones, but to the end of his days he was conspicuous
+rather as a scholar than as an ascetic. From Glastonbury he carried on
+the work of teaching an ignorant generation, just as AElfred had done
+in an earlier time. AElfred, however, was a warrior and a ruler first,
+and then a teacher. Dunstan was a teacher first, and then a ruler.
+Eadred took counsel with him, and Dunstan became thus the first
+example of a class of men which afterwards rose to power--that,
+namely, of ecclesiastical statesmen. Up to that time all who had
+governed had been warriors.
+
+17. =Archbishop Oda.=--Another side of the Church's work, the
+maintenance of a high standard of morality, was, in the time of
+Eadred, represented by Oda, Archbishop of Canterbury. The accepted
+standard of morality differs in different ages, and, for many reasons,
+it was held by the purer minds in the tenth century that celibacy was
+nobler than marriage. If our opinion is changed now, it is because
+many things have changed. No one then thought of teaching a girl
+anything, except to sew and to look after the house, and an ignorant
+and untrained wife could only be a burden to a man who was intent upon
+the growth of the spiritual or intellectual life in himself and in
+others. At all times the monks, who were often called the regular
+clergy, because they lived according to a certain rule, had been
+unmarried, and attempts had frequently been made by councils of the
+Church to compel the parish priests, or secular clergy, to follow
+their example. In England, however, and on the Continent as well,
+these orders were seldom heeded, and a married clergy was everywhere
+to be found. Of late, however, there had sprung up in the monastery of
+Cluny, in Burgundy, a zeal for the establishment of universal clerical
+celibacy, and this zeal was shared by Archbishop Oda, though he found
+it impossible to overcome the stubborn resistance of the secular
+clergy.
+
+[Illustration: A monk driven out of the King's presence. (From a
+drawing belonging to the Society of Antiquaries.)]
+
+18. =Eadwig's Marriage.=--In its eagerness to set up a pure standard
+of morality, the Church had made rules against the marriage of even
+distant relations. Eadwig offended against these rules by marrying his
+kinswoman, AElfgifu. A quarrel arose on this account between Dunstan
+and the young king, and Dunstan was driven into banishment. Such a
+quarrel was sure to weaken the king, because the support of the
+bishops was usually given to him, for the sake of the maintenance of
+peace and order. The dispute came at a bad time, because there was
+also a quarrel among the ealdormen and other great men. At last the
+ealdormen of the north and centre of England revolted and set up the
+king's brother, Eadgar, to be king of all England north of the Thames.
+Upon this, Oda, taking courage, declared Eadwig and his young wife to
+be separated as too near of kin, and even seized her and had her
+carried beyond sea. In =959= Eadwig died, and Eadgar succeeded to the
+whole kingdom.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+EADGAR'S ENGLAND.
+
+
+1. =Eadgar and Dunstan. 959--975.=--Eadgar was known as the Peaceful
+King. He had the advantage, which Eadwig had not, of having the Church
+on his side. He maintained order, with the help of Dunstan as his
+principal adviser. Not long after his accession Dunstan became
+Archbishop of Canterbury. His policy was that of a man who knows that
+he cannot do everything and is content to do what he can. The Danes
+were to keep their own laws, and not to have English laws forced upon
+them. The great ealdormen were to be conciliated, not to be repressed.
+Everything was to be done to raise the standard of morality and
+knowledge. Foreign teachers were brought in to set up schools. More
+than this Dunstan did not attempt. It is true that in his time an
+effort was made to found monasteries, which should be filled with
+monks living after the stricter rule of which the example had been set
+at Cluny, but the man who did most to establish monasteries again in
+England was not Dunstan, but AEthelwold, Bishop of Winchester.
+AEthelwold, however, was not content with founding monasteries. He also
+drove out the secular canons from his own cathedral of Winchester and
+filled their places with monks. His example was followed by Oswald,
+Bishop of Worcester. Dunstan did not introduce monks even into his own
+cathedrals at Worcester and Canterbury. As far as it is now possible
+to understand the matter, the change, though it provoked great
+hostility, was for the better. The secular canons were often married,
+connected with the laity of the neighbourhood, and living an easy
+life. The monks were celibate, living according to a strict rule, and
+conforming themselves to what, according to the standard of the age,
+was the highest ideal of religion. By a life of complete self-denial
+they were able to act as examples to a generation which needed
+teaching by example more than by word. How completely monasticism was
+associated with learning is shown by the fact that the monks now
+established at Worcester took up the work of continuing the Chronicle
+which had been begun under AElfred (see p. 61).
+
+2. =The Cession of Lothian.=--It is said that Eadgar was once rowed by
+six kings on the river Dee. The story, though probably untrue, sets
+forth his power not only over his own immediate subjects but over the
+whole island. His title of Peaceful shows that at least he lived on
+good terms with his neighbours. There is reason to believe that he was
+able to do this because he followed out the policy of Eadmund in
+singling out the king of Scots as the ruler whom it was most worth his
+while to conciliate. Eadmund had given over Strathclyde to one king of
+Scots. Eadgar, it is said--and probably with truth--gave over Lothian
+to another. Lothian was then the name of the whole of the northern
+part of Bernicia stretching from the Cheviots to the Forth. In
+Eadred's time the Scots had occupied Eadwinesburh (_Edinburgh_), the
+northern border fortress of Bernicia (see p. 43), and after this the
+land to the south of that fortress must have been difficult to defend
+against them. It is therefore likely that the story is true that
+Eadgar ceded Lothian to Kenneth, who was then king of the Scots,
+especially as it would account for the peaceful character of his
+reign. Kenneth in accepting the gift no doubt engaged to be faithful
+to Eadgar, though it is impossible to say what was the exact nature of
+his obligation. It is of more importance that a Celtic king ruled
+thenceforward over an English people as well as over his own Celtic
+Scots, and that ultimately his descendants became more English than
+Celtic in character, through the attraction exercised upon them by
+their English subjects.
+
+3. =Changes in English Institutions.=--The long struggle with the
+Danes could not fail to leave its mark upon English society. The
+history of the changes which took place is difficult to trace; in the
+first place because our information is scanty, in the second because
+things happened in one part of the country which did not happen in
+another. Yet there were two changes which were widely felt: the growth
+of the king's authority, and the acceleration of the process which was
+reducing to bondage the ceorl, or simple freeman.
+
+4. =Growth of the King's Power.=--In the early days of the English
+conquest the kings and other great men had around them their
+war-bands, composed of gesiths or thegns, personally attached to
+themselves, and ready, if need were, to die on their lord's behalf.
+Very early these thegns were rewarded by grants of land on condition
+of continuing military service. Every extension of the king's power
+over fresh territory made their services more important. It had always
+been difficult to bring together the fyrd, or general army of the
+freemen, even of a small district, and it was quite impossible to
+bring together the fyrd of a kingdom reaching from the Channel to the
+Firth of Forth. AElfred's division of the fyrd into two parts, one to
+fight and the other to stay at home, may have served when all the
+fighting had to be done in the western part of Wessex. AEthelstan or
+Eadmund could not possibly make even half of the men of Devonshire or
+Essex fight in his battles north of the Humber. The kings therefore
+had to rely more and more upon their thegns, who in turn had thegns of
+their own whom they could bring with them; and thus was formed an army
+ready for military service in any part of the kingdom. A king who
+could command such an army was even more powerful than one who could
+command the whole of the forces of a smaller territory.
+
+[Illustration: January--Ploughing and sowing.]
+
+[Illustration: February--Pruning.]
+
+[Illustration: March--Sowing and digging.]
+
+[Illustration: April--Feasting.]
+
+[Illustration: May--Sheep-tending.]
+
+[Illustration: June--Cutting wood.]
+
+[Illustration: Rural life in the eleventh century. January to June.
+(Cott. MS. _Julius A._ vi.)]
+
+[Illustration: July--Mowing.]
+
+[Illustration: August--Harvesting.]
+
+[Illustration: September--Feeding swine.]
+
+[Illustration: October--Hawking.]
+
+[Illustration: November--Making a bonfire.]
+
+[Illustration: December--Threshing and Winnowing.]
+
+[Illustration: Rural life in the eleventh century. July to December.
+(Cott. MS. _Julius A._ vi.)]
+
+5. =Conversion of the Freemen into Serfs.=--It is impossible to give a
+certain account of the changes which passed over the English freemen,
+but there can be little doubt that a process had been for some time
+going on which converted them into bondmen, and that this process was
+greatly accelerated by the Danish wars. When a district was being
+plundered the peasant holders of the strips of village land suffered
+most, and needed the protection of the neighbouring thegn, who was
+better skilled in war than themselves, and this protection they
+could only obtain on condition of becoming bondmen themselves--that is
+to say, of giving certain days in the week to work on the special
+estate of the lord. A bondman differed both from a slave and from a
+modern farmer. Though he was bound to the soil and could not go away
+if he wished to do so, yet he could not be sold as though he were a
+slave; nor, on the other hand, could he, like a farmer, be turned out
+of his holding so long as he fulfilled his obligation of cultivating
+his lord's demesne. The lord was almost invariably a thegn, either of
+the king or of some superior thegn, and there thus arose in England,
+as there arose about the same time on the Continent, a chain of
+personal relationships. The king was no longer merely the head of the
+whole people. He was the personal lord of his own thegns, and they
+again were the lords of other thegns. The serfs cultivated their
+lands, and thereby set them free to fight for the king on behalf of
+the whole nation. It seems at first sight as if the English people had
+fallen into a worse condition. An organisation, partly military and
+partly servile, was substituted for an organisation of free men. Yet
+only in this way could the whole of England be amalgamated. The nation
+gained in unity what it lost in freedom.
+
+6. =The Hundred-moot and the Lord's Court.=--In another way the
+condition of the peasants was altered for the worse by the growth of
+the king's power. In former days land was held as 'folkland,' granted
+by the people at the original conquest, passing to the kinsmen of the
+holder if he died without children. Afterwards the clergy introduced a
+system by which the owner could grant the 'bookland,' held by book or
+charter, setting at nought the claim of his kinsmen, and in order to
+give validity to the arrangement, obtained the consent of the king and
+his Witenagemot (see p. 45). In time, the king and the Witenagemot
+granted charters in other cases, and the new 'bookland' to a great
+extent superseded the old 'folkland,' accompanied by a grant of the
+right of holding special courts. In this manner the old hundred-moots
+became neglected, people seeking for justice in the courts of the
+lords. Yet those who lived on the lord's land attended his court,
+appeared as compurgators, and directed the ordeal just as they had
+once done in the hundred-moot.
+
+7. =The Towns.=--The towns had grown up in various ways. Some were of
+old Roman foundation, such as Lincoln and Gloucester. Others, like
+Nottingham and Bristol, had come into existence since the English
+settlement. Others again gathered round monasteries, like Bury St.
+Edmunds and Peterborough. The inhabitants met to consult about their
+own affairs, sometimes in dependence on a lord. Where there was no
+lord they held a court which was composed in the same way as the
+hundred-moots outside. The townsmen had the right of holding a market.
+Every sale had to take place in the presence of witnesses who could
+prove, if called upon to do so, that the sale had really taken place,
+and markets were therefore usually to be found in towns, because it
+was there that witnesses could most easily be found.
+
+8. =The Origin of the Shires.=--Shires, which were divisions larger
+than the hundreds, and smaller than the larger kingdoms, originated in
+various ways. In the south, and on the east coast as far north as the
+Wash, they were either old kingdoms like Kent and Essex, or
+settlements forming part of old kingdoms, as Norfolk (the north folk)
+formed part of East Anglia, and Dorset or Somerset, the lands of the
+Dorsaetan or the Somersaetan, formed part of the kingdom of Wessex. In
+the centre and north they were of more recent origin, and were
+probably formed as those parts of England were gradually reconquered
+from the Danes. The fact that most of these shires are named from
+towns--as Derbyshire from Derby, and Warwickshire from Warwick--shows
+that they came into existence after towns had become of importance.
+
+9. =The Shire-moot.=--Whilst the hundred-moot decayed, the folk-moot
+continued to flourish under a new name, as the shire-moot. This moot
+was still attended by the freemen of the shire though the thegns were
+more numerous and the simple freemen less numerous than they had once
+been. Still the continued existence of the shire-moot kept up the
+custom of self-government more than anything else in England. The
+ordeals were witnessed, the weregild inflicted, and rights to land
+adjudged, not by an officer of the king, but by the landowners of the
+shire assembled for the purpose. These meetings were ordinarily
+presided over by the ealdorman, who appeared as the military commander
+and the official head of the shire, and by the bishop, who represented
+the Church. Another most important personage was the sheriff, or
+shire-reeve, whose business it was to see that the king had all his
+rights, to preside over the shire-moot when it sat as a judicial
+court, and to take care that its sentences were put in execution.
+
+[Illustration: _Walker & Boutallse._
+
+Plan and section of a burh of the eleventh century at
+Laughton-en-Le-Morthen, Yorks.]
+
+10. =The Ealdormen and the Witenagemot.=--During the long fight with
+the Danes commanders were needed who could lead the forces of more
+than a single shire. Before the end of Eadred's reign there were
+ealdormen who ruled over many shires. One of them for instance,
+AEthelstan, Ealdorman of East Anglia, and of the shires immediately to
+the west of East Anglia, was so powerful that he was popularly known
+as the Half-King. Such ealdormen had great influence in their own
+districts, and they also were very powerful about the king. The king
+could not perform any important act without the consent of the
+Witenagemot, which was made up of three classes--the Ealdormen, the
+Bishops, and the greater Thegns. When a king died the Witenagemot
+chose his successor out of the kingly family; its members appeared as
+witnesses whenever the king 'booked' land to any one; and it even, on
+rare occasions, deposed a king who was unfit for his post. In the
+days of a great warrior king like Eadward or Eadmund, members of the
+Witenagemot were but instruments in his hands, but if a weak king came
+upon the throne, each member usually took his own way and pursued his
+own interest rather than that of the king and kingdom.
+
+11. =The Land.=--The cultivated land was surrounded either by wood or
+by pasture and open commons. Every cottager kept his hive of bees, to
+produce the honey which was then used as we now use sugar, and drove
+his swine into the woods to fatten on the acorns and beech nuts which
+strewed the ground in the autumn. Sheep and cattle were fed on the
+pastures, and horses were so abundant that when the Danish pirates
+landed they found it easy to set every man on horseback. Yet neither
+the Danes nor the English ever learnt to fight on horseback. They rode
+to battle, but as soon as they approached the enemy they dismounted to
+fight on foot.
+
+12. =Domestic Life.=--The huts of the villagers clustered round the
+house of the lord. His abode was built in a yard surrounded for
+protection by a mound and fence, whilst very great men often
+established themselves in burhs, surrounded by earthworks, either of
+their own raising or the work of earlier times. Its principal feature
+was the hall, in which the whole family with the guests and the thegns
+of the lord met for their meals. The walls were covered with curtains
+worked in patterns of bright colours. The fire was lighted on the
+hearth, a broad stone in the middle, over which was a hole in the roof
+through which the smoke of the hall escaped. The windows were narrow,
+and were either unclosed holes in the wall, or covered with oiled
+linen which would admit a certain amount of light.
+
+[Illustration: Glass tumbler. (British Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: Drinking glass. (British Museum.)]
+
+13. =Food and Drink.=--In a great house at meal-time boards were
+brought forward and placed on tressels. Bread was to be had in plenty,
+and salt butter. Meat too, in winter, was always salted, as turnips
+and other roots upon which cattle are now fed in winter were wholly
+unknown, and it was therefore necessary to kill large numbers of sheep
+and oxen when the cold weather set in. There were dishes, but neither
+plates nor forks. Each man took the meat in his fingers and either bit
+off a piece or cut it off with a knife. The master of the house sat at
+the head of the table, and the lady handed round the drink, and
+afterwards sat down by her husband's side. She, however, with any
+other ladies who might be present, soon departed to the chamber which
+was their own apartment. The men continued drinking long. The cups or
+glasses which they used were often made with the bottoms rounded so
+as to force the guests to keep them in their hands till they were
+empty. The usual drink was mead, that is to say, fermented honey, or
+ale brewed from malt alone, as hops were not introduced till many
+centuries later. In wealthy houses imported wine was to be had.
+English wine was not unknown, but it was so sour that it had to be
+sweetened with honey. It was held to be disgraceful to leave the
+company as long as the drinking lasted, and drunkenness and quarrels
+were not unfrequent. Wandering minstrels who could play and sing or
+tell stories were always welcome, especially if they were jugglers as
+well, and could amuse the company by throwing knives in the air and
+catching them as they fell, or could dance on their hands with their
+legs in the air. When the feast was over, the guests and dependents
+slept on the floor on rugs or straw, each man taking care to hang his
+weapons close to his head on the wall, to defend himself in case of an
+attack by robbers in the night. The lord retired to his chamber,
+whilst the unmarried ladies occupied bowers, or small rooms, each with
+a separate door opening on to the yard. Their only beds were bags of
+straw. Neither men nor women wore night-dresses of any kind, but if
+they took off their clothes at all, wrapped themselves in rugs.
+
+[Illustration: Comb and case of Scandinavian type, found at York. (Now
+in the British Museum.)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ENGLAND AND NORMANDY.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Death of Eadgar                                                  975
+  Accession of AEthelred                                            979
+  Accession of Cnut                                               1016
+  Accession of Eadward the Confessor                              1035
+  Banishment of Godwine                                           1051
+  Accession of Harold and Battle of Senlac                        1066
+
+
+1. =Eadward the Martyr. 975--979.=--Eadgar died in =975=, leaving two
+boys, Eadward and AEthelred.[4] On his death a quarrel broke out
+amongst the ealdormen, some declaring for the succession of Eadward
+and others for the succession of AEthelred. The political quarrel was
+complicated by an ecclesiastical quarrel. The supporters of Eadward
+were the friends of the secular clergy; the supporters of AEthelred
+were the friends of the monks. Dunstan, with his usual moderation,
+gave his voice for the eldest son, and Eadward was chosen king and
+crowned. Not only had he a strong party opposed to him, but he had a
+dissatisfied step-mother in AElfthryth, the mother of AEthelred, whilst
+his own mother, who had probably been married to Eadgar without full
+marriage rites, had been long since dead. After reigning for four
+years Eadward was murdered near Corfe by some of the opposite party,
+and, as was commonly supposed, by his step-mother's directions.
+
+    [Footnote 4: Genealogy of the English kings from Eadgar to Eadgar
+    the AEtheling:--
+
+                 EADGAR
+                 959-975
+                    |
+         -----------------------
+         |                     |
+      EADWARD               AETHELRED
+     the Martyr          the Unready
+      975-979               979-1016
+                               |
+         -----------------------
+         |                     |
+      EADMUND               EADWARD
+     Ironside             the Confessor
+       1016                1042-1066
+         |
+       Eadward
+     the AEtheling
+         |
+       Eadgar
+     the AEtheling]
+
+2. =AEthelred's Early Years. 979--988.=--AEthelred, now a boy of ten,
+became king in =979=. The epithet the Unready, which is usually
+assigned to him, is a mistranslation of a word which properly means
+the Rede-less, or the man without counsel. He was entirely without the
+qualities which befit a king. Eadmund had kept the great chieftains in
+subordination to himself because he was a successful leader. Eadgar
+had kept them in subordination because he treated them with respect.
+AEthelred could neither lead nor show respect. He was always picking
+quarrels when he ought to have been making peace, and always making
+peace when he ought to have been fighting. What he tried to do was to
+lessen the power of the great ealdormen, and bring the whole country
+more directly under his own authority. In =985= he drove out AElfric,
+the Ealdorman of the Mercians. In =988= Dunstan died, and AEthelred had
+no longer a wise adviser by his side.
+
+3. =The Return of the Danes. 984.=--It would have been difficult for
+AEthelred to overpower the ealdormen even if he had had no other
+enemies to deal with. Unluckily for him, new swarms of Danes and
+Norwegians had already appeared in England. They began by plundering
+the country, without attempting to settle in it. In =991= Brihtnoth,
+Ealdorman of the East Saxons, was defeated and slain by them at
+Maldon. AEthelred could think of no better counsel than to pay them
+10,000_l._, a sum of money which was then of much greater value than
+it is now, to abstain from plundering. It was not necessarily a bad
+thing to do. One of the greatest of the kings of the Germans, Henry
+the Fowler, had paid money for a truce to barbarians whom he was not
+strong enough to fight. But when the truce had been bought Henry took
+care to make himself strong enough to destroy them when they came
+again. AEthelred was never ready to fight the Danes and Norwegians at
+any time. In =994= Olaf Trygvasson, who had been driven from the
+kingship of Norway, and Svend, who had been driven from the kingship
+of Denmark, joined forces to attack London. The London citizens fought
+better than the English king, and the two chieftains failed to take
+the town. 'They went thence, and wrought the greatest evil that ever
+any army could do, in burning, and harrying, and in man-slaying, as in
+Essex, and in Kent, and in Sussex, and in Hampshire. And at last they
+took their horses and rode as far as they could, and did unspeakable
+evil.' The plunderers were now known as 'the army,' moving about where
+they would. AEthelred this time gave them 16,000_l._ He got rid of
+Olaf, who sailed away and was slain by his enemies, but he could not
+permanently get rid of Svend. Svend, about the year =1000=, recovered
+his kingship in Denmark, and was more formidable than he had been
+before. Plunderings went on as usual, and AEthelred had no resource but
+to pay money to the plunderers to buy a short respite. He then looked
+across the sea for an ally, and hoped to find one by connecting
+himself with the Duke of the Normans.
+
+4. =The Norman Dukes. 912--1002.=--The country which lies on both
+sides of the lower course of the Seine formed, at the beginning of the
+tenth century, part of the dominions of Charles the Simple, king of
+the West Franks, who had inherited so much of the dominions of Charles
+the Great as lay west of a line roughly drawn from the Scheldt to the
+Mediterranean through the lower course of the Rhone. Danes and
+Norwegians, known on the Continent as Normans, plundered Charles's
+dominions as they had plundered England, and at last settled in them
+as they had settled in parts of England. In =912= Charles the Simple
+ceded to their leader, Hrolf, a territory of which the capital was
+Rouen, and which became known as Normandy--the land of the Normans.
+Hrolf became the first Duke of the Normans, but his men were fierce
+and rugged, and for some time their southern neighbours scornfully
+called him and his descendants Dukes of the Pirates. In process of
+time a change took place which affected both Normandy and other
+countries as well. The West Frankish kings were descended from Charles
+the Great; but they had failed to defend their subjects from the
+Normans, and they thereby lost hold upon their people. One of their
+dependent nobles, the Duke of the French, whose chief city, Paris,
+formed a bulwark against the Normans advancing up the Seine, grew more
+powerful than themselves. At the same time the Normans were becoming
+more and more French in their speech and customs. At last an alliance
+was made between Hugh Capet, the son of Hugh the Great, Duke of the
+French (see p. 63), and Richard the Fearless, Duke of the Normans. The
+race of Charles the Great was dethroned, and Hugh became king of the
+French. In name he was king over all the territory which had been
+governed by Charles the Simple. In reality that happened in France
+which AEthelred had been trying to prevent in England. Hugh ruled
+directly over his own duchy of France, a patch of land of which Paris
+was the capital. The great vassals of the crown, who answered to the
+English ealdormen, only obeyed him when it was their interest to do
+so. The most powerful of these vassals was the Duke of the Normans.
+In =1002= the duke was Richard II.--the Good--the son of Richard the
+Fearless. In that year AEthelred, who was a widower, married Richard's
+sister, Emma. It was the beginning of a connection with Normandy which
+never ceased till a Norman duke made himself by conquest king of the
+English.
+
+5. =Political Contrast between Normandy and England.=--The causes
+which were making the English thegnhood a military aristocracy acted
+with still greater force in Normandy. The tillers of the soil, sprung
+from the old inhabitants of the land, were kept by their Norman lords
+in even harsher bondage than the English serfs. The Norman warriors
+held their land by military service, each one being bound to fight for
+his lord, and the lord in turn being bound, together with his
+dependents, to fight for a higher lord, and all at last for the Duke
+himself. In England, though, in theory, the relations between the king
+and his ealdormen were not very different from those existing between
+the Norman duke and his immediate vassals, the connection between them
+was far looser. The kingdom as a whole had no general unity. The king
+could not control the ealdormen, and the ealdormen could not control
+the king. Even when ealdormen, bishops, and thegns met in the
+Witenagemot they could not speak in the name of the nation. A nation
+in any true sense hardly existed at all, and they were not chosen as
+representatives of any part of it. Each one stood for himself, and it
+was only natural that men who during the greater part of the year were
+ruling in their own districts like little kings should think more of
+keeping up their own almost independent power at home than of the
+common interests of all England, which they had to consider when they
+met--and that for a few days only at a time--in the Witenagemot.
+AEthelred at least was not the man to keep them united.
+
+6. =Svend's Conquest. 1002--1013.=--AEthelred, having failed to buy off
+the Danes, tried to murder them. In =1002=, on St. Brice's Day, there
+was a general massacre of all the Danes--not of the old inhabitants of
+Danish blood who had settled in AElfred's time--but of the new-comers.
+Svend returned to avenge his countrymen. AEthelred had in an earlier
+part of his reign levied a land-tax known as the Danegeld to pay off
+the Danes--the first instance of a general tax in England. He now
+called on all the shires to furnish ships for a fleet; but he could
+not trust his ealdormen. Some of the stories told of these times may
+be exaggerated, and some may be merely idle tales, but we know enough
+to be sure that England was a kingdom divided against itself. Svend,
+ravaging as he went, beat down resistance everywhere. In =1012= the
+Danes seized AElfheah, Archbishop of Canterbury, and offered to set him
+free if he would pay a ransom for his life. He refused to do so, lest
+he should have to wring money from the poor in order to pay it. The
+drunken Danes pelted him with bones till one of the number clave his
+skull with an axe. He was soon counted as a martyr. Long afterwards
+one of the most famous of his successors, the Norman Lanfranc, doubted
+whether he was really a martyr, as he had not died for the faith. 'He
+that dies for righteousness,' answered the gentle Anselm, 'dies for
+the faith,' and to this day the name of AElfheah is retained as St.
+Alphege in the list of English saints. In =1013= Svend appeared no
+longer as a plunderer but as a conqueror. First the old Danish
+districts of the north and east, and then the Anglo-Saxon realm of
+AElfred--Mercia and Wessex--submitted to him to avoid destruction. In
+=1013= AEthelred fled to Normandy.
+
+[Illustration: Martyrdom of St. Edmund by the Danes. (From a drawing
+belonging to the Society of Antiquaries.)]
+
+7. =AEthelred Restored. 1014--1016.=--In =1014= Svend died suddenly as
+he was riding at the head of his troops to the attack of the monastery
+of Bury St. Edmunds. A legend soon arose as to the manner of his
+death. St. Edmund himself, the East Anglian king Eadmund who had once
+been martyred by Danes (see p. 58), now appeared, it was said, to
+protect the monastery founded in his honour. 'Help, fellow soldiers!'
+cried Svend, as he caught sight of the saint. 'St. Edmund is coming to
+slay me.' St. Edmund, we are told, ran his spear through the body of
+the aggressor, and Svend died that night in torments. His Danish
+warriors chose his son Cnut king of England.[5] The English
+Witenagemot sent for AEthelred to return. At last, in =1016=, AEthelred
+died before he had conquered Cnut or Cnut conquered him.
+
+    [Footnote 5: Genealogy of the Danish kings:--
+
+                  Svend
+                    |
+     (1) AElfgifu = CNUT = (2) Emma
+           |     1016-1035      |
+           |                    |
+         HAROLD            HARTHACNUT
+         Harefoot           1040-1042
+        1035-1040]
+
+8. =Eadmund Ironside. 1016.=--AEthelred's eldest son--not the son of
+Emma--Eadmund Ironside, succeeded him. He did all that could be done
+to restore the English kingship by his vigour. In a single year he
+fought six battles; but the treachery of the ealdormen was not at an
+end, and at Assandun (? _Ashington_), in Essex, he was completely
+overthrown. He and Cnut agreed to divide the kingdom, but before the
+end of the year the heroic Eadmund died, and Cnut the Dane became king
+of England without a rival.
+
+9. =Cnut and the Earldoms. 1016--1035.=--Cnut was one of those rulers
+who, like the Emperor Augustus, shrink from no barbarity in gaining
+power, but when once they have acquired it exercise their authority
+with moderation and gentleness. He began by outlawing or putting to
+death men whom he considered dangerous, but when this had once been
+done he ruled as a thoroughly English king of the best type. The Danes
+who had hitherto fought for him had come not as settlers, but as an
+army, and soon after Eadmund's death he sent most of them home,
+retaining a force, variously stated as 3,000 or 6,000, warriors known
+as his House-carls (_House-men_), who formed a small standing army
+depending entirely on himself. They were not enough to keep down a
+general rising of the whole of England, but they were quite enough to
+prevent any single great man from rebelling against him. Cnut
+therefore was, what AEthelred had wished to be, really master of his
+kingdom. Under him ruled the ealdormen, who from this time were known
+as Earls, from the Danish title of Jarl (see p. 64), and of these
+Earls the principal were the three who governed Mercia,
+North-humberland, and Wessex, the last named now including the old
+kingdoms of Kent and Sussex. There was a fourth in East Anglia, but
+the limits of this earldom varied from time to time, and there were
+sometimes other earldoms set up in the neighbouring shires, whereas
+the first-named three remained as they were for some time after Cnut's
+death. It is characteristic of Cnut that the one of the Earls to whom
+he gave his greatest confidence was Godwine, an Englishman, who was
+Earl of the West Saxons. Another Englishman, Leofwine, became Earl of
+the Mercians. A Dane obtained the earldom of the North-humbrians, but
+the land was barbarous, and its Earls were frequently murdered.
+Sometimes there was one Earl of the whole territory, sometimes two. It
+was not till after the end of Cnut's reign that Siward became Earl of
+Deira, and at a later time of all North-humberland as far as the
+Tweed. The descendants of two of these Earls, Godwine and Leofwine,
+leave their mark on the history for some time to come.
+
+10. =Cnut's Empire.=--Beyond the Tweed Malcolm, king of the Scots,
+ruled. He defeated the North-humbrians at Carham, and Cnut ceded
+Lothian to him, either doing so for the first time or repeating the
+act of Eadgar, if the story of Eadgar's cession is true. At all events
+the king of the Scots from this time ruled as far south as the Tweed,
+and acknowledged Cnut's superiority. Cnut also became king of Denmark
+by his brother's death, and king of Norway by conquest. He entered
+into friendly relations with Richard II., Duke of the Normans, by
+marrying his sister Emma, the widow of AEthelred.[6]
+
+    [Footnote 6: Genealogical connection between the Houses of England
+    and Normandy:--
+
+     _Dukes of Normandy_
+        Richard I.
+      the Fearless
+         |
+         -----------------------------
+         |                           |
+     Richard II.      (1) AETHELRED=Emma = (2) CNUT, 1016-1035
+     the Good         the Unready |            Godwine
+         |               979-1016 |               |
+         ---------------         --------      ----------
+         |             |         |      |      |        |
+     Richard III.    Robert   AElfred EADWARD=Eadgyth  HAROLD
+                       |            the Confessor      1066
+                    WILLIAM          1042-1066
+                  the Conqueror
+                   1066-1087]
+
+11. =Cnut's Government.=--Cnut had thus made himself master of a great
+empire, and yet, Dane as he was, though he treated Englishmen and
+Danes as equals, he gave his special favour to Englishmen. He
+restored, as men said, the laws of Eadgar--that is to say, he kept
+peace and restored order as in the days of Eadgar. He reverenced
+monks, and once as he was rowing on the waters of the fens, he heard
+the monks of Ely singing. He bade the boatmen row him to the shore
+that he might listen to the song of praise and prayer. He even went on
+a pilgrimage to Rome, to humble himself in that city which contained
+the burial places of the Apostles Peter and Paul. From Rome he sent a
+letter to his subjects. 'I have vowed to God,' he wrote, 'to live a
+right life in all things; to rule justly and piously my realms and
+subjects, and to administer just judgment to all. If heretofore I have
+done aught beyond what is just, through headiness or negligence of
+youth, I am ready, with God's help, to amend it utterly.' With Cnut
+these were not mere words. It is not likely that there is any truth in
+the story how his flattering courtiers told him to sit by the
+sea-shore and bade the inflowing tide refrain from wetting his feet,
+and how when the waves rose over the spot on which his chair was
+placed he refused to wear his crown again, because that honour
+belonged to God alone, the true Ruler of the world. Yet the story
+would not have been invented except of one who was believed to have
+been clothed with real humility.
+
+12. =The Sons of Cnut. 1035--1042.=--Cnut died in =1035=. Godwine and
+the West Saxons chose Harthacnut, the son of Cnut and Emma to take his
+father's place, whilst the north and centre, headed by Leofwine's son,
+Leofric,[7] Earl of the Mercians, chose Harold, the son of Cnut by an
+earlier wife or concubine. Godwine perhaps hoped that Harthacnut would
+make the West Saxon earldom the centre of the empire which had been
+his father's. Cnut's empire was, however, breaking up. The Norwegians
+chose Magnus, a king of their own race, and Harthacnut remained in
+Denmark to defend it against the attacks of Magnus. In Normandy there
+were two English Ethelings, AElfred and Eadward, the sons of AEthelred
+by Emma, who seem to have thought that the absence of Harthacnut gave
+them a chance of returning to England. AElfred landed, but was seized
+by Harold. He was blinded with such cruelty that he died. His death
+was, truly or falsely, attributed to Godwine. As Harthacnut still
+remained in Denmark, the West Saxons deposed him and gave themselves
+to Harold, since which time England has never been divided. In =1040=
+Harold died, and Harthacnut came at last to England to claim the
+crown. He brought with him a Danish fleet, and with his sailors and
+his house-carls he ruled England as a conquered land. He raised a
+Danegeld to satisfy his men, and sent his house-carls to force the
+people to pay the heavy tax. Two of them were killed at Worcester, and
+he burnt Worcester to the ground. In =1042= he died 'as he stood at
+his drink' at a bridal.
+
+    [Footnote 7: Genealogy of the Mercian earls:--
+
+                   Leofwine
+                      |
+                   Leofric
+                      |
+                    AElfgar
+                      |
+          ---------------------------
+          |                         |
+       Eadwine,                 Morkere,
+     Earl of Mercia     Earl of North-humberland]
+
+[Illustration: First Great Seal of Eadward the Confessor (obverse).]
+
+13. =Eadward the Confessor and Earl Godwine. 1042--1051.=--The English
+were tired of foreign rulers. 'All folk chose Eadward king.' Eadward,
+the son of AEthelred and the brother of the murdered AElfred, though an
+Englishman on his father's side, was also the son of the Norman Emma,
+and had been brought up in Normandy from his childhood. The Normans
+were now men of French speech, and they were more polite and
+cultivated than Englishmen. Eadward filled his court with Normans. He
+disliked the roughness of the English, but instead of attempting to
+improve them as the great AElfred had formerly done, he stood entirely
+aloof from them. The name of the Confessor by which he was afterwards
+known was given him on account of his piety, but his piety was not of
+that sort which is associated with active usefulness. He was fond of
+hunting, but was not active in any other way, and he left others to
+govern rather than himself. For some years the real governor of
+England was Earl Godwine, who kept his own earldom of Wessex, and
+managed to procure other smaller earldoms for his sons. As the Mercia
+over which Leofric ruled was only the north-western part of the old
+kingdom, and as Siward (see p. 84) had enough to do to keep the fierce
+men of North-humberland in order, Godwine had as yet no competitor to
+fear. In =1045= he became the king's father-in-law by the marriage of
+Eadward with his daughter, Eadgyth. Eadward, however, did his best for
+his Norman favourites, and appointed one of them, Robert of Jumieges,
+to the bishopric of London, and afterwards raised him to the
+Archbishopric of Canterbury. Between Godwine and the Normans there was
+no goodwill, and though Godwine was himself of fair repute, his eldest
+son, Swegen, a young man of brutal nature, alienated the goodwill of
+his countrymen by seducing the Abbess of Leominster, and by murdering
+his cousin Beorn. Godwine, in his blind family affection, clung to his
+wicked son and insisted on his being allowed to retain his earldom.
+
+[Illustration: Hunting. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+14. =The Banishment of Godwine. 1051.=--At last, in =1051=, the strife
+between the king and the Earl broke out openly. Eadward's
+brother-in-law, Eustace, Count of Boulogne, visited England. On his
+return his men made a disturbance at Dover, and in the riot which
+ensued some of the townsmen as well as some of his own men were slain.
+Eadward called on Godwine, in whose earldom Dover was, to punish the
+townsmen. Godwine refused, and Eadward summoned him to Gloucester to
+account for his refusal. He came attended by an armed host, but
+Leofric and Siward, who were jealous of Godwine's power, came with
+their armed followers to support the king. Leofric mediated, and it
+was arranged that the question should be settled at a Witenagemot to
+be held in London. In the end Godwine was outlawed and banished with
+all his family. Swegen went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and died on
+the way back.
+
+15. =Visit of Duke William. 1051.=--In Godwine's absence Eadward
+received a visit from the Duke of the Normans, William, the bastard
+son of Duke Robert and the daughter of a tanner of Falaise. Robert was
+a son of Richard II., and William was thus the grandson of the brother
+of Eadward's mother, Emma. Such a relationship gave him no title
+whatever to the English throne, as Emma was not descended from the
+English kings, and as, even if she had been, no one could be lawfully
+king in England who was not chosen by the Witenagemot. Eadward,
+however, had no children or brothers, and though he had no right to
+give away the crown, he now promised William that he should succeed
+him. William, indeed, was just the man to attract one whose character
+was as weak as Eadward's. Since he received the dukedom he had beaten
+down the opposition of a fierce and discontented nobility at
+Val-es-dunes (=1047=). From that day peace and order prevailed in
+Normandy. Law in Normandy did not come as in England from the
+traditions of the shire-moot or the Witenagemot, where men met to
+consult together. It was the Duke's law, and if the Duke was a strong
+man he kept peace in the land. If he was a weak man, the lords fought
+against one another and plundered and oppressed the poor. William was
+strong and wily, and it was this combination of strength and wiliness
+which enabled him to bear down all opposition.
+
+16. =William and the Norman Church.=--An Englishman, who saw much of
+William in after-life, declared that, severe as he was, he was mild to
+good men who loved God. The Church was in his days assuming a new
+place in Europe. The monastic revival which had originated at Cluny
+(see p. 67) had led to a revival of the Papacy. In =1049=, for the
+first time, a Pope, Leo IX., travelled through Western Europe, holding
+councils and inflicting punishments upon the married clergy and upon
+priests who took arms and shed blood. With this improvement in
+discipline came a voluntary turning of the better clergy to an ascetic
+life, and increased devotion was accompanied, as it always was in the
+middle ages, with an increase of learning. William, who by the
+strength of his will brought peace into the state, also brought men of
+devotion and learning into the high places of the Church. His chief
+confidant was Lanfranc, an Italian who had taken refuge in the abbey
+of Bec, and, having become its prior, had made it the central school
+of Normandy and the parts around. With the improvement of learning
+came the improvement of art, and churches arose in Normandy, as in
+other parts of Western Europe, which still preserved the old round
+arch derived from the Romans, though both the arches themselves and
+the columns on which they were borne were lighter and more graceful
+than the heavy work which had hitherto been employed. Of all this
+Englishmen as yet knew nothing. They went on in their old ways, cut
+off from the European influences of the time. It was no wonder that
+Eadward yearned after the splendour and the culture of the land in
+which he had been brought up, or even that, in defiance of English
+law, he now promised to Duke William the succession to the English
+crown.
+
+17. =The Return and Death of Godwine. 1052--1053.=--After William had
+departed Englishmen became discontented at Eadward's increasing favour
+to the Norman strangers. In =1052= Godwine and his sons--Swegen only
+excepted--returned from exile. They sailed up the Thames and landed at
+Southwark. The foreigners hastily fled, and Eadward was unable to
+resist the popular feeling. Godwine was restored to his earldom, and
+an Englishman, Stigand, was made Archbishop of Canterbury in the place
+of Robert of Jumieges, who escaped to the Continent. As it was the law
+of the Church that a bishop once appointed could not be deposed except
+by the ecclesiastical authorities, offence was in this way given to
+the Pope. Godwine did not long outlive his restoration. He was struck
+down by apoplexy at the king's table in =1053=. Harold, who, after
+Swegen's death, was his eldest son, succeeded to his earldom of
+Wessex, and practically managed the affairs of the kingdom in
+Eadward's name.[8]
+
+    [Footnote 8: Genealogy of the family of Godwine:--
+
+                                 Godwine
+                                    |
+        +------+-------+--------+---+----+-------+---------+
+        |      |       |        |        |       |         |
+     Swegen  HAROLD  Tostig  Leofwine  Gyrth  Wulfnoth  Eadgyth = Eadward
+              1066                                                  the
+                                                                 Confessor]
+
+18. =Harold's Greatness. 1053--1066.=--Harold was a brave and
+energetic man, but Eadward preferred his brother Tostig, and on the
+death of Siward appointed him Earl of North-humberland. A little later
+Gyrth, another brother of Harold, became Earl of East Anglia, together
+with Bedfordshire and Oxfordshire, and a fourth brother, Leofwine,
+Earl of a district formed of the eastern shires on either side of the
+Thames. All the richest and most thickly populated part of England was
+governed by Harold and his brothers. Mercia was the only large earldom
+not under their rule. It was now under AElfgar, the son of Leofric, who
+had lately died.
+
+19. =Harold and Eadward. 1057--1065.=--It became necessary to arrange
+for the succession to the throne, as Eadward was childless, and as
+Englishmen were not likely to acquiesce in his bequest to William. In
+=1057= the AEtheling Eadward, a son of Eadmund Ironside, was fetched
+back from Hungary, where he had long lived in exile, and was accepted
+as the heir. Eadward, however, died almost immediately after his
+arrival. He left but one son, Eadgar the AEtheling (see genealogy at p.
+78), who was far too young to be accepted as a king for many years to
+come. Naturally the thought arose of looking on Harold as Eadward's
+successor. It was contrary to all custom to give the throne to any one
+not of the royal line, but the custom had been necessarily broken in
+favour of Cnut, the Danish conqueror, and it might be better to break
+it in favour of an English earl rather than to place a child on the
+throne, when danger threatened from Normandy. During the remainder of
+Eadward's reign Harold showed himself a warrior worthy of the crown.
+In =1063= he invaded Wales and reduced it to submission. About the
+same time AElfgar died, and was succeeded by his son, Eadwine, in the
+earldom of the Mercians. In =1065= the men of North-humberland
+revolted against Tostig, who had governed them harshly, and who was
+probably unpopular as a West Saxon amongst a population of Danes and
+Angles. The North-humbrians chose Eadwine's brother, Morkere, as his
+successor, and Harold advised Eadward to acquiesce in what they had
+done. Northamptonshire and Huntingdonshire were committed to Waltheof,
+a son of Siward (see p. 84), and the modern Northumberland was
+committed to a native ruler, Oswulf.
+
+20. =Death of Eadward. 1066.=--England was therefore ruled by two
+great families. Eadwine and Morkere, the grandsons of Leofric,
+governed the Midlands and almost the whole of North-humberland. Harold
+and his brothers, the sons of Godwine, governed the south and the
+east. The two houses had long been rivals, and after Eadward's death
+there would be no one in the country to whom they could even nominally
+submit. Eadward, whose life was almost at an end, was filled with
+gloomy forebodings. His thoughts, however, turned aside from the
+contemplation of earthly things, and he was only anxious that the
+great abbey church of Westminster, which he had been building hard by
+his own new palace on what was then a lonely place outside London,
+should be consecrated before his death. The church, afterwards
+superseded by the structure which now stands there, was built in the
+new and lighter form of round-arched architecture which Eadward had
+learned to admire from his Norman friends. It was consecrated on
+December 28, =1065=, but the king was too ill to be present, and on
+January 5, =1066=, he died, and was buried in the church which he had
+founded. Harold was at once chosen king, and crowned at Westminster.
+
+[Illustration: Tower in the earlier style. Church at Earl's Barton.
+(The battlements are much later.)]
+
+[Illustration: Tower in the earlier style. St Benet's Church,
+Cambridge.]
+
+[Illustration: Building a church in the later style. (From a drawing
+belonging to the Society of Antiquaries.)]
+
+21. =Harold and William. 1066.=--William, as soon as he heard of his
+rival's coronation, claimed the crown. He was now even mightier than
+he had been when he visited Eadward. In =1063= he had conquered Maine,
+and, secure on his southern frontier, he was able to turn his
+undivided attention to England. According to the principles accepted
+in England, he had no right to it whatever; but he contrived to put
+together a good many reasons which seemed, in the eyes of those who
+were not Englishmen, to give him a good case. In the first place he
+had been selected by Eadward as his heir. In the second place the
+deprivation of Robert of Jumieges was an offence against the Church
+law of the Continent, and William was therefore able to obtain from
+the Pope a consecrated banner, and to speak of an attack upon England
+as an attempt to uphold the righteous laws of the Church. In the third
+place, Harold had at some former time been wrecked upon the French
+coast, and had been delivered up to William, who had refused to let
+him go till he had sworn solemnly, placing his hand on a chest which
+contained the relics of the most holy Norman saints, to do some act,
+the nature of which is diversely related, but which Harold never did.
+Consequently William could speak of himself as going to take vengeance
+on a perjurer. With some difficulty William persuaded the Norman
+barons to follow him, and he attracted a mixed multitude of
+adventurers from all the neighbouring nations by promising them the
+plunder of England, an argument which every one could understand.
+During the whole of the spring and the summer ships for the invasion
+of England were being built in the Norman harbours.
+
+[Illustration: Normans feasting; with Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, saying
+grace. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+[Illustration: Harold swearing upon the Relics. (From the Bayeux
+Tapestry.)]
+
+22. =Stamford Bridge. 1066.=--All through the summer Harold was
+watching for his rival's coming. The military organisation of England,
+however, was inferior to that of Normandy. The Norman barons and their
+vassals were always ready for war, and they could support on their
+estates the foreign adventurers who were placed under their orders
+till the time of battle came. Harold had his house-carls, the constant
+guard of picked troops which had been instituted by Cnut, and his
+thegns, who, like the Norman barons, were bound to serve their lord
+in war. The greater part of his force, however, was composed of the
+peasants of the fyrd, and when September came they must needs be sent
+home to attend to their harvest, which seems to have been late this
+year. Scarcely were they gone when Harold received news that his
+brother Tostig, angry with him for having consented to his deposition
+from the North-humbrian earldom, had allied himself to Harold
+Hardrada, the fierce sea-rover, who was king of Norway, and that the
+two, with a mighty host, after wasting the Yorkshire coast, had sailed
+up the Humber. The two Northern Earls, Eadwine and Morkere, were hard
+pressed. Harold had not long before married their sister, and,
+whatever might be the risk, he was bound as the king of all England to
+aid them. Marching swiftly northwards with his house-carls and the
+thegns who joined him on the way, he hastened to their succour. On
+the way worse tidings reached him. The Earls had been defeated, and
+York had agreed to submit to the Norsemen. Harold hurried on the
+faster, and came upon the invaders unawares as they lay heedlessly on
+both sides of the Derwent at Stamford Bridge. Those on the western
+side, unprepared as they were, were soon overpowered. One brave
+Norseman, like Horatius and his comrades in the Roman legend, kept the
+narrow bridge against the army, till an Englishman crept under it and
+stabbed him from below through a gap in the woodwork. The battle
+rolled across the Derwent, and when evening came Harold Hardrada, and
+Tostig himself, with the bulk of the invaders, had been slain. For the
+last time an English king overthrew a foreign host in battle on
+English soil.
+
+[Illustration: A Norman ship. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+[Illustration: Norman soldiers mounted. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+23. =The Landing of William. 1066.=--Harold had shown what an English
+king could do, who fought not for this or that part of the country,
+but for all England. It was the lack of this national spirit in
+Englishmen which caused his ruin. As Harold was feasting at York in
+celebration of his victory, a messenger told him of the landing of the
+Norman host at Pevensey. He had saved Eadwine and Morkere from
+destruction, but Eadwine and Morkere gave him no help in return. He
+had to hurry back to defend Sussex without a single man from the north
+or the Midlands, except those whom he collected on his line of march.
+The House of Leofric bore no goodwill to the House of Godwine. England
+was a kingdom divided against itself.
+
+[Illustration: Group of archers on foot. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+[Illustration: Men fighting with axes. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+24. =The Battle of Senlac. 1066.--=Harold, as soon as he reached the
+point of danger, drew up his army on the long hill of Senlac on which
+Battle Abbey now stands. On October 14 William marched forth to attack
+him. The military equipment of the Normans was better than that of the
+English. Where the weapons on either side are unlike, battles are
+decided by the momentum--that is to say, by the combined weight and
+speed of the weapons employed. The English fought on foot mostly with
+two-handed axes; the Normans fought not only on horseback with lances,
+but also with infantry, some of them being archers. A horse, the
+principal weapon of a horseman, has more momentum than an armed
+footman, whilst an arrow can reach the object at which it is aimed
+long before a horse. Harold, however, had in his favour the slope of
+the hill up which the Normans would have to ride, and he took
+advantage of the lie of the ground by posting his men with their
+shields before them on the edge of the hill. The position was a strong
+one for purposes of defence, but it was not one that made it easy for
+Harold to change his arrangements as the fortunes of the day might
+need. William, on the other hand, had not only a better armed force,
+but a more flexible one. He had to attack, and, versed as he was in
+all the operations of war, he could move his men from place to place
+and make use of each opportunity as it arrived. The English were brave
+enough, but William was a more intelligent leader than Harold, and his
+men were better under control. Twice after the battle had begun the
+Norman horsemen charged up the hill only to be driven back. The wily
+William, finding that the hill was not to be stormed by a direct
+attack, met the difficulty by galling the English with a shower of
+arrows and ordering his left wing to turn and fly. The stratagem was
+successful. Some of the English rushed down the hill in pursuit. The
+fugitives faced round and charged the pursuers, following them up the
+slope. The English on the height were thus thrown into confusion; but
+they held out stoutly, and as the Norman horsemen now in occupation of
+one end of the hill charged fiercely along its crest, they locked
+their shields together and fought desperately for life, if no longer
+for victory. Slowly and steadily the Normans pressed on, till they
+reached the spot where Harold, surrounded by his house-carls, fought
+beneath his standard. There all their attacks were in vain, till
+William, calling for his bowmen, bade them shoot their arrows into the
+air. Down came the arrows in showers upon the heads of the English
+warriors, and one of them pierced Harold's eye, stretching him
+lifeless on the ground. In a series of representations in worsted
+work, known as the Bayeux Tapestry, which was wrought by the needle of
+some unknown woman and is now exhibited in the museum of that city,
+the scenes of the battle and the events preceding it are pictorially
+recorded.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Harold, who is attempting to pull the arrow
+from his eye. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+25. =William's Coronation. 1066.=--William had destroyed both the
+English king and the English army. It is possible that England, if
+united, might still have resisted. The great men at London chose for
+their king Eadgar the AEtheling, the grandson of Eadmund Ironside.
+Eadwine and Morkere were present at the election, but left London as
+soon as it was over. They would look after their own earldoms; they
+would not join others, as Harold had done, in defending England as a
+whole. Divided England would sooner or later be a prey to William. He
+wanted, however, not merely to reign as a conqueror, but to be
+lawfully elected as king, that he might have on his side law as well
+as force. He first struck terror into Kent and Sussex by ravaging the
+lands of all who held out against him. Then he marched to the Thames
+and burnt Southwark. He did not, however, try to force his way into
+London, as he wanted to induce the citizens to submit voluntarily to
+him, or at least in a way which might seem voluntary. He therefore
+marched westwards, crossed the Thames at Wallingford, and wheeled
+round to Berkhampstead. His presence there made the Londoners feel
+utterly isolated. Even if Eadwine and Morkere wished to do anything
+for them, they could not come from the north or north-west without
+meeting William's victorious army. The great men and citizens alike
+gave up all thought of resistance, abandoned Eadgar, and promised to
+take William for their king. On Christmas Day, =1066=, William was
+chosen with acclamation in Eadward's abbey at Westminster, where
+Harold had been chosen less than a year before. The Normans outside
+mistook the shouts of applause for a tumult against their Duke, and
+set fire to the houses around. The English rushed out to save their
+property, and William, frightened for the only time in his life, was
+left alone with the priests. Not knowing what was next to follow, he
+was crowned king of the English by Ealdred, Archbishop of York, in an
+empty church, amidst the crackling of flames and the shouts of men
+striving for the mastery.
+
+[Illustration: Coronation of a king, _temp._ William the Conqueror.
+(From a drawing in the possession of the Society of Antiquaries.)]
+
+
+_Books recommended for further study of Part I._
+
+DAWKINS, W. Boyd. Early Man in Britain.
+
+RHYS, J. Early Britain.
+
+ELTON, C. J. Origins of English History.
+
+GUEST, E. Origines Celticae. Vol. ii. pp. 121-408.
+
+FREEMAN. History of the Norman Conquest. Vols. i.-iii.
+
+GREEN, J. R. The Making of England.
+
+---- The Conquest of England.
+
+---- History of the English People. Vol. i. pp. 1-114.
+
+BRIGHT, W. Chapters of English Church History.
+
+STUBBS, W. The Constitutional History of England. Chaps. I.-IX.
+
+CUNNINGHAM, W. The Growth of English Industry and Commerce during the
+Early and Middle Ages. pp. 1-128.
+
+HODGKIN, T. The Political History of England. Vol i. From the Earliest
+Times to 1066.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+_THE NORMAN AND ANGEVIN KINGS._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+WILLIAM I. =1066--1087.=
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  William's coronation                                            1066
+  Completion of the Conquest                                      1070
+  The rising of the Earls                                         1075
+  The Gemot at Salisbury                                          1086
+  Death of William I.                                             1087
+
+
+[Illustration: A silver penny of William the Conqueror, struck at
+Romney.]
+
+1. =The First Months of the Conquest. 1066--1067.=--Though at the time
+when William was crowned he had gained actual possession of no more
+than the south-eastern part of England, he claimed a right to rule the
+whole as lawful king of the English, not merely by Eadward's bequest,
+but by election and coronation. In reality, he came as a conqueror,
+whilst the Normans by whose aid he gained the victory at Senlac left
+their homes not merely to turn their Duke into a king, but also to
+acquire lands and wealth for themselves. William could not act justly
+and kindly to his new subjects even if he wished. What he did was to
+clothe real violence with the appearance of law. He gave out that as
+he had been the lawful king of the English ever since Eadward's death,
+Harold and all who fought under him at Senlac had forfeited their
+lands by their treason to himself as their lawful king. These lands he
+distributed amongst his Normans. The English indeed were not entirely
+dispossessed. Sometimes the son of a warrior who had been slain was
+allowed to retain a small portion of his father's land. Sometimes the
+daughter or the widow of one of Harold's comrades was compelled to
+marry a Norman whom William wished to favour. Yet, for all that, a
+vast number of estates in the southern and eastern counties passed
+from English into Norman hands. The bulk of the population, the
+serfs--or, as they were now called by a Norman name, the
+villeins--were not affected by the change, except so far as they found
+a foreign lord less willing than a native one to hearken to their
+complaints. The changes which took place were limited as yet to a
+small part of England. In three months after his coronation William
+was still without authority beyond an irregular line running from the
+Wash to the western border of Hampshire, except that he held some
+outlying posts in Herefordshire. It is true that Eadwine and Morkere
+had acknowledged him as king, but they were still practically
+independent. Even where William actually ruled he allowed all
+Englishmen who had not fought on Harold's side to keep their lands,
+though he made them redeem them by the payment of a fine, on the
+principle that all lands in the country, except those of the Church,
+were the king's lands, and that it was right to fine those who had not
+come to Senlac to help him as their proper lord.
+
+2. =The Conquest of the West and North. 1067--1069.=--In March =1067=
+William returned to Normandy. In his absence the Normans left behind
+in England oppressed the English, and were supported in their
+oppression by the two regents appointed to govern in William's name,
+his half-brother, Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, whom he had made Earl of
+Kent, and William Fitz-Osbern, Earl of Hereford. In some parts the
+English rose in rebellion. In December William returned, and after
+putting down resistance in the south-eastern counties, set himself to
+conquer the rest of England. It took him more than two years to
+complete his task. Perhaps he would have failed even then if the whole
+of the unconquered part of the country had risen against him at the
+same time. Each district, however, resisted separately, and he was
+strong enough to beat them down one by one. In the spring of =1068= he
+besieged and took Exeter, and subdued the West to the Land's End. When
+this had been accomplished he turned northwards against Eadwine and
+Morkere, who had declared against him. William soon frightened them
+into submission, and seized on York and all the country to the south
+of York on the eastern side of England. In =1069= the English of the
+North rose once more and summoned to their aid Svend, king of
+Denmark, a nephew of the great Cnut. Svend sent a Danish fleet, and
+the Danes were joined by Eadgar the AEtheling and by other English
+chiefs. They burnt and plundered York, but could do no more. Their
+great host melted away. The Danes went off with their booty to their
+ships, and the English returned to their homes. William found no army
+to oppose him, and he not only regained the lands which he had
+occupied the year before, but added to them the whole country up to
+the Tweed.
+
+3. =The Completion of the Conquest. 1070.=--William was never cruel
+without an object, but there was no cruelty which he would not commit
+if it would serve his purpose. He resolved to make all further
+resistance impossible. The Vale of York, a long and wide stretch of
+fertile ground running northwards from the city to the Tees, was laid
+waste by William's orders. The men who had joined in the revolt were
+slain. The stored-up crops, the ploughs, the carts, the oxen and sheep
+were destroyed by fire. Men, women, and children dropped dead of
+starvation, and their corpses lay unburied in the wasted fields. Some
+prolonged life by feeding on the flesh of horses, or even of men.
+Others sold themselves into slavery, bowing their heads, as was said,
+in the evil days for meat. "Waste! waste! waste!" was the account
+given long afterwards of field after field in what had once been one
+of the most fertile districts in England. William's work of conquest
+was almost over. Early in =1070= he crossed the hills amidst frost and
+snow, and descended upon Chester. Chester submitted, and with it the
+shires on the Welsh border. The whole of England was at last subdued.
+
+4. =Hereward's Revolt and the Homage of Malcolm. 1070--1072.=--Only
+one serious attempt to revolt was afterwards made, but this was no
+more than a local rising. The Isle of Ely was in those days a real
+island in the midst of the waters of the fens. Hereward, with a band
+of followers, threw himself into the island, and it was only after a
+year's attack that he was driven out. When the revolt was at its
+height, Eadwine and Morkere fled from William's court to join the
+insurgents. Eadwine was murdered by his own attendants. Morkere
+reached Ely, and when resistance was at an end was banished to
+Normandy. No man ever deserved less pity than these two brothers. They
+had never sought any one's advantage but their own, and they had been
+faithless to every cause which they had pretended to adopt. Before
+Hereward was overpowered, Malcolm, king of the Scots, ravaged northern
+England, carrying off with him droves of English slaves. In =1072=
+William, who had by that time subdued Hereward, marched into Scotland
+as far as the Tay. Malcolm submitted to him at Abernethy, and
+acknowledged him to be his lord. Malcolm's acknowledgment was only a
+repetition of the acknowledgment made by his predecessors the Scottish
+kings, to Eadward and Cnut (see pp. 63, 84); but William was more
+powerful than Eadward or Cnut had been, and was likely to construe the
+obligation more strictly.
+
+5. =How William kept down the English.=--William, having conquered
+England, had now to govern it. His first object was to keep the
+English in subjection.
+
+_(a) The Confiscation of Land._--In the first place he continued to
+treat all who had resisted him as rebels, confiscating their land and
+giving it to some Norman follower. In almost every district there was
+at least one Norman landowner, who was on the watch against any
+attempt of his English neighbours to revolt, and who knew that he
+would lose his land if William lost his crown.
+
+_(b) Building Castles._--In the second place William built a castle in
+every town of importance, which he garrisoned with his own men. The
+most notable example of these castles is the Tower of London.
+
+_(c) The Feudal Army._--In the third place, though the diffusion of
+Norman landowners and of William's castles made a general revolt of
+the English difficult, it did not make it impossible, and William took
+care to have an army always ready to put down a revolt if it occurred.
+No king in those days could have a constantly paid army, such as
+exists in all European countries at the present day, because there was
+not much money anywhere. Some men had land and some men had bodily
+strength, and they bartered one for the other. The villein gave his
+strength to plough and reap for his lord, in return for the land which
+he held from him. The fighting man gave his strength to his lord, to
+serve him with his horse and his spear, in return for the land which
+he held from him. This system, which is known as feudal, had been
+growing up in England before the Conquest, but it was perfected on the
+Continent, and William brought it with him in its perfected shape. The
+warrior who served on horseback was called a knight, and when a knight
+received land from a lord on military tenure--that is to say, on
+condition of military service--he was called the vassal of his lord.
+When he became a vassal he knelt, and, placing his hands between those
+of his lord, swore to be his man. This act was called doing homage.
+The land which he received as sufficient to maintain him was called a
+knight's fee. After this homage the vassal was bound to serve his
+lord in arms, this service being the rent payable for his land. If the
+vassal broke his oath and fought against his lord, he was regarded as
+a traitor, or a betrayer of his trust, and could be turned out of his
+land. The whole land of England being regarded as the king's, all land
+was held from the king. Sometimes the knights held their fees directly
+from the king and did homage to him. These knights were known as
+tenants in chief (_in capite_), however small their estates might be.
+Usually, however, the tenants in chief were large landowners, to whom
+the king had granted vast estates; and these when they did homage
+engaged not merely to fight for him in person, but to bring some
+hundreds of knights with them. To enable them to do this they had to
+give out portions of their land to sub-tenants, each engaging to bring
+himself and a specified number of knights. There might thus be a
+regular chain of sub-tenants, A engaging to serve under B, B under C,
+C under D, and so on till the tenant-in-chief was reached, who engaged
+to bring them all to serve the king. Almost all the larger
+tenants-in-chief were Normans, though Englishmen were still to be
+found amongst the sub-tenants, and even amongst the smaller
+tenants-in-chief. The whole body, however, was preponderantly Norman,
+and William could therefore depend upon it to serve him as an army in
+the field in case of an English rising.
+
+6. =How William kept down the Normans.=--William was not afraid only
+of the English. He had cause to fear lest the feudal army, which was
+to keep down the English, might be strong enough to be turned against
+himself, and that the barons--as the greater tenants-in-chief were
+usually called--might set him at naught as Eadwine and Morkere had set
+Harold at naught, and as the Dukes of Normandy had set at naught the
+kings of France. To prevent this he adopted various contrivances.
+
+_(a) Abolition of the great Earldoms._--In the first place he
+abolished the great earldoms. In most counties there were to be no
+earls at all, and no one was to be earl of more than one county. There
+was never again to be an Earl of the West Saxons like Godwine, or an
+Earl of the Mercians like Leofric.
+
+_(b) The Estates of the Barons scattered._--- Not only did William
+diminish the official authority of the earls, he also weakened the
+territorial authority of the barons. Even when he granted to one man
+estates so numerous that if they had been close together they would
+have extended at least over a whole county, he took care to scatter
+them over England, allowing only a few to be held by a single owner in
+any one county. If, therefore, a great baron took it into his head to
+levy war against the king, he would have to collect his vassals from
+the most distant counties, and his intentions would thus be known
+before they could be put in practice.
+
+_(c) The Fyrd kept in readiness._--Still more important was William's
+resolution to be the real head of the English nation. He had weakened
+it enough to fear it no longer, but he kept it strong enough to use
+it, if need came, against the Norman barons. He won Englishmen to his
+side by the knowledge that he was ready to do them justice whenever
+they were wronged, and he could therefore venture to summon the fyrd
+whenever he needed support, without having cause to fear that it would
+turn against him.
+
+7. =Ecclesiastical Organisation.=--Before the Conquest the English
+Church had been altogether national. Its bishops had sat side by side
+with the ealdormen or earls in the shire-moots, and in the Witenagemot
+itself. They had been named, like the ealdormen or earls, by the king
+with the consent of the Witenagemot. Ecclesiastical questions had been
+decided and ecclesiastical offences punished not by any special
+ecclesiastical court, but by the shire-moot or Witenagemot, in which
+the laity and the clergy were both to be found. William resolved to
+change all this. The bishops and abbots whom he found were Englishmen,
+and he replaced most of them by Normans. The new Norman bishops and
+abbots were dependent on the king. They looked on the English as
+barbarians, and would certainly not support them in any revolt, as
+their English predecessors might have done. Thurstan, indeed, the
+Norman Abbot of Glastonbury, was so angry with his English monks
+because they refused to change their style of music that he called in
+Norman archers to shoot them down on the steps of the altar. Such
+brutality, however, was exceptional, and, as a rule, even Norman
+bishops and abbots were well disposed towards their English
+neighbours, all the more because they were not very friendly with the
+Norman nobles, who often attempted to encroach on the lands of the
+Church. Many a king in William's position would have been content to
+fill the sees with creatures of his own, who would have done what they
+were bidden and have thought of no one's interest but his. William
+knew, as he had already shown in Normandy, that he would be far better
+served if the clergy were not only dependent on himself but deserving
+the respect of others. He made his old friend Lanfranc (see p. 88)
+Archbishop of Canterbury. Lanfranc had, like William, the mind of a
+ruler, and under him bishops and abbots were appointed who enforced
+discipline. The monks were compelled to keep the rules of their
+order, the canons of cathedrals were forced to send away their wives,
+and though the married clergy in the country were allowed to keep
+theirs, orders were given that in future no priest should marry.
+Everywhere the Church gave signs of new vigour. The monasteries became
+again the seats of study and learning. The sees of bishops were
+transferred from villages to populous towns, as when the Bishop of
+Dorchester, in Oxfordshire, migrated to Lincoln, and the Bishop of
+Thetford to Norwich. New churches were built and old ones restored
+after the new Continental style, which is known in England as Norman,
+and which Eadward had introduced in his abbey of Westminster. The
+Church, though made dependent on William, was independent, so far as
+its spiritual rights were concerned, of the civil courts.
+Ecclesiastical matters were discussed, not in the Witenagemot, but in
+a Church synod, and, in course of time, punishments were inflicted by
+Church courts on ecclesiastical offenders. The power of William was
+strengthened by the change. That power rested on three supports--the
+Norman conquerors, the English nation, and the Church, and each one of
+these three had reason to distrust the other two.
+
+[Illustration: East end of Darenth Church, Kent. Built about 1080.]
+
+8. =Pope Gregory VII.=--The strength which William had acquired showed
+itself in his bearing towards the Pope. In =1073= Archdeacon
+Hildebrand, who for some years had been more powerful at Rome than the
+Popes themselves, himself became Pope under the name of Gregory VII.
+Gregory was as stern a ruler of the Church as William was of the
+State. He was an uncompromising champion of the Cluniac reforms (see
+p. 67). His object was to moderate the cruelty and sinfulness of the
+feudal warriors of Europe by making the Church a light to guide the
+world to piety and self-denial. As matters stood on the Continent, it
+had been impossible for the Church to attain to so high a standard.
+The clergy bought their places and fought and killed like the laymen
+around them. The Cluniac monks, therefore, thought it best to separate
+the clergy entirely from the world. In the first place they were to be
+celibate, that they might not be entangled in the cares of life. In
+the second place they were to refrain from simony, or the purchase of
+ecclesiastical preferment, that they might not be dependent on the
+great men of the world. A third demand was added later, that bishops
+and abbots should not receive from laymen the ring and staff which
+were the signs of their authority--the ring as the symbol of marriage
+to their churches; the staff or crozier, in the shape of a shepherd's
+crook, as the symbol of their pastoral authority. The Church, in fact,
+was to be governed by its own laws in perfect independence, that it
+might become more pure itself, and thus capable of setting a better
+example to the laity. As might have been expected, though the internal
+condition of the Church was greatly improved, yet when Gregory
+attempted entirely to free ecclesiastics from the influence and
+authority of the State, he found himself involved in endless quarrels.
+Clergy and laity alike resisted him, and they were supported by the
+Emperor Henry IV., whose rule extended over Germany and the greater
+part of Italy. Gregory next claimed the right of excommunicating kings
+and emperors, and of deposing them if they did not repent after
+excommunication. The State, he declared, was as the moon, receiving
+light from the Church, which shone like the sun in heaven. The whole
+of the remainder of Gregory's life was spent in a struggle with the
+Emperor, and the struggle was carried on by the successors of both.
+
+[Illustration: Part of the nave of St. Alban's Abbey Church. Built by
+Abbot Paul between 1077 and 1093.]
+
+9. =William and Gregory VII.=--It is remarkable that such a Pope as
+Gregory never came into conflict with William. William appointed
+bishops and abbots by giving them investiture, as the presenting of
+the ring and staff was called. He declared that no Pope should be
+obeyed in England who was not acknowledged by himself, that no papal
+bulls or letters should have any force till he had allowed them, and
+that the decrees of an ecclesiastical synod should bind no one till he
+had confirmed them. When, at a later time, Gregory required William to
+do homage to the see of Rome, William refused, on the ground that
+homage had never been rendered by his predecessors. To all this
+Gregory submitted. No doubt Gregory was prudent in not provoking
+William's anger; but that he should have refrained from even finding
+fault with William may perhaps be set down to the credit of his
+honesty. He claimed to make himself the master of kings because as a
+rule they did not care to advance the purity of the Church. William
+did care to advance it. He chose virtuous and learned bishops, and
+defended the clergy against aggression from without and corruption
+within. Gregory may well have been content to leave power over the
+Church in the hands of a king who ruled it in such a fashion.
+
+10. =The Rising of the Earls. 1075.=--Of the three classes of men over
+which William ruled, the great Norman barons imagined themselves to be
+the strongest, and were most inclined to throw off his yoke. The chief
+feature of the reigns of William and of his successors for three
+generations was the struggle which scarcely ever ceased between the
+Norman barons on the one side, and the king supported by the English
+and the clergy on the other. It was to the advantage of the king that
+he had not to contend against the whole of the Normans. Normans with
+small estates clung for support, like their English neighbours, to the
+crown. The first of many risings of the barons took place in =1075=.
+Roger, Earl of Hereford, in spite of William's prohibition, gave his
+sister in marriage to Ralph of Wader, Earl of Norfolk, who, though of
+English birth on his father's side, had fought for William at Senlac,
+and may practically be counted as a Norman. As the chronicler
+expressed it:
+
+  There was that bride-ale
+  To many men's bale.
+
+The two earls plotted a rising against William and the revivals of the
+old independent earldoms. They took arms and were beaten. Ralph fled
+the country, and Roger was condemned to perpetual imprisonment. His
+followers were blinded or had their feet cut off. It was the Norman
+custom not to put criminals to death. To this rule, however, William
+made one exception. Waltheof, the last earl of purely English race,
+had been present at the fatal bride-ale, but though he had listened to
+the plottings of the conspirators, he had revealed all that he knew to
+William. His wife, Judith, a niece of the Conqueror, accused him of
+actual treason, and he was beheaded at Winchester. By the English he
+was regarded as a martyr, and it was probably his popularity amongst
+them which made William resolve upon his death.
+
+11. =The New Forest.=--Only once did William cause misery amongst his
+subjects for the sake of his own enjoyment. Many kings before him had
+taken pleasure in hunting, but William was the first who claimed the
+right of hunting over large tracts of country exclusively for himself.
+He made, as the chronicler says, 'mickle deer-frith'--a tract, that is
+to say, in which the deer might have peace--'and laid laws therewith
+that he who slew hart or hind that man should blind him.... In sooth
+he loved the high deer as though he were their father.' He forbade, in
+short, all men, except those to whom he gave permission, to hunt
+within the limits of the royal forests. In the south-west of
+Hampshire, near his favourite abode at Winchester, he enlarged the New
+Forest. The soil is poor, and it can never have been covered by
+cultivated fields, but here and there, by the sides of streams, there
+were scattered hamlets, and these were destroyed and the dwellers in
+them driven off by William's orders, that there might be a 'mickle
+deer-frith.' We may be sure that there was not nearly as much misery
+caused by the making of the New Forest as was caused by the harrying
+of the Vale of York, but popular tradition rightly held in more
+abhorrence the lesser cruelty for the sake of pleasure than the
+greater cruelty for the sake of policy. It told how the New Forest was
+accursed for William's family. In his own lifetime a son and a
+grandson of his were cut off within it by unknown hands, probably
+falling before the vengeance of some who had lost home and substance
+through the creation of the Forest, and in due time another son, who
+succeeded him on the throne, was to meet with a similar fate.
+
+12. =Domesday Book. 1085--1086.=--It was to William's credit that his
+government was a strong one. In William's days life and property and
+female honour were under the protection of a king who knew how to make
+himself obeyed. Strong government, however, is always expensive, and
+William and his officers were always ready with an excuse for getting
+money. "The king and the headmen loved much and overmuch covetousness
+on gold and on silver, and they recked not how sinfully it was gotten,
+if only it came to them.... They reared up unright tolls, and many
+other unright things they did that are hard to reckon." Other men, in
+short, must observe the law; William's government was a law to itself.
+It was, however, a law, and not a mere scramble for money. Though
+there were no Danish invaders now, William continued to levy the
+Danegeld, and he had rents and payments due to him in many quarters
+which had been due to his predecessors. In order to make his exactions
+more complete and more regular, he resolved to have set down the
+amount of taxable property in the realm that his full rights might be
+known, and in =1085=, "He sent over all England into ilk shire his
+men, and let them find out how many hundred hides were in the shire,
+or what the king himself had of land or cattle in the land, or whilk
+rights he ought to have.... Eke he let write how mickle of land his
+archbishops had, and his bishops, and his abbots and his earls, and
+what or how mickle ilk man had that landholder was in England in land
+and in cattle, and how mickle fee it was worth. So very narrowly he
+let speer it out that there was not a single hide nor a yard of land,
+nor so much as--it is a shame to tell, though he thought it no shame
+to do--an ox nor a cow nor a swine was left that was not set in his
+writ." The chronicler who wrote these words was an English monk of
+Peterborough. Englishmen were shocked by the new regularity of
+taxation. They could hardly be expected to understand the advantages
+of a government strong enough through regular taxation to put down the
+resistance of rebellious earls at home and to defy invasion from
+abroad. The result of the inquiries of the king's commissioners was
+embodied in Domesday Book, so called because it was no more possible
+to appeal from it than from the Last Judgment.
+
+[Illustration: Reduced facsimile of part of Domesday Book.]
+
+13. =William's Great Councils.=--Though William was himself the true
+ruler of England, he kept up the practice of his predecessors in
+summoning the Witenagemot from time to time. In his days, however, the
+name of the Witenagemot was changed into that of the Great Council,
+and, to a slight extent, it changed its nature with its name. The
+members of the Witenagemot had attended because they were officially
+connected with the king, being ealdormen or bishops or thegns serving
+in some way under him. Members of the Great Council attended because
+they held land in chief from the king. The difference, however, was
+greater in appearance than in reality. No doubt men who held very
+small estates in chief might, if they pleased, come to the Great
+Council, and if they had done so the Great Council would have been
+much more numerously attended than the Witenagemot had been. The
+poorer tenants-in-chief, however, found that it was not only too
+troublesome and expensive to make the journey at a time when all long
+journeys had to be made on horseback, but that when they arrived their
+wishes were disregarded. They therefore stayed at home, so that the
+Great Council was regularly attended only by the bishops, the abbots
+of the larger abbeys, and certain great landowners who were known as
+barons. In this way the Great Council became a council of the wealthy
+landowners, as the Witenagemot had been, though the two assemblies
+were formed on different principles.
+
+14. =The Gemot at Salisbury. 1086.=--In =1086=, after Domesday Book
+had been finished, William summoned an unusually numerous assembly,
+known as the Great Gemot, to meet at Salisbury. At this not only the
+tenants-in-chief appeared, but also all those who held lands from them
+as sub-tenants. "There came to him," wrote the chronicler, "... all
+the landowning men there were over all England, whose soever men they
+were, and all bowed down before him and became his men, and swore
+oaths of fealty to him, that they would be faithful to him against all
+other men." It was this oath which marked the difference between
+English and Continental feudalism, though they were now in other
+respects alike. On the Continent each tenant swore to be faithful to
+his lord, but only the lords who held directly from the crown swore to
+be faithful to the king. The consequence was that when a lord rebelled
+against the king, his tenants followed their lord and not the king. In
+England the tenants swore to forsake their lord and to serve the king
+against him if he forsook his duty to the king. Nor was this all. Many
+men break their oaths. William, however, was strong enough in England
+to punish those who broke their oaths to him, whilst the king of
+France was seldom strong enough to punish those who broke their oaths
+to him.
+
+15. =William's Death. 1087.=--The oath taken at Salisbury was the
+completion of William's work in England. To contemporaries he appeared
+as a foreign conqueror, and often as a harsh and despotic ruler. Later
+generations could recognise that his supreme merit was that he made
+England one. He did not die in England. In =1087= he fought with his
+lord, the king of France, Philip I. In anger at a jest of Philip's he
+set fire to Mantes. As he rode amidst the burning houses his horse
+shied and threw him forward on the pommel of his saddle. He was now
+corpulent and the injury proved fatal. On September 9 he died. When
+the body was carried to Caen for burial in the abbey of St. Stephen,
+which William himself had reared, a knight stepped forward and claimed
+as his own the ground in which the grave had been dug. It had been
+taken, he said, by William from his father. "In the name of God," he
+cried, "I forbid that the body of the robber be covered with my mould,
+or that he be buried within the bounds of my inheritance." The
+bystanders acknowledged the truth of his accusation, and paid the
+price demanded.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+WILLIAM II. =1087--1100.=
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Accession of William II                                         1087
+  Norman rebellion against William II.                            1088
+  Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury                                1093
+  The Council of Rockingham, and the First Crusade                1095
+  Conquest of Jerusalem by the Crusaders                          1099
+  Death of William II.                                            1100
+
+
+1. =The Accession of the Red King. 1087.=--In Normandy the Conqueror
+was succeeded by his eldest son, Robert. Robert was sluggish and
+incapable, and his father had expressed a wish that England, newly
+conquered and hard to control, should be ruled by his more energetic
+second son, William. To the third son, Henry, he gave a sum of money.
+There was as yet no settled rule of succession to the English crown,
+and William at once crossed the sea and was crowned king of the
+English at Westminster, by Lanfranc. William Rufus, or the Red King,
+as men called him, feared not God nor regarded man. Yet the English
+rallied round him, because they knew that he was strong-willed, and
+because they needed a king who would keep the Norman barons from
+oppressing them. For that very reason the more turbulent of the Norman
+barons declared for Robert, who would be too lazy to keep them in
+order. In the spring of =1088= they broke into rebellion in his name.
+William called the English people to his help. He would not, he said,
+wring money from his subjects or exercise cruelty in defence of his
+hunting grounds. On this the English rallied round him. At the head of
+a great army he marched to attack the rebels, and finally laid siege
+to Rochester, which was held against him by his uncle Odo, Bishop of
+Bayeux, whom he had released from the imprisonment in which the
+Conqueror had kept him. William called upon yet greater numbers of the
+English to come to his help. Every one, he declared, who failed him
+now should be known for ever by the shameful name of _Nithing_, or
+worthless. The English came in crowds. When at last Odo surrendered,
+the English pleaded that no mercy should be shown him. "Halters, bring
+halters!" they cried; "hang up the traitor bishop and his accomplices
+on the gibbet." William, however, spared him, but banished him for
+ever from England.
+
+2. =The Wickedness of the Red King.=--William had crushed the Norman
+rebels with English aid. When the victory was won he turned against
+those who had helped him. It was not that he oppressed the English
+because they were English, but that he oppressed English and Normans
+alike, though the English, being the weaker, felt his cruelty most. He
+broke all his promises. He gathered round him mercenary soldiers from
+all lands to enforce his will. He hanged murderers and robbers, but he
+himself was the worst of robbers. When he moved about the country with
+the ruffians who attended him, the inhabitants fled to the woods,
+leaving their houses to be pillaged. William allowed no law to be
+pleaded against his own will. His life, and the life of his courtiers,
+was passed in the foulest vice. He was as irreligious as he was
+vicious. It was in especial defiance of the Christian sentiment of the
+time that he encouraged the Jews, who had begun to come into England
+in his father's days, to come in greater numbers. They grew rich as
+money-lenders, and William protected them against their debtors,
+exacting a high price for his protection. Once, it is said, he invited
+the Jewish rabbis to argue in his presence with the bishops on the
+merits of their respective creeds, and promised to become a Jew if
+the rabbis had the better of the argument. His own mouth was filled
+with outrageous blasphemies. "God," he said, "shall never see me a
+good man. I have suffered too much at His hands."
+
+3. =Ranulf Flambard.=--The chief minister of the Red King was Ranulf
+Flambard, whom he ultimately made Bishop of Durham. He was one of the
+clerks of the king's chapel. The word 'clerk' properly signified a
+member of the clergy. The only way in which men could work with their
+brains instead of with their hands was by becoming clerks, the
+majority of whom, however, only entered the lower orders, without any
+intention of becoming priests or even deacons. Few, except clerks,
+could read or write, and whatever work demanded intelligence naturally
+fell into their hands. They acted as physicians or lawyers, kept
+accounts, and wrote letters. The clerks of the king's chapel were the
+king's secretaries and men of business. These ready writers had taken
+a leading part in the compilation of Domesday Book, and they were
+always active in bringing in money. Under the Conqueror they were
+expected to observe at least something of the rules of justice. Under
+the Red King they were expected to disregard them entirely. Of all the
+clerks Ranulf Flambard was the most unscrupulous; therefore he rose
+into the greatest favour. The first William had appointed high
+officers, known as Justiciars, to act in his name from time to time
+when he was absent from England, or was from any cause unable to be
+present when important business was transacted. Flambard was appointed
+Justiciar by the second William, and in his hands the office became
+permanent. The Justiciar was now the king's chief minister, acting in
+his name whether he was present or absent. Flambard used his power to
+gather wealth for the king on every side. "He drave the king's
+gemots," we are told, "over all England;" that is to say, he forced
+the reluctant courts to exact the money which he claimed for the king.
+
+4. =Feudal Dues.=--It was Flambard who systematised, if he did not
+invent, the doctrine that the king was to profit by his position as
+supreme landlord. In practice this meant that he exacted to the full
+the consequences of feudal tenure. If a man died who held land by
+knight service from the crown, leaving a son who was a minor, the boy
+became the ward of the king, who took the profits of his lands till he
+was twenty-one, and forced him to pay a relief or fine for taking them
+into his own hands when he attained his majority. If the land fell to
+an heiress the king claimed the right of marrying her to whom he
+would, or of requiring of her a sum of money for permission to take a
+husband at her own choice, or, as was usually the case, at the choice
+of her relations. Under special circumstances the king exacted aids
+from his tenants-in-chief. If he were taken prisoner they had to pay
+to ransom him from captivity. When he knighted his eldest son or
+married his eldest daughter they had to contribute to the expense. It
+is true that this was in accordance with the principle of feudality.
+Neither a boy nor a woman could render service in the field, and it
+was therefore only fair that the king should hold the lands at times
+when no service was rendered to him for them; and it was also fair
+that the dependents should come to their lord's help in times of
+special need, especially as all that the king took from them they in
+turn took from their own sub-tenants. Flambard, however, did not
+content himself with a moderately harsh exaction of these feudal dues.
+The grievance against him was that he made the king 'to be every man's
+heir, whether he were in orders or a layman,' that is to say, that
+Flambard so stripped and exhausted the land belonging to the king's
+wards as to make it almost worthless, and then demanded reliefs so
+enormous that when the estate had at last been restored, all its value
+had passed into the hands of the king. When a bishop or an abbot died,
+the king appointed no successor, and appropriated the revenues of the
+vacant see or monastery till some one chose to buy the office from
+him. The king alone grew rich, whilst his vassals were impoverished.
+
+5. =Archbishop Anselm.=--In =1089= Lanfranc died, and the
+archbishopric of Canterbury was then left vacant for nearly four
+years. The Archbishop of Canterbury was more than the first of English
+bishops. He was not only the maintainer of ecclesiastical discipline,
+but also the mouthpiece of the English people when they had complaints
+to make to the king. Men turned their thoughts to Anselm, the Abbot of
+Bec. Anselm was a stranger from Aosta, on the Italian side of the
+Alps. He was the most learned man of the age, and had striven to
+justify the theology of the day by rational arguments. He was as
+righteous as he was learned, and as gentle as he was righteous. Tender
+to man and woman, he had what was in those days a rare tenderness to
+animals, and had caused astonishment by saving a hunted hare from its
+pursuers. In =1092= the king's vassals assembled in the Great Council
+urged William to choose a successor to Lanfranc, and asked him to
+allow prayers to be offered in the churches that God might move his
+heart to select a worthy chief pastor. "Pray as you will," said the
+king, scornfully. "I shall do as I think good; no man's prayers will
+do anything to shake my will!" In the spring of =1093= William fell
+sick. Believing himself to be a dying man, he promised to amend his
+life, and named Anselm archbishop. On his refusal to accept the
+nomination, Anselm was dragged to the king's bedside, and the pastoral
+staff, the symbol of the pastoral office of a bishop, was forced into
+his hands by the bystanders.
+
+6. =The Council of Rockingham. 1095.=--To this well-meant violence
+Anselm submitted unwillingly. He was, he said, a weak old sheep to be
+yoked with an untamed bull to draw the plough of the English Church.
+Yet, gentle as he was, he was possessed of indomitable courage in
+resistance to evil. William recovered, and returned to his blasphemy
+and his tyranny. In vain Anselm warned him against his sins. A fresh
+object of dispute soon arose between the king and the new archbishop.
+Two Popes claimed the obedience of Christendom. Urban II. was the Pope
+acknowledged by the greater part of the Church. Clement III. was the
+Pope supported by the Emperor. Anselm declared that Urban was the true
+Pope, and that he would obey none other. William asserted that his
+father had laid down a rule that no Pope should be acknowledged in
+England without the king's assent, and he proposed to act upon it by
+acknowledging neither Clement nor Urban. His object was, perhaps, to
+prevent the enforcement of ecclesiastical discipline by temporarily
+getting rid of the papal authority. Anselm wanted the authority of the
+Pope to check vice and disorder. The question was set aside for a
+time, but in =1095= Anselm, tired of witnessing William's wicked
+actions, asked leave to go to Rome to fetch from Urban the pallium, a
+kind of scarf given by the Pope to archbishops in recognition of their
+office. William replied that he did not acknowledge Urban as Pope. A
+Great Council was summoned to Rockingham to discuss the question. The
+lay barons, who liked to see the king resisted, were on Anselm's side.
+The bishops, many of whom were creatures of William, appointed from
+amongst his clerks, took the side of the king. Anselm stated his case
+firmly and moderately, and then, caring nothing for the angry king,
+retired into the chapel and went quietly to sleep. The king, finding
+that the barons would give him no support, was unable to punish
+Anselm. Two years later, in =1097=, Anselm betook himself to Rome, and
+William at once seized on his estates.
+
+7. =William II. and his Brothers.=--Normandy under Robert was even
+worse off than England under William. William was himself a tyrant,
+but in Normandy there were at least a hundred tyrants because Robert
+was too easy-tempered to bring any one to justice. The land was full
+of violence. Each baron made war on his neighbour, and, as usual, the
+peasant suffered most. Robert's own life was vicious and wasteful, and
+he was soon in debt. He sold the Cotentin and the territory of
+Avranches to his youngest brother, Henry. Henry was cool-headed and
+prudent, and he kept order in his new possession better than either of
+his elder brothers would have done. The brothers coveted the
+well-ordered land, and in =1091=, two years before Anselm became
+archbishop, they marched together against Henry. Henry was besieged on
+St. Michael's Mount, a rocky island surrounded by the sea at high
+water. After a time water ran short. The easy-tempered Robert sent in
+a supply. "Shall we let our brother die of thirst?" he said to
+William. Henry was in the end forced to surrender, and the land which
+he had purchased was lost to him for a time. In =1095= Henry was again
+in Normandy. Robert of Belleme, the lord of Domfront, was the most
+cruel of the cruel barons. Once he had torn out with his own hands the
+eyes of his godson, merely because the child's father had displeased
+him. The people of Domfront called on Henry to deliver them from such
+a monster. Henry seized Domfront, ruled its people with justice, and
+soon recovered the possessions from which his brothers had driven him.
+
+8. =William and Scotland. 1093--1094.=--William's attention was at
+this time drawn to the North. Early in his reign he annexed
+Cumberland, and had secured it against the Scots by fortifying
+Carlisle, which had been desolate since the Danish invasion in the
+reign of AElfred. Malcolm, king of the Scots, was a rude warrior who
+had been tamed into an outward show of piety by his saintly wife,
+Margaret, the sister of Eadgar the AEtheling. Though he could not read
+her books of devotion, he liked to look at the pictures in them and to
+kiss the relics which she honoured. Margaret gathered Englishmen round
+her, and spread abroad something of southern piety and civilisation
+amongst the fierce Celtic warriors of her husband. She could not teach
+them to change their natures. In =1093= Malcolm burst into
+Northumberland, plundering and burning, till an Englishman slew him at
+Alnwick. Queen Margaret died broken-hearted at the news, and was
+before long counted as a saint. For the moment the Scottish Celts were
+weary of the English queen and her English ways. They set up Malcolm's
+brother, Donald Bane, as their king, refusing to be governed by any
+of Margaret's sons. Donald at once 'drave out all the English that
+before were with King Malcolm.' In =1094= Duncan, Margaret's step-son,
+gained the crown from Donald with the aid of a troop of English and
+Norman followers. The Celts soon drove out his followers, and after a
+while they slew him and restored Donald.
+
+9. =Mowbray's Rebellion. 1095.=--William had as yet too much to do at
+home to interfere further in Scotland. The Norman barons hated him,
+and in =1095= Robert of Mowbray, Earl of Northumberland--the name was
+now confined to the land between the Tweed and the Tyne--refused
+obedience. William at once marched against him, and took from him the
+new castle which he had built in =1080=, and which has ever since been
+known as Newcastle-on-Tyne. Robert held out long in his stronger
+fortress of Bamborough, which was only taken at last by fraud. He was
+condemned to a lifelong imprisonment, and it is even said that the
+Pope, seeing his case hopeless, allowed his wife to marry again as
+though her husband had been dead. Mowbray's rebellion, like the
+conspiracy of the Earls against the Conqueror, shows how eagerly the
+Norman barons longed to shake off the yoke of the king, and how
+readily Englishmen and the less powerful Normans supported even a
+tyrannical king rather than allow the barons to have their way.
+
+10. =The First Crusade. 1095--1099.=--These petty wars were
+interrupted by a call to arms from the Pope. For centuries Christians
+had made pilgrimages to Bethlehem and Jerusalem, the holy places where
+their Lord had been born and had been crucified. When the Arabs
+conquered the Holy Land, Mohammedans as they were, they gave
+protection to the pilgrims from the West. The Turks, who were also
+Mohammedans, had lately obtained the mastery over the Arabs, and had
+secured dominion over the Holy Land. They were fierce warriors,
+ignorant and cruel, who either put the pilgrims to death or subjected
+them to torture and ill-usage. In =1095= Pope Urban II. came to
+Clermont to appeal to the Christians of the West to set out on a
+Crusade--a war of the Cross--to deliver the Holy City from the
+infidel. After he had spoken the multitude burst out with the cry, "It
+is the will of God!" Men of every rank placed on their garments a
+cross, as the sign of their devotion to the service of Christ. In
+=1096= a huge multitude set forth under Peter the Hermit, who had been
+active in urging men to take part in the Crusade. They believed it to
+be unnecessary to take money or food, trusting that God would supply
+His warriors. All these perished on the way. A better-equipped body
+of knights and nobles set out later under Godfrey of Bouillon. They
+fought their way through Asia Minor and Syria to Jerusalem, and in
+=1099= the Holy City was taken by storm. Godfrey, though he became its
+first Christian king, refused to be crowned. "I will not," he said,
+"wear a crown of gold where my Saviour wore a crown of thorns." The
+piety of the Christian warriors was not accompanied by mercy to the
+vanquished. Holding Mohammedans to be the special enemies of God, they
+treated them as no better than savage beasts. There was a terrible
+butchery when Jerusalem was taken, and Christian men fancied that they
+did God service by dashing out the brains of Mohammedan babes against
+the walls.
+
+11. =Normandy in Pledge. 1096.=--Robert was amongst the Crusaders. To
+raise money for his expedition he pledged Normandy to his brother
+William. William had no wish to take part in a holy war, but he was
+ready to make profit out of those who did. Normandy was the better for
+the change. It is true that William oppressed it himself, but he saved
+the people from the worse oppression of the barons.
+
+12. =The Last Years of the Red King.=--The remaining years of
+William's reign were years of varying success. An English force set up
+Eadgar, the son of Malcolm and Margaret, as king of the Scots, and
+Eadgar consented to hold his crown as William's vassal. William's
+attempts to reduce the Welsh to submission ended in failure, and he
+was obliged to content himself with hemming them in with castles. In
+=1098= the wicked Robert of Belleme succeeded his brother as earl of
+Shrewsbury. Robert robbed and tortured Englishmen as he had robbed and
+tortured Normans. He was a great builder of castles, and at
+Bridgenorth he raised a fortress as the centre of a group of strong
+places which could defy the Welsh and form the basis of his operations
+against them. In the same year William captured Le Mans, the capital
+of Maine, which had recovered its independence from Robert, which was
+held against him by Helie de la Fleche, one of the few unselfish men
+of the day. Unlike his father, the Red King often began enterprises
+which he did not finish. In =1099= he had all his work to do over
+again. He was hunting in the New Forest when he heard that Helie had
+regained Le Mans. He rode hard to Southampton, and, leaping on board a
+vessel, bade the sailors put to sea. A storm was raging, and the
+sailors prayed him to wait till the wind fell. "I never heard," he
+answered, "of a king being drowned." The next morning he was in
+Normandy. He recovered Le Mans, but returned to England without
+conquering Maine.
+
+13. =The Death of the Red King. 1100.=--On August 2, =1100=, the Red
+King went out to hunt in the New Forest. In the evening his body was
+found pierced by an arrow. Who his slayer was is unknown. The blow may
+have been accidental. It is more likely to have been intentional. In
+every part of England were men who had good cause to hate William, and
+nowhere were his enemies in greater numbers than round the New Forest.
+Whoever was his slayer, the body of the tyrant was borne to the
+cathedral of Winchester and buried as the corpse of a wild beast,
+without funeral rites or weeping eyes. When, after a few years had
+passed, the tower above the unhallowed tomb fell in, men said that it
+had fallen because so foul a body lay beneath it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+HENRY I. AND STEPHEN.
+
+HENRY I., =1100--1135=. STEPHEN, =1135--1154=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  The Accession of Henry I.                                       1100
+  Battle of Tinchebrai                                            1106
+  Death of Henry I. and Accession of Stephen                      1135
+  The Civil War                                                   1139
+  Treaty of Wallingford                                           1153
+  Death of Stephen                                                1154
+
+
+[Illustration: Henry I. and his queen Matilda. (From the west front of
+Rochester Cathedral.)]
+
+1. =The Accession of Henry I. 1100.=--When the news spread that the
+Red King had been slain in the New Forest, his younger brother, Henry,
+hastened to Winchester, where he was chosen king by the barons who
+happened to be there. At his coronation at Westminster he swore to
+undo all the evil of his brother's reign. The name by which he came to
+be known--the Lion of Justice--shows how well he kept his promise. He
+maintained order as his father had done, and his brother had not done.
+Flambard, the wicked minister of the Red King, was imprisoned in the
+Tower, and Anselm, the good archbishop, recalled to England. Henry's
+chief strength lay in the support of the English. To please them he
+married Eadgyth, the daughter of Malcolm and Margaret, the descendant
+through her mother of the old English kings. Through Eadgyth the
+blood of Alfred and Ecgberht was transmitted to the later kings. It
+was, however, necessary that she should take another name. Every one
+at Henry's court talked French, and 'Eadgyth' was unpronounceable in
+French. The new queen was therefore known as Matilda, or Maud. The
+English called her the good queen. The Normans mocked her husband and
+herself by giving them the English nicknames of Godric and Godgifu.
+
+2. =Invasion of Robert. 1101.=--One danger at least Henry had to face.
+The Norman barons yearned after the weak rule of Robert, who was again
+in possession of Normandy. Once, we are told, he had to stay in bed
+till noon, because his favourites had carried off his clothes, and he
+had no others to put on. A duke who could not keep his own clothes was
+not likely to be able to rule his duchy, and Normandy was again the
+scene of fightings and plunderings which he made no effort to
+suppress. Flambard, having escaped from prison, fled to Normandy, and
+urged Robert to claim England as the heritage of the eldest son of the
+Conqueror. Robert listened to the tempter and sailed for England. When
+he landed at Porchester he found that the Church and the English had
+rallied to Henry. Robert's position was hopeless, and he made a treaty
+with his brother, abandoning all claim to the crown.
+
+3. =Revolt of Robert of Belleme. 1102.=--Henry knew that the great
+barons wished well to Robert, and on one pretext or another he
+stripped most of them of power. Robert of Belleme, the strongest and
+wickedest of them all, rose in revolt. After capturing many of his
+castles, Henry laid siege to his great fortress at Bridgenorth. The
+barons who served under Henry urged him to spare a rebel who was one
+of their own class. The Englishmen and the inferior Norman knights
+thought otherwise. "Lord King Henry," they cried, "trust not those
+traitors. They do but strive to deceive you, and to take away from you
+the strength of kingly justice.... Behold, we all stand by you
+faithfully; we are ready to serve and help you in all things. Attack
+the castle vigorously; shut in the traitor on all sides, and make no
+peace with him till you have him alive or dead in your hands."
+Bridgenorth was taken, and Robert of Belleme, having been stripped of
+his English land, was sent off to Normandy. Henry was now, in very
+truth, king of the English. "Rejoice, King Henry," ran a popular song,
+"and give thanks to the Lord God, because thou art a free king since
+thou hast overthrown Robert of Belleme, and hast driven him from the
+borders of thy kingdom." Never again during Henry's reign did the
+great Norman lords dare to lift hand against him.
+
+4. =The Battle of Tinchebrai. 1106.=--It was impossible for Henry to
+avoid interference in Normandy. Many of his vassals in England
+possessed lands in Normandy as well, where they were exposed to the
+violence of Robert of Belleme and of others who had been expelled from
+England. The Duke of the Normans would do nothing to keep the peace,
+and Henry crossed the sea to protect his own injured subjects. Duke
+Robert naturally resisted him, and at last, in =1106=, a great battle
+was fought at Tinchebrai, in which Robert was utterly defeated. Duke
+Robert was kept for the remainder of his life a prisoner in Cardiff
+Castle, where he died after an imprisonment of twenty-eight years.
+Henry became Duke of the Normans as well as king of the English, and
+all Normandy was the better for the change. Robert of Belleme was
+thrown into prison, and the cruel oppressor thus shared the fate of
+the weak ruler whose remissness had made his oppressions possible.
+
+[Illustration: Seal of Milo of Gloucester, showing mounted armed
+figure in the reign of Henry I.]
+
+5. =Henry and Anselm. 1100--1107.=--Though Anselm had done everything
+in his power to support Henry against Robert of Belleme, he was
+himself engaged in a dispute with the king which lasted for some
+years. A bishop in Anselm's time was not only a great Church officer,
+whose duty it was to maintain a high standard of religion and morality
+amongst the clergy. He was also one of the king's barons, because he
+was possessed of large estates, and was therefore bound like any other
+baron to send knights to the king when they were needed. Consequently,
+when Anselm became archbishop he had not only received investiture
+from William II. by accepting from him the ring and the staff which
+were the signs of ecclesiastical authority, but also did homage, thus
+acknowledging himself to be the king's man, and obliging himself, not
+indeed to fight for him in person, but to send knights to fight under
+his orders. When, however, Henry came to the throne, and asked Anselm
+to repeat the homage which he had done to William, Anselm not only
+refused himself to comply with the king's request, but also refused to
+consecrate newly-chosen bishops who had received investiture from
+Henry. During the time of his exile Anselm had taken part in a council
+of the Church, in which bishops and abbots had been forbidden by the
+Pope and the council either to receive investiture from laymen or to
+do homage to them. These decrees had not been issued merely to serve
+the purpose of papal ambition. At that time all zealous ecclesiastics
+thought that the only way to stop the violence of kings in their
+dealings with the Church was to make the Church entirely independent.
+Anselm's experience of the Red King's wickedness must have made him
+ready to concur with this new view, and there can be no doubt that it
+was from the most conscientious motives that he refused to do homage
+to Henry. On the other hand, Henry, wishing to rule justly, thought it
+very hard that the archbishop should insist upon the independence of
+the bishops, especially as in consequence of their large estates they
+had so many knights to send into the field. Though the dispute was a
+hot one, it was carried on without any of the violence which had
+characterised the dispute between Anselm and the Red King, and it
+ended in a compromise. Henry abandoned all claim to give the ring and
+the pastoral staff which were the signs of a bishop's or an abbot's
+spiritual jurisdiction, whilst Anselm consented to allow the new
+bishop or abbot to render the homage which was the sign of his
+readiness to employ all his temporal wealth and power on the king's
+behalf. The bishop was to be chosen by the chapter of his cathedral,
+the abbot by the monks of his abbey, but the election was to take
+place in the king's presence, thus giving him influence over their
+choice. Whether this settlement would work in favour of the king or
+the clergy depended on the character of the kings and the clergy. If
+the kings were as riotous as the Red King and the clergy as
+self-denying as Anselm, the clergy would grow strong in spite of these
+arrangements. If the kings were as just and wise as Henry, and the
+clergy as wicked as Ralph Flambard, all advantage would be on the side
+of the king.
+
+6. =Roger of Salisbury.=--After the defeat of the Norman barons the
+Great Council ceased for a time to have any important influence on the
+government. Henry was practically an absolute king, and it was well
+that he should be so, as the country wanted order more than
+discussion. Henry, however, loved to exercise absolute power in an
+orderly way, and he chose for his chief minister Roger, whom he made
+Bishop of Salisbury. Roger had first attracted his notice when he was
+going out hunting, by saying mass in a shorter time than any other
+priest, but he retained his favour by the order and system which he
+introduced into the government. A special body of officials and
+councillors was selected by the king--perhaps a similar body had been
+selected by his predecessor--to sit in judgment over cases in which
+tenants-in-chief were concerned, as well as over other cases which
+were, for one reason or another, transferred to it from the Baronial
+Courts. This council or committee was called the _Curia Regis_ (the
+King's Court). The members of this _Curia Regis_ met also in the
+Exchequer, so called from the chequered cloth which covered the table
+at which they sat. They were then known as Barons of the Exchequer,
+and controlled the receipts and outgoings of the treasury. The
+Justiciar presided in both the _Curia Regis_ and the Exchequer.
+Amongst those who took part in these proceedings was the Chancellor,
+who was then a secretary and not a judge, as well as other superior
+officers of the king. A regular system of finance was introduced, and
+a regular system of justice accompanied it. At last the king
+determined to send some of the judges of his court to go on circuit
+into distant parts of the kingdom. These itinerant Justices
+(_Justitiarii errantes_) brought the royal power into connection with
+the local courts. Their business was of a very miscellaneous
+character. They not only heard the cases in which the king was
+concerned--the pleas of the crown, as they were called--but they made
+assessments for purposes of taxation, listened to complaints, and
+conveyed the king's wishes to his people.
+
+[Illustration: Monument of Roger, Bishop of Salisbury (died 1139), in
+his cathedral church.]
+
+7. =Growth of Trade.=--Though Henry's severe discipline was not liked,
+yet the law and order which he maintained told on the prosperity of
+the country, and the trade of London flourished so much as to attract
+citizens from Normandy to settle in it. Flemings too, trained in
+habits of industry, came in crowds, and with the view of providing a
+bulwark against the Welsh, Henry settled a colony of them in South
+Pembrokeshire, which has since been known as Little England beyond
+Wales. The foreigners were not popular, but the Jews, to whom Henry
+continued the protection which William had given them, were more
+unpopular still.
+
+[Illustration: Porchester Church, Hampshire. Built about 1135.]
+
+8. =The Benedictines.=--In the midst of this busy life the Benedictine
+monasteries were still harbours of refuge for all who did not care to
+fight or trade. They were now indeed wealthier than they had once
+been, as gifts, usually of land, had been made to the monks by those
+who reverenced their piety. Sometimes these gifts took a shape which
+afterwards caused no little evil. Landowners who had churches on their
+lands often gave to a monastery the tithes which had hitherto been
+paid for the support of the parish priest, and the monastery stepped
+into the place of the parish priest, sending a vicar to act for it in
+the performance of its new duties. As the monks themselves grew richer
+they grew less ascetic. Their life, however, was not spent in
+idleness. They cared for the poor, kept a school for the children, and
+managed their own property. Some of their number studied and wrote,
+and our knowledge of the history of these times is mainly owing to
+monastic writers. When Henry I. came to the throne the Chronicle was
+still being written in the English tongue by the monks of Worcester,
+and for some years after his death was still carried on at
+Peterborough. The best historical compositions were, however, in
+Latin, the language understood by the clergy over all Western Europe.
+Amongst the authors of these Latin works, the foremost was William of
+Malmesbury.
+
+9. =The Cistercians.=--Useful as the Benedictines were, there were
+some monks who complained that the extreme self-denial of their
+founder, St. Benedict, was no longer to be met with, and the
+complainants had lately originated a new order, called the Cistercian,
+from Citeaux, in Burgundy, the site of their first abbey. The
+Cistercians made their appearance in England in =1128=. Their
+buildings and churches were simpler than those of the Benedictines,
+and their life more austere. They refused to receive gifts of tithes
+lest they should impoverish the parish clergy. They loved to make
+their homes in solitary places far from the haunts of men, and some of
+the most beautiful of the abbeys which remain in ruins--those, for
+instance, of Fountains and Tintern--were Cistercian abbeys. They are
+beautiful, not because the Cistercians loved pleasant places, but
+because they loved solitude, whilst the Benedictines had either
+planted themselves in towns or had allowed towns to grow up round
+their monasteries.
+
+[Illustration: Part of the nave of Durham Cathedral. Built about
+1130.]
+
+10. =The White Ship.=--Henry, in consequence of the possession of
+Normandy, had been frequently involved in war with France. Robert's
+son, William Clito, claimed Normandy, and his claim was supported by
+Louis VI. the Fat, who was styled king of France, though the territory
+which he actually ruled was no larger than Normandy. In these wars
+Henry was usually successful, and at last, in =1127=, William was
+killed, and Henry freed from danger. His own son, also named William,
+had already been drowned on the voyage between Normandy and England in
+=1120=. The ship in which he sailed ran upon a rock, and the young man
+was placed in a boat, and might have escaped if he had not returned to
+save his half-sister, the Countess of Perche, who was still on board.
+As soon as he approached the sailors and passengers crowded into the
+boat and swamped it. Only one man, a butcher, was saved, by clinging
+to the mast of the ship when it sank. The captain, who was with him
+on the mast, threw himself off as soon as he learned that the king's
+son had been drowned, and perished in the water. It is said that no
+man dared to tell Henry that his son was drowned, and that at last a
+little child was sent to inform him of his misfortune.
+
+11. =The Last Years of Henry I.=--Henry had many illegitimate
+children, but after William's death the only lawful child left to him
+was Matilda. She had been married as a child to the Emperor Henry V.,
+but her husband had died before she was grown up, and she then
+returned to her father, as the Empress Matilda. There had never been a
+queen in England, and it would have been very hard for a woman to rule
+in those times of constant war and bloodshed. Yet Henry persuaded the
+barons to swear to accept her as their future sovereign. He then
+married her to Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, who came of a brave and
+active race, and whose lands, which lay to the south of Normandy,
+would enlarge the French possessions of Henry's descendants. In =1135=
+Henry died. The great merit of his English government was that he
+forsook his brother's evil ways of violence, and maintained peace by
+erecting a regular administrative system, which kept down the outrages
+of the barons. One of the English chroniclers in recording his death
+prayed that God might give him the peace that he loved.[9]
+
+    [Footnote 9: Genealogy of the Conqueror's sons and grandchildren:--
+
+                       WILLIAM I. = Matilda of Flanders
+                       1066-1087  |
+            +------------+--------+---+---------+
+            |            |            |         |
+     Robert, Duke of  WILLIAM II.  HENRY I.   Adela = Stephen of Blois
+       Normandy       1087-1100    1100-1135        |
+            |                          |            |
+            |               |                |  STEPHEN
+      William Clito      William             |  1135-1154
+                                             |
+             (1) The Emperor Henry V. = Matilda = (2) Geoffrey Plantagenet
+                                                |
+                                              HENRY II.
+                                              1154-1189]
+
+[Illustration: Keep of Rochester Castle. Built between 1126 and 1139.]
+
+12. =Stephen's Accession. 1135.=--Among the barons who had sworn to
+obey Matilda was Stephen of Blois, a son of the Conqueror's daughter
+Adela, and a nephew of Henry I. As soon as Henry's death was known
+Stephen made his way to London, where he was joyfully received as
+king. The London citizens felt that their chief interest lay in the
+maintenance of peace, and they thought that a man would be more likely
+than a woman to secure order. The barons chose Stephen king at
+Winchester, where his brother, Henry of Blois, was the bishop. Shortly
+afterwards some of these very barons rose against him, but their
+insurrection was soon repressed. More formidable was the hostility of
+David, king of the Scots. David was closely connected with the family
+of Henry I., his sister having been Henry's wife, the Empress Matilda
+being consequently his niece. He also held in right of his own wife
+the earldom of Huntingdon. Under the pretext of taking up Matilda's
+cause he broke into the north of England. Though he himself carried on
+the work of introducing English civilisation into Scotland, his Celtic
+followers were still savage, and massacred women and infants. In
+=1137= Stephen drove David back. In =1138= David reappeared, and this
+time the aged Thurstan, Archbishop of York, sent the levies of the
+North against him. In the midst of the English army was a cart bearing
+a standard, at the top of which the banners of the three great
+churches of St. Peter's of York, St. John of Beverley, and St. Wilfrid
+of Ripon, waved round the consecrated Host. The battle which ensued,
+near Northallerton, has consequently been known as the battle of the
+Standard. The Scots were completely defeated, but Stephen, in spite of
+the victory gained for him, found himself obliged to buy peace at a
+heavy price. He agreed that David's son, Henry, should hold
+Northumberland, with the exception of the fortresses of Bamborough and
+of Newcastle, as a fief of the English Crown. David himself was also
+allowed to keep Cumberland without doing homage.
+
+[Illustration: Keep of Castle Rising. Built about 1140-50.]
+
+13. =Civil War.=--It would have been well for Stephen if he had learnt
+from the men of the North that his strength lay in rallying the
+English people round him against the great barons, as the Red King and
+Henry I. had done when their right to the crown had been challenged by
+Robert. Instead of this, he brought over mercenaries from Flanders,
+and squandered treasure and lands upon his favourites so as to have
+little left for the hour of need. He made friends easily, but he made
+enemies no less easily. One of the most powerful of the barons was
+Robert, Earl of Gloucester, an illegitimate son of Henry I., who held
+the strong fortress of Bristol, and whose power extended over both
+sides of the lower course of the Severn. In =1138= Stephen, who
+distrusted him, ordered his castles to be seized. Robert at once
+declared his half-sister Matilda to be the lawful queen, and a
+terrible civil war began. Robert's garrison at Bristol was a terror to
+all the country round. He, too, gathered foreign mercenaries, who knew
+not what pity was. Other barons imitated Robert's example, fighting
+only for themselves whether they nominally took the part of Stephen or
+of Matilda, and the southern and midland counties of England were
+preyed upon by the garrisons of their castles.
+
+14. =Stephen's Quarrel with the Clergy. 1139.=--Evil as were the men
+who fought on either side, it was to Stephen and not to Matilda and
+Robert that men as yet looked to restore order. The port towns,
+London, Yarmouth, and Lynn, clung to him to the last. Unfortunately
+Stephen did not know how to make good use of his advantages. The
+clergy, like the traders, had always been in favour of order. Some of
+them, with the Justiciar, Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, at their head,
+had organised the Exchequer of Henry I., had gathered in the payments
+due to the Crown, or had acted as judges. Yet with all their zeal in
+the service of the Crown, they had not omitted to provide for their
+own interests. Roger in particular had been insatiable in the pursuit
+of wealth for himself and of promotion for his family. One of his
+nephews, Nigel, Bishop of Ely, was Treasurer, whilst another,
+Alexander, was Bishop of Lincoln, and his own illegitimate son, Roger,
+was Chancellor. In =1139= Stephen, rightly or wrongly, threw him into
+prison with his son and Alexander of Lincoln. The other nephew, Nigel,
+escaped to his uncle's castle at Devizes, in which was the younger
+Roger's mother, Matilda of Ramsbury. Stephen brought her son before
+the castle, and put a rope round his neck to hang him unless the
+castle was surrendered. The unhappy mother could not bear the sight,
+and opened the gates to Stephen. It might have been wise to deprive a
+too ambitious bishop of his castle, but it was not wise personally to
+maltreat the clergy. Every priest in England turned against Stephen.
+His own brother, Henry, Bishop of Winchester, declared against him,
+and Stephen was obliged to do penance for his offence. The
+administration of the Exchequer was shattered, and though it was not
+altogether destroyed, and money was brought to it for the king's use
+even in the worst times, Stephen's financial resources were from
+henceforth sadly diminished.
+
+15. =Anarchy. 1139.=--The war now lapsed into sheer anarchy. The
+barons on either side broke loose from all restraint. "They fought
+amongst themselves with deadly hatred; they spoiled the fairest lands
+with fire and rapine; in what had been the most fertile of counties
+they destroyed almost all the provision of bread." All goods and money
+they carried off, and if they suspected any man to have concealed
+treasure they tortured him to oblige him to confess where it was.
+"They hanged up men by the feet and smoked them with foul smoke; some
+were hanged up by their thumbs, others by their head, and coats of
+mail were hung on to their feet. They put knotted strings about men's
+heads, and twisted them till they went to the brain. They put men into
+prisons where adders and snakes and toads were crawling; and so they
+tormented them. Some they put into a chest, short and narrow and not
+deep, and that had sharp stones within; and forced men therein, so
+that they broke all their limbs. In many of the castles were hateful
+and grim things called neckties, which two or three men had enough to
+do to carry. This instrument of torture was thus made: it was fastened
+to a beam, and had a sharp iron to go about a man's neck and throat,
+so that he might no way sit or lie or sleep, but he bore all the iron.
+Many thousands they starved with hunger.... Men said openly that
+Christ and His saints were asleep."
+
+16. =The End of the War. 1141--1148.=--In the autumn of =1139=,
+Matilda appeared in England, and in =1141= there was a battle at
+Lincoln, in which Stephen was taken prisoner. Henry of Winchester (see
+p. 131) acknowledged Matilda as queen, and all England submitted to
+her, London giving way most reluctantly. Her rule did not last long.
+She was as much too harsh as Stephen was too good-natured. She seized
+the lands of the Church, and ordered the Londoners to pay a heavy fine
+for having supported Stephen. On this the Londoners rang their bells,
+and the citizens in arms swarmed out of their houses 'like bees out of
+a hive.' Matilda fled to Winchester before them. Bishop Henry then
+turned against her. Robert of Gloucester was taken prisoner, and after
+a while Matilda was obliged to set free King Stephen in exchange for
+her brother. Fighting continued for some time. On all sides men were
+longing for peace. The fields were untilled because no man could tell
+who would reap the harvest. Thousands perished of starvation. If peace
+there was to be, it could only come by Stephen's victory. It was now
+known that Matilda was even less fit to govern than Stephen. Stephen
+took one castle after another. In =1147= Earl Robert died, and in
+=1148= Matilda gave up the struggle and left England.
+
+[Illustration: Tower of Castor Church, Northamptonshire. Built about
+1145. (The parapet and spire are later.)]
+
+17. =Henry, Duke of the Normans. 1149.=--Whilst Matilda had been
+losing England her husband had been conquering Normandy, and for a
+little while it seemed possible that England and Normandy would be
+separated; England remaining under Stephen and his heirs, and
+Normandy united with Anjou under the Angevin Geoffrey and his
+descendants. That the separation did not yet take place was partly
+owing to the different character of the two heirs. Stephen's son,
+Eustace, was rough and overbearing. Geoffrey's son, Henry, was shrewd
+and prudent. Henry had already been in England when he was still quite
+young, and had learnt something of English affairs from his uncle,
+Robert of Gloucester. He returned to his father in =1147=, and in
+=1149= Geoffrey gave up to him the duchy of Normandy. He was then sent
+to try his fortune in England in his mother's stead, but he was only a
+boy of sixteen, and too young to cope with Stephen. In =1150= he
+abandoned the struggle for a time. In his absence Stephen had still
+rebels to put down and castles to besiege, but he had the greater part
+of the kingdom at his back, and if Henry had continued to leave him
+alone he would probably have reduced all his enemies to submission.
+
+18. =The Last Days of Stephen. 1153--1154.=--In =1150= Geoffrey died,
+and Henry became Count of Anjou as well as Duke of Normandy. Before
+long he acquired a much wider territory than either Anjou or Normandy.
+Louis VII. of France had to wife Eleanor, the Duchess of Aquitaine,
+and through her had added to his own scanty dominions the whole of the
+lands between the Loire and the Pyrenees. Louis, believing that she
+was unfaithful to him, had divorced her on the pretext that she was
+too near of kin. Henry was not squeamish about the character of so
+great an heiress, and in =1152= married the Duchess of Aquitaine for
+the sake of her lands. Thus strengthened, he again returned to
+England. He was now a young man of nineteen; his vigour was as great
+as that of Stephen, and his skill greater. He won fortress after
+fortress. Before the end of =1153= Eustace died, and Stephen had no
+motive for prolonging the strife if his personal interests could be
+saved. It was arranged by the treaty of Wallingford that Stephen
+should retain the crown for life, and that Henry should be his heir.
+The castles which had sprung up during the civil war without the
+licence of the king--the 'adulterine castles,' as they were
+called--and there were no less than 365[10] of them--were to be
+destroyed, and order and good government were to return. For five
+months Henry remained in England. The robber barons could not hold out
+against the two rivals now united. Many of the castles were
+demolished, and 'such good peace as never was here' was established.
+In =1154= Stephen died, and young Henry ruled England in his own name.
+
+    [Footnote 10: The number usually given, '1,115,' is probably an
+    error.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+HENRY II. =1154--1189=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Accession of Henry II.                                          1154
+  Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury                                1162
+  The Constitutions of Clarendon                                  1164
+  Murder of Archbishop Thomas                                     1172
+  The Assize of Arms                                              1181
+  Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem                                1187
+  Death of Henry II.                                              1189
+
+
+1. =Henry's Accession. 1154.=--Henry II. was but twenty-one when he
+returned, after Stephen's death, to govern England. He had before him
+the difficult task of establishing order where anarchy had prevailed,
+but it was a task for which he was specially suited. His frame was
+strong and thick-set, and he was as active as he was strong. His
+restlessness was the dismay of his courtiers. Eager to see everything
+for himself, and having to rule a territory extending from the
+Pyrenees to the Scottish border, he was always on the move. His
+followers were not allowed to know till he started in the morning
+where he intended to sleep at night, and he frequently changed his
+mind even after he had set out. He was as busy with his mind as he was
+with his body, as fond of a book as of a horse, and ready to chat with
+any one of whatever rank. Even when he was at mass he either drew
+pictures to amuse himself or conversed in whispers with his
+neighbours. His ceaseless energy was combined with a strong will, a
+clear perception of the limits beyond which action would be unwise, a
+good eye for ability in others, and a power of utilising their ability
+in his own service. On the Continent his sagacity appeared in his
+resolution to be content with the dominions which he had acquired
+without making further conquests. In England his main object was the
+same as that of his predecessors, to establish the king's authority
+over the great barons. What especially distinguished him was his clear
+perception of the truth that he could only succeed by securing, not
+merely the passive goodwill, but the active co-operation of those who,
+whether they were of Norman or of English descent, were inferior in
+wealth and position to the great barons.
+
+[Illustration: Effigies of Henry II. and Queen Eleanor at
+Fontevrault.]
+
+2. =Pacification of England.=--Henry's first year was spent in
+completing the work which he had begun after the treaty of
+Wallingford. He sent Stephen's mercenaries over the sea and
+completed the destruction of the 'adulterine castles.' One great rebel
+after another was forced to submit and have his strong walls pulled
+down. There were to be no more dens of robbers in England, but all men
+were to obey the king and the law. What castles remained were the
+king's, and as long as they were his rebellions would not be likely to
+be successful. Henry even regained from Malcolm IV., king of the
+Scots, Northumberland and Cumberland, which had been surrendered by
+Stephen (see p. 133). In his government Henry did his best to carry
+out the plans of his grandfather, Henry I. It was perhaps because he
+was afraid that one Justiciar would be too powerful, that he appointed
+two, Richard de Lucy and the Earl of Leicester, to see that justice
+was executed and the government maintained whether the king were
+absent or present. The old Bishop Nigel of Ely was reappointed
+Treasurer, and presided over the Exchequer at Westminster. Thomas of
+London, known in later times by the name of Becket,[11] an active and
+vigorous man, fifteen years older than the king, who had been ordained
+a deacon, but had nothing clerical about him except the name, was made
+Chancellor. Thomas was the king's chosen friend, and the two together
+delighted in the work of restoring order. Thomas liked sumptuous
+living, and the magnificence of his housekeeping and of his feasts was
+the talk of the whole country. Yet though he laughed and jested in the
+midst of his grandeur, he kept himself from every kind of vice. Henry
+was fond of horseplay, and once on a bitter winter's day, when he was
+riding with Thomas, he snatched at a fine new scarlet mantle from the
+Chancellor's neck to throw to a beggar. Thomas struggled hard, and the
+two men nearly pulled one another off their horses, but in the end the
+beggar got the mantle.
+
+    [Footnote 11: His father's name was Becket, but at that time
+    hereditary surnames had not come into use. He was once called Thomas
+    Becket in his lifetime by one of his murderers as an insult.]
+
+3. =Henry and Feudality.=--It was principally with Thomas the
+Chancellor that Henry consulted as to the best means of establishing
+his authority. He resolved not only to renew but to extend the
+administrative system of Henry I. The danger which threatened him came
+from the great barons, and as the great barons were as dangerous to
+the lesser ones and to the bulk of the people as they were to the
+king, Henry was able to strengthen himself by winning the affections
+of the people. Feudality in itself was only a method of owning land;
+but it was always threatening to pass into a method of government. In
+France the great feudal lords ruled their own territories with very
+little regard for the wishes of the king, and the smaller feudal lords
+had their own courts in which they hanged and imprisoned their
+villeins. In Stephen's time an attempt had been made to introduce this
+system into England, with evil consequences both to king and people.
+Before the Conquest great landowners had often received permission
+from the king to exercise criminal jurisdiction in the Manor Courts on
+their own estates, whilst the vast extent of their landed property
+gave them a preponderant voice in the proceedings of the shire-moots,
+now known by the Normans as County Courts. Henry resolved to attack
+the evil at both ends: in the first place to make the barons support
+the king's government instead of setting up their own; in the second
+place, to weaken the Manor and County Courts and to strengthen courts
+directly proceeding from himself.
+
+4. =The Great Council and the Curia Regis.=--Henry in the early years
+of his reign revived the importance of the Great Council, taking care
+that it should be attended not only by the great barons, but by
+vassals holding smaller estates, and therefore more dependent on
+himself. He summoned the Great Council oftener than his predecessors
+had done. In this way even the greater barons got the habit of sharing
+in the government of England as a whole, instead of seeking to split
+up the country, as France was split up, into different districts, each
+of which might be governed by one of themselves. It was in consequence
+of the increasing habit of consulting with the king that the Great
+Council, after many changes, ultimately grew into the modern
+Parliament. It was of no less importance that Henry II. strengthened
+the _Curia Regis_, which had been established in the reign of Henry I.
+(see p. 127) to collect the king's revenue, to give him political
+advice, and to judge as many questions as it could possibly get hold
+of. It was especially by doing justice that the _Curia Regis_ was
+likely to acquire strength, and the strength of the _Curia Regis_ was
+in reality the strength of the king.
+
+5. =Scutage.=--If Henry was to carry out justice everywhere it would
+be necessary for him to weaken still further the power of the barons.
+He reintroduced a plan which had been first adopted by his
+grandfather, which had the double merit of strengthening the king upon
+the Continent and of weakening the barons in England. Henry needed an
+army to defend his Continental possessions against the king of France.
+The fyrd, or general levy of Englishmen, was not bound to fight except
+at home, and though the feudal vassals were liable to serve abroad,
+they could only be made to serve for forty days in the year, which
+was too short a time for Henry's purposes. He accordingly came to an
+agreement with his vassals. The owner of every knight's fee was to pay
+a sum of money known as scutage (_shield-money_) in lieu of service.
+Both parties gained by the arrangement. The king got money with which
+he paid mercenaries abroad, who would fight for him all the year
+round, and the vassal escaped the onerous duty of fighting in quarrels
+in which he took no interest. Indirectly the change weakened the
+feudal vassals, because they had now less opportunity than before of
+acquiring a military training in actual war.
+
+[Illustration: Ecclesiastical costume in the twelfth century.]
+
+6. =Archbishop Thomas. 1162.=--Henry, who meditated great judicial
+reforms, foresaw that the clergy would be an obstacle in his way. He
+was eager to establish one law for his whole kingdom, and the clergy,
+having been exempted by the Conqueror from the jurisdiction of the
+ordinary law courts in all ecclesiastical matters, had, during the
+anarchy of Stephen's reign, encroached on the royal authority, and
+claimed to be responsible, even in criminal cases, only to the
+ecclesiastical courts, which were unable to inflict the penalty of
+death, so that a clerk who committed a murder could not be hanged like
+other murderers. As large numbers of clerks were only in the lower
+orders, and as many of them had only taken those orders to escape from
+the hardships of lay life, their morals were often no better than
+those of their lay neighbours. A vacancy occurring in the
+Archbishopric of Canterbury, Henry, who wished to make these clerks
+punishable by his own courts, thought that the arrangement would
+easily be effected if Thomas, who had hitherto been active as a
+reformer in his service, were Archbishop as well as Chancellor. It was
+in vain that Thomas remonstrated. "I warn you," he said to Henry,
+"that, if such a thing should be, our friendship would soon turn to
+bitter hate." Henry persisted in spite of the warning, and Thomas
+became Archbishop.
+
+7. =Breach between Henry and Thomas.=--The first act of the new
+Archbishop was to surrender his Chancellorship. He was unable, he
+said, to serve two masters. It is not difficult to understand his
+motives. The Church, as the best men of the twelfth century believed,
+was divinely instituted for the guidance of the world. It was but a
+short step for the nobler spirits amongst the clergy to hold it
+necessary that, in order to secure the due performance of such exalted
+duties, the clergy should be exempted from the so-called justice of
+laymen, which was often only another name for tyranny, even if the
+exemption led to the infliction upon wicked clerks of lesser
+punishments than were meet. In this way the clergy would unconsciously
+fall into the frame of mind which might lead them to imagine it more
+to the honour of God that a wicked clerk should be insufficiently
+punished than that he should be punished by a layman. Of all men
+Archbishop Thomas was the most likely to fall into this mistake. He
+was, as Chancellor, prone to magnify his office, and to think more of
+being the originator of great reforms than of the great reforms
+themselves. As Archbishop he would also be sure to magnify his office,
+and to think less, as Anselm would have thought, of reconciling the
+true interests of the kingdom with the true interests of the Church,
+than of making the Archbishop's authority the centre of stirring
+movement, and of raising the Church, of which he was the highest
+embodiment in England, to a position above the power of the king. All
+this he would do with a great, if not a complete, sincerity. He would
+feel that he was himself the greater man because he believed that he
+was fighting in the cause of God.
+
+[Illustration: A bishop ordaining a priest. (From a MS. of the latter
+part of the twelfth century.)]
+
+8. =The Constitutions of Clarendon. 1164.=--Between a king eager to
+assert the rights of the crown and an archbishop eager to assert the
+rights of the clergy a quarrel could not be long deferred. Thomas's
+first stand, however, was on behalf of the whole country. At a Great
+Council at Woodstock he resisted the king's resolution to levy the old
+tax of Danegeld, and in consequence Danegeld was never levied again.
+Henry had for some time been displeased because, without consulting
+him, the Archbishop had seized on lands which he claimed as the
+property of the see of Canterbury, and had excommunicated one of the
+king's tenants. Then a clerk who had committed a rape and a murder had
+been acquitted in an ecclesiastical court. On this, Henry called on
+the bishops to promise to obey the customs of the realm. Thomas, being
+told that the king merely wanted a verbal promise to save his dignity,
+with some reluctance consented. He soon found that he had been
+tricked. In =1164= Henry summoned a Great Council to meet at
+Clarendon, and directed some of the oldest of his barons to set down
+in writing the customs observed by his grandfather. Their report was
+intended to settle all disputed points between the king and the
+clergy, and was drawn up under sixteen heads known as the
+Constitutions of Clarendon. The most important of them declared that
+beneficed clergy should not leave the realm without the king's leave;
+that no tenant-in-chief of the king should be excommunicated without
+the king's knowledge; that no villein should be ordained without his
+lord's consent; that a criminous clerk should be sent to the
+ecclesiastical court for trial, and that after he had been there
+convicted or had pleaded guilty the Church should deprive him and
+leave him to the lay court for further punishment. It was for the
+_Curia Regis_ to determine what matters were properly to be decided by
+the ecclesiastical courts; and no appeal to Rome was to be allowed
+without its permission. To all this Thomas was violently opposed,
+maintaining that the sentence of deprivation, which was all that an
+ecclesiastical court was empowered to inflict, was so terrible, that
+one who had incurred it ought not to be sentenced to any further
+penalty by a lay court. After six days' struggle he left the Council,
+refusing to assent to the Constitutions.
+
+9. =The Persecution of Archbishop Thomas. 1164.=--Unluckily for
+himself, Henry could not be content firmly and quietly to enforce the
+law as it had been declared at Clarendon. He had in his character much
+of the orderly spirit of his grandfather, Henry I., but he had also
+something of the violence of his great-uncle, William II. A certain
+John the Marshal had a suit against the archbishop, and when the
+archbishop refused to plead in a lay court, the king's council
+sentenced him to a fine of 500_l._ Then Henry summoned the archbishop
+to his castle at Northampton to give an account of all the money
+which, when he was Chancellor, he had received from the king--a claim
+which is said to have amounted to 30,000_l._, a sum equal in the money
+of these days to not much less than 400,000_l._ now. Thomas, with the
+crucifix in his hand, awaited in the hall the decision of Henry, who
+with the council was discussing his fate in an upper chamber. When the
+Justiciar came out to tell him that he had been declared a traitor he
+refused to listen, and placed himself under the Pope's protection. Hot
+words were bandied on either side as he walked out of the hall. "This
+is a fearful day," said one of his attendants. "The Day of Judgment,"
+replied Thomas, "will be more fearful." Thomas made his way to the
+coast and fled to France. Henry in his wrath banished no less than
+four hundred of the archbishop's kinsmen and friends. Thomas found
+less help in France than he had expected. There were once more two
+rival Popes--Alexander III., who was acknowledged by the greater part
+of the clergy and by the kings of England and France, and Calixtus
+III., who had been set up by the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa.
+Alexander was too much afraid lest Henry should take the part of
+Calixtus to be very eager in supporting Thomas. He therefore did his
+best to effect a reconciliation between Henry and Thomas, but for some
+years his efforts were of no avail.
+
+[Illustration: Small ship of the latter part of the twelfth century.]
+
+10. =The Assize of Clarendon. 1166.=--Henry, being temporarily
+disembarrassed of Thomas's rivalry, was able to devote his time to
+carrying out still further the judicial organisation of the country.
+In =1166= he held a Great Council at Clarendon, and with its approval
+issued a set of decrees known as the Assize of Clarendon. By this
+assize full force was given to a change which had for some time been
+growing in the judicial system. The old English way of dealing with
+criminals had been by calling on an accused person to swear to his own
+innocence and to bring compurgators to swear that his oath was true.
+If the accused failed to find compurgators he was sent to the ordeal.
+According to the new way there was to be in each county juries
+consisting of twelve men of the hundred and of four from each township
+in it to present offences--felonies, murders, and robberies--and to
+accuse persons on common report. They were sworn to speak the truth,
+so that their charges were known as verdicts (_vere dicta_). No
+compurgators were allowed, but the accused, after his offence had been
+presented, had to go to the ordeal, and even if he succeeded in this
+he was, if his character was notoriously bad, to abjure the
+realm--that is to say, to be banished, swearing never to return. If he
+came back he was held to be an outlaw, and might be put to death
+without mercy by any one.
+
+11. =Recognitions.=--A very similar system to that which was thus
+adopted in criminal cases had already in the early part of Henry's
+reign been widely extended in civil cases. When, before the Conquest,
+disputes occurred amongst the English as to the possession of
+property, each party swore to the justice of his own case, brought
+compurgators, and summoned witnesses to declare in his favour. There
+was, however, no method of cross-examination, and if the hundred or
+shire court was still unsatisfied, it had recourse to the ordeal. The
+Normans introduced the system of trial by battle, under the belief
+that God would intervene to give victory to the litigant whose cause
+was just. This latter system, however, had never been popular with the
+English, and Henry favoured another which had been in existence in
+Normandy before the Conquest, and was fairly suited to English habits.
+This was the system of recognitions. Any freeholder who had been
+dispossessed of his land might apply to the _Curia Regis_, and the
+_Curia Regis_ ordered the sheriff of the county in which was the land
+in dispute to select four knights of that county, by whom twelve
+knights were chosen to serve as Recognitors. It was the business of
+these Recognitors to find out either by their own knowledge or by
+private inquiry the truth of the matter. If they were unanimous their
+verdict was accepted as final. If not, other knights were added to
+them, and when at last twelve were found agreeing, their agreement was
+held to settle the question.
+
+12. =The Germ of the Jury.=--Thus, whilst in criminal cases the local
+knowledge of sworn accusers was treated as satisfactory evidence of
+guilt, in civil cases a system was growing up in which is to be traced
+the germ of the modern jury. The Recognitors did not indeed hear
+evidence in public or become judges of the fact, like the modern jury;
+they were rather sworn witnesses, allowed to form an opinion not
+merely, like modern witnesses, on what they had actually seen or
+heard, but also on what they could gather by private inquiry.
+
+13. =The Itinerant Justices Revived.=--To carry out this system Henry
+renewed his grandfather's experiment of sending members of the _Curia
+Regis_ as itinerant justices visiting the counties. They held what
+were called the pleas of the crown--that is to say, trials which were
+brought before the king's judges instead of being tried either in the
+county courts or the manorial courts. Both these judges and the king
+had every interest in getting as much business before their courts as
+possible. Offenders were fined and suitors had to pay fees, and the
+best chance of increasing these profits was to attract suitors by
+administering justice better than the local courts. The more thronged
+were the king's courts, the more rich and powerful he became. The
+consequent growth of the influence of the itinerant justices was no
+doubt offensive to the lords of the manor, and especially to the
+greater landowners, as diminishing their importance, and calling them
+to account whenever they attempted to encroach on their less powerful
+neighbours.
+
+14. =The Inquisition of the Sheriffs. 1170.=--It was not long before
+Henry discovered another way of diminishing the power of the barons.
+In the early part of his reign the sheriffs of the counties were still
+selected from the great landowners, and the sheriff was not merely the
+collector of the king's revenue in his county, but had, since the
+Conquest, assumed a new importance in the county court, over which in
+the older times the ealdorman or earl and the bishop had presided.
+Since the Conquest the bishop, having a court of his own for
+ecclesiastical matters, had ceased to take part in its proceedings,
+and the earl's authority, which had been much lessened after the
+Conquest, had now disappeared. The sheriff, therefore, was left alone
+at the head of the county court, and when the new system of trial grew
+up he as well as the itinerant justices was allowed to receive the
+presentments of juries. When, in the spring of =1170=, the king
+returned to England after an absence of four years, he held a strict
+inquiry into the conduct of them all, and deposed twenty of them. In
+many cases, no doubt, the sheriffs had done things to displease Henry,
+but there can be no doubt that the blow thus struck at the sheriffs
+was, in the main, aimed at the great nobility. The successors of those
+turned out were of lower rank, and therefore more submissive. From
+this time it was accepted by the kings of England as a principle of
+government that no great noble should serve as sheriff.
+
+15. =The Nobles and the Church.=--Henry knew well that the great
+nobles were indignant, and that it was possible that they might rise
+against him, as at one time or another they had risen against every
+king since the Conquest. He knew too that his predecessors had found
+their strongest support against the nobles in the Church, and that the
+Church was no longer unanimously on his side. He could indeed count
+upon all the bishops save one. Bishops who were or had been his
+officials, bishops envious of Thomas or afraid of himself, were all at
+his disposal, but they brought him no popular strength. Thomas alone
+amongst them had a hold on the imagination of the people through his
+austerities and his daring. Moreover, as the champion of the clergy,
+he was regarded as being also the champion of the people, from whose
+ranks the clergy were recruited.
+
+16. =The Coronation of Young Henry. 1170.=--At the moment of Henry's
+return to England he had special need of the Church. He wished the
+kingdom of England to pass at his death to his eldest son, Henry, and
+since the Conquest no eldest son had ever succeeded his father on the
+throne. He therefore determined to adopt a plan which had succeeded
+with the kings of France, of having the young Henry chosen and crowned
+in his own lifetime, so that when he died he might be ready to step
+into his father's place. Young Henry was chosen, and on June 14,
+=1170=, he was crowned by Roger, Archbishop of York; but on the day
+before the coronation Roger received from Thomas a notice of his
+excommunication of all bishops taking part in the ceremony, on the
+ground that it belonged only to an Archbishop of Canterbury to crown a
+king, and this excommunication had been ratified by the Pope. It was
+therefore possible that the whole ceremony might go for nothing.
+
+17. =The Return of Archbishop Thomas. 1170.=--To obviate this danger
+Henry again sought to make peace with Thomas. An agreement was come to
+on the vague terms that the past should be forgotten on both sides.
+Henry perhaps hoped that when Thomas was once again in England he
+would be too wise to rake up the question of his claim to crown the
+king. If it was so he was soon disappointed. On December 1, =1170=,
+Thomas landed at Sandwich and rode to Canterbury amidst the shouts of
+the people. He refused to release from excommunication the bishops who
+had taken part in young Henry's coronation unless they would first
+give him satisfaction for the wrong done to the see of Canterbury,
+thus showing that he had forgotten nothing.
+
+[Illustration: Part of the choir of Canterbury Cathedral (in building
+from 1175-1184).]
+
+18. =Murder of Archbishop Thomas. 1170.=--The aggrieved bishops at
+once crossed the sea to lay their complaint before Henry. "What a
+parcel of fools and dastards," cried Henry impatiently, "have I
+nourished in my house, that none of them can be found to avenge me on
+one upstart clerk!" Four of his knights took him at his word, and
+started in all haste for Canterbury. The Archbishop before their
+arrival had given fresh offence in a cause more righteous than that of
+his quarrel with the bishops. Ranulf de Broc and others who had had
+the custody of his lands in his absence refused to surrender them,
+robbed him of his goods, and maltreated his followers. On Christmas
+Day he excommunicated them and repeated the excommunication of the
+bishops. On December 29 the four knights sought him out. They do not
+seem at first to have intended to do him bodily harm. The
+excommunication of the king's servants before the king had been
+consulted was a breach of the Constitutions of Clarendon, and they
+bade him, in the king's name, to leave the kingdom. After a hot
+altercation the knights retired to arm themselves. The archbishop was
+persuaded by his followers to take refuge in the church. In rushed the
+knights crying, "Where is the traitor? Where is the archbishop?"
+"Behold me," replied Thomas, "no traitor, but a priest of God." The
+assailants strove to lay hands upon him. He struggled and cast forth
+angry words upon them. In the madness of their wrath they struck him
+to the ground and slew him as he lay.
+
+19. =Popular Indignation. 1171.=--Archbishop Thomas did not die as a
+martyr for any high or sacred cause. He was not a martyr for the
+faith, like those who had been thrown to the lions by the Roman
+emperors. He was not a martyr for righteousness, like Archbishop
+AElfheah. He was a martyr for the privileges of his order and of his
+see. Yet if he sank below the level of the great martyrs, he did not
+sink to that lowest stage at which men cry out for the preservation of
+their own privileges, after those privileges have ceased to benefit
+any but themselves. The sympathy of the mass of the population shows
+the persistence of a widespread belief that in maintaining the
+privileges of the clergy Thomas was maintaining the rights of the
+protectors of the poor. This sentiment was only strengthened by his
+murder. All through Europe the news was received with a burst of
+indignation. Of that indignation the Pope made himself the mouthpiece.
+In the summer of =1171= two Papal legates appeared in Normandy to
+excommunicate Henry unless he was able to convince them that he was
+guiltless of the murder. Henry was too cautious to abide their coming.
+He crossed first to England and then to Ireland, resolved to have
+something to offer the Pope which might put him in a better humour.
+
+20. =State of Ireland.=--In the domain of art, Ireland was inferior to
+no European nation. In metal-work, in sculpture, and in the skilful
+illumination of manuscripts it surpassed them all. It had no mean
+school of music and song. In political development it lagged far
+behind. Ireland was still in the tribal stage, and had never been
+welded into unity by foreign conquerors, as Gaul had been welded into
+unity by the Romans, and as England had been welded into unity by the
+Normans. Tribe warred with tribe and chief with chief. The efforts of
+chiefs to attain supremacy over the whole island had always ended in
+partial or complete failure. The Danes had made settlements in Dublin,
+Wexford, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick, but though the native Celtic
+population was not strong enough to expel them, neither were they
+strong enough to conquer the Celts. The Church was as disorganised as
+the State, and there was little discipline exercised outside the
+monasteries. For some time the Popes and the Archbishops of Canterbury
+had been anxious to establish a better regulated Church system, and in
+=1154= Adrian IV.--the only Englishman who was ever Pope--hoping that
+Henry would bring the Irish Church under Papal order, had made him a
+present of Ireland, on the ground that all islands belonged to the
+Pope.
+
+21. =Partial Conquest of Ireland. 1166--1172.=--Henry, however, had
+too much to do during the earlier years of his reign to think of
+conquering Ireland. In =1166= Dermot, king or chief of Leinster,
+having been driven out of his dominions, appealed to Henry for aid.
+Henry gave him leave to carry over to Ireland any English knights whom
+he could persuade to help him. On this a number of knights from South
+Wales, of whom the most important was Richard de Clare, afterwards
+known as Strongbow, flocked across the Irish Sea (=1169--1170=). They
+fought and conquered, and Strongbow, who married Dermot's daughter,
+gave himself the title of Earl of Leinster. The rule of these knights
+was a rule of cruelty and violence, and, what was more, it might well
+become dangerous to Henry himself. If feudal nobles established
+themselves in Ireland, they might soon be holding out a hand to help
+the feudal nobles who were Henry's worst enemies in England. When
+Henry landed in Ireland in =1171= he set himself to restore order. The
+Irish welcomed him because he alone could bridle the invaders, and the
+invaders submitted to him because they dared not resist him. He
+gathered a synod of the clergy at Cashel, and arranged for the future
+discipline of the Church. Unhappily he could not remain long in
+Ireland, and when he left it the old anarchy and violence blazed up
+again. Though Henry had not served Ireland, he had gained his own
+personal ends. He had frightened Strongbow and his followers, and had
+shown the Pope, by his proceedings at Cashel, that his friendship was
+worth having.
+
+[Illustration: Mitre of Archbishop Thomas of Canterbury preserved at
+Sens.]
+
+22. =Young Henry's Coronation and the Revolt of the Barons.
+1172--1174.=--In the spring of =1172= Henry was back in Normandy. The
+English barons were longing to take advantage of his quarrel with the
+Church, and his only chance of resisting them was to propitiate the
+Church. He met the Papal legates at Avranches, swore that he was
+innocent of the death of Thomas, and renounced the Constitutions of
+Clarendon. He then proceeded to pacify Louis VII., whose daughter was
+married to the younger Henry, by having the boy recrowned in due form.
+Young Henry was a foolish lad, and took it into his head that because
+he had been crowned his father's reign was at an end. In =1173= he
+fled for support to his father-in-law and persuaded him to take up his
+cause. "Your master," said Louis to the ambassadors of the father, "is
+king no longer. Here stands the king of the English." These words were
+the signal for a general attack on the elder king. Headed by Louis,
+his neighbours and discontented subjects took arms against him, and it
+was not till September that he prevailed over them. In July the great
+English barons of the north and centre rose in insurrection, and
+William the Lion, king of the Scots, joined them. De Lucy, the
+Justiciar, stood up for Henry; but, though he gained ground, the war
+was still raging in the following year, =1174=. In the spring of that
+year the rebels were gaining the upper hand, and the younger Henry was
+preparing to come to their help. In July the elder Henry landed in
+England. For the first and only time in his life he brought to England
+the mercenaries who were paid with the scutage money. At Canterbury he
+visited the tomb of Thomas, now acknowledged as a martyr, spent the
+whole night in prayer and tears, and on the next morning was, at his
+own request, scourged by the monks as a token of his penitence. That
+night he was awakened by a messenger with good news. Ranulf de
+Glanvile had won for him a great victory at Alnwick, had dispersed the
+barons' host, and had taken prisoner the Scottish king. About the same
+time the fleet which was to bring his son over was dispersed by a
+storm. Within a few weeks the whole rebellion was at an end. It was
+the last time that the barons ventured to strive with the king till
+the time came when they had the people and the Church on their side.
+William the Lion was carried to Normandy, where, by the treaty of
+Falaise, he acknowledged himself the vassal of the king of England for
+the whole of Scotland.
+
+[Illustration: Military and civil costume of the latter part of the
+twelfth century.]
+
+23. =The Assize of Arms. 1181.=--In September =1174= there was a
+general peace. In =1181= Henry issued the Assize of Arms, organising
+the old fyrd in a more serviceable way. Every English freeman was
+bound by it to find arms of a kind suitable to his property, that he
+might be ready to defend the realm against rebels or invaders. The
+Assize of Arms is the strongest possible evidence as to the real
+nature of Henry's government. He had long ago sent back to the
+Continent the mercenaries whom he had brought with him in the peril of
+=1174=, and he now entrusted himself not to a paid standing army, but
+to the whole body of English freemen. He was, in truth, king of the
+English not merely because he ruled over them, but because they were
+ready to rally round him in arms against those barons whose ancestors
+had worked such evil in the days of Stephen. England was not to be
+given over either to baronial anarchy or to military despotism.
+
+24. =Henry II. and his Sons.=--In England Henry ruled as a national
+king over a nation which, at least, preferred his government to that
+of the barons. The old division between English and Norman was dying
+out, and though the upper classes, for the most part, still spoke
+French, intermarriages had been so frequent that there were few
+amongst them who had not some English ancestress and who did not
+understand the English language. Henry was even strong enough to
+regain much that he had surrendered when he abandoned the
+Constitutions of Clarendon. In his Continental possessions there was
+no such unity. The inhabitants of each province were tenacious of
+their own laws and customs, and this was especially the case with the
+men of Aquitaine, the country south of the Loire, who differed in
+habits, and even in language, from the Frenchmen of Normandy and
+Anjou. They therefore found it difficult to give a share of the
+allegiance which they owed to their own duchess, Eleanor, to her
+Angevin husband, the king of England. Henry in =1172= having appointed
+his eldest son, Henry, as the future ruler of Normandy and Anjou as
+well as of England, thought it wise to recognise this feeling by
+giving to his second son, Richard, the immediate possession of
+Eleanor's duchy of Aquitaine. In =1181= he provided for his third son,
+Geoffrey, by a marriage with Constance, the heiress of Brittany, over
+which country he claimed a feudal superiority as Duke of the Normans.
+Yet, though he gave away so much to his sons, he wished to keep the
+actual control over them all. The arrangement did not turn out well.
+He had set no good example of domestic peace. His sons knew that he
+had married their mother for the sake of her lands, that he had
+subsequently thrown her into prison and had been faithless to her with
+a succession of mistresses. Besides this, they were torn away from
+him by the influence of the men whom they were set to rule. Richard
+was dragged away from his father by the interests and feelings of the
+men of Aquitaine, Geoffrey by the interests and feelings of the men of
+Brittany. John, the fourth son, who was named Lackland from having no
+territory assigned to him, was, as yet, too young to be
+troublesome.[12] Both Richard and Geoffrey had taken part with their
+brother Henry in the great revolt of =1173=. In =1177= they were again
+quarrelling with their father and with each other. "Dost thou not
+know," was the message which Geoffrey sent to his father, "that it is
+our proper nature, planted in us by inheritance from our ancestors,
+that none of us should love the other, but that ever brother should
+strive with brother and son against father? I would not that thou
+shouldst deprive us of our hereditary right nor vainly seek to rob us
+of our nature." Henry loved his children, and could never bring
+himself to make war very seriously against them. Henry died young in
+=1183=, and Geoffrey in =1185=. Richard was now the heir of all his
+father's lands, from the Tweed to the Pyrenees. Henry made an effort
+to provide for John in Ireland, and in =1185= he sent the youth--now
+eighteen years old--to Dublin to rule as king of Ireland. John soon
+showed his incompetence. He was rude to the English barons, and still
+ruder to the Irish chiefs, amusing himself by laughing at their dress
+and pulling the hairs out of their beards. Before the end of the year
+his father was obliged to recall him.
+
+    [Footnote 12: Genealogy of the sons and grandchildren of Henry
+    II.:--
+
+                             HENRY II.
+                             1154-1189
+                                 |
+         ---------------------------------------------------
+         |               |              |                  |
+       Henry          RICHARD        Geoffrey         JOHN = (1) Avice of
+     _m._ Margaret   1189-1199    _m._ Constance  1199-1216|    Gloucester
+      of France   _m._ Berengaria   of Brittany            | (2) Isabella of
+                    of Navarre          |                  |    Angouleme
+                                        |                  |
+                                      Arthur            HENRY III.
+                                                        1216-1272]
+
+25. =The Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. 1187.=--The divisions in
+Henry's family were stirred up afresh by the new king of France,
+Philip II., who had succeeded his father, Louis VII., in =1179=.
+Philip was resolved to enlarge his narrow dominions at the expense of
+Henry. He was Henry's feudal lord, and he was crafty enough to know
+that by assisting Henry's sons he might be able to convert his nominal
+lordship into a real power. News, however, arrived in the midst of the
+strife which for a little time put an end to the discords of men and
+peoples. The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, which had been established
+after the first crusade, had only maintained itself because the
+Mahommedan rulers of Egypt were the rivals and enemies of the
+Mahommedan rulers of Syria. Yet even with the advantage of divisions
+amongst their enemies, the Christians had only defended themselves
+with difficulty. A second crusade which had gone out to relieve them
+in Stephen's reign, under the Emperor Conrad III. and Louis VII. of
+France, had accomplished nothing. Their real defenders were two bodies
+of soldiers, known as the Knights Templars and the Knights of St.
+John, who were bound, like monks, to vows of celibacy, so that they
+might always be free to defend Jerusalem. At last a great Mahommedan
+warrior, Saladin, arose, who ruled both Egypt and Syria, and was
+therefore able to bring the united forces of the two countries against
+the Christian colony. In =1187= he destroyed the Christian army at
+Tiberias, and in the same year took Jerusalem and almost every city
+still held by the Christians in the East. Tyre alone held out, and
+that, too, would be lost unless help came speedily.
+
+26. =The Last Years of Henry II. 1188--1189.=--For a moment the rulers
+of the West were shocked at the tidings from the East. In =1188=
+Philip, Henry, and Richard had taken the cross as the sign of their
+resolution to recover the Holy City from the infidel. To enable him to
+meet the expenses of a war in the East, Henry imposed upon England a
+new tax of a tenth part of all movable property, which is known as the
+Saladin tithe, but in a few months those who were pledged to go on the
+crusade were fighting with one another--first Henry and Richard
+against Philip, and then Philip and Richard against Henry. At last, in
+=1189=, Henry, beaten in war, was forced to submit to Philip's terms,
+receiving in return a list of those of his own barons who had engaged
+to support Richard against his father. The list reached him when he
+was at Chinon, ill and worn out. The first name on it was that of his
+favourite son John. The old man turned his face to the wall. "Let
+things go now as they will," he cried bitterly. "I care no more for
+myself or for the world." After a few days of suffering he died. The
+last words which passed his lips were, "Shame, shame upon a conquered
+king."
+
+27. =The Work of Henry II.=--The wisest and most powerful ruler can
+only assist the forces of nature; he cannot work against them. Those
+who merely glance at a map in which the political divisions of France
+are marked as they existed in Henry's reign, cannot but wonder that
+Henry did not make himself master of the small territory which was
+directly governed, in turn, by Louis VII. and Philip II. A careful
+study of the political conditions of his reign shows, however, that he
+was not really strong enough to do anything of the kind. His own power
+on the Continent was purely feudal, and he held authority over his
+vassals there because they had personally done homage to him. Henry,
+however, had also done homage to the king of France, and did not
+venture, even if he made war upon his lord, the king of France, to
+push matters to extremities against him, lest his sons as his own
+vassals might push matters to extremities against himself. He could
+not, in short, expel the king of France from Paris, lest he should
+provoke his own vassals to follow his example of insubordination and
+expel him from Bordeaux or Rouen. Moreover, Henry had too much to do
+in England to give himself heart and soul to Continental affairs,
+whilst the king of France, on the contrary, who had no foreign
+possessions, and was always at his post, would be the first to profit
+by a national French feeling whenever such a feeling arose. England
+under Henry II. was already growing more united and more national. The
+crown which Henry derived from the Conqueror was national as well as
+feudal. Henry, like his predecessors, had two strings to his bow. On
+the one hand he could call upon his vassals to be faithful to him
+because they had sworn homage to him, whilst he himself, as far as
+England was concerned, had sworn homage to no one. On the other hand,
+he could rally round him the national forces. To do this he must do
+justice and gain the goodwill of the people at large. It was this that
+he had attempted to do, by sending judges round the country and by
+improving the law, by establishing scutage to weaken the power of the
+barons, and by strengthening the national forces by the Assize of
+Arms. No doubt he had little thanks for his pains. Men could feel the
+weight of his arm and could complain of the heavy fines exacted in his
+courts of justice. It was only a later generation, which enjoyed the
+benefits of his hard discipline, which understood how much England
+owed to him.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+RICHARD I. =1189--1199=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Accession of Richard I.                                         1189
+  Richard's Return to England from the Crusade                    1194
+  Death of Richard I.                                             1199
+
+
+1. =Richard in England. 1189.=--Richard was accepted without dispute
+as the master of the whole of the Angevin dominions. He was a warrior,
+not a statesman. Impulsive in his generosity, he was also impulsive in
+his passions. Having determined to embark on the crusade, he came to
+England eager to raise money for its expenses. With this object he not
+only sold offices to those who wished to buy them, and the right of
+leaving office to those who wished to retire, but also, with the
+Pope's consent, sold leave to remain at home to those who had taken
+the cross. Regardless of the distant future, he abandoned for money to
+William the Lion the treaty of Falaise, in which William had engaged
+to do homage to the English king.
+
+[Illustration: Royal arms of England from Richard I. to Edward III.
+(From the wall arcade, south aisle of nave, Westminster Abbey.)]
+
+[Illustration: The Galilee or Lady Chapel, Durham Cathedral. Built by
+Bishop Hugh of Puiset between 1180 and 1197.]
+
+2. =William of Longchamps. 1189--1191.=--To secure order during his
+absence Richard appointed two Justiciars--Hugh of Puiset, Bishop of
+Durham, and William of Longchamps, Bishop of Ely. At the same time he
+attempted to conciliate all who were likely to be dangerous by making
+them lavish grants of land, especially giving what was practically
+royal authority over five shires to his brother John. Such an
+arrangement was not likely to last. Before the end of =1189= Richard
+crossed to the Continent. Scarcely was he gone when the populace in
+many towns turned savagely on the Jews and massacred them in crowds.
+The Jews lived by money-lending, and money-lenders are never popular.
+In York they took refuge in the castle, and when all hope of defending
+themselves failed, slew their wives and children, set fire to the
+castle, and perished in the flames. The Justiciars were too much
+occupied with their own quarrels to heed such matters. Hugh was a
+stately and magnificent prelate. William was lame and misshapen,
+quick of wit and unscrupulous. In a few weeks he had deprived his
+rival of all authority. His own power did not last long. He had a
+sharp tongue, and did not hesitate to let all men, great and small,
+know how meanly he thought of them. Those whom he despised found a
+leader in John, who was anxious to succeed his brother, and thought
+that it might some day be useful to have made himself popular in
+England. In the autumn of =1191= William of Longchamps was driven out
+of the country.
+
+3. =The Third Crusade. 1189--1192.=--Richard threw his whole
+heart--his lion's heart, as men called it--into the crusade. Alike by
+sea and by land, he knew better than any other leader of his age how
+to direct the operations of war. He was too impetuous to guard himself
+against the intrigues and personal rancour of his fellow-Crusaders. At
+Messina he quarrelled with the wily Philip II. of France, while he
+gave offence to all Germans by upholding the claims of Tancred to the
+crown of Sicily, which was also claimed by the German king, who
+afterwards became the Emperor Henry VI. In the spring of =1191=
+Richard sailed from Sicily for the Holy Land, conquering Cyprus on the
+way, where he married Berengaria of Navarre. Passing on to the coast
+of Syria, he found the Crusaders besieging Acre, and his own vigour
+greatly contributed to its fall. When Acre was taken Philip slipped
+home to plot against Richard, and Richard found every French Crusader
+and every German Crusader banded together against him. When he
+advocated the right of Guy of Lusignan to the crown of Jerusalem, they
+advocated the claim of Conrad of Montferrat. Jerusalem was not to be
+had for either of them. Twice Richard brought the Crusading host
+within a few miles of the Holy City. Each time he was driven to
+retreat by the failure of the Crusaders to support him. The last time
+his comrades invited him at least to reach a spot from which a view of
+the city could be gained. Richard refused. If he was not worthy, he
+said, to regain the city, he was not worthy to look on it.
+
+4. =The Return of Richard. 1192--1194.=--In =1192= there was nothing
+for it but to return home. Enemies were watching for him on every
+shore. Landing at the head of the Adriatic, he attempted to make his
+way in disguise through Germany. With characteristic want of
+reflection, he roasted his meat at a village inn near Vienna with a
+jewelled ring on his finger. Attention was aroused, and he was
+arrested and delivered up to Leopold, Duke of Austria, who had been
+his bitter antagonist in the Holy Land, and Leopold delivered him up
+to his own feudal superior, the Emperor, Henry VI.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of a knight in the Temple Church, London,
+showing armour of the end of the twelfth century.]
+
+The imprisonment of Richard was joyful news to Philip and John. John
+did his best to get into his hands all the English and Continental
+dominions of his brother. His meanness was, however, by this time well
+known, and he was repelled on all sides. At last in =1193= the Emperor
+consented to let Richard go on payment of what was then the enormous
+ransom of 150,000 marks, or 100,000_l._ "Beware," wrote Philip to John
+when he heard that the Emperor's consent had been given; "the devil is
+loose again," Philip and John tried to bribe the Emperor to keep his
+prisoner, but in February =1194= Richard was liberated, and set out
+for England.
+
+5. =Heavy taxation.=--Before Richard reappeared in England each
+tenant-in-chief had to pay the aid which was due to deliver his lord
+from prison (see p. 117), but this was far from being enough. Besides
+all kinds of irregular expedients the Danegeld had been practically
+revived, and to it was now given the name of carucage, a tax of two
+shillings on every plough-land. Another tax of a fourth part of all
+movable goods had also been imposed, for which a precedent had been
+set by Henry II. when he levied the Saladin tithe (see p. 157).
+Richard had now to gather in what was left unpaid of these charges.
+Yet so hated was John that Richard was welcomed with every appearance
+of joy, and John thought it prudent to submit to his brother. Philip,
+however, was still an open enemy, and as soon as Richard had gathered
+in all the money that he could raise in England he left the country
+never to return. On the Continent he could best defend himself against
+Philip, and, besides this, Richard was at home in sunny Aquitaine, and
+had no liking for his English realm.
+
+6. =The Administration of Hubert Walter. 1194--1198.=--For four years
+the administration of England was in the hands of a new Justiciar, the
+Archbishop of Canterbury, Hubert Walter. He was a statesman of the
+school of Henry II., and he carried the jury system yet farther than
+Henry had done. The immense increase of taxation rendered it the more
+necessary to guard against unfairness, and Hubert Walter placed the
+selection of the juries of presentment (see p. 147) in the hands of
+four knights in every shire, who, as is probable, were chosen by the
+freeholders in the County Court, instead of being named by the
+sheriff. This was a further step in the direction of allowing the
+counties to manage their own affairs, and a still greater one was
+taken by the frequent employment of juries in the assessment of the
+taxes paid within the county, so as to enable them to take a prominent
+part in its financial as well as in its judicial business. In =1198=
+there was taken a new survey of England for taxable purposes, and
+again elected juries were employed to make the returns. In this year
+Archbishop Hubert retired from the Justiciarship, and was succeeded by
+Geoffrey Fitz-Peter. Archbishop Hubert's administration marks a great
+advance in constitutional progress, though it is probable that his
+motive was only to raise money more readily. The main constitutional
+problem of the Norman and Angevin reigns was how to bring the national
+organisation of the king's officials into close and constant
+intercourse with the local organisation of the counties. Henry I. and
+Henry II. had attacked the problem on one side by sending the judges
+round the country to carry the king's wishes and commands to each
+separate county. It still remained to devise a scheme by which the
+wishes and complaints of the counties could be brought to the king.
+Hubert Walter did not contrive that this should be done, but he made
+it easy to be done in the next generation, because before he left
+office he had increased the powers of the juries in each county and
+had accustomed them to deal independently with all the local matters
+in which the king and the county were both interested. It only
+remained to bring these juries together in one place where they might
+join in making the king aware of the wishes and complaints of all
+counties alike. When this had been accomplished there would, for the
+first time, be a representative assembly in England.
+
+[Illustration: Richard I. From his tomb at Fontevrault.]
+
+[Illustration: Berengaria. From her tomb at Espan.]
+
+7. =Death of Richard. 1199.=--It was not only Richard's love for his
+old home which fixed him on the Continent. He knew that the weakest
+part of his dominions was there. His lands beyond sea had no natural
+unity. Normans did not love Angevins, neither did Angevins love the
+men of Poitou or Guienne. Philip was willingly obeyed in his own
+dominions, and he had all the advantage which his title of king of the
+French could give him. Richard fought desperately, and for the most
+part successfully, against the French king, and formed alliances with
+all who were opposed to him. He built on a rock overhanging the Seine
+above Les Andelys a mighty fortress--the Chateau Gaillard, or Saucy
+Castle, as he called it in jest. With characteristic haste he
+completed the building in a few months. "How fair a child is mine!" he
+called to his followers, "this child but a twelvemonth old." Other
+child he had none, and he had but the miserable John to look to to
+hold his dominions after he was gone. He did not live long enough to
+see whether his new castle could stand a siege. A peasant dug up a
+treasure on the land of the lord of Chalus in the Limousin. Richard
+claimed it as his right because he was the over-lord. On the refusal
+of the lord to surrender it he laid siege to Chalus. An arrow from the
+castle struck him on the shoulder. The wound rankled, and
+mortification followed. As Richard lay dying the castle surrendered,
+and the man who had aimed the fatal shot was brought before him. "What
+have I done to thee," asked Richard, "that thou shouldest slay me?"
+"Thou hast slain my father and two of my brothers with thy own hand,"
+said the prisoner, "and thou wouldest fain have killed me too. Avenge
+thyself upon me as thou wilt. I will gladly endure the greatest
+torments thou canst devise, since I have seen thee on thy deathbed."
+Richard, generous to the last, bade his attendants set the prisoner
+free. They kept him till Richard was dead, and then tortured him to
+death.
+
+[Illustration: Part of the choir of Ripon Cathedral: built during the
+last quarter of the twelfth century.]
+
+8. =Church and State under the Angevin Kings.=--During the forty-five
+years of the reigns of Richard and his father the chief feature of
+English history is the growth of the power of the state. There was
+more justice and order, and also more taxation, at the end of the
+period than at the beginning. During the same period the influence of
+the Church grew less. The character of Thomas's resistance to the king
+was lower than that of Anselm, and not long after Thomas's murder
+Henry indirectly regained the power which he had lost, and filled the
+sees with officials and dependents who cared little for the higher
+aims of religion. The evil consequences of making the Church
+dependent on the king were at least as great as those of freeing the
+political and social life of the clergy from the control of the State.
+Even monasticism ceased to afford a strong example of self-denial. The
+very Cistercians, who had begun so well, had fallen from their
+original purity. They were now owners of immense tracts of
+pasture-land, and their keenness in money-making had become notorious.
+They exercised great influence, but it was the influence of great
+landlords, not the influence of ascetics.
+
+9. =Growth of Learning.=--The decay of asceticism was to some extent
+brought about by the opening of new careers into which energetic men
+might throw themselves. They were needed as judges, as administrators,
+as councillors. A vigorous literature sprung up in the reign of Henry
+II., but at the end of the reign most of it was connected with the
+court rather than with the monasteries. Henry's Justiciar, Ranulf de
+Glanvile, wrote the first English law-book. His Treasurer, Richard
+Fitz-Nigel, set forth in the _Dialogus de Scaccario_ the methods of
+his financial administration, and also produced 'The Deeds of King
+Henry and King Richard.' William of Newburgh, indeed, the best
+historian of these reigns, wrote in a small Yorkshire monastery, but
+Roger of Hoveden and Ralph de Diceto pursued their historical work
+under the influence of the court. Still more striking is the
+universality of the intellectual inquisitiveness of Walter Map. On the
+one hand, in his _De Nugis Curialium_ he chattered over the manners of
+his contemporaries, and in his satirical poems scourged the greed and
+vices of the clergy, whilst on the other hand he took a principal part
+in spreading a knowledge of the legend of the high-souled King Arthur
+and of the quest of the Holy Grail. Giraldus Cambrensis again, or
+Gerald of Wales, wrote on all sorts of subjects with shrewd humour and
+extensive knowledge.
+
+10. =The University of Oxford.=--There was already in England a place
+where learning was cherished for its own sake. For some time there had
+been growing up on the Continent gatherings for the increase of
+learning, which ultimately were known as universities, or corporations
+of teachers and scholars. One at Bologna had devoted itself to the
+study of the civil or Roman law. Another at Paris gave itself to the
+spread of all the knowledge of the time. In these early universities
+there were no colleges. Lads, very poor for the most part, flocked to
+the teachers and lodged themselves as best they could. Such a
+university, though the name was not used till later, had been
+gradually forming at Oxford. Its origin and early history is obscure,
+but in =1186= Giraldus, wishing to find a cultivated audience for his
+new book on the topography of Ireland, read it aloud at Oxford, where,
+as he tells us, 'the clergy in England chiefly flourished and excelled
+in clerkly lore.' It appears that there were already separate
+faculties or branches of study, and persons recognised as doctors or
+teachers in all of them.
+
+[Illustration: Lay costumes in the twelfth century.]
+
+[Illustration: Costume of shepherds in the twelfth century.]
+
+11. =Country and Town.=--Intellectual progress was accompanied by
+material progress. In the country the old system of cultivation by the
+labour service of villein-tenants still prevailed, but in many parts
+the service had been commuted, either for a money payment or for
+payments in kind, such as payments of a fixed number of eggs or fowls,
+or of a fixed quantity of honey or straw. Greater progress was made in
+the towns. At the time of the Conquest there were about eighty towns
+in England, most of them no larger than villages. The largest towns
+after London were Winchester, Bristol, Norwich, York, and Lincoln, but
+even these had not a population much above 7,000 apiece. In the
+smaller towns trade was sufficiently provided for by the establishment
+of a market to which country people brought their grain or their
+cattle, and where they provided themselves in turn with such rude
+household necessaries as they required. Even before the Conquest port
+towns had grown up on the coast, but foreign trade was slight,
+imports being almost entirely confined to luxuries for the rich. The
+order introduced by the Normans and the connection between England and
+the king's Continental possessions was followed by an increase of
+trade, and there arose in each of the larger towns a corporation which
+was known as the Merchant Gild, and which was, in some instances at
+least, only a development of an older association existing in the
+times before the Conquest. No one except the brothers of the Merchant
+Gild was allowed to trade in any article except food, but any one
+living in the town might become a brother on payment of a settled fee.
+The first Merchant Gild known was constituted in =1093=. A little
+later, Henry I. granted charters to some of the towns, conferring on
+them the right of managing their own affairs; and his example was
+followed, in far greater profusion, by Henry II. and Richard I. Though
+the organisation of the Merchant Gild was originally distinct from the
+organisation of the town, and the two were in theory kept apart, the
+Merchant Gild, to which most of the townsmen belonged, usually
+encroached upon the authorities of the town, regulated trade to its
+own advantage, and practically controlled the choice of officers, the
+principal officer being usually styled an Alderman, with power to keep
+order and generally to provide for the well-being of the place. In
+this way the tradesmen and merchants of the towns prepared themselves
+unconsciously for the time when they would be called on to take part
+in managing the affairs of the country. Even in these early times,
+however, the artisans in some of the trades attempted to combine
+together.
+
+12. =Condition of London.=--Of all the towns London had been growing
+most rapidly in wealth and population, and during the troubles in
+which John had been pitted against William of Longchamps it had
+secured the right of being governed by a Mayor and Aldermen of its
+own, instead of being placed under the jurisdiction of the King's
+sheriff. The Mayor and Aldermen, however, did not represent all the
+townsmen. In London, though there is no evidence of the existence of a
+Merchant Gild, there was a corporation composed of the wealthier
+traders, by which the city was governed. The Mayor and Aldermen were
+chosen out of this corporation, as were the juries elected to assess
+the taxes. Artisans soon came to believe that these juries dealt
+unfairly with the poor. One of the Aldermen, William Longbeard, made
+himself the mouthpiece of their complaints and stirred them up against
+the rest. Hubert Walter sent a messenger to seize him, but William
+Longbeard slew the messenger and fled into the church of Mary-at-Bow.
+Here, according to the ideas of his age, he should have been safe, as
+every church was considered to be a sanctuary in which no criminal
+could be arrested. Hubert Walter, however, came in person to seize
+him, set the church on fire, and had him dragged out. William
+Longbeard was first stabbed, and then tried and hanged, and for the
+time the rich tradesmen had their way against the poorer artisans.
+
+[Illustration: Hall of Oakham Castle, Rutland: built about 1185.]
+
+13. =Architectural Changes.=--Even in the most flourishing towns the
+houses were still mostly of wood or rubble covered with thatch, and
+only here and there was to be found a house of stone. So slight,
+indeed, were the ordinary buildings, that it was provided by the
+Assize of Clarendon that the houses of certain offenders should be
+carried outside the town and burnt. Here and there, however, as in the
+case of the so-called Jews' house at Lincoln, stone houses were
+erected. In the larger houses the arrangements were much as they had
+been before the Conquest, the large hall being still the most
+conspicuous part, though another apartment, known as the solar, to
+which an ascent was made by steps from the outside, and which served
+as a sitting-room for the master of the house, had usually been
+added. The castles reared by the king or the barons were built for
+defence alone, and it was in the great cathedrals and churches that
+the skill of the architect was shown. An enormous number of parish
+churches of stone were raised by Norman builders to supersede earlier
+buildings of wood. For some time the round-arched Norman architecture
+which had been introduced by Eadward the Confessor was alone followed,
+such as may be studied in the Galilee of Durham (see p. 160) the nave
+of St. Albans (see p. 109) and the tower of Castor (see p. 136).
+Gradually the pointed arch of Gothic architecture took its place, and
+after a period of transition, of which the nave of Durham, and the
+choirs of Canterbury and of Ripon afford examples (see pp. 130, 150,
+166), the graceful style now known as Early English was first used on
+a large scale in =1192= in the choir of the cathedral of Lincoln.
+
+[Illustration: Norman House at Lincoln, called the Jews' House. Built
+about 1140. The square windows are of later date.]
+
+
+_Books recommended for further study of Part II._
+
+STUBBS, W. (Bishop of Oxford). Constitutional History of England. Vol
+i. chaps. ix.-xiii.
+
+FREEMAN, E. A. History of the Norman Conquest. Vols. iv. and v.
+History of William Rufus.
+
+GREEN, J. R. History of the English People. Vol. i. pp. 115-189.
+
+NORGATE, Miss K. England under the Angevin Kings. Vols. i. and ii. pp.
+1-388.
+
+CUNNINGHAM, W. Growth of English Industry and Commerce during the
+Early and Middle Ages, pp. 129-173.
+
+WAKEMAN, H. O., and HASSALL, A. Constitutional Essays.
+
+ADAMS, G. B. The Political History of England. Vol. ii. From the
+Norman Conquest to the Death of John (1066-1216).
+
+
+
+
+PART III.
+
+_THE GROWTH OF THE PARLIAMENTARY CONSTITUTION._ =1199-1399=.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+JOHN. =1199-1216=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Accession of John                                               1199
+  Loss of Normandy                                                1204
+  England under an Interdict                                      1208
+  Magna Carta                                                     1215
+  Death of John                                                   1216
+
+
+1. =The Accession of John. 1199.=--After Richard's death there were
+living but two descendants of Henry II. in the male line--John,
+Richard's only surviving brother, and Arthur, the young son of John's
+elder brother, Geoffrey. The English barons had to make their choice
+between uncle and nephew, and, as had been done in the days of AElfred,
+they preferred the grown man to the child. It was the last time when
+that principle of election was confessedly acted on. Archbishop Hubert
+in announcing the result used words which seem strange now:
+"Forasmuch," he declared to the people assembled to witness John's
+coronation, "as we see him to be prudent and vigorous, we all, after
+invoking the Holy Spirit's grace, for his merits no less than his
+royal blood, have with one consent chosen him for our king." In
+reality, John was of all men most unworthy. He was without dispute the
+worst of the English kings. Like William II. he feared not God nor
+regarded man. Though William indeed was more vicious in his private
+life, John's violence and tyranny in public life was as great as
+William's, and he added a meanness and frivolity which sank him far
+below him.
+
+2. =John's First War with Philip II. 1199--1200.=--On the Continent
+John had a difficult game to play. Normandy and Aquitaine submitted
+to him, but Anjou and its dependent territories declared for Arthur,
+who was Duke of Brittany in right of his mother. Philip II., who had
+long been the rival of Richard, now took the field in =1199= as the
+rival of John in support of Arthur; but for the moment he ruined his
+chance of success by keeping in his own hands the castles which he
+took from John instead of making them over to Arthur. Arthur's
+supporters took offence, and in =1200= Philip made peace with John.
+Philip acknowledged John as Richard's heir, but forced him in return
+to pay a heavy sum of money, and to make other concessions.
+
+3. =John's Misconduct in Poitou. 1200--1201.=--John did not know how
+to make use of the time of rest which he had gained. Being tired of
+his wife, Avice of Gloucester, he persuaded some Aquitanian bishops to
+divorce him from her, though he took care to keep the lands which he
+had received from her at her marriage. He then married Isabella of
+Angouleme, though she was betrothed to a Poitevin noble, Hugh of
+Lusignan. Hugh was enraged, and, together with many of his neighbours,
+took arms against John. In =1201= John charged all the barons of
+Poitou with treason, and bade them clear their character by selecting
+champions to fight with an equal number of English and Norman knights.
+
+4. =The Loss of Normandy and Anjou. 1202--1204.=--The Poitevin barons,
+instead of accepting the wager of battle, appealed to Philip as John's
+over-lord, and in =1202= Philip summoned John to answer their
+complaints before his peers. John not only did not appear, but made no
+excuse for his absence; and Philip afterwards pretended that the peers
+had condemned him to forfeit his lands. After this Philip, in alliance
+with Arthur, invaded Normandy. John's aged mother, Eleanor, who was
+far more able and energetic than her son, took up his cause against
+her grandson Arthur. She was besieged by Arthur at Mirebeau when John
+came to her help, and not only raised the siege, but carried off
+Arthur as a prisoner. Many of his vassals rose against him, and
+finding himself unable to meet them in the field he wreaked his
+vengeance on his helpless prisoner. A little before Easter =1203=
+Arthur ceased to live. How the boy died has never been known, but it
+was generally believed that he was drowned in the Seine near
+Rouen--some said by his uncle's own hands. The murderer was the first
+to suffer from the crime. Philip at once invaded Normandy. The Norman
+barons had long ceased to respect John, and very few of them would do
+anything to help him. Philip took castle after castle. John was indeed
+capable of a sudden outbreak of violence, but he was incapable of
+sustained effort. He now looked sluggishly on, feasting and amusing
+himself whilst Philip was conquering Normandy. "Let him alone," he
+lazily said; "I shall some day win back all that he is taking from me
+now." His best friends dropped off from him. The only fortress which
+made a long resistance was that Chateau Gaillard which Richard had
+built to guard the Seine. In =1204= it was at last taken, and before
+the end of that year Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Touraine, together
+with part of Poitou, had submitted to Philip.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of King John on his monument in Worcester
+Cathedral.]
+
+[Illustration: Isabella, wife of King John. From her monument at
+Fontevrault.]
+
+5. =Causes of Philip's Success.=--It was not owing to John's vigour
+that Aquitaine was not lost as well as Normandy and Anjou. Philip had
+justified his attack on John as being John's feudal lord, and as being
+therefore bound to take the part of John's vassals whom he had
+injured. Hitherto the power of the king over his great vassals, which
+had been strong in England, had been weak in France. Philip made it
+strong in Normandy and Anjou because he had the support there of the
+vassals of John. That these vassals favoured him was owing partly to
+John's contemptible character, but also to the growth of national
+unity between the inhabitants of Normandy and Anjou on the one hand
+and those of Philip's French dominions on the other. Normans and
+Angevins both spoke the same language as the Frenchmen of Paris and
+its neighbourhood. Their manners and characters were very much the
+same, and the two peoples very soon blended with one another. They had
+been separated merely because their feudal organisation had been
+distinct, because the lord over one was John and over the other was
+Philip. In Aquitaine it was otherwise. The language and manners there,
+though much nearer to those of the French than they were to those of
+the English, differed considerably from the language and manners of
+the Frenchmen, Normans, and Angevins. What the men of Aquitaine really
+wanted was independence. They therefore now clung to John against
+Philip as they had clung to Richard against Henry II. They resisted
+Henry II. because Henry II. ruled in Anjou and Normandy, and they
+wished to be free from any connection with Anjou and Normandy. They
+resisted Philip because Philip now ruled in Anjou and Normandy. They
+were not afraid of John any longer, because they thought that now that
+England alone was left to him, he would be too far off to interfere
+with them.
+
+6. =The Election of Stephen Langton to the Archbishopric of
+Canterbury. 1205.=--In England John had caused much discontent by the
+heavy taxation which he imposed, not with the regularity of Henry II.
+and Hubert Walter, but with unfair inequality. In =1205= Archbishop
+Hubert Walter died. The right of choosing a new archbishop lay with
+the monks of the monastery of Christchurch at Canterbury, of which
+every archbishop, as the successor of St. Augustine, was the abbot.
+This right, however, had long been exercised only according to the
+wish of the king, who practically named the archbishop. This time the
+monks, without asking John's leave, hurriedly chose their sub-prior
+Reginald, and sent him off with a party of monks to Rome, to obtain
+the sanction of the Pope. Reginald was directed to say nothing of his
+election till he reached Rome; but he was a vain man, and had no
+sooner reached the Continent than he babbled about his own dignity as
+an archbishop. When John heard this he bade the monks choose the
+Bishop of Norwich, John de Grey, the king's treasurer; and the monks,
+thoroughly frightened, chose him as if they had not already made their
+election. John had, however, forgotten to consult the bishops of the
+province of Canterbury, who had always been consulted by his father
+and brother, and they too sent messengers to the Pope to complain of
+the king.
+
+[Illustration: Bishop Marshall of Exeter, died 1206; from his tomb at
+Exeter, showing a bishop vested for mass.]
+
+7. =Innocent III. and Stephen Langton. 1206.=--The Pope was Innocent
+III., who at once determined that John must not name bishops whose
+only merit was that they were good state officials. Being an able man,
+he soon discovered that Reginald was a fool. He therefore in =1206=
+sent for a fresh deputation of monks, and, as soon as they arrived in
+Rome, bade them make a new choice in the name of their monastery. At
+Innocent's suggestion they chose Stephen Langton, one of the most
+pious and learned men of the day, whose greatness of character was
+hardly suspected by anyone at the time.
+
+8. =John's Quarrel with the Church. 1206--1208.=--The choice of an
+archbishop in opposition to the king was undoubtedly something new.
+The archbishopric of Canterbury was a great national office, and a
+king as skilful as Henry II. would probably have succeeded in refusing
+to allow it to be disposed of by the Pope and a small party of monks.
+John was unworthy to be the champion of any cause whatever. In =1207=,
+after an angry correspondence with Innocent, he drove the monks of
+Christchurch out of the kingdom. Innocent in reply threatened England
+with an interdict, and in the spring of =1208= the interdict was
+published.
+
+9. =England under an Interdict. 1208.=--An interdict carried with it
+the suppression of all the sacraments of the Church except those of
+baptism and extreme unction. Even these were only to be received in
+private. No words of solemn import were pronounced at the burial of
+the dead. The churches were all closed, and to the men of that time
+the closing of the church-doors was like the closing of the very gate
+of heaven. In the choice of the punishment inflicted there was some
+sign that the Papacy was hardly as strong in the thirteenth as it had
+been in the eleventh century. Gregory VII. had smitten down kings by
+personal excommunication; Innocent III. found it necessary to stir up
+resistance against the king by inflicting sufferings on the people.
+Yet there is no evidence of any indignation against the Pope. The
+clergy rallied almost as one man round Innocent, and songs proceeded
+from the monasteries which mocked the few official bishops who took
+John's side as money-makers who cared more for marks than for Mark,
+and more for lucre than for Luke, whilst John de Grey was branded with
+the title of 'that beast of Norwich.' John taking no heed of the
+popular feeling, seized the property of the clergy who obeyed the
+interdict. Yet he was not without fear lest the barons should join the
+clergy against him, and to keep them in obedience he compelled them to
+entrust to him their eldest sons as hostages. One lady to whom this
+order came replied that she would never give her son to a king who had
+murdered his nephew.
+
+10. =John Excommunicated. 1209.=--In =1209= Innocent excommunicated
+John himself. John cared nothing for being excluded from the services
+of the Church, but he knew that if the excommunication were published
+in England few would venture to sit at table with him, or even to
+speak with him. For some time he kept it out of the country, but it
+became known that it had been pronounced at Rome, and even his own
+dependents began to avoid his company. He feared lest the barons whom
+he had wearied with heavy fines and taxes might turn against him, and
+he needed large sums of money to defend himself against them. First he
+turned on the Jews, threw them into prison, and after torturing those
+who refused to pay, wrung from them 40,000_l._ The abbots were next
+summoned before him and forced by threats to pay 100,000_l._ Besides
+this the wealthy Cistercians had to pay an additional fine, the amount
+of which is uncertain, but of which the lowest estimate is 27,000_l._
+In =1211= some of the barons declared against John, but they were
+driven from the country, and those who remained were harshly treated.
+Some of their sons who had been taken as hostages were hanged or
+starved to death.
+
+[Illustration: Parsonage house of early thirteenth-century date at
+West Dean, Sussex.]
+
+11. =The Pope threatens John with Deposition. 1212--1213.=--In =1212=
+Innocent's patience came to an end, and he announced that he would
+depose John if he still refused to give way, and would transfer his
+crown to his old enemy, Philip II. The English clergy and barons were
+not likely to oppose the change. Philip gathered a great army in
+France to make good the claim which he expected Innocent to give him.
+John, indeed, was not entirely without resource. The Emperor Otto IV.
+was John's sister's son, and as he too had been excommunicated by
+Innocent he made common cause with John against Philip. Early in
+=1213= John gathered an army of 60,000 men to resist Philip's landing,
+and if Otto with his Germans were to attack France from the east, a
+French army would hardly venture to cross into England, unless indeed
+it had no serious resistance to fear. John, however, knew well that he
+could not depend on his own army. Many men in the host hated him
+bitterly, and he feared deposition, and perhaps death, at the hands of
+those whom he had summoned to his help.
+
+12. =John's Submission. 1213.=--Under these circumstances John
+preferred submission to the Pope to submission to Philip or his own
+barons. He invited Pandulf, the Pope's representative, to Dover. He
+swore to admit Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury, to restore
+to their rights all those of the clergy or laity whom he had banished,
+and to give back the money which he had wrongfully exacted. Two days
+later he knelt before Pandulf and did homage to the Pope for England
+and Ireland. He was no longer to be an independent king but the Pope's
+vassal. In token of his vassalage he agreed that he and his successors
+should pay to Innocent and his successors 1,000 marks a year, each
+mark being equal to 13_s._ 4_d._, or two-thirds of a pound. Innocent
+had reached his aim as far as John was concerned. In his eyes the
+Papacy was not merely the guide of the Church, it was an institution
+for controlling kings and forcing them to act in accordance with the
+orders of the Popes. It remained to be seen whether the Pope's orders
+would be always unselfish, and whether the English barons and clergy
+would submit to them as readily as did this most miserable of English
+kings.
+
+13. =The Resistance of the Barons and Clergy. 1213.=--At first John
+seemed to have gained all that he wanted by submission. Pandulf bade
+Philip abandon all thought of invading England, and when Philip
+refused to obey, John's fleet fell upon the French fleet off the coast
+of Flanders and destroyed it. John even proposed to land with an army
+in Poitou and to reconquer Normandy and Anjou. His subjects thought
+that he ought to begin by fulfilling his engagements to them. John
+having received absolution, summoned four men from each county to meet
+at St. Albans to assess the damages of the clergy which he had bound
+himself to make good. The meeting thus summoned was the germ of the
+future House of Commons. It was not a national political assembly, but
+it was a national jury gathered together into one place. The exiled
+barons were recalled, and John now hoped that his vassals would follow
+him to Poitou. They refused to do so, alleging their poverty and the
+fact that they had already fulfilled their feudal obligation of forty
+days' service by attending him at Dover. They had, in fact, no
+interest in regaining Normandy and Anjou for John. Though the English
+barons still spoke French, and were proud of their Norman descent,
+they now thought of themselves as Englishmen and cared for England
+alone. John turned furiously on the barons, and was only hindered from
+attacking them by the new Archbishop, who threatened to excommunicate
+everyone who took arms against them. It was time for all Englishmen
+who loved order and law to resist John. Stephen Langton put himself at
+the head of the movement, and at a great assembly at St. Paul's
+produced a charter of Henry I., by which that king had promised to put
+an end to the tyranny of the Red King, and declared amidst general
+applause that it must be renewed by John. It was a memorable scene. Up
+to this time it had been necessary for the clergy and the people to
+support the king against the tyranny of the barons. Now the clergy and
+people offered their support to the barons against the tyranny of the
+king. John had merely the Pope on his side. Innocent's view of the
+situation was very simple. John was to obey the Pope, and all John's
+subjects were to obey John. A Papal legate arrived in England, fixed
+the sum which John was to pay to the clergy, and refused to listen to
+the complaints of those who thought themselves defrauded.
+
+14. =The Battle of Bouvines. 1214.=--In =1214= John succeeded in
+carrying his barons and their vassals across the sea. With one army he
+landed at Rochelle, and recovered what had been lost to him on the
+south of the Loire, but failed to make any permanent conquests to the
+north of that river. Another army, under John's illegitimate brother,
+the Earl of Salisbury, joined the Emperor Otto in an attack on Philip
+from the north. The united force of Germans and English was, however,
+routed by Philip at Bouvines, in Flanders. "Since I have been
+reconciled to God," cried John, when he heard the news, "and submitted
+to the Roman Church, nothing has gone well with me." He made a truce
+with Philip, and temporarily renounced all claims to the lands to the
+north of the Loire.
+
+15. =The Struggle between John and the Barons. 1214--1215.= When John
+returned he called upon all his vassals who had remained at home to
+pay an exorbitant scutage. In reply they met at Bury St. Edmunds. The
+charter of Henry I., which had been produced at St. Paul's the year
+before, was again read, and all present swore to force John to accept
+it as the rule of his own government. John asked for delay, and
+attempted to divide his antagonists by offering to the clergy the
+right of free election to bishoprics and abbacies. Then he turned
+against the barons. Early in =1215= he brought over a large force of
+foreign mercenaries, and persuaded the Pope to threaten the barons
+with excommunication. His attempt was defeated by the constancy of
+Stephen Langton. The demands of the barons were placed in writing by
+the archbishop, and, on John's refusal to accept them, an army was
+formed to force them on the king. The army of God and the Holy Church,
+as it was called, grew rapidly. London admitted it within its walls,
+and the accession of London to the cause of the barons was a sign that
+the traders of England were of one mind with the barons and the
+clergy. John found that their force was superior to his own, and at
+Runnimede on June 15, =1215=, confirmed with his hand and seal the
+articles of the barons, with the full intention of breaking his
+engagement as soon as he should be strong enough to do so.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of a knight in the Temple Church, London,
+showing armour worn between 1190 and 1225.]
+
+16. =Magna Carta. 1215.=--_Magna Carta_, or the Great Charter, as the
+articles were called after John confirmed them, was won by a
+combination between all classes of freemen, and it gave rights to them
+all.
+
+(_a_) _Its Concessions._--The Church was to be free, its privileges
+were to be respected, and its right to free elections which John had
+granted earlier in the year was not to be infringed on. As for the
+laity, the tenants-in-chief were to pay only fixed reliefs when they
+entered on their estates. Heirs under age were to be the king's wards,
+but the king was to treat them fairly, and do nothing to injure their
+land whilst it was in his hands. The king might continue to find
+husbands for heiresses and wives for heirs, but only amongst those of
+their own class. The tenants-in-chief again were bound to pay aids to
+the king when he needed ransom from imprisonment, or money to enable
+him to bear the expenses of knighting his eldest son or of marrying
+his eldest daughter. For all other purposes the king could only demand
+supplies from his tenants-in-chief with the consent of the Common
+Council of the realm. As only the tenants-in-chief were concerned,
+this Common Council was the Great Council of tenants-in-chief, such as
+had met under the Norman and Angevin kings. A fresh attempt, however,
+was made to induce the smaller tenants-in-chief to attend, in addition
+to the bishops, abbots, and barons, by a direction that whilst these
+were to be summoned personally, the sheriffs should in each county
+issue a general summons to the smaller tenants-in-chief. Though the
+sub-tenants had no part in the Common Council of the realm, they were
+relieved by a direction that they should pay no more aids to their
+lords than their lords paid to the king, and by a general declaration
+that all that had been granted to their lords by the king should be
+allowed by their lords to them. The Londoners and other townsmen had
+their privileges assured to them; and all freemen were secured against
+heavy and irregular penalties if they committed an offence.
+
+(_b_) _Its Securities._--Such were the provisions of this truly
+national act, which Englishmen were for ages engaged in maintaining
+and developing. The immediate question was how to secure what had been
+gained. The first thing necessary for this purpose was to make the
+courts of law the arbitrators between the king and his subjects. In a
+series of articles it was declared that the sworn testimony of a man's
+peers should be used whenever fines or penalties were imposed, and
+this insistence on the employment of the jury system as it then
+existed was emphasised by the strong words to which John placed his
+seal: "No freeman may be taken, or imprisoned, or disseised, or
+outlawed, or banished, or in any way destroyed, nor will we go against
+him, or send against him, except by the lawful judgment of his peers,
+or by the law of the land. To none will we sell or deny or delay right
+or justice." It was a good security if it could be maintained, but it
+would avail nothing against a king who was willing and able to use
+force to set up the old tyranny once more. In the first place John
+must dismiss all his foreign mercenaries. So little, however, was John
+trusted that it was thought necessary in the second place to establish
+a body of twenty-five--twenty-four barons and the Mayor of
+London--which was to guard against any attempt of the king to break
+his word. If John infringed upon any of the articles of the Charter
+the twenty-five, with the assistance of the whole community of the
+kingdom, had the right of distraining upon the king's lands till
+enough was obtained to make up the loss to the person who had suffered
+wrong. In other words, there was to be a permanent organisation for
+making war upon the king.
+
+17. =War between John and the Barons. 1215--1216.=--John waited for
+the moment of vengeance. Not only did he refuse to send his
+mercenaries away, but he sent to the Continent for large
+reinforcements. Pope Innocent declared the barons to be wicked rebels,
+and released John from his oath to the Great Charter. War soon broke
+out. John's mercenaries were too strong for the barons, and in the
+beginning of =1216= almost all England with the exception of London
+had been overrun by them. Though the Pope laid London under an
+interdict, neither the citizens nor the barons paid any attention to
+it. They sent to Louis, the eldest son of Philip of France, to invite
+him to come and be their king in John's stead. Louis was married to
+John's niece, and might thus be counted as a member of the English
+royal family. The time had not yet come when a man who spoke French
+was regarded as quite a foreigner amongst the English barons. On May
+21, =1216=, Louis landed with an army in the Isle of Thanet.
+
+[Illustration: A silver penny of John, struck at Dublin.]
+
+18. =Conflict between Louis and John. 1216.=--John, in spite of his
+success, found himself without sufficient money to pay his
+mercenaries, and he therefore retreated to Winchester. Louis entered
+London in triumph, and afterwards drove John out of Winchester.
+Innocent indeed excommunicated Louis, but no one took heed of the
+excommunication. Yet John was not without support. The trading towns
+of the East, who probably regarded Louis as a foreigner, took his
+part, and many of his old officials, to whom the victory of the barons
+seemed likely to bring back the anarchy of Stephen's time, clung to
+him. One of these, a high-spirited and strong-willed man, Hubert de
+Burgh, held out for John in Dover Castle. John kept the field and even
+won some successes. As he was crossing the Wash the tide rose rapidly
+and swept away his baggage. He himself escaped with difficulty. Worn
+out in mind and body, he was carried on a litter to Newark, where on
+October 19, =1216=, he died.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+HENRY III. =1216-1272=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Accession of Henry III.                                         1216
+  The Fall of Hubert de Burgh                                     1232
+  The Provisions of Oxford                                        1258
+  Battle of Lewes                                                 1264
+  Battle of Evesham                                               1265
+  Death of Henry III.                                             1272
+
+
+1. =Henry III. and Louis. 1216--1217.=--Henry III., the eldest son of
+John, was but nine years old at his father's death. Never before had
+it been useful for England that the king should be a child. As Henry
+had oppressed no one and had broken no oaths, those who dared not
+trust the father could rally to the son. The boy had two guardians,
+one of whom was Gualo, the legate of Pope Honorius III., a man gentler
+and less ambitious than Innocent III., whom he had just succeeded; the
+other was William the Marshal, Earl of Pembroke, who had been constant
+to John, not because he loved his evil deeds, but because, like many
+of the older officials, he feared that the victory of the barons would
+be followed by anarchy. These two had on their side the growing
+feeling on behalf of English nationality; whereas, as long as John
+lived, his opponents had argued that it was better to have a foreign
+king like Louis than to have a king like John, who tyrannised over the
+land by the help of foreign mercenaries. Henry's followers daily
+increased, and in =1217= Louis was defeated by the Marshal at Lincoln.
+Later in the year Hubert de Burgh, the Justiciar, sent out a fleet
+which defeated a French fleet off Dover. Louis then submitted and left
+the kingdom.
+
+2. =The Renewal of the Great Charter. 1216--1217.=--The principles on
+which William the Marshal intended to govern were signified by the
+changes made in the Great Charter when it was renewed on the king's
+accession in =1216=, and again on Louis's expulsion in =1217=. Most of
+the clauses binding the king to avoid oppression were allowed to
+stand; but those which prohibited the raising of new taxation without
+the authority of the Great Council, and the stipulation which
+established a body of twenty-five to distrain on John's property in
+case of the breach of the Charter, were omitted. Probably it was
+thought that there was less danger from Henry than there had been from
+John; but the acceptance of the compromise was mainly due to the
+feeling that, whilst it was desirable that the king should govern with
+moderation, it would be a dangerous experiment to put the power to
+control him in the hands of the barons, who might use it for their own
+advantage rather than for the advantage of the nation. The whole
+history of England for many years was to turn on the difficulty of
+weakening the power of a bad king without producing anarchy.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of Henry III. from his tomb in Westminster
+Abbey.]
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of William Longespee, Earl of Salisbury (died
+1227); from his tomb in Salisbury Cathedral: showing armour worn from
+about 1225 to 1250.]
+
+3. =Administration of Hubert de Burgh. 1219-1232.=--In =1219= William
+the Marshal died. For some years the government was mainly in the
+hands of Hubert de Burgh, who strenuously maintained the authority of
+the king over the barons, whilst at the same time he set himself
+distinctly at the head of the growing national feeling against the
+admission of foreigners to wealth and high position in England. As a
+result of the disturbances of John's reign many of the barons and of
+the leaders of the mercenaries had either fortified their own castles
+or had taken possession of those which belonged to the king. In =1220=
+Hubert demanded the surrender of these castles as Henry II. had done
+in the beginning of his reign. In =1221= the Earl of Aumale was forced
+to surrender his castles, and in =1224= Faukes de Breaute, one of the
+leaders of John's mercenaries who had received broad lands in England,
+was reduced to submission and was banished on his refusal to give up
+his great castle at Bedford. As long as Hubert ruled, England was to
+belong to the English. His power was endangered from the very quarter
+from which it ought to have received most support. In =1227= Henry
+declared himself of age. He was weak and untrustworthy, always ready
+to give his confidence to unworthy favourites. His present favourite
+was Peter des Roches, Bishop of Winchester. The bishop was a greedy
+and unscrupulous Poitevin, who regarded the king's favour as a means
+of enriching himself and his Poitevin relatives and friends. Henry was
+always short of money, and was persuaded by Peter that it was
+Hubert's fault. In =1232= Hubert was charged with a whole string of
+crimes and dismissed from office.
+
+[Illustration: Simon, Bishop of Exeter (died 1223); from his tomb at
+Exeter, showing rich mass-vestments.]
+
+[Illustration: Beverley Minster, Yorkshire--the south transept; built
+about 1220-1230.]
+
+4. =Administration of Peter des Roches. 1232-1234.=--Henry was now
+entirely under the power of Peter des Roches. In =1233= he ordered
+Hubert to be seized. Though Hubert took sanctuary in a chapel, he was
+dragged out, and a smith was ordered to put him in fetters. The man
+refused to obey. "Is not this," he said, "that most faithful and
+high-souled Hubert who has so often saved England from the ravages of
+foreigners, and has given England back to the English?" Hubert was
+thrown into the Tower, and was never again employed in any office of
+state. As long as Peter des Roches ruled the king it would be hard to
+keep England for the English. Poitevins and Bretons flocked over from
+the Continent, and were appointed to all the influential posts which
+fell vacant. The barons had the national feeling behind them when they
+raised complaints against this policy. Their leader was Earl Richard
+the Marshal, the son of the Earl William who had governed England
+after the death of John. Without even the semblance of trial Henry
+declared Earl Richard and his chief supporters guilty of treason. At a
+Great Council held at Westminster some of the barons remonstrated.
+Peter des Roches replied saucily that there were no peers in England
+as in France, meaning that in England the barons had no rights against
+the king. Both Henry and Peter could, however, use their tongues
+better than their swords. They failed miserably in an attempt to
+overcome the men whom they had unjustly accused, till in =1234= Peter
+stirred up some of the English lords in Ireland to seize on Earl
+Richard's possessions there. The Earl hurried over to defend his
+estates. Amongst his followers were many of Peter's confidants, who,
+treacherously deserting him in the first battle, left him to be slain
+by his enemies. Peter at least gained nothing by his villainy. Edmund
+Rich, a saintly man, who had recently become Archbishop of Canterbury,
+protested against his misdeeds. All England was behind the Archbishop,
+and Henry was compelled to dismiss Peter and then to welcome back
+Peter's enemies and to restore them to their rights. It was of no
+slight importance that a man so devoted and unselfish as Edmund Rich
+had put himself at the head of the movement. It was a good thing, no
+doubt, to maintain that wealth should be in the hands rather of
+natives than of foreigners; but after all every contention for
+material wealth alone is of the earth, earthy. No object which appeals
+exclusively to the selfish instincts can, in the long run, be worth
+contending for. Edmund Rich's accession to the national cause was a
+guarantee that the claims of righteousness and mercy in the management
+of the national government would not altogether be forgotten, and
+fortunately there were new forces actively at work in the same
+direction. The friars, the followers of St. Francis and St. Dominic,
+had made good their footing in England.
+
+5. =Francis of Assisi.=--Francis, the son of a merchant in the Tuscan
+town of Assisi, threw aside the vanities of youth after a serious
+illness. He was wedded, he declared, to Poverty as his bride. He
+clothed himself in rags. When his father sent him with a horseload of
+goods to a neighbouring market, he sold both horse and goods, and
+offered the money to build a church. His father was enraged, and
+summoned him before the bishop that he might be deprived of the right
+of inheriting that which he knew not how to use. Francis stripped
+himself naked, renouncing even his clothes as his father's property.
+"I have now," he said, "but one Father, He that is in heaven." He
+wandered about as a beggar, subsisting on alms and devoting himself to
+the care of the sick and afflicted. In his heroism of self-denial he
+chose out the lepers, covered as they were with foul and infectious
+sores, as the main objects of his tending. Before long he gathered
+together a brotherhood of men like-minded with himself, who left all,
+to give not alms but themselves to the help of the poor and sorrowful
+of Christ's flock. In =1209= Innocent III. constituted them into a new
+order, not of monks but of Friars (_Fratres_ or brethren). The special
+title of the new order, which after ages have known by the name of
+Franciscans, was that of Minorites (_Fratres Minores_), or the lesser
+brethren, because Francis in his humility declared them to be less
+than the least of Christ's servants. Like Francis, they were to be
+mendicants, begging their food from day to day. Having nothing
+themselves, they would be the better able to touch the hearts of those
+who had nothing. Yet it was not so much the humility of Francis as his
+loving heart which distinguished him amongst men. Not only all human
+beings but all created things were dear to him. Once he is said to
+have preached to birds. He called the sun and the wind his brethren,
+the moon and the water his sisters. When he died the last feeble words
+which he breathed were, "Welcome, sister Death!"
+
+6. =St. Dominic.=--Another order arose about the same time in Spain.
+Dominic, a Spaniard, was appalled, not by the misery, but by the
+ignorance of mankind. The order which he instituted was to be called
+that of the Friars Preachers, though they have in later times usually
+been known as Dominicans. Like the Franciscans they were to be Friars,
+or brothers, because all teaching is vain, as much as all charitable
+acts are vain, unless brotherly kindness be at the root. Like the
+Franciscans they were to be mendicants, because so only could the
+world be convinced that they sought not their own good, but to win
+souls to Christ.
+
+7. =The Coming of the Friars. 1220-1224.=--In =1220= the first
+Dominicans arrived in England. Four years later, in =1224=, the first
+Franciscans followed them. Of the work of the early Dominicans in
+England little is known. They preached and taught, appealing to those
+whose intelligence was keen enough to appreciate the value of
+argument. The Franciscans had a different work before them. The misery
+of the dwellers on the outskirts of English towns was appalling. The
+townsmen had made provision for keeping good order amongst all who
+shared in the liberties,[13] or, as we should say, in the privileges
+of the town; but they made no provision for good order amongst the
+crowds who flocked to the town to pick up a scanty living as best they
+might. These poor wretches had to dwell in miserable hovels outside
+the walls by the side of fetid ditches into which the filth of the
+town was poured. Disease and starvation thinned their numbers. No man
+cared for their bodies or their souls. The priests who served in the
+churches within the town passed them by, nor had they any place in the
+charities with which the brethren of the gilds assuaged the
+misfortunes of their own members. It was amongst these that the
+Franciscans lived and laboured, sharing in their misery and their
+diseases, counting their lives well spent if they could bring comfort
+to a single human soul.
+
+    [Footnote 13: A phrase which may serve to keep in mind the medieval
+    meaning of '_libertas_' is to be found in the statement that a
+    certain monastery kept up a pair of stocks '_pro libertate
+    servanda_'--that is to say, to keep up its franchise of putting
+    offenders into the stocks.]
+
+8. =Monks and Friars.=--The work of the friars was a new phase in the
+history of the Church. The monks had made it their object to save
+their own souls; the friars made it their object to save the bodies
+and souls of others. The friars, like the monks, taught by the example
+of self-denial; but the friars added active well-doing to the passive
+virtue of restraint. Such examples could not fail to be attended with
+consequences of which those who set them never dreamed, all the more
+because the two new orders worked harmoniously towards a common end.
+The Dominicans quickened the brain whilst the Franciscans touched the
+heart, and the whole nation was the better in consequence.
+
+[Illustration: Longthorpe Manor House, Northampton; built about 1235.
+Some of the larger windows are later.]
+
+9. =The King's Marriage. 1236.=--In =1236= Henry married Eleanor, the
+daughter of the Count of Provence. The immediate consequence was the
+arrival of her four uncles with a stream of Provencals in their train.
+Amongst these uncles William, Bishop-elect of Valence, took the lead.
+Henry submitted his weak mind entirely to him, and distributed rank
+and wealth to the Provencals with as much profusion as he had
+distributed them to the Poitevins in the days of Peter des Roches. The
+barons, led now by the king's brother, Richard of Cornwall,
+remonstrated when they met in the Great Council, which was gradually
+acquiring the right of granting fresh taxes, though all reference to
+that right was dropped out of all editions of the Great Charter issued
+in the reign of Henry. For some time they granted the money which
+Henry continually asked for, coupling, however, with their grant the
+demand that Henry should confirm the Charter. The king never refused
+to confirm it. He had no difficulty in making promises, but he never
+troubled himself to keep those which he had made.
+
+[Illustration: A ship in the reign of Henry III.]
+
+10. =The Early Career of Simon de Montfort. 1231--1243.=--Strangely
+enough, Simon de Montfort, the man who was to be the chief opponent of
+Henry and his foreign favourites, was himself a foreigner. He was
+sprung from a family established in Normandy, and his father, the
+elder Simon de Montfort, had been the leader of a body of Crusaders
+from the north of France, who had poured over the south to crush a
+vast body of heretics, known by the name of Albigeois, from Albi, a
+town in which they swarmed. The elder Simon had been strict in his
+orthodoxy and unsparing in his cruelty to all who were unorthodox.
+From him the younger Simon inherited his unswerving religious zeal and
+his constancy of purpose. There was the same stern resolution in both,
+but in the younger man these qualities were coupled with a
+statesmanlike instinct, which was wanting to the father. Norman as he
+was, he had a claim to the earldom of Leicester through his
+grandmother, and in =1231= this claim was acknowledged by Henry. For
+some time Simon continued to live abroad, but in =1236= he returned to
+England to be present at the king's marriage. He was at once taken
+into favour, and in =1238= married the king's sister, Eleanor. His
+marriage was received by the barons and the people with a burst of
+indignation. It was one more instance, it was said, of Henry's
+preference for foreigners over his own countrymen. In =1239= Henry
+turned upon his brother-in-law, brought heavy charges against him, and
+drove him from his court. In =1240= Simon was outwardly reconciled to
+Henry, but he was never again able to repose confidence in one so
+fickle. In =1242= Henry resolved to undertake an expedition to France
+to recover Poitou, which had been gradually slipping out of his
+hands. At a Great Council held before he sailed, the barons, who had
+no sympathy with any attempt to recover lost possessions in France,
+not only rated him soundly for his folly, but, for the first time,
+absolutely refused to make him a grant of money. Simon told him to his
+face that the Frenchman was no lamb to be easily subdued. Simon's
+words proved true. Henry sailed for France, but in =1243= he
+surrendered all claims to Poitou, and returned discomfited. If he did
+not bring home victory he brought with him a new crowd of Poitevins,
+who were connected with his mother's second husband. All of them
+expected to receive advancement in England, and they seldom expected
+it in vain.
+
+11. =Papal Exactions. 1237--1243.=--Disgusted as were the English
+landowners by the preference shown by the king to foreigners, the
+English clergy were no less disgusted by the exactions of the Pope.
+The claim of Innocent III. to regulate the proceedings of kings had
+been handed down to his successors and made them jealous of any ruler
+too powerful to be controlled. The Emperor Frederick II. had not only
+succeeded to the government of Germany, and to some influence over the
+north of Italy, but had inherited Naples and Sicily from his mother.
+The Pope thus found himself, as it were, between two fires. There was
+constant bickering between Frederick and Gregory IX., a fiery old man
+who became Pope in =1227=, and in =1238= Gregory excommunicated
+Frederick, and called on all Europe to assist him against the man whom
+he stigmatised as the enemy of God and the Church. As the king of
+England was his vassal in consequence of John's surrender, he looked
+to him for aid more than to others, especially as England, enjoying
+internal peace more than other nations, was regarded as especially
+wealthy. In =1237=, the year before Frederick's excommunication,
+Gregory sent Cardinal Otho as his legate to demand money from the
+English clergy. The clergy found a leader in Robert Grossetete, Bishop
+of Lincoln, a wise and practical reformer of clerical disorders; but
+though they grumbled, they could get no protection from the king, and
+were forced to pay. Otho left England in =1241=, carrying immense sums
+of money with him, and the promise of the king to present three
+hundred Italian priests to English benefices before he presented a
+single Englishman. In =1243= Gregory IX. was succeeded by Innocent
+IV., who was even more grasping than his predecessor.
+
+12. =A Weak Parliamentary Opposition. 1244.=--Against these evils the
+Great Council strove in vain to make head. It was now beginning to be
+known as Parliament, though no alteration was yet made in its
+composition. In =1244= clergy and barons joined in remonstrating with
+the king, and some of them even talked about restraining his power by
+the establishment of a Justiciar and Chancellor, together with four
+councillors, all six to be elected by the whole of the baronage.
+Without the consent of the Chancellor thus chosen no administrative
+act could be done. The scheme was a distinct advance upon that of the
+barons who, in =1215=, forced the Great Charter upon John. The barons
+had then proposed to leave the appointment of executive officials to
+the king, and to appoint a committee of twenty-five, who were to have
+nothing to do with the government of the country, but were to compel
+the king by force to keep the promises which he had made. In =1244=
+they proposed to appoint the executive officials themselves. It was
+the beginning of a series of changes which ultimately led to that with
+which we are now familiar, the appointment of ministers responsible to
+Parliament. It was too great an innovation to be accepted at once,
+especially as it was demanded by the barons alone. The clergy, who
+were still afraid of the disorders which might ensue if power were
+lodged in the hands of the barons, refused to support it, and for a
+time it fell to the ground. At the same time Richard of Cornwall
+abandoned the baronial party. He had lately married the queen's
+sister, which may have drawn him over to the king; but it is also
+probable that his own position as the king's brother made him
+unwilling to consent to a scheme which would practically transfer the
+government from the king to the barons. On the other hand Earl Simon
+was found on the side of the barons. He held his earldom by
+inheritance from his English grandmother, and the barons were willing
+to forgive his descent from a foreign grandfather when they found him
+prepared to share their policy.
+
+13. =Growing Discontent. 1244--1254.=--The clergy had to learn by
+bitter experience that it was only by a close alliance with the barons
+that they could preserve themselves from wrong. In =1244= a new envoy
+from the Pope, Master Martin, travelled over England wringing money
+from the clergy. Though he was driven out of the country in =1245=,
+the Papal exactions did not cease. The Pope, moreover, continued to
+present his own nominees to English benefices, and in =1252=
+Grossetete complained that these nominees drew three times as much
+income from England as flowed into the royal exchequer. For a time
+even Henry made complaints, but in =1254= Innocent IV. won him over to
+his side. Frederick II. had died in =1250=, and his illegitimate son,
+Manfred, a tried warrior and an able ruler, had succeeded him as king
+of Sicily and Naples. Innocent could not bear that that crown should
+be worn by the son of the man whom he had hated bitterly, and offered
+it to Edmund, the second son of Henry III. Henry lept at the offer,
+hoping that England would bear the expense of the undertaking. England
+was, however, in no mood to comply. Henry had been squandering money
+for years. He had recently employed Earl Simon in Gascony, where Simon
+had put down the resistance of the nobles with a heavy hand. The
+Gascons complained to Henry, and Henry quarrelled with Simon more
+bitterly than before. In =1254= Henry crossed the sea to restore order
+in person. To meet his expenses he borrowed a vast sum of money, and
+this loan, which he expected England to meet, was the only result of
+the expedition.
+
+[Illustration: A bed in the reign of Henry III.]
+
+14. =The Knights of the Shire in Parliament. 1254.=--During the king's
+absence the queen and Earl Richard, who were left as regents, and who
+had to collect money as best they might, gathered a Great Council, to
+which, for the first time, representative knights, four from each
+shire, were summoned. They were merely called on to report what amount
+of aid their constituents were willing to give, and the regents were
+doubtless little aware of the importance of the step which they were
+taking. It was only, to all appearances, an adaptation of the summons
+calling on the united jury to meet at St. Albans to assess the damages
+of the clergy in the reign of John. It might seem as if the regents
+had only summoned a united jury to give evidence of their
+constituents' readiness to grant certain sums of money. In reality the
+new scheme was sure to take root, because it held out a hope of
+getting rid of a constitutional difficulty which had hitherto proved
+insoluble--the difficulty, that is to say, of weakening the king's
+power to do evil without establishing baronial anarchy in its place.
+It was certain that the representatives of the freeholders in the
+counties would not use their influence for the destruction of order.
+
+[Illustration: Barn of thirteenth-century date at Raunds,
+Northamptonshire.]
+
+15. =Fresh Exactions. 1254-1257.=--At the end of =1254= Henry returned
+to England. In =1255= a new Pope, Alexander IV., confirmed his
+predecessor's grant of the kingdom of Sicily to Edmund, on condition
+that Henry should give a large sum of money for the expenses of a war
+against Manfred. To make it easy for Henry to find the money,
+Alexander gave him a tenth of the revenues of the English clergy, on
+the plea that the clergy had always borne their share of the expenses
+of a crusade, and that to fight for the Pope against Manfred was
+equivalent to a crusade. Immense sums were wrung from the clergy, who
+were powerless to resist Pope and king combined. Their indignation was
+the greater, not only because they knew that religion was not at stake
+in the Pope's effort to secure his political power in Italy, but also
+because the Papal court was known to be hopelessly corrupt, it being a
+matter of common talk that all things were for sale at Rome. The
+clergy indeed were less than ever in a condition to resist the king
+without support. Grossetete was dead, and the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, the queen's uncle, Boniface of Savoy, whose duty it was to
+maintain the rights of the Church, was a man who cared nothing for
+England except on account of the money he drew from it. Other
+bishoprics as well were held by foreigners. The result of the weakness
+of the clergy was that they were now ready to unite with the barons,
+whom they had deserted in =1244= (see p. 195). Henry's misgovernment,
+in fact, had roused all classes against him, as the townsmen and the
+smaller landowners had been even worse treated than the greater
+barons. In =1257= one obstacle to reform was removed. Richard of
+Cornwall, the king's brother, who was formidable through his wealth
+and the numbers of his vassals, had for some time taken part against
+them. In =1257= he was chosen king of the Romans by the German
+electors, an election which would make him Emperor as soon as he had
+been crowned by the Pope. He at once left England to seek his fortunes
+in Germany, where he was well received as long as he had money to
+reward his followers, but was deserted as soon as his purse was empty.
+
+16. =The Provisions of Oxford. 1258.=--The crisis in England came in
+=1258=, whilst Richard was still abroad. Though thousands were dying
+of starvation in consequence of a bad harvest, Henry demanded for the
+Pope the monstrous sum of one-third of the revenue of all England.
+Then the storm burst. At a Parliament at Westminster the barons
+appeared in arms and demanded, first, the expulsion of all foreigners,
+and, secondly, the appointment of a committee of twenty-four--twelve
+from the king's party and twelve from that of the barons--to reform
+the realm. The king unwillingly consented, and the committee was
+appointed. Later in the year Parliament met again at Oxford to receive
+the report of the new committee. The Mad Parliament, as it was
+afterwards called in derision, was resolved to make good its claims.
+The scheme of reinforcing Parliament by the election of knights of the
+shire had indeed been suffered to fall into disuse since its
+introduction in =1254=, yet every tenant-in-chief had of old the right
+of attending, and though the lesser tenants-in-chief had hitherto
+seldom or never exercised that right, they now trooped in arms to
+Oxford to support the barons. To this unwonted gathering the committee
+produced a set of proposals which have gone by the name of the
+Provisions of Oxford. There was to be a council of fifteen, without
+the advice of which the king could do no act, and in this council the
+baronial party had a majority. The offices of state were filled in
+accordance with the wishes of the twenty-four, and the barons thus
+entered into possession of the authority which had hitherto been the
+king's. The danger of the king's tyranny was averted, but it remained
+to be seen whether a greater tyranny would not be erected in its
+stead. One clause of the Provisions of Oxford was not reassuring. The
+old Parliaments, which every tenant-in-chief had at least the
+customary right of attending, were no longer to exist. Their place was
+to be taken by a body of twelve, to be chosen by the barons, which was
+to meet three times a year to discuss public affairs with the council
+of fifteen.
+
+17. =The Expulsion of the Foreigners. 1258.=--The first difficulty of
+the new government was to compel the foreigners to surrender their
+castles. William de Valence, the king's half-brother, headed the
+resistance of the foreigners. The barons swore that no danger should
+keep them back till they had cleared the land of foreigners and had
+obtained the good laws which they needed. Earl Simon set the example
+by surrendering his own castles at Kenilworth and Odiham. The national
+feeling was with Simon and the barons, and at last the foreigners were
+driven across the sea. For a time all went well. The committee of
+twenty-four continued its work and produced a further series of
+reforms. All persons in authority were called on to swear to be
+faithful to the Provisions of Oxford, and the king and his eldest son,
+Edward, complied with the demand.
+
+18. =Edward and the Barons. 1259.=--Early in =1259= Richard came back
+to England, and gave satisfaction by swearing to the Provisions.
+Before long signs of danger appeared. The placing complete authority
+in the hands of the barons was not likely to be long popular, and Earl
+Simon was known to be in favour of a wider and more popular scheme.
+Hugh Bigod, who had been named Justiciar by the barons, gave offence
+by the way in which he exercised his office. Simon was hated by the
+king, and he knew that many of the barons did not love him. The
+sub-tenants--the Knights Bachelors of England as they called
+themselves--doubting his power to protect them, complained, not to
+Simon, but to Edward, the eldest son of the King, that the barons had
+obtained the redress of their own grievances, but had done nothing for
+the rest of the community. Edward was now a young man of twenty,
+hot-tempered and impatient of control, but keen-sighted enough to
+know, what his father had never known, that the royal power would be
+increased if it could establish itself in the affections of the
+classes whose interests were antagonistic to those of the barons. He
+therefore declared that he had sworn to the Provisions, and would keep
+his oath; but that if the barons did not fulfil their own promises, he
+would join the community in compelling them to do so. The warning was
+effectual, and the barons issued orders for the redress of the
+grievances of those who had found so high a patron.
+
+19. =The Breach amongst the Barons. 1259--1261.=--Simon had no wish to
+be involved in a purely baronial policy. He had already fallen out
+with Richard de Clare, Earl of Gloucester, the leader of the barons
+who had resisted the full execution of the promises made at Oxford in
+the interest of the people at large. "With such fickle and faithless
+men," said Simon to him, "I care not to have ought to do. The things
+we are treating of now we have sworn to carry out. And thou, Sir Earl,
+the higher thou art the more art thou bound to keep such statutes as
+are wholesome for the land." The king fomented the rising quarrel, and
+in =1261= announced that the Pope had declared the Provisions to be
+null and void, and had released him from his oath to observe them.
+
+20. =Royalist Reaction and Civil War. 1261.=--Henry now ruled again in
+his own fashion. Even the Earl of Gloucester discovered that if the
+king was to be resisted it must be by an appeal to a body of men more
+numerous than the barons alone. He joined Simon in inviting a
+Parliament to meet, at which three knights should appear for each
+county, thus throwing over the unfortunate narrowing of Parliament to
+a baronial committee of twelve, which had been the worst blot on the
+Provisions of Oxford. In the summer of =1262= the Earl of Gloucester
+died, and was succeeded by his son, Earl Gilbert, one of Simon's
+warmest personal admirers. In =1263= Simon, now the acknowledged head
+of the barons and of the nation, finding that the king could not be
+brought to keep the Provisions, took arms against him. He was a master
+in the art of war, and gained one fortified post after another. Henry,
+being, as usual, short of money, called on the Londoners for a loan.
+On their refusal Edward seized a sum of money which belonged to them,
+and so exasperated them that, on the queen's passing under London
+Bridge, the citizens reviled her and pelted her with stones. The war
+was carried on with doubtful results, and by the end of the year both
+parties agreed to submit to the arbitration of the king of France.
+
+21. =The Mise of Amiens. 1264.=--The king of France Louis IX.,
+afterwards known as St. Louis, was the justest and most unselfish of
+men. In =1259= he had surrendered to Henry a considerable amount of
+territory in France, which Henry had been unable to reconquer for
+himself; and was well satisfied to obtain from Henry in return a
+formal renunciation of the remainder of the lands which Philip II. had
+taken from John. Yet, well-intentioned as Louis was, he had no
+knowledge of England, and in France, where the feudal nobility was
+still excessively tyrannical, justice was only to be obtained by the
+maintenance of a strong royal power. He therefore thought that what
+was good for France was also good for England, and in the beginning of
+=1264= he relieved Henry from all the restrictions which his subjects
+had sought to place upon him. The decision thus taken was known as
+the Mise, or settlement, of Amiens, from the place at which it was
+issued.
+
+22. =The Battle of Lewes. 1264.=--The Mise of Amiens required an
+unconditional surrender of England to the king. The Londoners and the
+trading towns were the first to reject it. Simon put himself at the
+head of a united army of barons and citizens. In the early morning of
+May 14 he caught the king's army half asleep at Lewes. Edward charged
+at the Londoners, against whom he bore a grudge since they had
+ill-treated his mother, and cleared them off the field with enormous
+slaughter. When he returned the battle was lost. Henry himself was
+captured, and Richard, king of the Romans, was found hiding in a
+windmill. Edward, in spite of his success, had to give himself up as a
+prisoner.
+
+[Illustration: A fight between armed and mounted knights of the time
+of Henry III.]
+
+[Illustration: Seal of Robert Fitzwalter, showing a mounted knight in
+complete mail armour. Date, about 1265.]
+
+23. =Earl Simon's Government. 1264-1265.=--Simon followed up his
+victory by an agreement called the Mise of Lewes, according to which
+all matters of dispute were again to be referred to arbitration. In
+the meantime there were to be three Electors, Earl Simon himself, the
+Earl of Gloucester, and the Bishop of Chichester. These were to elect
+nine councillors, who were to name the ministers of state. To keep
+these councillors within bounds a Parliament was called, in which with
+the barons, bishops, and abbots there sat not only chosen knights for
+each shire, but also for the first time two representatives of certain
+towns. This Parliament met in =1265=. It was not, indeed, a full
+parliament, as only Simon's partisans amongst the barons were
+summoned, but it was the fullest representation of England as a whole
+which had yet met, and not a merely baronial committee like that
+proposed in =1258=. The views of Simon were clearly indicated in an
+argumentative Latin poem written after the battle of Lewes by one of
+his supporters. In this poem the king's claim to do as he likes with
+his own is met by a demand that he shall rule according to law. Such a
+demand was made by others than the poet. "The king," a great lawyer of
+the day had said, "is not subject to any man, but to God and the law."
+The difficulty still remained of ascertaining what the law was. The
+poet did not, indeed, anticipate modern theories, and hold that the
+law was what the representatives of the people made it to be; but he
+held that the law consisted in the old customs, and that the people
+themselves must be appealed to as the witnesses of what those old
+customs were. "Therefore," he wrote, "let the community of the kingdom
+advise, and let it be known what the generality thinks, to whom their
+own laws are best known. Nor are all those of the country so ignorant
+that they do not know better than strangers the customs of their own
+kingdom which have been handed down to them by their ancestors."[14]
+The poet, in short, regarded the Parliament as a national jury, whose
+duty it was to give evidence on the laws and customs of the nation, in
+the same way that a local jury gave evidence on local matters.
+
+    [Footnote 14:
+
+    "Igitur communitas regni consulatur;
+     Et quid universitas sentiat, sciatur,
+     Cui leges propriae maxime sunt notae.
+     Nec cuncti provinciae sic sunt idiotae,
+     Quin sciant plus caeteris regni sui mores,
+     Quos relinquunt posteris hii qui sunt priores."]
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of a knight at Gosperton, showing armour worn
+from about 1250 to 1300. Date, about 1270.]
+
+24. =The Battle of Evesham. 1265.=--Simon's constitution was
+premature. Men wanted a patriotic king who could lead the nation
+instead of one who, like Henry, used it for his own ends. The new
+rulers were sure to quarrel with one another. If Simon was still Simon
+the Righteous, his sons acted tyrannically. The barons began again to
+distrust Simon himself, and the young Earl of Gloucester, like his
+father before him, put himself at the head of the dissatisfied barons,
+and went over to the king. Edward escaped from confinement, by urging
+his keepers to ride races with one another, and then galloping off
+when their horses were too tired to follow him. Edward and Gloucester
+combined forces, and, falling on Earl Simon at Evesham, defeated him
+utterly. Simon was slain in the fight and his body barbarously
+mutilated; but his memory was treasured, and he was counted as a saint
+by the people for whom he had worked. Verses have been preserved in
+which he is compared to Archbishop Thomas, who had given himself as a
+sacrifice for the Church, as Simon had given himself as a sacrifice
+for the nation.
+
+[Illustration: Building operations in the reign of Henry III., with
+the king giving directions to the architect.]
+
+25. =The Last Years of Henry III. 1265--1272.=--The storm which had
+been raised was some time in calming down. Some of Earl Simon's
+followers continued to hold out against the king. When at last they
+submitted, they were treated leniently, and in =1267=, at a Parliament
+at Marlborough, a statute was enacted embodying most of the demands
+for the redress of grievances made by the earlier reformers. The
+kingdom settled down in peace, because Henry now allowed Edward to be
+the real head of the government. Edward, in short, carried on Earl
+Simon's work in ruling justly, with the advantage of being raised
+above jealousies by his position as heir to the throne. In =1270=
+England was so peaceful that Edward could embark on a crusade. At Acre
+he very nearly fell a victim to a fanatic belonging to a body which
+counted assassination a religious duty. His wife, Eleanor of Castile,
+who was tenderly attached to him, had to be led out of his tent, lest
+her bitter grief should distract him during an operation which the
+surgeons held to be necessary. In =1272= Henry III. died, and his
+son, though in a distant land, was quietly accepted as his successor.
+
+[Illustration: East end of Westminster Abbey Church: begun by Henry
+III. in 1245.]
+
+[Illustration: Nave of Salisbury Cathedral Church, looking west. Date,
+between 1240 and 1250.]
+
+[Illustration: A king and labourers in the reign of Henry III.]
+
+26. =General Progress of the Country.=--In spite of the turmoils of
+Henry's reign the country made progress in many ways. Men busied
+themselves with replacing the old round-arched churches by large and
+more beautiful ones, in that Early English style of which Lincoln
+Cathedral was the first example on a large scale. In =1220= it was
+followed by Beverley Minster (see p. 189). The nave of Salisbury
+Cathedral was begun in =1240= (see p. 206), and a new Westminster
+Abbey grew piecemeal under Henry's own supervision during the greater
+part of the reign (see p. 205). Mental activity accompanied material
+activity. At Oxford there were reckoned 15,000 scholars. Most
+remarkable was the new departure taken by Walter de Merton, Henry's
+Chancellor. Hitherto each scholar had shifted for himself, lived where
+he could, and been subjected to little or no discipline. In founding
+Merton College, the first college which existed in the University,
+Merton proposed not only to erect a building in which the lads who
+studied might be boarded and placed under supervision, but to train
+them with a view to learning for its own sake, and not to prepare them
+for the priesthood. The eagerness to learn things difficult was
+accompanied by a desire to increase popular knowledge. For the first
+time since the Chronicle came to an end, which was soon after the
+accession of Henry II., a book--Layamon's _Brut_--appeared in the
+reign of John in the English language, and one at least of the songs
+which witness to the interest of the people in the great struggle with
+Henry III. was also written in the same language. Yet the great
+achievement of the fifty-six years of Henry's reign was--to use the
+language of the smith who refused to put fetters on the limbs of
+Hubert de Burgh (see p. 188)--the giving of England back to the
+English. In =1216= it was possible for Englishmen to prefer a
+French-born Louis as their king to an Angevin John. In =1272= England
+was indeed divided by class prejudices and conflicting interests, but
+it was nationally one. The greatest grievance suffered from Henry III.
+was his preference of foreigners over his own countrymen. In
+resistance to foreigners Englishmen had been welded together into a
+nation, and in their new king Edward they found a leader who would not
+only prove a wise and thoughtful ruler, but who was every inch an
+Englishman.
+
+_Genealogy of John's Sons and Grandsons._
+
+                               JOHN, 1199-1216
+                                 |
+        ----------------------------------------------
+        |                             |              |
+     HENRY III. = Eleanor of       Richard,       Eleanor = Simon de
+     1216-1272  | Provence     Earl of Cornwall             Montfort
+                |            and King of the Romans
+         -------------
+         |           |
+     EDWARD I.    Edmund, titular King of Sicily
+     1272-1307
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+EDWARD I. AND EDWARD II.
+
+EDWARD I., =1272--1307.= EDWARD II., =1307--1327.=
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Accession of Edward I.                                          1272
+  Death of Alexander III.                                         1285
+  The Award of Norham                                             1292
+  The Model Parliament                                            1295
+  The First Conquest of Scotland                                  1296
+  Confirmatio Cartarum                                            1297
+  Completion of the Second Conquest of Scotland                   1304
+  The Incorporation of Scotland with England                      1305
+  The Third Conquest of Scotland                                  1306
+  Accession of Edward II.                                         1307
+  Execution of Gaveston                                           1312
+  Battle of Bannockburn                                           1314
+  Execution of Lancaster                                          1322
+  Deposition of Edward II.                                        1327
+
+
+[Illustration: Great Seal of Edward I.]
+
+1. =The First Years of Edward I. 1272--1279.=--Edward I., though he
+inherited the crown in =1272=, did not return to England till =1274=,
+being able to move in a leisurely fashion across Europe without fear
+of disturbances at home. He fully accepted those articles of John's
+Great Charter which had been set aside at the beginning of the reign
+of Henry III., and which required that the king should only take
+scutages and aids with the consent of the Great Council or Parliament.
+The further requirement of the barons that they should name the
+ministers of the crown, was allowed to fall asleep. Edward was a
+capable ruler, and knew how to appoint better ministers than the
+barons were likely to choose for him. It was Edward's peculiar merit
+that he stood forward not only as a ruler but as a legislator. He
+succeeded in passing one law after another, because he thoroughly
+understood that useful legislation is only possible when the
+legislator on the one hand has an intelligent perception of the
+remedies needed to meet existing evils, and on the other hand is
+willing to content himself with such remedies as those who are to be
+benefited by them are ready to accept. The first condition was
+fulfilled by Edward's own skill as a lawyer, and by the skill of the
+great lawyers whom he employed. The second condition was fulfilled by
+his determination to authorise no new legislation without the counsel
+and consent of those who were most affected by it. He did not, indeed,
+till late in his reign call a whole Parliament together, as Earl Simon
+had done. But he called the barons together in any matter which
+affected the barons, and he called the representatives of the townsmen
+together in any matter which affected the townsmen, and so on with the
+other classes.
+
+2. =Edward I. and Wales. 1276--1284.=--Outside England Edward's first
+difficulty was with the Welsh, who, though their Princes had long been
+regarded by the English Kings as vassals, had practically maintained
+their independence in the mountainous region of North Wales of which
+Snowdon is the centre. Between them and the English Lords Marchers,
+who had been established to keep order in the marches, or border-land,
+there was nothing but hostility. The Welshmen made forays and
+plundered the English lands, and the English retorted by slaughtering
+Welshmen whenever they could come up with them amongst the hills.
+Naturally the Welsh took the side of any enemy of the English kings
+with whom it was possible to ally themselves. Llewelyn, Prince of
+Wales, had joined Earl Simon against Henry III., and had only done
+homage to Henry after Simon had been defeated. After Henry's death he
+refused homage to Edward till =1276=. In =1282= he and his brother
+David renewed the war, and Edward, determined to put an end to the
+independence of such troublesome neighbours, marched against them.
+Before the end of the year Llewelyn was slain, and David was captured
+and executed in =1283=. Wales then came fully under the dominion of
+the English kings. Edward's second son, afterwards King Edward II.,
+was born at Carnarvon in =1284=, and soon afterwards, having become
+heir to the throne upon the death of his elder brother, was presented
+to the Welsh as Prince of Wales, a title from that day usually
+bestowed upon the king's eldest son. At the same time, though Edward
+built strong castles at Conway and Carnarvon to hold the Welsh in awe,
+he made submission easier by enacting suitable laws for them, under
+the name of the Statute of Wales, and by establishing a separate body
+of local officials to govern them, as well as by confirming them in
+the possession of their lands and goods.
+
+[Illustration: Group of armed knights, and a king in ordinary dress.
+Date, _temp._ Edward I.]
+
+3. =Customs Duties. 1275.=--Though Edward I. was by no means
+extravagant, he found it impossible to meet the expenses of government
+without an increase of taxation. In =1275= he obtained the consent of
+Parliament to the increase of the duties on exports and imports which
+had hitherto been levied without Parliamentary sanction. He was now to
+receive by a Parliamentary grant a fixed export duty of 6_s._ 8_d._ on
+every sack of wool sent out of the country, and of a corresponding
+duty on wool-fells and leather. Under ordinary circumstances it is
+useless for any government to attempt to gain a revenue by export
+duty, because such a duty only raises the price abroad of the products
+of its own country, and foreigners will therefore prefer to buy the
+articles which they need from some country which does not levy export
+duties, and where, therefore, the articles are to be had more cheaply.
+England, however, was, in Edward's time, and for many years
+afterwards, an exception to the rule. On the Continent men could not
+produce much wool or leather for sale, because private wars were
+constantly occurring, and the fighting men were in the habit of
+driving off the sheep and the cattle. In England there were no private
+wars, and under the king's protection sheep and cattle could be bred
+in safety. There were now growing up manufactures of cloth in the
+fortified towns of Flanders, and the manufacturers there were obliged
+to come to England for the greater part of the wool which they used.
+They could not help paying not only the price of the wool, but the
+king's export duty as well, because if they refused they could not get
+sufficient wool in any other country.
+
+4. =Edward's Judicial Reforms. 1274--1290.=--Every king of England
+since the Norman Conquest had exercised authority in a twofold
+capacity. On one hand he was the head of the nation, on the other hand
+he was the feudal lord of his vassals. Edward laid more stress than
+any former king upon his national headship. Early in his reign he
+organised the courts of law, completing the division of the _Curia
+Regis_ into the three courts which existed till recent times: the
+Court of King's Bench, to deal with criminal offences reserved for the
+king's judgment, and with suits in which he was himself concerned; the
+Court of Exchequer, to deal with all matters touching the king's
+revenue; and the Court of Common Pleas, to deal with suits between
+subject and subject. Edward took care that the justice administered in
+these courts should as far as possible be real justice, and in =1289=
+he dismissed two Chief Justices and many other officials for
+corruption. In =1285= he improved the Assize of Arms of Henry II. (see
+p. 154), so as to be more sure of securing a national support for his
+government in time of danger.
+
+5. =Edward's Legislation. 1279--1290.=--It was in accordance with the
+national feeling that Edward, in =1290=, banished from England the
+Jews, whose presence was most profitable to himself, but who were
+regarded as cruel tyrants by their debtors. On the other hand, Edward
+took care to assert his rights as a feudal lord. In =1279=, by the
+statute _De religiosis_, commonly known as the Statute of Mortmain, he
+forbade the gift of land to the clergy, because in their hands land
+was no longer liable to the feudal dues. In =1290=, by another
+statute, _Quia emptores_, he forbade all new sub-infeudation. If from
+henceforth a vassal wished to part with his land, the new tenant was
+to hold it, not under the vassal who gave it up, but under that
+vassal's lord, whether the lord was the king or anyone else. The
+object of this law was to increase the number of tenants-in-chief, and
+thus to bring a larger number of landowners into direct relations with
+the king.
+
+[Illustration: Nave of Lichfield Cathedral, looking east. Built about
+1280.]
+
+6. =Edward as a National and as a Feudal Ruler.=--In his government of
+England Edward had sought chiefly to strengthen his position as the
+national king of the whole people, and to depress legally and without
+violence the power of the feudal nobility. He was, however, ambitious,
+with the ambition of a man conscious of great and beneficent aims, and
+he was quite ready to enforce even unduly his personal claims to
+feudal obedience whenever it served his purpose to do so. His
+favourite motto, 'Keep troth' (_Pactum serva_), revealed his sense of
+the inviolability of a personal engagement given or received, but his
+legal mind often led him into construing in his own favour
+engagements in which only the letter of the law was on his side,
+whilst its spirit was against him. It was chiefly in his relations
+with foreign peoples that he fell into this error, as it was here
+that he was most strongly tempted to lay stress upon the feudal tie
+which made for him, and to ignore the importance of a national
+resistance which made against him. In dealing with Wales, for
+instance, he sent David to a cruel death, because he had broken the
+feudal tie which bound him to the king of England, feeling no sympathy
+with him as standing up for the independence of his own people.
+
+7. =The Scottish Succession. 1285-1290.=--In the earlier part of
+Edward's reign Alexander III. was king of Scotland. Alexander's
+ancestors, indeed, had done homage to Edward's ancestors, but in
+=1189= William the Lion had purchased from Richard I. the abandonment
+of all the claim to homage for the crown of Scotland which Henry II.
+had acquired by the treaty of Falaise (see pp. 154, 159). William's
+successors, however, held lands in England, and had done homage for
+them to the English kings. Edward would gladly have restored the old
+practice of homage for Scotland itself, but to this Alexander had
+never given way. To Edward there was something alluring in the
+prospect of being lord of the whole island, as it would not only
+strengthen his own personal position, but would bring two nations into
+peaceful union. Between the southern part of Scotland, indeed, and the
+northern part of England there was no great dissimilarity. On both
+sides of the border the bulk of the population was of the same Anglian
+stock, whilst, in consequence of the welcome offered by the Scottish
+kings to persons of Norman descent, the nobility was as completely
+Norman in Scotland as it was in England, many of the nobles indeed
+possessing lands on both sides of the border. A prospect of effecting
+a union by peaceful means offered itself to Edward in =1285=, when
+Alexander III. was killed by a fall from his horse near Kinghorn.
+Alexander's only descendant was Margaret, a child of his daughter and
+of King Eric of Norway. In =1290= it was agreed that she should marry
+the Prince of Wales, but that the two kingdoms should remain
+absolutely independent of one another. Unfortunately, the Maid of
+Norway, as the child was called, died on her way to Scotland, and this
+plan for establishing friendly relations between the two countries
+came to naught. If it had succeeded three centuries of war and misery
+might possibly have been avoided.
+
+8. =Death of Eleanor of Castile. 1290.=--Another death, which happened
+in the same year, brought sorrow into Edward's domestic life. His wife
+Eleanor died in November. The corpse was brought for burial from
+Lincoln to Westminster, and the bereaved husband ordered the erection
+of a memorial cross at each place where the body rested.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of Eleanor of Castile, queen of Edward I., in
+Westminster Abbey.]
+
+9. =The Award of Norham. 1291--1292.=--Edward, sorrowing as he was,
+was unable to neglect the affairs of State. On the death of the Maid
+of Norway there was a large number of claimants to the Scottish crown.
+The hereditary principle, which had long before been adopted in regard
+to the succession to landed property, was gradually being adopted in
+most kingdoms in regard to the succession to the crown. There were
+still, however, differences of opinion as to the manner in which
+hereditary succession ought to be reckoned, and there were now many
+claimants, of whom at least three could make out a plausible case.
+David, Earl of Huntingdon, a brother of William the Lion, had left
+three daughters. The grandson of the eldest daughter was John Balliol;
+the son of the second was Robert Bruce; the grandson of the third was
+John Hastings. Balliol maintained that he ought to succeed as being
+descended from the eldest: Bruce urged that the son of a younger
+daughter was nearer to the common ancestor, David, than the grandson
+of the elder: whilst Hastings asked that Scotland should be divided
+into three parts--according to a custom which prevailed in feudal
+estates in which the holder left only daughters--amongst the
+representatives of David's three daughters.[15] Every one of these
+three claimants was an English baron, and Bruce held large estates in
+both countries. The only escape from a desolating civil war seemed to
+be to appeal to Edward's arbitration, and in =1291= Edward summoned
+the Scots to meet him at Norham. He then demanded as the price of his
+arbitration the acknowledgment of his position as lord paramount of
+Scotland, in virtue of which the Scottish king, when he had once been
+chosen, was to do homage to himself as king of England. Edward, who
+might fairly have held that, in spite of the abandonment of the treaty
+of Falaise by Richard, he had a right to the old vague over-lordship
+of earlier kings, appears to have thought it right to take the
+opportunity of Scotland's weakness to renew the stricter relationship
+of homage which had been given up by Richard. At all events, the
+Scottish nobles and clergy accepted his demand, though the commonalty
+made some objection, the nature of which has not been recorded. Edward
+then investigated carefully the points at issue, and in =1292= decided
+in favour of Balliol. If he had been actuated by selfish motives he
+would certainly have adopted the suggestion of Hastings that Scotland
+ought to be divided into three kingdoms.
+
+    [Footnote 15: Genealogy of the claimants of the Scottish throne:--
+
+                          DAVID I.
+                         1124-1153
+                             |
+                           Henry
+                             |
+         ----------------------------------------------
+         |            |                               |
+     MALCOLM IV.   WILLIAM                David, Earl of Huntingdon
+     1153-1165     THE LION                           |
+                  1165-1214        -------------------------------------
+                  /               |                   |                |
+                 /                |                   |                |
+                /             Margaret            Isabella            Ada
+       ALEXANDER II.       _m._ Alan, Lord     _m._ Robert Bruce  _m._ Henry
+        1214-1249           of Galloway               |             Hastings
+            |                     |                   |                |
+       ALEXANDER III.         Devorguilla        Robert Bruce        Henry
+        1249-1285          _m._ John Balliol     the Claimant       Hastings
+            |                     |                   |                |
+            |              ----------------           |                |
+         Margaret          |              |           |              John
+       _m._ Eric, king    Margaret   JOHN BALLIOL   Robert Bruce     Hastings,
+         of Norway    _m._ John, the    1292-1296     |               the
+            |          Black Comyn        |           |             Claimant
+            |              |              |           |
+         Margaret,         |        Edward Balliol  ROBERT BRUCE
+       The Maid of    John, the Red                  1306-1329
+         Norway          Comyn]
+
+[Illustration: Cross erected near Northampton by Edward I. in memory
+of Queen Eleanor built between 1291 and 1294.]
+
+10. =Disputes with Scotland and France. 1293--1295.=--The new king of
+Scotland did homage to Edward for his whole kingdom. If Edward could
+have contented himself with enforcing the ordinary obligations of
+feudal superiority all might have gone well. Unfortunately for all
+parties, he attempted to stretch them by insisting in =1293= that
+appeals from the courts of the king of Scotland should lie to the
+courts of the king of England. Suitors found that their rights could
+not be ascertained till they had undertaken a long and costly journey
+to Westminster. A national feeling of resistance was roused amongst
+the Scots, and though Edward pressed his claims courteously, he
+continued to press them. A temper grew up in Scotland which might be
+dangerous to him if Scotland could find an ally, and an ally was not
+long in presenting himself. Philip IV. now king of France, was as wily
+and unscrupulous as Philip II. had been in the days of John. Edward
+was his vassal in Guienne and Gascony, and Philip knew how to turn the
+feudal relationship to account in France as well as Edward knew how to
+turn it to account in Scotland. The Cinque Ports[16] along the
+south-eastern shore of England swarmed with hardy and practised
+mariners, and there had often been sea-fights between French and
+English sailors quite independently of the two kings. In =1293= there
+was a great battle in which the French were worsted. Though Edward was
+ready to punish the offenders, Philip summoned him to appear as a
+vassal before his lord's court at Paris. In =1294=, however, an
+agreement was made between the two kings. Edward was for mere form's
+sake to surrender his French fortresses to Philip in token of
+submission, and Philip was then to return them. Philip, having thus
+got the fortresses into his hands, refused to return them. In =1295= a
+league was made between France and Scotland, which lasted for more
+than three hundred years. Its permanence was owing to the fact that it
+was a league between nations more than a league between kings.
+
+    [Footnote 16: Sandwich, Dover, Hythe, Romney, Hastings; to which
+    were added Winchelsea and Rye as 'ancient towns,' besides several
+    'limbs' or dependencies.]
+
+11. =The Model Parliament. 1295.=--Edward, attacked on two sides,
+threw himself for support on the English nation. Towards the end of
+=1295= he summoned a Parliament which was in most respects the model
+for all succeeding Parliaments. It was attended not only by bishops,
+abbots, earls, and barons, by two knights from every shire, and two
+burgesses from every borough, but also by representatives of the
+chapters of cathedrals and of the parochial clergy. It cannot be said
+with any approach to certainty, whether the Parliament thus collected
+met in one House or not. As, however, the barons and knights offered
+an eleventh of the value of their movable goods, the clergy a tenth,
+and the burgesses a seventh, it is not unlikely that there was a
+separation into what in modern times would be called three Houses, at
+least for purposes of taxation. At all events, the representatives of
+the clergy subsequently refused to sit in Parliament, preferring to
+vote money to the Crown in their own convocations.
+
+[Illustration: Sir John d'Abernoun, died 1277: from his brass at Stoke
+Dabernon: showing armour worn from about 1250 to 1300.]
+
+12. =The first Conquest of Scotland. 1296.=--In =1296= Edward turned
+first upon Scotland. After he crossed the border Balliol sent to him
+renouncing his homage. "Has the felon fool done such folly?" said
+Edward. "If he will not come to us, we will go to him." He won a
+decisive victory over the Scots at Dunbar. Balliol surrendered his
+crown, and was carried off, never to reappear in Scotland. Edward set
+up no more vassal kings. He declared himself to be the immediate king
+of Scotland, Balliol having forfeited the crown by treason. The
+Scottish nobles did homage to him. On his return to England he left
+behind him the Earl of Surrey and Sir Hugh Cressingham as guardians of
+the kingdom, and he carried off from Scone the stone of destiny on
+which the Scottish kings had been crowned, and concerning which there
+had been an old prophecy to the effect that wherever that stone was
+Scottish kings should rule. The stone was placed, where it still
+remains, under the coronation-chair of the English kings in
+Westminster Abbey, and there were those long afterwards who deemed the
+prophecy fulfilled when the Scottish King James VI. came to take his
+seat on that chair as James I. of England.
+
+13. =The Resistance of Archbishop Winchelsey. 1296--1297.=--The
+dispute with France and the conquest of Scotland cost much money, and
+Edward, finding his ordinary revenue insufficient, had been driven to
+increase it by unusual means. He gathered assemblies of the merchants,
+and persuaded them without the leave of Parliament to increase the
+export duties, and he also induced the clergy in the same way to grant
+him large sums. The clergy were the first to resist. In =1296=
+Boniface VIII., a Pope who pushed to the extreme the Papal claims to
+the independence of the Church, issued the Bull, _Clericis laicos_, in
+which he declared that the clergy were not to pay taxes without the
+Pope's consent; and when at the end of the year Edward called on his
+Parliament to grant him fresh sums, Winchelsey, the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, refused, on the ground of this Bull, to allow a penny to
+be levied from the clergy. Edward, instead of arguing with him,
+directed the chief justice of the King's Bench to announce that, as
+the clergy would pay no taxes, they would no longer be protected by
+the king. The clergy now found themselves in evil case. Anyone who
+pleased could rob them or beat them, and no redress was to be had.
+They soon therefore evaded their obligation to obey the Bull, and paid
+their taxes, under the pretence that they were making presents to the
+king, on which Edward again opened his courts to them. In the days of
+Henry I. or Henry II. it would not have been possible to treat the
+clergy in this fashion. The fact was, that the mass of the people now
+looked to the king instead of to the Church for protection, and
+therefore respected the clergy less than they had done in earlier
+days.
+
+14. =The 'Confirmatio Cartarum.' 1297.=--In =1297= Edward, having
+subdued the Scots in the preceding year, resolved to conduct one army
+to Flanders, and to send another to Gascony to maintain his rights
+against Philip IV. He therefore called on his barons to take part in
+these enterprises. Amongst those ordered to go to Gascony were Roger
+Bigod, Earl of Norfolk, and Humfrey Bohun, Earl of Hereford. They
+declared that they were only bound to follow the king himself, and
+that as Edward was not going in person to Gascony they would not go.
+"By God, Sir Earl," said the king to one of them, "you shall either go
+or hang." "By God," was the reply, "I will neither go nor hang." The
+two earls soon found support. The barons were sore because Edward's
+reforms had diminished their authority. The clergy were sore because
+of their recent treatment. The merchants were sore because of the
+exactions to which they had been subjected. Archbishop Winchelsey
+bound the malcontents together by asking Edward to confirm _Magna
+Carta_ and other charters granted by his predecessors, and by adding
+other articles now proposed for the first time, so as to preclude him
+from demanding taxes not granted by Parliament. Edward found that the
+new articles restricted his action more than it had been restricted by
+the older charters. He was deeply vexed, as he thought that he
+deserved to be trusted, and that, though he had exacted illegal
+payments, he had only done so out of necessity. He saw, however, that
+he must yield, but he could not bring himself to yield in person, and
+he therefore crossed the sea to Flanders, leaving the Prince of Wales
+to make the required concession. On October 10, =1297=, the
+_Confirmatio Cartarum_, as it was called, was issued in the king's
+name. It differed from _Magna Carta_ in this, that whereas John had
+only engaged not to exact feudal revenue from his vassals without
+consent of Parliament, Edward I. also engaged not to exact customs
+duties without a Parliamentary grant. From that time no general
+revenue could be taken from the whole realm without a breach of the
+law, though the king still continued for some time to raise tallages,
+or special payments, from the tenants of his own demesne lands.
+
+15. =Wallace's Rising. 1297--1304.=--Whilst Edward was contending with
+his own people his officers had been oppressing the Scots. They had
+treated Scotland as a conquered land, not as a country joined to
+England by equal union. Resistance began in =1297=, and a rising was
+headed by Wallace, a gentleman of moderate fortune in the western
+lowlands. Wallace's bold and vigorous attacks gained him the
+confidence of the lesser gentry and the people, though the nobles,
+mostly of Norman descent, supported the English government, and only
+joined Wallace when it was dangerous to stand aloof. In the autumn, an
+English army advancing into Scotland reached the south bank of the
+Forth near Stirling. Wallace, who showed on that day that he was
+skilful as well as brave, drew up his army on the north bank at some
+little distance from the narrow bridge over which the English must
+come if they were to attack him. When half of them had crossed, he
+fell upon that half before the troops in the rear could advance to its
+succour. Wallace's victory was complete, and he then invaded England,
+ravaging and slaughtering as far as Hexham.
+
+16. =The Second Conquest of Scotland. 1298--1304.=--In =1298= Edward,
+who had been unsuccessful on the Continent, made a truce with Philip.
+Returning to England, he marched against Wallace, and came up with
+him at Falkirk. The battle which ensued, like William's victory at
+Senlac (see p. 96), was a triumph of inventive military skill over
+valour content to rest upon ancient methods. The Scots were hardy
+footmen, drawn up in three rings, and provided with long spears.
+Against such a force so armed the cavalry of the feudal array would
+dash itself in vain. Edward, however, had marked in his Welsh wars the
+superiority of the long-bow drawn to the ear--not, as in the case of
+the shorter bows of older times, to the breast of the archer--and
+sending its cloth-yard shaft with a strength and swiftness hitherto
+unknown. He now brought with him a large force of bowmen equipped in
+this fashion. At Falkirk the long-bow was tried for the first time in
+any considerable battle. The effect was overwhelming: a shower of
+arrows poured upon a single point in the ring of the spearmen soon
+cleared a gap. Edward's cavalry dashed in before the enemy had time to
+close, and the victory was won. Wallace had had scarcely one of the
+Scottish nobles with him either at Stirling or at Falkirk, and unless
+all Scotland combined he could hardly be expected to succeed against
+such a warrior as Edward. Wallace's merit was that he did not despair
+of his country, and that by his patriotic vigour he prepared the minds
+of Scotsmen for a happier day. He himself fled to France, but Scotland
+struggled on without him. Some of the nobles, now that Wallace was no
+longer present to give them cause of jealousy, took part in the
+resistance, and only in =1304= did Edward after repeated campaigns
+complete his second conquest of the country.
+
+17. =The Incorporation of Scotland with England. 1305.=--In =1305=
+Wallace, who had returned from France, but had taken no great part in
+the late resistance, was betrayed to the English. His barbarity in his
+raid on Northumberland in =1297= (see p. 221) had marked him out for
+vengeance, and he was executed at Tyburn as a traitor to the English
+king of Scotland, whose right he had never acknowledged. Edward then
+proceeded to incorporate Scotland with England. Scotland was to be
+treated very much as Wales had been treated before. There was to be as
+little harshness as possible. Nobles who had resisted Edward were to
+keep their estates on payment of fines, the Scottish law was to be
+observed, and Scots were to be chosen to represent the wishes of their
+fellow-countrymen in the Parliament at Westminster. On the other hand,
+the Scottish nobles were to surrender their castles, and the country
+was to be governed by an English Lieutenant, who, together with his
+council, had power to amend the laws.
+
+18. =Character of Edward's Dealings with Scotland.=--Edward's
+dealings with Scotland, mistaken as they were, were not those of a
+self-willed tyrant. If it be once admitted that he was really the lord
+paramount of Scotland, everything that he did may be justified upon
+feudal principles. First, Balliol forfeited his vassal crown by
+breaking his obligations as a vassal. Secondly, Edward, through the
+default of his vassal, took possession of the fief which Balliol had
+forfeited, and thus became the immediate lord of Balliol's vassals.
+Thirdly, those vassals rebelled--so at least Edward would have
+said--against their new lord. Fourthly, they thereby forfeited their
+estates to him, and he was therefore, according to his own view, in
+the right in restoring their estates to them--if he restored them at
+all--under new conditions. Satisfactory as this argument must have
+seemed to Edward, it was weak in two places. The Scots might attack it
+at its basis by retorting that Edward had never truly been lord
+paramount of Scotland at all; or they might assert that it did not
+matter whether he was so or not, because the Scottish right to
+national independence was superior to all feudal claims. It is this
+latter argument which has the most weight at the present day, and it
+seems to us strange that Edward, who had done so much to encourage the
+national growth of England, should have entirely ignored the national
+growth of Scotland. All that can be said to palliate Edward's mistake
+is that it was, at first, difficult to perceive that there was a
+Scottish nationality at all. Changes in the political aspect of
+affairs grow up unobserved, and it was not till after his death that
+all classes in Scotland were completely welded together in resistance
+to an English king. At all events, if he treated the claim of the
+Scots to national independence with contempt, he at least strove,
+according to his own notions, to benefit Scots and English alike. He
+hoped that one nation, justly ruled under one government, would grow
+up in the place of two divided peoples.
+
+19. =Robert Bruce. 1306.=--It was better even for England that
+Edward's hopes should fail. Scotland would have been of little worth
+to its more powerful neighbour if it had been cowed into subjection;
+whereas when, after struggling and suffering for her independence, she
+offered herself freely as the companion and ally of England to share
+in common duties and common efforts, the gift was priceless. That
+Scotland was able to shake off the English yoke was mainly the work of
+Robert Bruce, the grandson of the Robert Bruce who had been one of the
+claimants of the Scottish crown at Norham. The Bruces, like Balliol,
+were of Norman descent, and as Balliol's rivals they had attached
+themselves to Edward. The time was now come when all chances of
+Balliol's restoration were at an end, and thoughts of gaining the
+crown stirred in the mind of the younger Bruce. After Edward's last
+settlement of Scotland it was plain that there was no longer room for
+a Scottish vassal king, and Bruce was therefore driven to connect his
+own aspirations with those of the Scottish nation. He had, however,
+one powerful rival amongst the nobles. John Comyn--the Red Comyn, as
+he was called--had been one of the many claimants of the throne who
+appeared before Edward at Norham, and he still looked with a jealous
+eye upon all who disputed his title. He was, however, persuaded in
+=1306= to meet Bruce in the Grey Friars Church at Dumfries. As Bruce
+pleaded his own right to the crown, Comyn denounced him as a traitor
+to Edward. Bruce answered by driving his dagger into him. "I doubt,"
+cried Bruce, as he rushed from the church, "that I have slain the Red
+Comyn." "I will mak sicker" (_make sure_), said Kirkpatrick, who was
+in attendance upon him, and, going in, completed the murder. Bruce
+made for Scone and was crowned king of Scotland in the presence of
+many of the chief nobility.
+
+20. =Edward's Last March on Scotland and Death. 1306--1307.= Edward,
+to whom Bruce was but a rebel and a murderer, despatched against him
+the Earl of Pembroke who routed his forces at Methven. The revolt was
+suppressed and Bruce's supporters were carried off to English prisons,
+and their lands divided amongst English noblemen. The Countess of
+Buchan, who had taken a prominent part in Bruce's coronation, was
+subjected to an imprisonment of great severity in the castle of
+Berwick. Bruce almost alone escaped. He knew now that he had the
+greater part of the nobility as well as the people at his side, and
+even in his lonely wanderings and hairbreadth escapes he was, what
+neither Balliol nor Wallace had been, the true head of the Scottish
+nation. Before the end of =1306= he reappeared in Carrick, where his
+own possessions lay, and where the whole population was on his side,
+and inflicted heavy losses on the English garrisons. Early in July
+=1307= Edward, who himself had tarried in Cumberland, once more set
+out to take the field in person; but he was now old and worn out, and
+he died at Burgh on Sands, a few miles on the English side of the
+border.
+
+[Illustration: Edward II.; from his monument in Gloucester Cathedral.]
+
+21. =Edward II. and Piers Gaveston. 1307--1312.=--The new king, Edward
+II., was as different as possible from his father. He was not wicked,
+like William II. and John, but he detested the trouble of public
+business, and thought that the only advantage of being a king was that
+he would have leisure to amuse himself. During his father's life he
+devoted himself to Piers Gaveston, a Gascon, who encouraged him in
+his pleasures and taught him to mistrust his father. Edward I.
+banished Gaveston; Edward II., immediately on his accession, not only
+recalled him, but made him regent when he himself crossed to France to
+be married to Isabella, the daughter of Philip IV. The barons, who
+were already inclined to win back some of the authority of which
+Edward I. had deprived them, were very angry at the place taken over
+their heads by an upstart favourite, especially as Gaveston was
+ill-bred enough to make jests at their expense. The barons found a
+leader in Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, the son of that Edmund, the
+brother of Edward I., who had received the title of king of Sicily
+from the Pope (see p. 197). Thomas of Lancaster had very large
+estates. He was an ambitious man, who tried to play the part which had
+been played by Earl Simon without any of Simon's qualifications for
+the position. In =1308= the king yielded to the barons so far as to
+send Gaveston out of the country to Ireland as his Lieutenant. In
+=1309= he recalled him. The barons were exasperated, and in the
+Parliament of =1310= they brought forward a plan for taking the
+king's government out of his hands, very much after the fashion of the
+Provisions of Oxford. Twenty-one barons were appointed Lords
+Ordainers, to draw up ordinances for the government of the country. In
+=1311= they produced the ordinances. Gaveston was to be banished for
+life. The king was to appoint officers only with the consent of the
+barons, without which he was not to go to war nor leave the kingdom.
+The ordinances may have been justified in so far as they restrained
+the authority of a king so incapable as Edward II. Constitutionally
+their acceptance was a retrograde step, as, like the Provisions of
+Oxford, they placed power in the hands of the barons, passing over
+Parliament as a whole. Edward agreed to the ordinances, but refused to
+surrender Gaveston. The barons took arms to enforce their will, and in
+=1312=, having captured Gaveston, they beheaded him near Warwick
+without the semblance of a trial.
+
+22. =Success of Robert Bruce. 1307--1314.=--Whilst Edward and the
+barons were disputing Bruce gained ground rapidly. In =1313= Stirling
+was the only fortress of importance in Scotland still garrisoned by
+the English, and the English garrison bound itself to surrender on
+June 24, =1314=, if it had not been previously relieved. Even Edward
+II. was stirred by this doleful news, and in =1314= he put himself at
+the head of an army to relieve Stirling. Lancaster, however, and all
+whom he could influence refused to follow him, on the ground that the
+king had not, in accordance with the ordinances, received permission
+from the barons to go to war. On June 24 Edward reached Bannockburn,
+within sight of Stirling. Like his father, he brought with him English
+archers as well as English horsemen, but he foolishly sent his archers
+far in advance of his horsemen, where they would be entirely
+unprotected. Bruce, on the other hand, not only had a small body of
+horse, which rode down the archers, but he strengthened the defensive
+position of his spearmen by digging pits in front of his line and
+covering them with turf. Into these pits the foremost horses of the
+English cavalry plunged. Edward's whole array was soon one mass of
+confusion, and before it could recover itself a body of gillies, or
+camp-followers, appearing over a hill was taken for a fresh Scottish
+army. The vast English host turned and fled. Stirling at once
+surrendered, and all Scotland was lost to Edward. Materially, both
+England and Scotland suffered grievously from the result of the battle
+of Bannockburn. English invasions of southern Scotland and Scottish
+invasions of northern England spread desolation far and wide, stifling
+the germs of nascent civilisation. Morally, both nations were in the
+end the gainers. The hardihood and self-reliance of the Scottish
+character is distinctly to be traced to those years of struggle
+against a powerful neighbour. England, too, was the better for being
+balked of its prey. No nation can suppress the liberty of another
+without endangering its own.
+
+[Illustration: Lincoln Cathedral--the central tower; built about
+1310.]
+
+23. =Lancaster's Government. 1314--1322.=--Edward was thrown by his
+defeat entirely under the power of Lancaster, who took the whole
+authority into his hands and placed and displaced ministers at his
+pleasure. Lancaster, however, was a selfish and incompetent ruler. He
+allowed the Scots to ravage the north of England without venturing to
+oppose them, and as he could not even keep order at home, private wars
+broke out amongst the barons. In =1318= Bruce took Berwick, the great
+border fortress against Scotland. It was rather by good luck than by
+good management that Edward was at last able to resist Lancaster.
+Edward could not exist without a personal favourite, and he found one
+in Hugh le Despenser. Despenser was at least an Englishman, which
+Gaveston had not been, and his father, Hugh le Despenser the elder,
+did his best to raise up a party to support the king. In =1321=,
+however, Parliament, under Lancaster's influence, declared against
+them and sentenced them to exile. Edward took arms for his favourites,
+and in =1322= defeated Lancaster at Boroughbridge, and then had him
+tried and beheaded at Pontefract.
+
+24. =A Constitutional Settlement. 1322.=--Favourites as they were, the
+Despensers had at least the merit of seeing that the king could not
+overpower the barons by the mere assertion of his personal authority.
+At a Parliament held at York in =1322=, the king obtained the
+revocation of the ordinances, and a declaration that 'matters to be
+established for the estate of our lord the king and of his heirs, and
+for the estate of the realm and of the people, shall be treated,
+accorded, and established in Parliaments by our lord the king, and by
+the consent of the prelates, earls and barons, and commonalty of the
+realm, according as hath been hitherto accustomed.' Edward I. had in
+=1295= gathered a full Parliament, including the commons. But there
+was no law to prevent him or his successors excluding the commons on
+some future occasion. Edward II. by this declaration, issued with
+consent of Parliament, confirmed his father's practice by a
+legislative act. Unless the law were broken or repealed, no future
+statute could come into existence without the consent of the commons.
+
+25. =The Rule of the Despensers. 1322--1326.=--For some years after
+the execution of Lancaster, Edward, or rather the Despensers, retained
+power, but it was power which did not work for good. In =1323= Edward
+made a truce with Scotland, but the cessation of foreign war did not
+bring with it a cessation of troubles at home. Edward was entirely
+unable to control his favourites. The elder Despenser was covetous and
+the younger Despenser haughty, and they both made enemies for
+themselves and the king. Queen Isabella was alienated from her
+husband, partly by his exclusive devotion to the Despensers and partly
+by the contempt which an active woman is apt to feel for a husband
+without a will of his own. In =1325= she went to France, and was soon
+followed by her eldest son, named Edward after his father. From that
+moment she conspired against her husband. In =1326= she landed,
+accompanied by her paramour, Robert Mortimer, and bringing with her
+foreign troops. The barons rose in her favour. London joined them, and
+all resistance was speedily beaten down. The elder Despenser was
+hanged by the queen at Bristol. The younger was hanged, after a form
+of trial, at Hereford.
+
+[Illustration: Sir John de Creke; from his brass at Westley Waterless,
+Cambridgeshire: showing armour worn between 1300 and 1335 or 1340.
+Date, about 1325.]
+
+26. =The Deposition and Murder of Edward II. 1327.=--Early in =1327= a
+Parliament met at Westminster. It was filled with the king's enemies,
+and under pressure from the queen and Mortimer Edward II. was
+compelled to sign a declaration of his own wrong-doing and
+incompetency, after which he formally resigned the crown. He was
+allowed to live for eight months, at the end of which he was brutally
+murdered in Berkeley Castle. The deposition of Edward II.--for his
+enforced resignation was practically nothing less than that--was the
+work of a faithless wife and of unscrupulous partisans, but at least
+they clothed their vengeance in the forms of Parliamentary action. It
+was by the action of Parliament in loosing the feudal ties by which
+vassals were bound to an unworthy king, that it rose to the full
+position of being the representative of the nation, and at the same
+time virtually proclaimed that the wants of the nation must be
+satisfied at the expense of the feudal claims of the king. The
+national headship of the king would from henceforward be the
+distinguishing feature of his office, whilst his feudal right to
+personal service would grow less and less important every year.
+
+[Illustration: Howden Church, Yorkshire--the west front; built about
+1310-1320. The tower was built between 1390 and 1407.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD III. TO THE TREATY OF BRETIGNI.
+
+1327--1360.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Edward III.,   1327--1377
+
+  Accession of Edward III.                                        1327
+  Beginning of the War with France                                1337
+  Battle of Crecy                                                 1346
+  The Black Death                                                 1348
+  Battle of Poitiers                                              1356
+  Treaty of Bretigni                                              1360
+
+
+1. =Mortimer's Government. 1327--1330.=--Edward III. was only fifteen
+at his accession. For three years power was in the hands of his
+mother's paramour, Mortimer. Robert Bruce, though old and smitten with
+leprosy, was still anxious to wring from England an acknowledgment of
+Scottish independence, and, in spite of the existing truce, sent an
+army to ravage the northern counties of England. Edward led in person
+against it an English force far superior in numbers and equipment; but
+the English soldier needed many things, whilst the Scot contented
+himself with a little oatmeal carried on the back of his hardy pony.
+If he grew tired of that he had but to seize an English sheep or cow
+and to boil the flesh in the hide. Such an army was difficult to come
+up with. Fighting there was none, except once when the Scots broke
+into the English camp at night and almost succeeded in carrying off
+the young king. Mortimer was at his wits' end, and in =1328= agreed to
+a treaty acknowledging the complete independence of Scotland. It was a
+wise thing to do, but no nation likes to acknowledge failure, and
+Mortimer became widely unpopular. He succeeded indeed in breaking up a
+conspiracy against himself, and in =1330= even executed Edmund, Earl
+of Kent, a brother of Edward II. The discontented barons found another
+leader in the king, who, young as he was, had been married at fifteen
+to Philippa of Hainault. Though he was already a father, he was still
+treated by Mortimer as a child, and was virtually kept a prisoner. At
+Nottingham he introduced a body of Mortimer's enemies into the castle
+through a secret passage in the rock on which it stood. His mother
+pleaded in vain for her favourite: "Fair son, have pity on the gentle
+Mortimer." Mortimer was hanged, and Queen Isabella was never again
+allowed to take part in public affairs.
+
+2. =The French Succession. 1328--1331.=--Isabella's three brothers,
+Louis X., Philip V., and Charles IV., had successively reigned in
+France. Louis X. died in =1316=, leaving behind him a daughter and a
+posthumous son, who died a week after his birth. Then Philip V. seized
+the crown, his lawyers asserting that, according to the Salic law, 'no
+part of the heritage of Salic land can fall to a woman,' and that
+therefore no woman could rule in France. As a matter of fact this was
+a mere quibble of the lawyers. The Salic law had been the law of the
+Salian Franks in the fifth century, and had to do with the inheritance
+of estates, not with the inheritance of the throne of France, which
+was not at that time in existence. The quibble, however, was used on
+the right side. What Frenchmen wanted was that France should remain an
+independent nation, which it was not likely to do under a queen who
+might marry the king of another country. The rule thus laid down was
+permanently adopted in France. When Philip V. died in =1322= the
+throne passed, not to his daughter, but to his brother, Charles IV.,
+and when Charles died in =1328=, to his cousin, Philip of Valois, who
+reigned as Philip VI. At that time England was still under the control
+of Mortimer and Isabella, and though Isabella, being the sister of
+Charles IV., thought of claiming the crown, not for herself, but for
+her son, Mortimer did not press the claim. In =1329= he sent Edward to
+do homage to Philip VI. for his French possessions, but Edward only
+did it with certain reservations, and in =1330= preparations for war
+were made in England. In =1331=, after Mortimer's fall, when Edward
+was his own master, he again visited France, and a treaty was
+concluded between the two kings in which he abandoned the reservations
+on his homage.
+
+[Illustration: Effigies of Edward III. and Queen Philippa; from their
+tombs in Westminster Abbey.]
+
+3. =Troubles in Scotland. 1329--1336.=--On his return, Edward looked
+in another direction. In =1329= Robert Bruce died, leaving his crown
+to his son, David II., a child five years old. Certain English
+noblemen had in the late treaty (see p. 231) been promised restoration
+of the estates of their ancestors in Scotland, and in =1332= some of
+them, finding the promise unfulfilled, offered English forces to John
+Balliol's son, Edward, to help him to the Scottish crown. Aided by
+his English allies, Edward Balliol landed in Scotland, defeated the
+Scottish army at Dupplin, and was crowned king. Before the end of the
+year he was surprised at Annan, and fled to England to appeal to
+Edward for help. Though Edward had all the love of enterprise of his
+grandfather, Edward I., yet there was a marked contrast between the
+deliberate calculation of Edward I. and the almost accidental way in
+which Edward III. involved himself in an attempt to regain the
+lordship of Scotland. In =1333= he laid siege to Berwick, then in the
+hands of the Scots. The Scots advanced into England, and their
+spearmen crossed a marsh to attack the English array of knights and
+archers posted on the slope of Halidon Hill. The arrows poured like
+rain on their struggling columns. The Scots were thrown into
+confusion, and their whole army was almost destroyed. Berwick was
+regained, and Bannockburn, it seemed, was avenged. Edward not only set
+up Balliol as his vassal, but compelled him to yield all Scotland
+south of the Forth to be annexed to England. Such a settlement could
+not last. Balliol was as weak as his father had been, and the Scots,
+recovering courage, drove him out in =1334=. Edward invaded Scotland
+again and again. As long as he was in the country he was strong enough
+to keep his puppet on the throne, but whenever he returned to England
+David Bruce's supporters regained strength. The struggle promised to
+be lengthy unless help came to the Scots.
+
+4. =Dispute with France. 1336--1337.=--Philip VI., like Philip IV. in
+the days of Edward I. (see p. 218), had his own reasons for not
+allowing the Scots to be crushed. He pursued the settled policy of his
+predecessors in attempting to bring the great fiefs into his power,
+and especially that part of Aquitaine which was still held by the most
+powerful of his vassals, the king of England. Whilst Edward was doing
+his best to bring Scotland into subjection by open war, Philip was
+doing his best to disturb Edward in his hold upon Aquitaine by secret
+intrigues and legal chicanery. Ill-feeling increased on both sides.
+Philip welcomed David Bruce and gave him protection in France, and in
+=1336= French sailors attacked English shipping and landed plunderers
+in the Isle of Wight. In =1337= Edward determined to resist, and the
+long war roughly known as the Hundred Years' War began. It was in
+reality waged to discover by an appeal to arms whether the whole of
+Aquitaine was to be incorporated with France and whether Scotland was
+to be incorporated with England. That which gave it its peculiar
+bitterness was, however, not so much the claims of the kings, as the
+passions of their subjects. The national antagonism aroused by the
+plunderings of French sea-rovers would be invigorated by the
+plunderings of Englishmen in the fields of France.
+
+5. =Edward's Allies. 1337--1338.=--To Edward it was merely a question
+of defending, first England, and then Aquitaine, against aggression.
+He won over, with large offers of money, the alliance of the princes
+of the Empire whose lands lay round the French frontier to the north
+and east, and even gained the support of the Emperor Lewis the
+Bavarian. His relations with Flanders were even more important. In
+Flanders there had sprung up great manufacturing towns, such as Ghent,
+Bruges, and Ypres, which worked up into cloth the wool which was the
+produce of English sheep. These wealthy towns claimed political
+independence, and thus came into collision with their feudal lord, the
+Count of Flanders. Early in the reign of Philip VI., the Count, who
+held the greater part of his lands from the king of France, had
+appealed to Philip for support, and Philip, who, unlike his wiser
+predecessors, despised the strength which he might gain from the
+goodwill of citizens in a struggle against their lords, took the part
+of the Count, and for a time crushed the citizens at the battle of
+Cassel. After a while the cities recovered themselves, and formed an
+alliance under the leadership of Jacob van Arteveldt, a Flemish
+nobleman, who had ingratiated himself with them by enrolling himself
+amongst the brewers of Ghent, and who was now successful in urging his
+countrymen to enter into friendship with Edward.
+
+6. =Chivalry and War.=--In the long run Edward's cause would be found
+a losing one, but there were circumstances which made it prevail for a
+time. In France there was a broad distinction between gentlemen on the
+one side and citizens and peasants on the other. The gentlemen
+despised all who were not of their own class. In earlier days there
+had sprung up a view of life known as chivalry, which taught that the
+knight was bound to observe the laws of honour, to fight fairly, to
+treat with courtesy a defeated enemy, and to protect women and all who
+were unable to help themselves. Ennobling as the idea was, it had been
+narrowed by the refusal of the gentlemen to extend the rules of
+chivalry beyond their own order, and they were, therefore, ready to
+exercise cruelty upon those who were not gentlemen, whilst proffering
+the most high-flown compliments to those who were. In France, too,
+this broad distinction of ranks told upon the military strength of the
+crown. The fighting force of the French king was his feudal array of
+armour-protected cavalry, composed entirely of gentlemen, and aiming
+at deciding battles in the old fashion by the rush of horsemen. If
+foot soldiers were brought at all into the field they were, for the
+most part, ill armed and ill trained peasants, exposed to be
+helplessly slaughtered by the horsemen.
+
+[Illustration: A knight--Sir Geoffrey Luttrell, who died
+1345--receiving his helm and pennon from his wife. Another lady holds
+his shield.]
+
+7. =Commerce and War.=--In England, on the other hand, the various
+orders of society had been welded together into a united people. The
+king and his vassals indeed still talked the language of chivalry, but
+they were wise enough to seek strength elsewhere. War had become in
+England the affair of the nation, and no longer the affair of a class.
+It must be waged with efficient archers as well as with efficient
+horsemen, the archers being drawn from the class of yeomen or free
+landed proprietors of small plots of land, which was entirely wanting
+in France. Such an army needed pay, and the large sums required for
+the purpose could only be extracted from a nation which, like the
+English, had grown comparatively rich because it was at peace within
+its own borders. Edward was compelled, if he wanted to fight, to
+encourage trade, though it is only fair to remember that he showed
+himself ready to encourage trade without any such ulterior object. He
+brought Flemish weavers into England, and did his best to improve the
+feeble woollen manufacture of the Eastern counties. His great
+resource, however, for purposes of taxation, was the export of wool to
+the Flemish manufacturing towns. Sometimes he persuaded Parliament to
+raise the duties upon exported wool; sometimes he raised them, by an
+evasion of the law, after making a private compact with the merchants
+without consulting Parliament at all; sometimes he turned merchant
+himself and bought wool cheaply in England to sell it dear in
+Flanders. It was said of a great minister of later times that he made
+trade flourish by means of war.[17] It might be said with greater
+truth of Edward III. that he made war flourish by means of trade.
+
+    [Footnote 17: See the inscription on the monument to the elder Pitt
+    in the Guildhall, in the City of London.]
+
+[Illustration: William of Hatfield, second son of Edward III.; from
+his tomb in York Minster: showing rich costume worn by the youth of
+the upper classes about 1340. The embroidery on the tunic has been
+partly worn off on the effigy.]
+
+[Illustration: York Minster:--The nave, looking west, built during the
+first half of the fourteenth century. The west window was completed
+and glazed in 1338.]
+
+8. =Attacks on the North of France. 1338--1340.=--Great as was
+Edward's advantage in having a united nation at his back, it hardly
+seemed in the first years of the war as though he knew how to use it.
+Though he had declared war against Philip in =1337=, he did not begin
+hostilities till the following year. In =1338=, after landing at
+Antwerp, he obtained from the Emperor Lewis the title of Imperial
+Vicar, which gave him a right to the military services of the vassals
+of the Empire. Crowds of German and Low Country lords pressed into his
+ranks, but they all wanted high pay, and his resources, great as
+they were, were soon exhausted, and he had to pawn his crowns to
+satisfy their needs. These lords proved as useless as they were
+expensive. In =1339= Edward crossed the French frontier, but he could
+not induce Philip to fight, and being deserted by his German allies,
+he was obliged to return to England. He then attempted to fall back on
+the support of the Flemings, but was told by them that unless he
+formally took the title of king of France, which he had only
+occasionally done before, they could not fight for him, as the king of
+France, whoever he might be, was their superior lord, and as such had
+a claim to their services. After some hesitation, in the beginning of
+=1340=, Edward satisfied their scruples by reviving the claim which he
+had formerly abandoned, declaring himself to be, in right of his
+mother, the lawful king of France; and quartering the French arms with
+his own. A third territorial question was thus added to the other two.
+Practically Edward's answer to Philip's effort to absorb all Aquitaine
+in France was a counter-demand that all France should be absorbed in
+England.
+
+[Illustration: Royal arms of Edward III., adopted in 1340 and used
+till about 1405. From the tomb of Edward III.]
+
+9. =Battle of Sluys. 1340.=--Edward had not yet learnt to place
+confidence in those English archers who had served him so well at
+Halidon Hill. In =1340=, however, he found himself engaged in a
+conflict which should have taught him where his true strength lay. The
+French navy held the Channel, and had burnt Southampton. The fleet of
+the Cinque Ports was no longer sufficient to cope with the enemy.
+Edward proudly announced that he, like his progenitors, was the lord
+of the English sea on every side, and called out every vessel upon
+which he could lay hands. The result was a naval victory at Sluys, in
+which well-nigh the whole French fleet was absolutely destroyed. It
+was by the English archers that the day was won. So complete was the
+victory that no one dared to tell the ill news to Philip, till his
+jester called out to him, "What cowards those English are!" "Because,"
+he explained, "they did not dare to leap into the sea as our brave
+Frenchmen did."
+
+10. =Attacks on the West of France. 1341--1345.=--If Edward was to
+obtain still greater success, he had but to fight with a national
+force behind him on land as he had fought at sea; but he was slow to
+learn the lesson. Personally he was as chivalrous as Philip, and
+thought that far more could be done by the charge of knights on
+horseback than by the cloth-yard shafts of the English bowmen. For six
+more years he frittered away his strength. There was a disputed
+succession in Brittany, and one of the claimants, John of Montfort,
+ranged himself on the side of the English. There was fighting in
+Brittany and fighting on the borders of Edward's lands in Aquitaine,
+but up to the end of =1345= there was no decisive result on either
+side. In Scotland, too, things had been going so badly for Edward that
+in =1341= David Bruce had been able to return, and was now again
+ruling over his own people.
+
+11. =The Campaign of Crecy. 1346.=--Surprising as Edward's neglect to
+force on a battle in France appears to us, it must be remembered that
+in those days it was far more difficult to bring on an engagement than
+it is in the present day. Fortified towns and castles were then almost
+impregnable, except when they were starved out; and it was therefore
+seldom necessary for a commander--on other grounds unwilling to
+fight--to risk a battle in order to save an important post from
+capture. Edward, however, does not appear to have thought that there
+was anything to be gained by fighting. In =1346= he led a large
+English army into Normandy, taking with him his eldest son, afterwards
+known as the Black Prince, at that time a lad of sixteen. It had been
+from Normandy and Calais that the fleets had put out by which the
+coasts of England had been ravaged, and Edward now deliberately
+ravaged Normandy. He then marched on, apparently intending to take
+refuge in Flanders. As the French had broken the bridges over the
+Seine, he was driven to ascend the bank of the river almost to Paris
+before he could cross. His burnings and his ravages continued till
+Philip, stung to anger, pursued him with an army more than twice as
+numerous as his own. Edward had the Somme to cross on his way, and the
+bridges over that river had been broken by the French, as those over
+the Seine had been broken; and but for the opportune discovery of a
+ford at Blanche Tache Edward would have been obliged to fight with an
+impassable river at his back. When he was once over the Somme he
+refused--not from any considerations of generalship, but from a point
+of honour--to continue his retreat further. He halted on a gentle
+slope near the village of Crecy facing eastwards, as Philip's force
+had swept round to avoid difficulties in the ground, and was
+approaching from that direction.
+
+[Illustration: Shooting at the butts with the long-bow.]
+
+12. =The Tactics of Crecy. 1346.=--Great as was Edward's advantage in
+possessing an army so diverse in its composition as that which he
+commanded, it would have availed him little if he had not known how to
+order that army for battle. At once it appeared that his skill as a
+tactician was as great as his weakness as a strategist. His experience
+at Halidon Hill (see p. 234) had taught him that the archers could
+turn the tide of battle against any direct attack, however violent. He
+knew, too, from the tradition of Bannockburn (see p. 226), that
+archers could readily be crushed by a cavalry charge on the flank; and
+he was well aware that his own horsemen were in too small numbers to
+hold out against the vast host of the French cavalry. He therefore
+drew up his line of archers between the two villages of Crecy and
+Vadicourt, though his force was not large enough to extend from one to
+the other. He then ordered the bulk of his horsemen to dismount and to
+place themselves with levelled spears in bodies at intervals in the
+line of archers. The innovation was thoroughly reasonable, as spearmen
+on foot would be able to check the fiercest charge of horse, if only
+the horse could be exposed to a shower of arrows. The English army was
+drawn up in three corps, two of them in the front line. The Black
+Prince was in command of one of the two bodies in front, whilst the
+king himself took charge of the third corps, which acted as a reserve
+in the rear.
+
+13. =The Battle of Crecy. August 26, 1346.=--When Philip drew nigh in
+the evening his host was weary and hungry. He ordered his knights to
+halt, but each one was thinking, not of obeying orders, but of
+securing a place in the front, where he might personally distinguish
+himself. Those in the rear pushed on, and in a few minutes the whole
+of the French cavalry became a disorganised mob. Then Philip ordered
+15,000 Genoese crossbowmen to advance against the enemy. At the best a
+crossbow was inferior to the English long-bow, as it was weaker in its
+action and consumed more time between each shot. To make matters
+worse, a heavy shower of rain had wetted the strings of the unlucky
+Genoese, rendering their weapons useless. The English had covers for
+their bows, and had kept them dry. The thick shower of their arrows
+drove the Genoese back. Philip took their retreat for cowardice. "Kill
+me those scoundrels!" he cried, and the French knights rode in amongst
+them, slaughtering them at every stride. Then the French horsemen
+charged the English lines. Some one amongst the Black Prince's retinue
+took alarm, and hurried to the king to conjure him to advance to the
+son's assistance. Edward knew better. "Is he dead?" he asked, "or so
+wounded that he cannot help himself?" "No, sire, please God," was the
+reply, "but he is in a hard passage of arms, and he much needs your
+help." "Return," answered the king, "to those that sent you, and tell
+them not to send to me again so long as my son lives; I command them
+to let the boy win his spurs." The French were driven off with
+terrible slaughter, and the victory was won. It was a victory of foot
+soldiers over horse soldiers--of a nation in which all ranks joined
+heartily together over one in which all ranks except that of the
+gentry were despised. Edward III. had contributed a high spirit and a
+keen sense of honour, but it was to the influence of Edward I.--to his
+wide and far-reaching statesmanship, and his innovating military
+genius--that the victory of Crecy was really due.
+
+14. =Battle of Nevill's Cross, and the Siege of Calais.
+1346--1347.=--Whilst Edward was fighting in France, the Scots invaded
+England, but they were defeated at Nevill's Cross, and their king,
+David Bruce (David II.), taken prisoner. Edward, when the news reached
+him, had laid siege to Calais. In this siege cannon,[18] which had
+been used in earlier sieges of the war, were employed, but they were
+too badly made and loaded with too little gunpowder to do much damage.
+In =1347= Calais was starved into surrender, and Edward, who regarded
+the town as a nest of pirates, ordered six of the principal burgesses
+to come out with ropes round their necks, as a sign that they were to
+be put to death. It was only at Queen Philippa's intercession that he
+spared their lives, but he drove every Frenchman out of Calais, and
+peopled it with his own subjects. A truce with Philip was agreed on,
+and Edward returned to England.
+
+    [Footnote 18: It has been said that they were used at Crecy, but
+    this is uncertain.]
+
+[Illustration: Contemporary view of a fourteenth-century walled town.]
+
+[Illustration: Gloucester Cathedral. The choir, looking east: built
+between 1340 and 1350.]
+
+15. =Constitutional Progress. 1337--1347.=--Edward III. had begun his
+reign as a constitutional ruler, and on the whole he had no reason to
+regret it. In his wars with France and Scotland he had the popular
+feeling with him, and he showed his reliance on it when, in =1340=, he
+consented to the abolition of his claim to impose tallage on his
+demesne lands (see p. 221)--the sole fragment of unparliamentary
+taxation legally retained by the king after the _Confirmatio
+Cartarum_. In =1341= the two Houses of Parliament finally separated
+from one another, and when Edward picked a quarrel with Archbishop
+Stratford, the Lords successfully insisted that no member of their
+House could be tried excepting by his peers. The Commons, on the other
+hand, were striving--not always successfully--to maintain their hold
+upon taxation. In =1341= they made Edward a large money grant on
+condition of his yielding to their demands, and Edward (whose
+constitutional intentions were seldom proof against his wish to retain
+the power of the purse) shamelessly broke his engagement after
+receiving the money. On other occasions the Commons were more
+successful; yet, after all, the composition of their House was of more
+importance than any special victory they might gain. In it the county
+members--or knights of the shire--sat side by side with the burgesses
+of the towns. In no other country in Europe would this have been
+possible. The knights of the shire were gentlemen, who on the
+Continent were reckoned amongst the nobility, and despised townsmen
+far too much to sit in the same House with them. In England there was
+the same amalgamation of classes in Parliament as on the
+battle-field. When once gentlemen and burgesses formed part of the
+same assembly, they would come to have common interests; and, in any
+struggle in which the merchants were engaged, it would be a great gain
+to them that a class of men trained to arms would be inclined to take
+their part.
+
+[Illustration: The upper chamber or solar at Sutton Courtenay
+manor-house. Date, about 1350.]
+
+[Illustration: Interior of the Hall at Penshurst, Kent: showing the
+screen with minstrels' gallery over it, and the brazier for fire in
+the middle: built about 1340.]
+
+16. =Edward's Triumph. 1347.=--Edward's return after the surrender of
+Calais was followed by an outburst of luxury. As the sea-rovers of
+Normandy and Calais had formerly plundered Englishmen, English
+landsmen now plundered Normandy and Calais. "There was no woman who
+had not gotten garments, furs, feather-beds, and utensils from the
+spoils." Edward surrounded himself with feasting and jollity. About
+this time he instituted the Order of the Garter, and his tournaments
+were thronged with gay knights and gayer ladies in gorgeous attires.
+The very priests caught the example, and decked themselves in
+unclerical garments. Even architecture lent itself to the prevailing
+taste for magnificence. The beautiful Decorated style which had come
+into use towards the end of the reign of Edward I.--and which may be
+seen[19] in the central tower of Lincoln Cathedral (see p. 227), in
+the west front of Howden Church (see p. 230), and in the nave of York
+Minster (see p. 238)--was, in the reign of Edward III., superseded by
+the Perpendicular style, in which beauty of form was abandoned for the
+sake of breadth, as in the choir of Gloucester and the nave of
+Winchester (see pp. 244, 276). Roofs become wide, as in the Hall of
+Penshurst (see p. 246), and consequently halls were larger and better
+adapted to crowded gatherings than those at Meare and Norborough (p.
+247).
+
+    [Footnote 19: Lichfield Cathedral (p. 213) is transitional.]
+
+[Illustration: A small house or cottage at Meare, Somerset. Built
+about 1350.]
+
+[Illustration: Norborough Hall, Northamptonshire. A manor-house built
+about 1350. The dormer windows and addition to the left are of much
+later date.]
+
+17. =The Black Death. 1348.=--In the midst of this luxurious society
+arrived, in =1348=, a terrible plague which had been sweeping over
+Asia and Europe, and which in modern times has been styled the Black
+Death. No plague known to history was so destructive of life. Half of
+the population certainly perished, and some think that the number of
+those who died must be reckoned at two-thirds.
+
+[Illustration: Ploughing.]
+
+[Illustration: Harrowing. A boy slinging stones at the birds.]
+
+[Illustration: Breaking the clods with mallets.]
+
+[Illustration: Cutting weeds.]
+
+[Illustration: Reaping.]
+
+18. =The Statute of Labourers. 1351.=--This enormous destruction of
+life could not fail to have important results on the economic
+condition of the country. The process of substituting money rents for
+labour service, which had begun some generations before (see p. 168),
+had become very general at the accession of Edward III. so that the
+demesne land which the lord kept in his own hands was on most estates
+cultivated by hired labour. Now, when at least half of the labourers
+had disappeared, those who remained, having less competition to fear,
+demanded higher wages, whilst at the same time the price of the
+produce of the soil was the same or less than it had been before. The
+question affected not merely the great lords but the smaller gentry
+as well. The House of Commons, which was filled with the smaller
+gentry and the well-to-do townsmen--who were also employers of
+labour--was therefore as eager as the House of Lords to keep down
+wages. In =1351= the Statute of Labourers was passed, fixing a scale
+of wages at the rates which had been paid before the Black Death, and
+ordering punishments to be inflicted on those who demanded more. It is
+not necessary to suppose that the legislators had any tyrannical
+intentions. For ages all matters relating to agriculture had been
+fixed by custom; and the labourers were outrageously violating custom.
+Custom, however, here found itself in opposition to the forces of
+nature, and though the statute was often renewed, with increasing
+penalties, it was difficult to secure obedience to it in the teeth of
+the opposition of the labourers. The chief result of the statute was
+that it introduced an element of discord between two classes of
+society.
+
+[Illustration: Stacking corn.]
+
+[Illustration: Threshing corn with the flail.]
+
+19. =The Statute of Treasons. 1352.=--In =1352= was passed the Statute
+of Treasons, by which the offences amounting to treason were defined,
+the chief of them being levying war against the king. As no one but a
+great nobleman was strong enough even to think of levying war against
+the king, this statute may be regarded as a concession to the
+wealthier landowners rather than to the people at large.
+
+20. =The Black Prince in the South of France. 1355.=--In =1350= Philip
+VI. of France died, and was succeeded by his son John. The truce (see
+p. 243) was prolonged, and it was not till =1355= that war was
+renewed. Edward himself was recalled to England by fresh troubles in
+Scotland, but the Black Prince landed at Bordeaux and marched through
+the south of France, plundering as he went. Neither father nor son
+seems to have had any idea of gaining their ends except by driving the
+French by ill-treatment into submission. "You must know," wrote a
+contemporary in describing the condition of southern Languedoc, "that
+this was, before, one of the fat countries of the world, the people
+good and simple, who did not know what war was, and no war had ever
+been waged against them before the Prince of Wales came. The English
+and Gascons found the country full and gay, the rooms furnished with
+carpets and draperies, the caskets and chests full of beautiful
+jewels; but nothing was safe from these robbers." The Prince returned
+to Bordeaux laden with spoils.
+
+21. =The Battle of Poitiers. 1356.=--In =1356= the Black Prince swept
+over central France in another similar plundering expedition. He was
+on his way back with his plunder to Bordeaux with no more than 8,000
+men to guard it when he learnt as he passed near Poitiers that King
+John was close to him with 50,000. He drew up his little force on a
+rising ground amidst thick vineyards, with a hedge in front of him
+behind which he could shelter his archers. As at Crecy, the greater
+part of the English horsemen were dismounted, and John, thinking that
+therein lay their secret of success, ordered most of his horsemen to
+dismount as well, not having discovered that though spearmen on foot
+could present a formidable resistance to a cavalry charge, they were
+entirely useless in attacking a strong position held by archers. Then
+he sent forward 300 knights who retained their horses, bidding a
+strong body of dismounted horsemen to support them. The horsemen,
+followed by the footmen, charged at a gap in the hedge, but the hedge
+on either side was lined with English bowmen, and men and horses were
+struck down. Those who survived fled and scattered their countrymen
+behind. Seeing the disorder, the Black Prince ordered the few knights
+whom he had kept on horseback to sweep round and to fall upon the
+confused crowd in the flank. The archers advanced to second them,
+and, gallantly as the French fought, their unhorsed knights could
+accomplish nothing against the combined efforts of horse and foot.
+King John was taken prisoner and the battle was at an end.
+
+22. =The Courtesy of the Black Prince.=--The Black Prince had been
+cruel to townsmen and peasants, but he was a model of chivalry, and
+knew how to deal with a captive king. At supper he stood behind John's
+chair and waited on him, praising his bravery. "All on our side," he
+said, "who have seen you and your knights, are agreed about this, and
+give you the prize and the chaplet if you will wear it." After the
+astounding victory of Poitiers, the Black Prince, instead of marching
+upon Paris, went back to Bordeaux. In =1357= he made a truce for two
+years and returned to England with his royal captive.
+
+23. =Misery of France. 1356--1359.=--In =1356=, the year in which the
+Black Prince fought at Poitiers, his father ravaged Scotland. Edward,
+however, gained nothing by this fresh attempt at conquest. In his
+retreat he suffered heavy loss, and in =1357=, changing his plan, he
+replaced David Bruce (see p. 242) on the throne, and strove to win the
+support of the Scots instead of exasperating them by violence. In the
+meanwhile the two years' truce brought no good to France. The nobles
+wrung from the peasants the sums needed to redeem their relatives, who
+were prisoners in England, and the disbanded soldiers, French and
+English, formed themselves into free companies and plundered as
+mercilessly as the Black Prince had done in time of war. Worn down
+with oppression, the French peasants broke into a rebellion known as
+the Jacquerie, from the nickname of Jacques-Bonhomme, which the gentry
+gave to them. After committing unheard-of cruelties the peasants were
+repressed and slaughtered. An attempt of the States-General--a sort of
+French Parliament which occasionally met--to improve the government
+failed. Peace with England was talked of, but Edward's terms were too
+hard to be accepted, and in =1359= war began again.
+
+24. =Edward's Last Invasion. 1359--1360.=--So miserably devastated was
+France that Edward, when he invaded the country in =1359=, had to take
+with him not only men and munitions of war, but large stores of
+provisions. He met no enemy in the field, but the land had been so
+wasted that his men suffered much from want of food, in spite of the
+supplies which they had taken with them. "I could not believe," wrote
+an Italian who revisited France after an absence of some years, "that
+this was the same kingdom which I had once seen so rich and
+flourishing. Nothing presented itself to my eyes but a fearful
+solitude, an extreme poverty, land uncultivated, houses in ruins. Even
+the neighbourhood of Paris manifested everywhere marks of destruction
+and conflagration. The streets were deserted; the roads overgrown with
+weeds; the whole a vast solitude." In the spring of =1360= Edward
+moved on towards the banks of the Loire, hoping to find sustenance
+there. Near Chartres he was overtaken by a terrible storm of hail and
+thunder, and in the roar of the thunder he thought that he heard the
+voice of God reproving him for the misery which he had caused. He
+abated his demands and signed the treaty of Bretigni.
+
+[Illustration: West front of Edington Church, Wilts: built about 1360.
+An example of the transition from the Decorated style to the
+Perpendicular.]
+
+25. =The Treaty of Bretigni. 1360.=--By the treaty of Bretigni John
+was to be ransomed for an enormous sum; Edward was to surrender his
+claim to the crown of France and to the provinces north of Aquitaine,
+receiving in return the whole of the duchy of Aquitaine together with
+the districts round Calais and Ponthieu, all of them to be held in
+full sovereignty, without any feudal obligation to the king of
+France. Probably it cost Edward little to abandon his claim to the
+French crown, which had only been an after-thought; and it was a clear
+gain to get rid of those feudal entanglements which had so frequently
+been used as a pretext of aggression against the English kings. It was
+hardly likely, however, that England would long be able to keep a
+country like Aquitaine, which was geographically part of France and in
+which French sympathies were constantly on the increase. "We will obey
+the English with our lips," said the men of Rochelle, when their town
+was surrendered, "but our hearts shall never be moved towards them."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+REIGN OF EDWARD III. AFTER THE TREATY OF BRETIGNI.
+
+1360--1377.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Edward III., 1327-1377.
+
+  Battle of Navarrete                                             1367
+  Renewal of war with France                                      1369
+  Truce with France                                               1375
+  The Good Parliament                                             1376
+  Death of Edward III.                                            1377
+
+
+1. =The First Years of Peace. 1360--1364.=--To hold his new provinces
+the better, Edward sent the Black Prince to govern them in =1363= with
+the title of Duke of Aquitaine. King John had been liberated soon
+after the making of the peace, and had been allowed to return to
+France on payment of part of his ransom, and on giving hostages for
+the payment of the remainder. In =1363= one of the hostages, his son,
+the Duke of Anjou, broke his parole and fled, on which John, shocked
+at such perfidy, returned to England to make excuses for him, and died
+there in =1364=. If honour, he said, were not to be found elsewhere,
+it ought to be found in the breasts of kings.
+
+2. =The Spanish Troubles. 1364--1368.=--John's eldest son and
+successor, Charles V., known as the Wise, or the Prudent, was less
+chivalrous, but more cautious than his father, and soon found an
+opportunity of stirring up trouble for the Black Prince without
+exposing his own lands to danger. Pedro the Cruel, king of Castile,
+who had for some time been the ally of England, had murdered his
+wife, tyrannised over his nobles, and contracted an alliance with the
+Mohammedans of Granada. The Pope having excommunicated him, his own
+illegitimate brother, Henry of Trastamara, claimed the crown, and
+sought aid of the king of France. Charles V. sent Bertrand du
+Guesclin, a rising young commander, to his help. Du Guesclin's army
+was made up of men of the Free Companies (see p. 252), which still
+continued to plunder France on their own account after the Peace of
+Bretigni. In this way Charles got rid of a scourge of his own country
+at the same time that he attacked an ally of the English. In =1366= Du
+Guesclin entered Spain. The tyrannical Pedro took refuge at Bayonne,
+where he begged the Black Prince to help him. The Gascon nobles
+pleaded with the Prince to reject the monster, but the Prince was not
+to be held back. "It is not a right thing or reasonable," he said,
+when they urged him to keep aloof from the unjust undertaking to which
+he invited them, "that a bastard should hold a kingdom, and thrust out
+of it, and of his heritage, a brother and heir of the land by legal
+marriage. All kings and sons of kings should never agree nor consent
+to it, for it is a great blow at the royal state." In =1367= the Black
+Prince entered Spain, and with the help of his English archers
+thoroughly defeated Henry at Navarrete. Then vengeance overtook him on
+the side on which he had sinned. Pedro was as false as he was cruel,
+and refused to pay the sums which he had engaged to furnish to the
+Prince's troops. Sickness broke out in the English ranks, and the
+Black Prince returned to Bordeaux with only a fifth part of his army,
+and with his own health irretrievably shattered. In =1368= Henry made
+his way back to Spain, defeated and slew Pedro, and undid the whole
+work of the Black Prince to the south of the Pyrenees.
+
+[Illustration: A gold noble of Edward III., struck between A.D. 1360
+and 1369.]
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of Edward the Black Prince, from his tomb at
+Canterbury: showing the type of armour worn from 1335 to 1400.]
+
+3. =The Taxation of Aquitaine. 1368--1369.=--Worse than this was in
+store for the Black Prince. As his soldiers clamoured for their wages,
+he levied a hearth tax to supply their needs. The Aquitanian
+Parliament declared against the tax, and appealed to the king of
+France to do them right. In =1369= Charles, who knew that the men of
+Aquitaine would be on his side, summoned the Black Prince to Paris to
+defend his conduct, on the pretext that, as there had been some
+informality in the treaty of Bretigni, he was himself still the feudal
+superior of the Duke of Aquitaine. "Willingly," replied the Black
+Prince when he received the summons, "we will go to the court of
+Paris, as the king of France orders it; but it shall be with helmet on
+head and sixty thousand men with us."
+
+4. =The Renewed War. 1369--1375.=--Edward, by the advice of
+Parliament, resumed the title of King of France, and war broke out
+afresh in =1369=. The result of the first war had been owing to the
+blunders of the French in attacking the English archers with the
+feudal cavalry. Charles V. and his commander, Du Guesclin, resolved to
+fight no battles. Their troops hung about the English march, cut off
+stragglers, and captured exposed towns. The English marched hither and
+thither, plundering and burning, but their armies, powerful as they
+were when attacked in a defensive position, could not succeed in
+forcing a battle, and were worn out without accomplishing anything
+worthy of their fame. The Black Prince, soured by failure and
+ill-health, having succeeded in =1370= in recapturing Limoges, ordered
+his men to spare no one in the town. "It was great pity," wrote the
+chronicler Froissart, "for men, women, and children threw themselves
+on their knees before the Prince, crying 'Mercy! mercy! gentle Sire!'"
+The Prince, who had waited at table behind a captive king, hardened
+his heart. More than three thousand--men, women and children--were
+butchered on that day. Yet the spirit of chivalry was strong within
+him, and he spared three gentlemen who fought bravely merely in order
+to sell their lives dearly. In =1371= the Black Prince was back in
+England. His eldest surviving brother, John of Gaunt--or Ghent--Duke
+of Lancaster, continued the war in France. In =1372= the English lost
+town after town. In =1373= John of Gaunt set out from Calais. He could
+plunder, but he could not make the enemy fight. "Let them go," wrote
+Charles V. to his commanders; "by burning they will not become masters
+of your heritage. Though storms rage over a land, they disperse of
+themselves. So will it be with these English." When the English
+reached the hilly centre of France food failed them. The winter came,
+and horses and men died of cold and want. A rabble of half-starved
+fugitives was all that reached Bordeaux after a march of six hundred
+miles. Aquitaine, where the inhabitants were for the most part hostile
+to the English, and did everything in their power to assist the
+French, was before long all but wholly lost, and in =1375= a truce was
+made which put an end to hostilities for a time, leaving only Calais,
+Cherbourg, Brest, Bayonne, and Bordeaux in the hands of the English.
+
+5. =Anti-Papal Legislation. 1351--1366.=--The antagonism between
+England and France necessarily led to an antagonism between England
+and the Papacy. Since =1305= the Popes had fixed their abode at
+Avignon, and though Avignon was not yet incorporated with France, it
+was near enough to be under the control of the king of France. During
+the time of this exile from Rome, known to ardent churchmen as the
+Babylonian captivity of the Church, the Popes were regarded in England
+as the tools of the French enemy. The Papal court, too, became
+distinguished for luxury and vice, and its vast expenditure called for
+supplies which England was increasingly loth to furnish. By a system
+of provisions, as they were called, the Pope provided--or appointed
+beforehand--his nominees to English benefices, and expected that his
+nominees would be allowed to hold the benefices to the exclusion of
+those of the patrons. In =1351= the Statute of Provisors[20] attempted
+to put an end to the system, but it was not immediately successful,
+and had to be re-enacted in later years. In =1353= a Statute of
+_Praemunire_[21] was passed, in which, though the Pope's name was not
+mentioned, an attempt was made to stop suits being carried before
+foreign courts--in other words before the Papal court at Avignon.
+Another claim of the Popes was to the 1,000 marks payable annually as
+a symbol of John's vassalage, a claim most distasteful to Englishmen
+as a sign of national humiliation. Since =1333=, the year in which
+Edward took the government into his own hands, the payment had not
+been made, and in =1366= Parliament utterly rejected a claim made by
+the Pope for its revival.
+
+    [Footnote 20: Provisors are the persons provided or appointed to a
+    benefice.]
+
+    [Footnote 21: So called from the first words of the writs appointed
+    to be issued under it, _Praemunire facias_; the first of these two
+    words being a corruption of _Praemoneri_.]
+
+6. =Predominance of the English Language.=--The national spirit which
+revealed itself in an armed struggle with the French and in a legal
+struggle with the Papacy showed itself in the increasing predominance
+of the English language. In =1362= it supplanted French in the law
+courts, and in the same year Parliament was opened with an English
+speech. French was still the language of the court, but it was
+becoming a foreign speech, pronounced very differently from the
+'French of Paris.'
+
+7. =Piers the Plowman. 1362.=--Cruel as had been the direct results of
+the English victories in France, they had indirectly contributed to
+the overthrow of that feudalism which weighed heavily upon France and
+upon all Continental Europe. The success of the English had been the
+success of a nation strong in the union of classes. The cessation of
+the war drove the thoughts of Englishmen back upon themselves. The old
+spiritual channels had been, to a great extent, choked up. Bishops
+were busy with the king's affairs; monks had long ceased to be
+specially an example to the world; and even the friars had fallen from
+their first estate, and had found out that, though they might
+personally possess nothing, their order might be wealthy. The men who
+won victories in France came home to spend their booty in show and
+luxury. Yet, for all the splendour around, there was a general feeling
+that the times were out of joint, and this feeling was strengthened by
+a fresh inroad of the Black Death in =1361=. To the prevalent
+yearning for a better life, a voice was given by William Langland,
+whose _Vision of Piers the Plowman_ appeared in its first shape in
+=1362=. In the opening of his poem he shows to his readers the
+supremacy of the Maiden Meed--bribery--over all sorts and conditions
+of men, lay and clerical. Then he turns to the purification of this
+wicked world. They who wish to eschew evil and to do good inquire
+their way to Truth--the eternal God--and find their only guide in
+'Piers the Plowman.' The simple men of the plough, who do honest work
+and live upright lives, know how to find the way to Truth. That way
+lies not through the inventions of the official Church, the pardons
+and indulgences set up for sale. "They who have done good shall go
+into eternal life, but they who have done evil into eternal fire."
+Langland's teaching, in short, is the same as that of the great
+Italian poet, Dante, who, earlier in the century, had cried aloud for
+the return of justice and true religion. He stands apart from Dante
+and from all others of his time in looking for help to the despised
+peasant. No doubt his peasant was idealised, as no one knew better
+than himself; but it was honesty of work in the place of dishonest
+idleness which he venerated. It was the glory of England to have
+produced such a thought far more than to have produced the men who,
+heavy with the plunder of unhappy peasants, stood boldly to their arms
+at Crecy and Poitiers. He is as yet hardly prepared to say what is the
+righteousness which leads to eternal life. It is not till he issues a
+second edition in =1377= that he can answer. To do well, he now tells
+us, is to act righteously to all in the fear of God. To do better is
+to walk in the way of love: "Behold how good a thing it is for
+brethren to dwell in unity." To do best is to live in fellowship with
+Christ and the Church, and in all humility to bring forth the fruits
+of the Divine communion.
+
+8. =The Anti-Clerical Party. 1371.=--Langland wished to improve, not
+to overthrow, existing institutions, but for all that his work was
+profoundly revolutionary. They who call on those who have left their
+first love to return to it are seldom obeyed, but their voice is often
+welcomed by the corrupt and self-seeking crowd which is eager, after
+the fashion of birds of prey, to tear the carcase from which life has
+departed. A large party was formed in England, especially amongst the
+greater barons, which was anxious to strip the clergy of their wealth
+and power, without any thought for the better fulfilment of their
+spiritual functions. In the Parliament of =1371= bishops were declared
+unfit to hold offices of state. Amongst others who were dismissed was
+William of Wykeham, the Bishop of Winchester. He was a great architect
+and administrator, and having been deprived of the Chancellorship used
+his wealth to found at Winchester the first great public school in
+England. By this time a Chancellor was no longer what he had been in
+earlier days (see p. 127), a secretary to the king. He was now
+beginning to exercise equitable jurisdiction--that is to say, the
+right of deciding suits according to equity, in cases in which the
+strict artificial rules of the ordinary courts stood in the way of
+justice.
+
+[Illustration: William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester, 1367-1404:
+from his tomb at Winchester.]
+
+9. =The Duke of Lancaster. 1374--1376.=--In =1374=, as soon as the
+Duke of Lancaster returned from his disastrous campaign (see p. 257),
+he put himself at the head of the baronial and anti-clerical party. He
+was selfish and unprincipled, but he had enormous wealth, having
+secured the vast estates of the Lancaster family by his marriage with
+Blanche, the granddaughter of the brother of Thomas of Lancaster, the
+opponent of Edward II. Rich as he was he wished to be richer, and he
+saw his opportunity in an attack upon the higher clergy, which might
+end in depriving them not only of political power, but of much of
+their ecclesiastical property as well. His accession to the baronial
+party was of the greater importance because he was now practically the
+first man in the state. The king was suffering from softening of the
+brain, and had fallen under the influence of a greedy and unscrupulous
+mistress, Alice Perrers, whilst the Black Prince was disqualified by
+illness from taking part in the management of affairs. A bargain was
+struck between the Duke and Alice Perrers, who was able to obtain the
+consent of the helpless king to anything she pleased. She even sat on
+the bench with the judges, intimidating them into deciding in favour
+of the suitors who had bribed her most highly. It seemed as if
+Langland's Meed (see p. 259) had appeared in person. The king's
+patronage was shared between her and Lancaster.
+
+10. =John Wycliffe. 1366--1376.=--If Lancaster's character had been
+higher, he might have secured a widespread popularity, as the feeling
+of the age was adverse to the continuance of a wealthy clergy. Even as
+things were, he had on his side John Wycliffe, the most able reasoner
+and devoted reformer of his age, who, like others before and after
+him, imagined that a high spiritual enterprise could be achieved with
+the help of low and worldly politicians. Wycliffe had distinguished
+himself at Oxford, and had attracted Lancaster's notice by the ability
+of his argument against the Pope's claim to levy John's tribute (see
+p. 258). In =1374= he had been sent to Bruges to argue with the
+representatives of the Pope on the question of the provisions, and by
+=1376= had either issued, or was preparing to issue, his work _On
+Civil Lordship_, in which, by a curious adaptation of feudal ideas, he
+declared that all men held their possessions direct from God, as a
+vassal held his estate from his lord; and that as a vassal was bound
+to pay certain military services, failing which he lost his estate, so
+everyone who fell into mortal sin failed to pay his service to God,
+and forfeited his right to his worldly possessions. In this way
+dominion, as he said, was founded on grace--that is to say, the
+continuance of man's right to his possessions depended on his
+remaining in a state of grace. It is true that Wycliffe qualified his
+argument by alleging that he was only announcing theoretical truth,
+and that no man had a right to rob another of his holding because he
+believed him to be living in sin. It is evident, however, that men
+like Lancaster would take no heed of this distinction, and would
+welcome Wycliffe as an ally in the work of despoiling the clergy for
+their own purposes.
+
+11. =Lancaster and the Black Prince. 1376.=--Ordinary citizens, who
+cared nothing for theories which they did not understand, were roused
+against Lancaster by the unblushing baseness of his rule. Nor was this
+all. The anti-clerical party was also a baronial party, and ever since
+the Knights Bachelors of England had turned to the future Edward I. to
+defend them against the barons who made the Provisions of Oxford (see
+p. 199), the country gentry and townsmen had learnt the lesson that
+they would be the first to suffer from the unchecked rule of the
+baronage. They now had the House of Commons to represent their wishes,
+but as yet the House of Commons was too weak to stand alone. At last
+it was rumoured that when the Black Prince died his young son Richard
+was to be set aside, and that Lancaster was to claim the inheritance
+of the crown, as an earlier John had claimed it in the place of the
+youthful Arthur. The Black Prince awoke from his lethargy, and stood
+forward as the leader of the Commons.
+
+12. =The Good Parliament. 1376.=--A Parliament, known as the Good
+Parliament, met in =1376=, and, strong through the Black Prince's
+support, the Commons refused to grant supply till an account of the
+receipts and expenditure had been laid before them. "What," cried
+Lancaster, "do these base and ignoble knights attempt? Do they think
+they be the kings and princes of the land? I think they know not what
+power I am of. I will therefore, early in the morning, appear unto
+them so glorious, and will show such power among them, and with such
+vigour I will terrify them that neither they nor theirs shall dare
+henceforth to provoke me to wrath." Lancaster soon found that his
+brother was stronger than he. The Commons obtained a new Council, in
+which Wykeham was included and from which Lancaster was shut out. They
+then proceeded to accuse before the House of Lords Richard Lyons and
+Lord Latimer of embezzling the king's revenue. Lyons, accustomed to
+the past ways of the court, packed 1,000_l._ in a barrel and sent it
+to the Black Prince. The Black Prince returned the barrel and the
+money, and the Lords condemned Lyons to imprisonment. Latimer was also
+sentenced to imprisonment, but he was allowed to give bail and
+regained his liberty. These two cases are the first instances of the
+exercise of the right of impeachment--that is to say, of the
+accusation of political offenders by the Commons before the Lords.
+Alice Perrers was next driven from court.
+
+[Illustration: Tomb of Edward III. in Westminster Abbey.]
+
+13. =The Last Year of Edward III. 1376--1377.=--Whilst Parliament was
+still sitting the Black Prince, worn out by his exertions, died. His
+son, young Richard, was at once recognised as heir to the throne.
+Lancaster, however, regained his influence over his doting father.
+Alice Perrers and Lord Latimer found their way back to court. The
+Speaker of the House of Commons was thrown into prison. Frivolous
+charges were brought against Wykeham, who was deprived of his
+temporalities and banished from the court. In =1377= a new Parliament,
+elected under Lancaster's influence, reversed all the proceedings of
+the Good Parliament, and showed how little sympathy the baronial party
+had with the people by imposing a poll tax of 4_d._ a head on all
+except beggars, thus making the payment of a labourer and a duke
+equal. The bishops, unable to strike at Lancaster, struck at Wycliffe,
+as his creature. Wycliffe was summoned to appear before an
+ecclesiastical court at St. Paul's, presided over by Courtenay, the
+Bishop of London. He came supported by Lancaster and a troop of
+Lancaster's followers. Hot words were exchanged between them and the
+Bishop. The London crowd took their Bishop's part and the Duke was
+compelled to flee for his life. In the summer of =1377= Edward III.
+died, deserted by everyone, Alice Perrers making off, after robbing
+him of his finger-rings.
+
+[Illustration: Figures of Edward, the Black Prince, and Lionel, Duke
+of Clarence, from the tomb of Edward III.; illustrating the ordinary
+costume of gentlemen at the end of the fourteenth century.]
+
+14. =Ireland from the Reign of John to that of Edward II.=--When
+England was gradually losing its hold on France, what hold it had had
+on Ireland was gradually slipping away. Henry II. had been quite
+unable to effect in Ireland the kind of conquest which William the
+Conqueror had effected in England. William had succeeded because he
+had been able to secure order by placing himself at the head of the
+conquered nation. In Ireland, in the first place, the king was a
+perpetual absentee; and, in the second place, there was no Irish
+national organisation at the head of which he could have placed
+himself, even if he had from time to time visited the island. There
+were separate tribes, each one attached to its own chief and to its
+own laws and customs. They were unable to drive out their feudal
+conquerors; but in the outlying parts of the country, they were able
+to absorb them, just as the English in their own country absorbed
+their Norman conquerors. The difference was that in England the
+conquerors were absorbed into a nation: in Ireland they were absorbed
+into the several tribes. The few who retained the English laws and
+habits were, for the most part, confined to the part of Ireland in the
+neighbourhood of Dublin, which was specially accessible to English
+influences. In =1315= Edward Bruce, the brother of Robert Bruce,
+invaded Ireland, and, though he was ultimately defeated and slain, he
+did enough to shatter the power of the English nobility; and it was
+mainly in consequence of his partial success that the authority of the
+English government was, for some time to come, limited to a certain
+district round Dublin, known about a century later as the English
+Pale, the extent of which varied from time to time.
+
+15. =The Statute of Kilkenny. 1367.=--As long as the French wars
+lasted the attention of the English Government was diverted from
+Ireland. In =1361=, however, the year after the Treaty of Bretigni,
+the king's son, Lionel Duke of Clarence, was sent to extend English
+rule. In =1367= he gathered a Parliament of the English colonists.
+This Parliament passed the Statute of Kilkenny, by which the relations
+between the two races were defined. Within the Pale English laws and
+customs were to prevail, and even Irishmen living there were to be
+debarred from the use of their own language. Beyond the Pale the Irish
+were to be left to themselves, communication between the two peoples
+being cut off as much as possible. The idea of conquering Ireland was
+abandoned, and the idea of maintaining a colony on a definite part of
+Irish soil was substituted for it. The Statute of Kilkenny was, in
+short, a counterpart of the Treaty of Bretigni. In both cases Edward
+III. preferred the full maintenance of his authority over a part of a
+country to its assertion over the whole.
+
+16. =Weakness of the English Colony. 1367--1377.=--It takes two to
+make a bargain, and the Irish were not to be prevented from
+encroaching on the English because the English had resolved no longer
+to encroach upon them. The renewal of the war with France in =1369=
+made it impossible to send help from England, and during the latter
+part of the reign of Edward III. the Irish pillaged freely within the
+English territory, constantly winning ground from their antagonists.
+
+  _Genealogy of the more important Sons of Edward III._
+
+                       EDWARD III.
+                        d. 1377
+                            |
+    --------------------------------------------------
+    |           |             |           |          |
+   Edward,   Lionel,    John of Gaunt,  Edmund,   Thomas,
+  the Black  Duke of      Duke of       Duke of   Duke of
+  Prince,    Clarence,   Lancaster,      York,   Gloucester,
+  d. 1376    d. 1368      d. 1399       d. 1402    d. 1397
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+RICHARD II. AND THE SOCIAL REVOLUTION.
+
+1377--1381.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Richard II., 1377-1399
+
+  Accession of Richard II                                         1377
+  The peasants' revolt                                            1381
+
+
+1. =The First Years of Richard II. 1377--1378.=--"Woe to the land,"
+quoted Langland from Ecclesiastes, in the second edition of _Piers the
+Plowman_, "when the king is a child." Richard was but ten years of age
+when he was raised to the throne. The French plundered the coast, and
+the Scots plundered the Borders. In the presence of such dangers
+Lancaster and Wykeham forgot their differences, and as Lancaster was
+too generally distrusted to allow of his acting as regent, the council
+governed in the name of the young king. Lancaster, however, took the
+lead, and renewed the war with France with but little result beyond so
+great a waste of money as to stir up Parliament to claim a control
+over the expenditure of the Crown.
+
+2. =Wycliffe and the Great Schism. 1378--1381.=--In =1378= began the
+Great Schism. For nearly half a century from that date there were two
+Popes, one at Avignon and one at Rome. Wycliffe had been gradually
+losing his reverence for a single Pope, and he had none left for two.
+He was now busy with a translation of the Bible into English, and sent
+forth a band of "poor priests," to preach the simple gospel which he
+found in it. He was thus brought into collision with the pretensions
+of the priesthood, and was thereby led to question the doctrines on
+which their authority was based. In =1381= he declared his disbelief
+in the doctrine of transubstantiation, and thereby denied to priests
+that power "of making the body of Christ," which was held to mark them
+off from their fellow-men. In any case, so momentous an announcement
+would have cost Wycliffe the hearts of large numbers of his
+supporters. It was the more fatal to his influence as it was
+coincident with social disorders, the blame for which was certain,
+rightly or wrongly, to be laid at his door.
+
+[Illustration: Richard II. and his first queen, Anne of Bohemia: from
+the gilt-latten effigies on their tomb in Westminster Abbey, made by
+Nicholas Broker and Godfrey Prest, coppersmiths of London, in 1395.]
+
+3. =The Poll-taxes. 1379--1381.=--The disastrous war with France made
+fresh taxation unavoidable. In =1379= a poll-tax was imposed by
+Parliament on a graduated scale, reaching from the 6_l._ 13_s._ 4_d._
+required of a duke, to the groat or 4_d._, representing in those days
+at least the value of 4_s._ at the present day, required of the
+poorest peasant. A second poll-tax in =1380= exacted no less than
+three groats from every peasant, and from every one of his unmarried
+children above the age of fifteen. In =1381= a tiler of Dartford in
+Kent struck dead a collector who attempted to investigate his
+daughter's age in an indecent fashion. His neighbours took arms to
+protect him. In an incredibly short time the peasants of the east and
+south of England rose in insurrection.
+
+4. =The Peasants' Grievances.=--The peasants had other grievances
+besides the weight of taxation thrown on them by a Parliament in which
+they had no representatives. The landlords, finding it impossible to
+compel the acceptance of the low wages provided for by the Statute of
+Labourers (see p. 248), had attempted to help themselves in another
+way. Before the Black Death the bodily service of villeins had been
+frequently commuted into a payment of money which had been its fair
+equivalent, but which, since the rise of wages consequent upon the
+Black Death, could not command anything like the amount of labour
+surrendered. The landlords in many places now declared the bargain to
+have been unfair, and compelled the villeins to render once more the
+old bodily service. The discontent which prevailed everywhere was
+fanned not merely by the attacks made by Wycliffe's poor priests upon
+the idle and inefficient clergy, but by itinerant preachers
+unconnected with Wycliffe, who denounced the propertied classes in
+general. One of these, John Ball, a notorious assailant of the gentry,
+had been thrown into prison. His favourite question was--
+
+  When Adam delved and Eve span
+  Who was then a gentleman?
+
+5. =The Peasants' Revolt. 1381.=--From one end of England to another
+the revolt spread. The parks of the gentry were broken into, the deer
+killed, the fish-ponds emptied. The court-rolls which testified to the
+villeins' services were burnt, and lawyers and all others connected
+with the courts were put to death without mercy. From Kent and Essex
+100,000 enraged peasants, headed by Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, released
+John Ball from gaol and poured along the roads to London. They hoped
+to place the young Richard at their head against their enemies the
+gentry. The boy was spirited enough, and in spite of his mother's
+entreaties insisted on leaving the Tower, and being rowed across the
+Thames to meet the insurgents on the Surrey shore. Those who were with
+him, however, refused to allow him to land. The peasants had
+sympathisers in London itself, who allowed them to break into the
+city. Lancaster's palace of the Savoy and the houses of lawyers and
+officials were sacked and burnt. All the lawyers who could be found
+were murdered, and others who were not lawyers shared their fate. The
+mob broke into the Tower, and beheaded Simon of Sudbury, Archbishop of
+Canterbury, who had, as Chancellor, proposed the obnoxious taxes to
+Parliament.
+
+6. =The Suppression of the Revolt.=--The boy-king met the mob at
+Mile-End, and promised to abolish villeinage in England. Charters of
+manumission were drawn out and sealed, and a great part of the
+insurgents returned contentedly home. About 30,000, however, remained
+behind. When Richard came amongst them at Smithfield, Wat Tyler
+threatened him, and Walworth, the Mayor of London, slew Wat Tyler with
+his dagger. A shout for vengeance was raised. With astonishing
+presence of mind Richard rode forward. "I am your king," he said; "I
+will be your leader." His boldness inspired the insurgents with
+confidence, and caused them to desist from their threats and to return
+to their homes. In the country the gentry, encouraged by the failure
+of the insurgents in London, recovered their courage. The insurrection
+was everywhere vigorously suppressed. Richard ordered the payment of
+all services due, and revoked the charters he had granted. The judges
+on their circuits hanged the ringleaders without mercy. When
+Parliament met it directed that the charters of manumission should be
+cancelled. Lords and Commons alike stood up for the rich against the
+poor, and the boy-king was powerless to resist them, and it is
+possible that he did not wish to do so.
+
+7. =Results of the Peasants' Revolt.=--The revolt of the peasants
+strengthened the conservative spirit in the country. The villeinage
+into which the peasants had been thrust back could not, indeed, endure
+long, because service unwillingly rendered is too expensive to be
+maintained. Men were, however, no longer in a mood to listen to
+reformers. Great noblemen, whose right to the services of their
+villeins had been denied, now made common cause with the great
+churchmen. The propertied classes, lay and clerical, instinctively saw
+that they must hang together. Wycliffe's attack on transubstantiation
+finding little response, he was obliged to retire to his parsonage at
+Lutterworth, where he laboured with his pen till his death in =1384=.
+His followers, known by the nickname of Lollards,[22] were, however,
+for some time still popular amongst the poorer classes.
+
+    [Footnote 22: The name is said to have been derived from a low
+    German word, _lollen_, to sing, from their habit of singing, but
+    their clerical opponents derived it from the Latin _lolium_ (tares),
+    as if they were the tares in the midst of the wheat which remained
+    constant to the Church.]
+
+[Illustration: Portrait of Geoffrey Chaucer.]
+
+8. =Chaucer's 'Canterbury Tales.'=--A combination between the great
+nobles and the higher clergy might, at the end of the fourteenth
+century, meet with temporary success; but English society was too
+diversified, and each separate portion of it was too closely linked to
+the other to make it possible for the higher classes to tyrannise over
+the others for any long time. What that society was like is best seen
+in Chaucer's _Canterbury Tales_. Chaucer was in many ways the exact
+opposite of Langland, and was the precursor of modern literature as
+Wycliffe was the precursor of modern religion. He was an inimitable
+story-teller, with an eye which nothing could escape. He was ready to
+take men as he found them, having no yearning for the purification of
+a sinful world. Heroic examples of manly constancy and of womanly
+purity and devotion, are mingled in his pages with coarse and ribald
+tales; still, coarse and ribald as some of his narratives are, Chaucer
+never attempts to make vice attractive. He takes it rather as a matter
+of course, calling, not for reproof, but for laughter, whenever those
+who are doing evil place themselves in ridiculous situations.
+
+9. =The Prologue of the 'Canterbury Tales.'=--Whilst, however, there
+is not one of the _Canterbury Tales_ which fails to bring vividly
+before the reader one aspect or another of the life of Chaucer's day,
+it is in the prologue that is especially found evidence of the close
+connection which existed between different ranks of society. Men and
+women of various classes are there represented as riding together on
+a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Thomas of Canterbury, and beguiling
+the way by telling stories to one another. No baron, indeed, takes
+part in the pilgrimage, and the villein class is represented by the
+reeve, who was himself a person in authority, the mere cultivator of
+the soil being excluded. Yet, within these limits, the whole circle of
+society is admirably represented. The knight, just returned from deeds
+of chivalry, is on the best of terms with the rough-spoken miller and
+the reeve, whilst the clerk of Oxford, who would gladly learn and
+gladly teach, and who followed in his own life those precepts which he
+commended to his parishioners, has no irreconcilable quarrel with the
+begging friar or with the official of the ecclesiastical courts, whose
+only object is to make a gain of godliness.
+
+[Illustration: A gentleman riding out with his hawk: from the Luttrell
+Psalter.]
+
+10. =Chaucer and the Clergy.=--In his representation of the clergy,
+Chaucer shows that, like Langland, he had no reverence for the merely
+official clergy. His "poor parson of a town," indeed, is a model for
+all helpers and teachers. The parson is regardless of his own comfort,
+ever ready to toil with mind and body for his parishioners, and, above
+all, resolved to set them an example, knowing
+
+  That if gold ruste, what schulde yren doo?
+  For if a prest be foul, on whom we truste,
+  No wondur is a lewid man to ruste.[23]
+
+    [Footnote 23: _i.e._, if a priest, who is like gold, allow himself
+    to rust, or fall into sloth or sin, how can he expect the 'lewid
+    man' or layman, who is as iron to him, to be free from these
+    faults?]
+
+The final character given to him is:--
+
+  A bettre preest I trowe ther nowher non is.
+  He waytud after no pompe ne reverence,
+  Ne maked him a spiced conscience;[24]
+  But Cristes lore, and his apostles twelve,
+  He taught, and ferst he folwed[25] it himselve.
+
+    [Footnote 24: A nice conscience; to see offence where there is
+    none.]
+
+    [Footnote 25: Followed.]
+
+The majority amongst Chaucer's clergy are, however, of a very
+different kind. There is the parish clerk, who, when he is waving the
+censer in church thinks more of the pretty women there than of his
+duty; the monk who loves hunting, and hates work and reading; the
+friar who is ready to grant absolution to any one who will give money
+to the friars; who has a word and a jest for every man, and presents
+of knives and pins for the women; who takes a farthing where he cannot
+get a penny, but turns aside from those who have not even a farthing
+to give; the pardoner, who has for sale sham relics--a piece of the
+sail of the ship which carried St. Peter on the sea of Galilee, and a
+glass of pigs' bones, which he was ready to sell as bones of saints,
+if he could thereby extract something even from the poorest widow. He
+would not, he said, work with his hands like the apostles. He wanted
+to have money, wool, cheese, and wheat at other people's expense.
+Though Wycliffe had failed to reform the Church there was evidently
+much room for a reformer.
+
+[Illustration: Carrying corn--a cart going uphill: from the Luttrell
+Psalter.]
+
+11. =Roads and Bridges.=--Such men as these latter did not go on
+pilgrimages through pure religious zeal. Villeins, indeed, were "bound
+to the soil," and lived and died on land which they tilled; but the
+classes above them moved about freely, and took pleasure in a
+pilgrimage, as a modern Englishman takes pleasure in a railway
+excursion. It was considered to be a pious work to make or repair
+roads and bridges, and the existence of many bridges especially was
+owing to the clergy. The most famous bridge in England, London Bridge,
+had been begun in the place of an old wooden one in =1176=--in the
+reign of Henry II.--by a priest, Peter Colechurch, who obtained gifts
+for the purpose from notable people of all kinds. It was completed in
+=1209=, houses being built upon it in order that their rents might pay
+for keeping it in good condition. Local taxes were sometimes levied to
+maintain the roads and bridges, and in default of these, it was held
+to be the duty of the owners of land to keep the communications open.
+
+[Illustration: State carriage of the fourteenth century: from the
+Luttrell Psalter.]
+
+12. =Modes of Conveyance.=--In spite of these precautions, roads were
+often neglected, so that those who were not obliged to go on foot
+travelled almost entirely on horseback, women almost always riding
+astride like men. It was only at the end of the fourteenth century
+that a few ladies rode sideways. Kings and queens and exceedingly
+great people occasionally used lumbering but gorgeously ornamented
+carriages; but this was to enable them to appear in splendour, as this
+way of travelling must, at least in fine weather, have been far less
+agreeable than the ordinary ride. The only other wheeled vehicles in
+existence were the peasants' carts on two wheels, roughly made in the
+form of a square box either of boards or of a lighter framework. It
+was one of the grievances of the peasants that when the king moved
+from one manor to another his purveyors seized their carts to carry
+his property, and that though the purveyors were bound by frequently
+repeated statutes to pay for their hire, these statutes were often
+broken, and the carts sent back without payment for their use. The
+same purveyors often took corn and other agricultural produce, for
+which they paid little or nothing.
+
+13. =Hospitality and Inns.=--When the king arrived in the evening at a
+town his numerous attendants were billeted upon the townsmen, without
+asking leave. Monasteries were always ready to offer hospitality to
+himself or to any great person, and even to provide rougher fare for
+the poorest stranger in a special guest-house provided for the
+purpose. In castles, the owner was usually glad to see a stranger of
+his own rank. The halls were still furnished with movable tables, as
+in the days before the Conquest (see p. 76), and at night mattresses
+were placed for persons of inferior rank on the floor, which was
+strewn with rushes; whilst a stranger of high rank had usually a bed
+in the solar (see p. 245) with the lord of the castle. Travellers of
+the middle class were not thought good enough to be welcomed in
+monasteries and castles, and were not poor enough to be received out
+of charity; and for them inns were provided. These inns provided beds,
+of which there were several in each room, and the guests then bought
+their provisions and fuel from the host, instead of being charged for
+their meals as is now the custom. From a manual of French
+conversation, written at the end of the fourteenth century for the use
+of Englishmen, it appears that cleanliness was not always to be found
+in these inns. "William," one traveller is supposed to say to another,
+"undress and wash your legs, and rub them well for the love of the
+fleas, that they may not leap on your legs; for there is a peck of
+them lying in the dust under the rushes.... Hi! the fleas bite me so,
+and do me great harm, for I have scratched my shoulders till the blood
+flows."
+
+14. =Alehouses.=--By the roadside were alehouses for temporary
+refreshment, known by a bunch of twigs at the end of a pole, from
+which arose the saying that "Good wine needs no bush." The ale of the
+day was made without hops, which were still unknown in England, and
+ale would therefore only keep good for about five days.
+
+15. =Wanderers.=--Besides the better class of travellers the roads
+were frequented by wanderers of all kinds, quack doctors, minstrels,
+jugglers, beggars, and such like. Life in the country was dull, and
+even great lords took pleasure in amusements which are now only to be
+heard of at country fairs. Any one who could play or sing was always
+welcome, and the verses sung were often exceedingly coarse. A tumbler
+who could stand on his head or balance a heavy article at the end of a
+stick balanced on his chin, or the leader of a performing bear, was
+seldom turned away from the door, whilst the pedlar went from place to
+place, supplying the wants which are now satisfied in the shop of the
+village or the neighbouring town.
+
+[Illustration: Bear-baiting: from the Luttrell Psalter.]
+
+16. =Robbers and Criminals.=--The roads, indeed, were not always safe.
+Outlaws who had escaped from the punishment due to their crimes took
+refuge in the broad tracts of forest land which occupied much of the
+soil which has since been cultivated, shot the king's deer, and robbed
+merchants and wealthy travellers, leaving the poor untouched, like the
+legendary Robin Hood of an earlier date. Such robbers were highly
+esteemed by the poor, as the law from which they suffered was cruelly
+harsh, hanging being the penalty for thefts amounting to a shilling.
+Villeins who fled from service could be reclaimed by their masters,
+unless they could succeed in passing a year in a town, and
+consequently were often found amongst vagabonds who had to live as
+best they might, often enough by committing fresh crimes. Prisons, in
+which even persons guilty of no more than harmless vagabondage were
+confined, reeked with disease, and those who were, as wanderers or
+drunkards, put in the stocks, had, if an unpleasant, at least a less
+dangerous experience than the prisoner. One means of escape, indeed,
+was available to some, at least, of these unfortunates. They could
+take refuge in the sanctuaries to be found in churches, from which no
+officer of the law could take them, and, though the Church preserved
+some guilty ones from just punishment, she also saved many who were
+either innocent or who were exposed to punishments far too severe for
+their slight offences.
+
+[Illustration: West end of the nave of Winchester Cathedral: begun by
+Bishop Edington (who built the great window) between 1360 and 1366:
+carried on by Bishop William of Wykeham from 1394 to 1416, and finally
+completed after his death.]
+
+17. =Justices of the Peace.=--Even harshness is less dangerous than
+anarchy, and from time to time measures were taken to provide against
+anarchy. Before the Conquest order had been kept by making either the
+kindred or the township liable to produce offenders, and this system
+was maintained by the Norman kings. In the time of Richard I. all men
+were required to swear to keep the peace, to avoid crime, and to join
+in the hue and cry in pursuit of criminals. In the time of Henry III.
+persons called guardians of the peace were occasionally appointed to
+see that order was kept, and at the accession of Edward III. these
+officials were established for a time by Act of Parliament as
+conservators of the peace. In =1360=, the year of the Treaty of
+Bretigni, they were permanently continued, and the name of Justices of
+the Peace was given to them. They were to keep the peace in each
+county, and their number was to be made up of a lord, three or four
+gentlemen, and a lawyer, who was in those days always a cleric.[26]
+They were to seize and imprison, and even to try persons accused of
+crime. The king named these justices, but he had to name all of them
+except the lawyer from amongst the local landowners. In every way, in
+the fourteenth century, the chief local landowners were becoming
+prominent. The kings attempted to govern with their help, both in
+Parliament and in the counties.
+
+    [Footnote 26: Many clerics took one of the minor orders so as to
+    secure the immunities of the clergy, without any intention of being
+    ordained a deacon or a priest.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+RICHARD II. AND THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION.
+
+1382--1399.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Richard II., 1377--1399
+
+  The impeachment of Suffolk                                      1386
+  The Merciless Parliament                                        1388
+  Richard begins his constitutional government                    1389
+  Richard's coup-d'etat                                           1397
+  Deposition of Richard                                           1399
+
+
+1. =Progress of the War with France. 1382--1386.=--In =1382= Richard
+at the early age of fifteen was married to Anne of Bohemia. Though he
+was a young husband he was at all events old enough to be accused of
+disasters which he could not avoid. Not only was the war with France
+not prospering, but English influence was declining in Flanders. In
+=1382= Philip van Arteveldt, who like his father Jacob (see p. 235)
+headed the resistance of Ghent against the Count of Flanders, was
+defeated and slain at Roosebeke by Charles VI., the young king of
+France. In =1383= an English expedition led by Henry Spencer, Bishop
+of Norwich, under the pretext of a crusade against the French as the
+followers of the Pope of Avignon, ended in complete failure, and
+Flanders, the great purchaser of English wool, fell under the control
+of France. In =1385= Richard, indeed, invaded Scotland, ravaged the
+country and burnt Edinburgh, though without producing any permanent
+result. In =1386= a French fleet and army was gathered at Sluys, and
+an invasion of England was threatened.
+
+2. =Richard's growing Unpopularity. 1385--1386.=--When the king
+returned from Scotland in =1385= he made a large creation of peers. He
+raised his two younger uncles to the Dukedoms of York and Gloucester;
+his Chancellor, Michael de la Pole, to the earldom of Suffolk, and his
+favourite, Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford, to the marquisate of
+Dublin, making him not long afterwards Duke of Ireland. Suffolk was an
+able and apparently an honest administrator, who upheld the king's
+prerogative against the encroachments of Parliament. Oxford was a gay
+and heedless companion of Richard's pleasures, who encouraged him in
+unnecessary expense, and thereby provoked to resistance those who
+might have put up with an extension of the royal authority. That
+resistance, however, was to a great extent due to causes not of
+Richard's own making. Though the French in =1386= abandoned their
+attempt at invasion, the preparations to resist them had been costly,
+and Englishmen were in an unreasonable mood. Things, they said, had
+not gone so in the days of Edward III. A cry for reform and
+retrenchment, for more victories and less expense, was loudly raised.
+
+3. =The Impeachment of Suffolk and the Commission of Regency.
+1386.=--The discontented found a leader in Gloucester, the youngest of
+the king's uncles. Wealthy, turbulent, and ambitious, he put himself
+at the head of all who had a grievance against the king. Lancaster had
+just sailed for Spain to prosecute a claim in right of his second wife
+to the throne of Castile, and as York was without ambition, Gloucester
+had it all his own way. Under his guidance a Parliament demanded the
+dismissal of Richard's ministers, and, on his refusal, impeached
+Suffolk. Suffolk, though probably innocent of the charges brought
+against him, was condemned and driven from power, and Commissioners of
+regency were appointed for a year to regulate the realm and the king's
+household, as the Lords Ordainers had done in the days of Edward II.
+(see p. 226).
+
+4. =The Lords Appellant and the Merciless Parliament. 1387--1388.=--In
+one way the Commissioners of regency satisfied the desire of
+Englishmen. In =1387= they sent the Earl of Arundel to sea, and
+Arundel won a splendid victory over a combined fleet of French,
+Flemings, and Spaniards. Richard, on the other hand, fearing that they
+would prolong their power when their year of office was ended,
+consulted upon the legality of the commission with the judges in the
+presence of Suffolk and others of his principal supporters, amongst
+whom was the Duke of Ireland. With one voice the judges declared that
+Parliament might not put the king in tutelage. Richard then made
+preparations to prevent by force the renewal of the commission, and to
+punish as traitors those who had originated it. His intention got
+abroad, and five lords, the Duke of Gloucester, the Earls of Arundel,
+Nottingham, Warwick, and Derby, the latter being the son of the absent
+Lancaster, appeared at the head of an overwhelming force against him.
+The five lords appellant, as they were called, appealed, or accused of
+treason five of Richard's councillors before a Parliament which met at
+Westminster in =1388=, by flinging down their gloves as a token that
+they were ready to prove the truth of their charge in single combat.
+The Duke of Ireland, attempting resistance, was defeated by Derby at
+Radcot Bridge, and finally escaped to Ireland. The Parliament, called
+by its admirers the Wonderful, and by its opponents the Merciless
+Parliament, was entirely subservient to the lords appellant, who,
+instead of meeting their antagonists in single combat, accused them
+before the House of Lords. The Duke of Ireland, Suffolk, Chief Justice
+Tresilian, and Brember, who had been Mayor of London, were condemned
+to be hanged. The two first-named had escaped to the Continent, but
+the others were put to death. The fifth councillor, the Archbishop of
+York, escaped with virtual deprivation by the Pope. Four other
+knights, amongst them Sir Simon Burley, a veteran soldier and trusted
+companion of the Black Prince, were also put to death. Richard was
+allowed nominally to retain the crown, but in reality he was subjected
+to a council in which Gloucester and his adherents were supreme.
+
+5. =Richard's Restoration to Power. 1389.=--Richard's entire
+submission turned the scale in his favour. England had been
+dissatisfied with him, but it had never loved the rule of the great
+feudal lords. Gloucester's council was no more popular than had been
+the Committees named in the Provisions of Oxford in the reign of Henry
+III., or the Lords Ordainers in the reign of Edward II., and it fell
+more easily than any government, before or afterwards. Suddenly, on
+May 3, =1389=, Richard asked his uncle in full council how old he was.
+"Your highness," replied Gloucester, "is in your twenty-second year."
+"Then," said Richard, "I must be old enough to manage my own affairs,
+as every heir is at liberty to do when he is twenty-one." No attempt
+having been made to confute this argument, Richard dismissed the
+council, and ruled once more in person.
+
+6. =Richard's Constitutional Government. 1389--1396.=--This sudden
+blow was followed by seven years of constitutional government. It
+seemed as if Richard had solved the problem of the relations between
+Crown and Parliament, which had perplexed so many generations of
+Englishmen. In =1389= he appointed ministers at his own pleasure, but
+when Parliament met in =1390= he commanded them to lay down their
+offices in order that no one should be deterred from bringing charges
+against them; and it was only upon finding that no one had any
+complaint to bring against them that he restored them to their posts.
+Nor did he show any signs of irritation against those by whom he had
+been outraged. Not only did he forbear to recall Suffolk and his other
+exiled favourites, but after a little time he admitted Gloucester and
+his supporters to sit in council alongside of his own adherents.
+
+7. =Livery and Maintenance. 1390.=--During the fourteenth century the
+importance of the House of Commons had been steadily growing, and the
+king on the one hand and the great nobles on the other had been sorely
+tempted to influence the elections unduly. The means of doing so had
+come with a change in civil relationships, the natural result of that
+change in military relationships which had given a new character to
+the wars of Edward III. (see p. 236). Just as the king now fought with
+paid soldiers of every rank instead of fighting with vassals bound by
+feudal tenure, so the great nobles surrounded themselves with
+retainers instead of vassals. The vassal had been on terms of social
+equality with his lord, and was bound to follow him on fixed terms.
+The retainer was an inferior, who was taken into service and professed
+himself ready to fight for his lord at all times and in all causes. In
+return his lord kept open house for his retainers, supplied them with
+coats, known as liveries, marked with his badge, and undertook to
+maintain them against all men, either by open force or by supporting
+them in their quarrels in the law courts; and this maintenance, as it
+was called, was seldom limited to the mere payment of expenses. The
+lord, by the help of his retainers, could bully witnesses and jurors,
+and wrest justice to the profit of the wrongdoer. As yet, indeed, the
+practice had not attained the proportions which it afterwards assumed,
+but it was sufficiently developed to draw down upon it in =1390= a
+statute prohibiting maintenance and the granting of liveries. Such a
+statute was not merely issued in defence of private persons against
+intimidation; it also helped to protect the Crown against the violence
+of the great lords. The growth of the power of the House of Commons
+was a good thing as long as the House of Commons represented the
+wishes of the community. It would be a bad thing if it merely
+represented knots of armed retainers who either voted in their own
+names according to the orders of their lords, or who frightened away
+those who came to vote for candidates whom their lords opposed.
+
+8. =Richard's Domestic Policy. 1390--1391.=--It was therefore well for
+the community that there should be a strong and wise king capable of
+making head against the ambition of the lords. For some years Richard
+showed himself wise. Not only did he seek, by opening the council to
+his opponents, to win over the lords to take part in the peaceable
+government of the country instead of disturbing it, but he forwarded
+legislation which carried out the general wishes of the country. The
+Statute of Provisors (see p. 258) was re-enacted and strengthened in
+=1390=, the Statute of Mortmain (see p. 212) in =1391=, and the
+Statute of Praemunire (see p. 258) in =1393=.
+
+9. =Richard's Foreign Policy. 1389--1396.=--Richard's foreign policy
+was based upon a French alliance. In =1389= he made a truce with
+France for three years. Negotiations for a permanent peace were
+frustrated because the French would make no peace unless Calais were
+surrendered to them, and English feeling was against the surrender of
+the claims sanctioned by the Treaty of Bretigni. The truce was,
+however, prolonged from time to time, and in =1396=, when Richard, who
+was by that time a widower, married Isabella, the daughter of Charles
+VI., a child of eight, it was prolonged for twenty-eight years. Wise
+as this policy was, it was distasteful to Englishmen, and their
+dissatisfaction rose when they learnt that Richard had surrendered
+Brest and Cherbourg to the French. It was true that these places had
+been pledged to him for money, and that he had only given them up as
+he was bound to do when the money was paid, but his subjects drew no
+fine distinctions, and fancied that he was equally ready to surrender
+Calais and Bordeaux.
+
+10. =Richard's Coup d'Etat. 1397.=--Richard knew that Gloucester was
+ready to avail himself of any widespread dissatisfaction, and that he
+had recently been allying himself with Lancaster against him. To
+please Lancaster, who had married his mistress, Catherine Swynford, as
+his third wife, Richard had legitimatised the Beauforts, his children
+by her, for all purposes except the succession of the crown, thus
+giving personal offence to Gloucester. Lancaster's son Derby, and
+Nottingham, another of the lords appellant (see p. 279), were now
+favourable to the king, and when rumours reached Richard that
+Gloucester was plotting against him, he resolved to anticipate the
+blow. He arrested the three of the lords appellant whom he still
+distrusted, Gloucester, Warwick, and Arundel, and charged them before
+Parliament, not with recent malpractices, of which he had probably no
+sufficient proof, but with the slaughter of his ministers in the days
+of the Merciless Parliament. Warwick was banished to the Isle of Man,
+Arundel was executed, and Gloucester imprisoned at Calais, where he
+was secretly murdered, as was generally believed by the order of the
+king. Archbishop Arundel, brother of the Earl of Arundel, was also
+banished. In such contradiction was this sudden outburst of violence
+to the prudence of Richard's recent conduct, that it has sometimes
+been supposed that, he had been dissimulating all the time. It is more
+probable that, without being actually insane, his mind had to some
+extent given way. He was always excitable, and in his better days his
+alertness of mind carried him forward to swift decisions, as when he
+met the mob at Smithfield, and when he vindicated his authority from
+the restraint of his uncle. Signs had not been wanting that his native
+energy was no longer balanced by the restraints of prudence. In =1394=
+he had actually struck Arundel in Westminster Abbey. In =1397= there
+was much to goad him to hasty and ill-considered action. The year
+before complaints had been raised against the extravagance of his
+household. The peace which he had given to his country was made the
+subject of bitter reproach against him, and he seems to have believed
+that Gloucester was plotting to bring him back into the servitude to
+which he had been subjected by the Commissioners of regency.
+
+11. =The Parliament of Shrewsbury. 1398.=--Whether Richard was mad or
+not, he at all events acted like a madman. In =1398= he summoned a
+packed Parliament to Shrewsbury, which declared all the acts of the
+Merciless Parliament to be null and void, and announced that no
+restraint could legally be put on the king. It then delegated all
+parliamentary power to a committee of twelve lords and six commoners
+chosen from the king's friends. Richard was thus made an absolute
+ruler unbound by the necessity of gathering a Parliament again. He had
+freed himself not merely from turbulent lords but also from all
+constitutional restraints.
+
+12. =The Banishment of Hereford and Norfolk. 1398.=--Richard had shown
+favour to the two lords appellant who had taken his side. Derby became
+Duke of Hereford, and Nottingham Duke of Norfolk. Before long Hereford
+came to the king with a strange tale. Norfolk, he said, had complained
+to him that the king still distrusted them, and had suggested that
+they should guard themselves against him. Norfolk denied the truth of
+the story, and Richard ordered the two to prove their truthfulness by
+a single combat at Coventry. When the pair met in the lists in full
+armour Richard stopped the fight, and to preserve peace, as he said,
+banished Norfolk for life and Hereford for ten years, a term which was
+soon reduced to six. There was something of the unwise cunning of a
+madman in the proceeding.
+
+13. =Richard's Despotism. 1398--1399.=--Richard, freed from all
+control, was now, in every sense of the word, despotic. He extorted
+money without a semblance of right, and even compelled men to put
+their seals to blank promises to pay, which he could fill up with any
+sum he pleased. He too, like the lords, gathered round him a vast
+horde of retainers, who wore his badge and ill-treated his subjects
+at their pleasure. He threatened the Percies, the Earl of
+Northumberland and his son, Harry Hotspur, with exile, and sent them
+off discontented to their vast possessions in the North. Early in
+=1399= the Duke of Lancaster died. His son, the banished Hereford, was
+now Duke of Lancaster. Richard, however, seized the lands which ought
+to have descended to him from his father. Every man who had property
+to lose felt that Lancaster's cause was his own. Richard at this
+inopportune moment took occasion to sail to Ireland. He had been there
+once before in =1394= in the vain hope of protecting the English
+colonists (see p. 265). His first expedition had been a miserable
+failure: his second expedition was cut short by bad news from England.
+
+[Illustration: Meeting of Henry of Lancaster and Richard II. at Flint:
+from Harl. MS. 1319.]
+
+14. =Henry of Lancaster in England. 1399.=--Lancaster, with a small
+force, landed at Ravenspur, in Yorkshire, a harbour which has now
+disappeared in the sea. At first he gave out that he had come merely
+to demand his own inheritance. Then he alleged that he had come to
+redress the wrongs of the realm. Northumberland brought the Percies to
+his help. Armed men flocked to his support in crowds. The Duke of
+York, who had been left behind by Richard as regent, accepted this
+statement and joined him with all his forces. When Richard heard what
+had happened, he sent the Earl of Salisbury from Ireland to Wales to
+summon the Welshmen to his aid. The Welshmen rallied to Salisbury, but
+the king was long in following, and when Richard landed they had all
+dispersed. Richard found himself almost alone in Conway Castle, whilst
+Lancaster had a whole kingdom at his back.
+
+[Illustration: Henry of Lancaster claiming the throne: from Harl. MS.
+1319.]
+
+15. =The Deposition of Richard and the Enthronement of Henry IV.
+1399.=--By lying promises Lancaster induced Richard to place himself
+in his power at Flint. "My lord," said Lancaster to him, "I have now
+come before you have sent for me. The reason is that your people
+commonly say you have ruled them very rigorously for twenty or two and
+twenty years; but, if it please God, I will help you to govern
+better." The pretence of helping the king to govern was soon
+abandoned. Richard was carried to London and thrown into the Tower. He
+consented, probably not till after he had been threatened with the
+fate of Edward II., to sign his abdication. On the following morning
+the act of abdication was read in Parliament. The throne was empty
+Then Lancaster stepped forward. "In the name," he said, "of the
+Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, I, Henry of Lancaster, challenge this
+realm of England, and the crown with all its members and
+appurtenances, as I am descended by right line of the blood coming
+from the good lord King Henry the Third,[27] and through that right
+God of his grace hath sent me, with help of my kin and of my friends,
+to recover it, the which realm was in point to be undone for default
+of governance and undoing of the good laws." The assent of Parliament
+was given, and Lancaster took his seat in Richard's throne as King
+Henry IV.
+
+    [Footnote 27: Genealogy of the claimants of the throne in 1399:--
+
+                                HENRY III.
+                                1216-1272
+                                    |
+            ---------------------------------
+            |                               |
+        EDWARD I.                         Edmund
+        1272-1307                           |
+            |                  ----------------------
+            |                  |                    |
+       EDWARD II.            Thomas,              Henry,
+        1307-1327        Earl of Lancaster   Earl of Lancaster
+            |                                        |
+       EDWARD III                                    |
+        1327-1377                                    |
+            |                                        |
+           --------------------                      |
+           |                  |              Henry, Duke of Lancaster
+         Edward,            Lionel,                  |
+     the Black Prince   Duke of Clarence          Blanche = John of Gaunt,
+           |                  |                           |   Duke of
+      RICHARD II.         Philippa = Edmund Mortimer,     |  Lancaster
+       1377-1399                   |  Earl of March       |
+                                   |                      |
+                            Roger Mortimer,           HENRY IV.
+                             Earl of March            1399-1413
+                                   |
+                           Edmund Mortimer,
+                             Earl of March]
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of a knight at Clehonger, showing development of
+plate armour. Date, about 1400.]
+
+16. =Nature of the Claim of Henry IV.=--The claim which Henry put
+forward would certainly not bear investigation. It laid stress on
+right of descent, and it has since been thought that Henry intended to
+refer to a popular belief that his ancestor Edmund, the second son of
+Henry III., was in reality the eldest son, but had been set aside in
+favour of his younger brother, Edward I., on account of a supposed
+physical deformity from which he was known as Edmund Crouchback. As a
+matter of fact the whole story was a fable, and the name Crouchback
+had been given to Edmund not because his back was crooked, but because
+he had worn a cross on his back as a crusader (see p. 197). That Henry
+should have thought it necessary to allude to this story, if such was
+really his meaning, shows the hold which the idea of hereditary
+succession had taken on the minds of Englishmen. In no other way could
+he claim hereditary right as a descendant of Henry III. Richard had
+selected as his heir Roger Mortimer, the son of the daughter of
+Lionel, Duke of Clarence, the next son of Edward III., after the Black
+Prince, who lived to be old enough to have children. Roger Mortimer,
+indeed, had recently been killed in Ireland, but he had left a boy,
+Edmund Mortimer, who, on hereditary principles, was heir to the
+kingdom, unless the doctrine announced by Edward III. that a claim to
+the crown descended through females was to be set aside. In fact the
+real importance of the change of kings lay not in what Henry said, but
+in what he avoided saying. It was a reversion to the old right of
+election, and to the precedent set in the deposition of Edward II.
+Henry tacitly announced that in critical times, when the wearer of the
+crown was hopelessly incompetent, the nation, represented by
+Parliament, might step in and change the order of succession. The
+question at issue was not merely a personal one between Richard and
+Henry. It was a question between hereditary succession leading to
+despotism on the one side, and to parliamentary choice, perhaps to
+anarchy, on the other. That there were dangers attending the latter
+solution of the constitutional problem would not be long in appearing.
+
+
+_Books recommended for further study of Part III._
+
+GREEN, J. R. History of the English People. Vol. i. pp. 189-520.
+
+STUBBS, W. (Bishop of Oxford). Constitutional History of England. Vol.
+i. chap. xii. sections 151-155; vol. ii. chaps. ix. and x.
+
+---- The Early Plantagenets, 129-276.
+
+NORGATE, Miss K. England under the Angevin Kings. Vol. ii. p. 390.
+
+MICHELET, J. History of France (Middle Ages). Translated by G. H.
+Smith.
+
+LONGMAN, W. The History of the Life and Times of Edward III.
+
+GAIRDNER, James. The Houses of Lancaster and York, pp. 1-64.
+
+ROGERS, James E. Thorold. A History of Agriculture and Prices in
+England. Vols. i. and ii.
+
+CUNNINGHAM, W. Growth of English Industry and Commerce in the Early
+and Middle Ages, pp. 172-365.
+
+WAKEMAN, H. O. and HASSALL, A. (Editors). Essays Introductory to the
+Study of English Constitutional History.
+
+ASHLEY, W. J. An Introduction to English Economic History and Theory.
+Vol. i.
+
+JUSSERAND, J. J. English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages. Translated
+by Lucy Toulmin Smith (Miss).
+
+BROWNE, M. Chaucer's England.
+
+JESSOPP, A., Dr. The Coming of the Friars, and other Historic Essays.
+
+OMAN, C. W. C. The Art of War in the Middle Ages.
+
+ADAMS, G. B. The Political History of England. Vol. ii. From the
+Norman Conquest to the Death of John (1066-1216).
+
+TOUT, T. F. The Political History of England. Vol. iii. From the
+Accession of Henry III. to the Death of Edward III. (1216-1377).
+
+OMAN, C. The Political History of England. Vol. iv. From the Accession
+of Richard II. to the Death of Richard III. (1377-1485).
+
+
+
+
+PART IV.
+
+_LANCASTER, YORK, AND TUDOR._ =1399--1509.=
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+HENRY IV. AND HENRY V.
+
+HENRY IV., =1399--1413=. HENRY V., =1413--1422=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Accession of Henry IV.                                          1399
+  Statute for the burning of heretics                             1401
+  Battle of Shrewsbury                                            1403
+  Fight at Bramham Moor                                           1408
+  Succession of Henry V.                                          1413
+  Battle of Agincourt                                             1415
+  Treaty of Troyes                                                1420
+  Death of Henry V.                                               1422
+
+
+1. =Henry's First Difficulties. 1399--1400.=--Henry IV. fully
+understood that his only chance of maintaining himself on the throne
+was to rule with due consideration for the wishes of Parliament. His
+main difficulty, like that of his predecessor, was that the great
+lords preferred to hold their own against him individually with the
+help of their armies of retainers, instead of exercising political
+power in Parliament. In his first Parliament an angry brawl arose. The
+lords who in the last reign had taken the side of Gloucester flung
+their gloves on the floor of the House as a challenge to those who had
+supported Richard when he compassed Gloucester's death; and though
+Henry succeeded in keeping the peace for the time, a rebellion broke
+out early in =1400= in the name of Richard. Henry, like the kings
+before him, found his support against the turbulent nobles in the
+townsmen and the yeomen, and he was thus able to suppress the
+rebellion. Some of the noblemen who were caught by the excited
+defenders of the throne were butchered without mercy and without law.
+
+[Illustration: Henry IV. and his queen, Joan of Navarre: from their
+tomb in Canterbury Cathedral.]
+
+2. =Death of Richard II. 1400.=--A few weeks after the suppression of
+this conspiracy it was rumoured that Richard had died in prison at
+Pontefract. According to Henry's account of the matter he had
+voluntarily starved himself to death. Few, however, doubted that he
+had been put to death by Henry's orders. To prove the untruth of this
+story, Henry had the body brought to St. Paul's, where he showed to
+the people only the face of the corpse, as if this could be any
+evidence whatever. After Richard's death, if hereditary succession had
+been regarded, the person having a claim to the crown in preference to
+Henry was the young Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, the descendant of
+Lionel, Duke of Clarence (see p. 287). Henry therefore took care to
+keep the boy under custody during the whole of his reign.
+
+[Illustration: Royal arms as borne by Henry IV. after about 1408, and
+by successive sovereigns down to 1603.]
+
+3. =Henry IV. and the Church.=--Besides seeking the support of the
+commonalty, Henry sought the support of the Church. Since the rise of
+the friars at the beginning of the thirteenth century (see p. 191) the
+Church had produced no new orders of monks or friars. In the
+thirteenth and fourteenth she produced the schoolmen, a succession of
+great thinkers who systematised her moral and religious teaching.
+Imagining that she had no more to learn, she now attempted to
+strengthen herself by persecuting those who disbelieved her teaching,
+and after the suppression of the revolt of the peasants, made common
+cause with the landlords, who feared pecuniary loss from the
+emancipation of the villeins. This conservative alliance against
+social and religious change was the more easily made because many of
+the bishops were now members of noble families, instead of springing,
+as had usually been the case in the better days of the mediaeval
+Church, from poor or middle-class parentage. In the reign of Richard
+II. a Courtenay, a kinsman of the Earl of Devonshire, had become first
+Bishop of London (see p. 263), and then Archbishop of Canterbury. He
+was succeeded in his archbishopric by an Arundel, brother of the Earl
+of Arundel who had been executed by Richard, and Archbishop Arundel
+was in the days of Henry IV. the spokesman of the clergy.
+
+[Illustration: Thomas Cranley, Archbishop of Dublin, 1397-1417: from
+his brass at New College, Oxford. Showing the archiepiscopal
+mass-vestments and the cross and pall. Date, about 1400.]
+
+4. =The Statute for the Burning of Heretics. 1401.=--In =1401= the
+clergy cried aloud for new powers. The ecclesiastical courts could
+condemn men as heretics, but had no power to burn them. Bishops and
+abbots formed the majority of the House of Lords, and though the
+Commons had not lost that craving for the wealth of the Church which
+had distinguished John of Gaunt's party, they had no sympathy with
+heresy. Accordingly the statute for the burning of heretics (_De
+haeretico comburendo_), the first English law for the suppression of
+religious opinion, was passed with the ready consent of the king and
+both Houses. The first victim was William Sawtre, a priest who held,
+amongst other things, "that after the words of consecration in the
+Eucharist the bread remains bread, and nothing more." He was burnt by
+a special order from the king and council even before the new law had
+been enacted.
+
+5. =Henry IV. and Owen Glendower. 1400--1402.=--If Henry found it
+difficult to maintain order in England, he found it still more
+difficult to keep the peace on the borders of Wales. In =1400= an
+English nobleman, Lord Grey of Ruthyn, seized on an estate belonging
+to Owen Glendower, a powerful Welsh gentleman. Owen Glendower called
+the Welsh to arms, ravaged Lord Grey's lands, and proclaimed himself
+Prince of Wales. For some years Wales was practically independent.
+English townsmen and yeomen were ready to support Henry against any
+sudden attempt of the nobility to crush him with their retainers, but
+they were unwilling to bear the burden of taxation needed for the
+steady performance of a national task. In the meanwhile Henry was
+constantly exposed to secret plots. In =1401= he found an iron with
+four spikes in his bed. In the autumn of =1402= he led an expedition
+into Wales, but storms of rain and snow forced him back. His English
+followers attributed the disaster to the evil spirits which, as they
+fully believed, were at the command of the wizard Glendower.
+
+6. =The Rebellion of the Percies. 1402--1404.=--The Scots were not
+forgetful of the advantages to be derived from the divisions of
+England. They had amongst them some one--whoever he may have
+been--whom they gave out to be King Richard, and when Henry marched
+against Wales in =1402= they invaded England. They were met by the
+Percies and defeated at Homildon Hill. The Percies had still something
+of the enormous power of the feudal barons of the eleventh century.
+Their family estates stretched over a great part of Northumberland,
+and as they were expected to shield England against Scottish invasions
+they were obliged to keep up a military retinue which might be
+employed against the king as well as in his service. It was mainly
+through their aid that Henry had seated himself on the throne. Their
+chief, the Earl of Northumberland, and his brother, the Earl of
+Worcester, were aged men, but Northumberland's son, Henry Percy--Harry
+Hotspur as he was usually called--was of a fiery temper, and
+disinclined to submit to insult. Hotspur's wife was a Mortimer, and
+her brother, Sir Edmund Mortimer, the uncle of the young Earl of
+March, had been taken prisoner by Glendower. It was noticed that
+Henry, who had ransomed other prisoners, took no steps to ransom
+Mortimer, and it was believed that he was in no hurry to set free one
+whose hereditary claim to the crown, like that of the Earl of March,
+came before his own. Other causes contributed to irritate the Percies,
+and in =1403=, bringing with them as allies the Scottish prisoners
+whom they had taken at Homildon Hill, they marched southwards against
+Henry. Southern England might not be ready adequately to support Henry
+in an invasion of Wales, but it was in no mood to allow him to be
+dethroned by the Percies. It rallied to his side, and enabled him
+signally to defeat the Percies at Shrewsbury. Hotspur was killed in
+the fight, and his uncle, the Earl of Worcester, being captured, was
+beheaded without delay. Northumberland, who was not present at the
+battle, was committed to prison in =1404=, but was pardoned on promise
+of submission.
+
+[Illustration: The battle of Shrewsbury: from the "Life of Richard
+Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick;" drawn by John Rous about 1485.]
+
+7. =The Commons and the Church. 1404.=--After such a deliverance the
+Commons could not but grant some supplies. In the autumn of =1404=,
+however, they pleaded for the confiscation of the revenues of the
+higher clergy, which were sufficient, as they alleged, to support 15
+earls, 1,500 knights, 6,200 esquires, and 100 hospitals as well. The
+king refused to listen to the proposal, and money was voted in the
+ordinary way. It was the first deliberate attempt to meet the growing
+expenditure of the Crown by the confiscation of ecclesiastical
+revenue.
+
+8. =The Capture of the Scottish Prince. 1405.=--Early in =1405= Henry
+was threatened with a fresh attack. Charles VI. of France was now a
+confirmed lunatic, and his authority had mainly fallen into the hands
+of his brother Louis, Duke of Orleans, a profligate and unscrupulous
+man who was regarded by the feudal nobility of France as their leader.
+The Duke of Orleans refused to consider himself bound to Henry by the
+truce which had been made with Richard, and, forming an alliance with
+Owen Glendower, prepared to send a fleet to his aid. When there was
+war between England and France the Scots seldom remained quiet, but
+this time Henry was freed from that danger by an unexpected
+occurrence. The reigning King of Scotland was Robert III., whose
+father, Robert II., had been the first king of the House of Stuart,
+and had ascended the throne after the death of David Bruce, as being
+the son of his sister Margaret.[28] Robert III., weakly in mind and
+body, had committed to the custody of his brother, the Duke of Albany,
+his eldest son, the Duke of Rothesay, who had gained an evil name by
+his scandalous debauchery. Rothesay died in the prison in which his
+uncle had confined him, and popular rumour alleged that Albany had
+murdered him to clear the way to the throne. Robert now sent young
+James, his only surviving son, to be educated in France in order to
+save him from Albany's machinations. On his way the prince was
+captured by an English ship, and delivered to Henry, who kept him
+under guard as a hostage for the peaceful behaviour of his countrymen.
+The prince, he said, should have been sent to him to be educated, as
+he could talk French as well as the king of France. When Robert died
+soon afterwards the captive became King James I.; but he was not
+allowed to return home, and Albany ruled Scotland as regent in his
+name.
+
+    [Footnote 28: Genealogy of the kings of Scotland from Robert Bruce
+    to James I.:--
+
+                ROBERT I., Bruce
+                  (1306-1329)
+                       |
+         ------------------------------
+         |                            |
+      DAVID II.              Margaret = Walter Stewart
+     (1329-1370)                      |
+                             ROBERT II., Stewart or Stuart
+                                 (1370-1390)
+                                      |
+                                      |--------------
+                                      |             |
+                                 ROBERT III.    Robert, Duke
+                                 (1390-1406)     of Albany
+                                      |
+                  --------------------|
+                  |                   |
+                David,             JAMES I.
+           Duke of Rothesay      (1406-1437)]
+
+9. =The Execution of Archbishop Scrope. 1405.=--The capture of such a
+hostage as James was the more valuable to Henry as at that very moment
+there was a fresh rising in the North, in which Scrope, the Archbishop
+of York, took a leading part. The insurgents were soon dispersed, and
+both Archbishop Scrope and Mowbray, the Earl Marshal, were captured.
+Henry had them both beheaded, though neither were tried by their
+peers, and ecclesiastics were not punishable by a secular court.
+Knowing that the insurrection had been contrived by Northumberland,
+Henry gave himself no rest till he had demolished the fortifications
+of his castles of Alnwick, Warkworth, and Prudhoe. Northumberland
+himself escaped to Scotland.
+
+10. =France, Wales, and the North. 1405--1408.=--In =1405=, whilst
+Henry was in the North, a French fleet landed a force in Wales and
+seized Carmarthen. In =1406= the Duke of Orleans attacked the
+possessions still held by the English in Guienne, but though he
+plundered the country he could do no more. Once again fortune relieved
+Henry of a dangerous enemy. The Duke of Orleans had a rival in his
+cousin John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, who, in addition to his
+own duchy and county of Burgundy, was ruler of Flanders through his
+mother. His wise and firm government attached the manufacturing towns
+of Flanders to him, and the example of his government in Flanders won
+him favour in Paris and other French towns, especially in the north of
+France. He was, however, personally brutal and unscrupulous, and
+having entered into a competition for power with the Duke of Orleans,
+he had him murdered in =1407= in the streets of Paris. At once a civil
+war broke out between the Burgundian party, supported by the towns,
+and the Orleans party, which rested on the feudal nobility, and was
+now termed the party of the Armagnacs, from the Count of Armagnac, its
+chief leader after the murder of the Duke of Orleans. Henry had no
+longer to fear invasion from France. In =1408= he was freed from yet
+another enemy. The old Earl of Northumberland, who had wandered from
+Scotland to Wales, now wandered north again to try his fortunes in his
+own country. As he passed through Yorkshire he was met by the sheriff
+of the county, and defeated and slain on Bramham Moor. At the same
+time South Wales fell again under the power of the king, and though
+Owen Glendower still continued to hold out in the mountainous region
+round Snowdon, his power rapidly declined.
+
+[Illustration: Fight in the lists with poleaxes between Richard
+Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, and Sir Pandolf Malatesta, at Verona,
+_temp._ Henry IV.: from the "Life of Richard, Earl of Warwick;" drawn
+by John Rous about 1485.]
+
+11. =Henry, Prince of Wales. 1409--1410.=--No one had been more
+helpful to the king in these wars than his son, Henry, Prince of
+Wales. He had fought at Shrewsbury and in Wales, and had learnt to
+command as well as to fight. Young as he was--in =1409= he was but
+twenty-two--he was already seen to be a man born to have the mastery.
+He took his place in his father's council as well as in his armies in
+the field. He was skilful, resolute, always knowing his own mind,
+prompt to act as each occasion arose. He was, moreover, unfeignedly
+religious. It seemed as if a king as great as Edward I. was about to
+ascend the throne. Yet between the character of Edward I. and the
+character of Prince Henry there was a great difference. Edward I.
+worked for the future as well as for the present. His constructive
+legislation served his country for generations after his death. Even
+his mistaken attempt to unite England and Scotland was, to some extent
+at least, an anticipation of that which was done by the Act of Union
+four hundred years after his death. The young Henry had no such power
+of building for the future. He worked for the present alone, and his
+work crumbled away almost as soon as he was in his grave. His ideas
+were the ordinary ideas of his age, and he never originated any of his
+own. In =1410=, when a heretic, Badby, was led to be burnt, the Prince
+in vain urged him to recant. As the flames blazed up, the poor wretch,
+stung by the torment, cried for mercy. The Prince bade the
+executioners drag away the blazing faggots, and offered Badby support
+for his lifetime if he would abandon his heresy. Badby refused, and
+the Prince sternly ordered the executioners to push the faggots back
+and to finish their cruel work. In that very year the House of
+Commons, which was again urging the king to confiscate the revenues of
+the clergy, even urged him also to soften the laws against the
+Lollards. The king refused, and he had no opposition to fear from the
+Prince of Wales.
+
+[Illustration: Costume of a judge, about 1400: from the brass of Sir
+John Cassy, Chief Baron of the Exchequer, at Deerhurst,
+Gloucestershire.]
+
+12. =The Last Years of Henry IV. 1411--1413.=--It was not long before
+a bitter quarrel broke out between Henry IV. and his son, which lasted
+till the death of the old man. In later times stories were told how
+Prince Henry gave himself up to the society of low and debauched
+companions, how he amused himself by robbing the receivers of his own
+rents, and how, having struck Chief Justice Gascoigne for sitting in
+judgment on one of his unruly followers, he was sent to prison for
+contempt of court. There is no real evidence in support of these
+stories; but there is good reason to believe that, though they were
+certainly exaggerated, they were not altogether without foundation.
+Since =1410= the Prince kept house in the heart of London, and, as a
+young and active man suddenly called from service in the field to live
+in the midst of the temptations of a city, he may very well have
+developed a taste for boisterous amusements, even if he did not fall
+into grosser forms of dissipation. It is certain that during this
+period of his life he ran deeply into debt, and was no longer on good
+terms with his father. Yet even the story about the Chief Justice goes
+on to say that the Prince took his punishment meekly and offered no
+resistance, and that his father thanked God that he had so upright a
+judge and so obedient a son. Political disagreement probably widened
+the breach between the King and the Prince. Henry IV. had grown
+accustomed to live from hand to mouth, and had maintained himself on
+the throne rather because Englishmen needed a king than because he was
+himself a great ruler. In his foreign policy he was swayed by the
+interests of the moment. In =1411= he helped the Burgundians against
+the Armagnacs. In =1412= he helped the Armagnacs against the
+Burgundians. Prince Henry already aimed at a steady alliance with the
+Burgundians, with a view to a policy more thoroughgoing than that of
+keeping a balance between the French parties. The king, too, was
+subject to epileptic attacks, and to a cutaneous disorder which his
+ill-willers branded by the name of leprosy. It has even been said that
+in =1412= the Prince urged his father to abdicate in his favour. If
+so, he had not long to wait for the crown. In =1413= Henry IV. died,
+and Henry V. sat upon his throne.
+
+13. =Henry V. and the Lollards. 1413--1414.=--Henry V. was steadied by
+the duties which now devolved upon him. He indeed dismissed from the
+chancellorship Archbishop Arundel, who had supported his father
+against himself, and gave it to his half-uncle, Henry Beaufort, Bishop
+of Winchester, one of the legitimated sons of John of Gaunt and
+Catherine Swynford (see p. 282), but he allowed no plans of vengeance
+to take possession of his mind. His first thought was to show that he
+had confidence in his own title to the crown. He liberated the Earl of
+March, and transferred the body of Richard II. to a splendid tomb at
+Westminster, as if he had nothing to fear from any competitor. If
+there was one thing on which, as far as England was concerned, his
+heart was set, it was on strengthening the religion of his ancestors.
+He founded three friaries and he set himself to crush the Lollards.
+Sir John Oldcastle, who bore the title of Lord Cobham in right of his
+wife, was looked up to by the Lollards as their chief supporter.
+Oldcastle was brought before Archbishop Arundel. Both judge and
+accused played their several parts with dignity. Arundel without angry
+reviling asserted the necessity of accepting the teaching of the
+Church. Oldcastle with modest firmness maintained the falsity of many
+of its doctrines. In the end he was excommunicated, but before any
+further action could be taken he escaped, and was nowhere to be found.
+His followers were so exasperated as to form a plot against the king's
+life. Early in =1414= Henry fell upon a crowd of them in St. Giles's
+Fields. Most escaped, but of those who were taken the greater part
+were hanged or burnt. The result was a statute giving fresh powers to
+the king for the punishment of the Lollards. Every book written by
+them was to be confiscated. Three years later (=1417=) Oldcastle was
+seized and burnt. He was the last of the Lollards to play an
+historical part. The Lollards continued to exist in secret, especially
+in the towns, but there was never again any one amongst them who
+combined religious fervour with cultivated intelligence.
+
+[Illustration: Henry V.: from an original painting belonging to the
+Society of Antiquaries.]
+
+14. =Henry's Claim to the Throne of France. 1414.=--Henry V. was
+resolved to uphold the old foreign policy of the days of Edward III.
+as well as the old religion. In =1414=, whilst he amused the French
+court by offers of friendship, he was in reality preparing to demand
+the crown of France as the right of the king of England, leaving out
+of sight the consideration that if the claim of Edward III. had been
+worth anything at all, it would have descended to the Earl of March
+and not to himself. Everything seemed to combine to make easy an
+attack on France. Burgundians and Armagnacs were engaged in a
+death-struggle. In =1413= a riotous Burgundian mob had made itself
+master of Paris and the Government. Then the Armagnacs had got the
+upper hand, and the Duke of Burgundy was driven back to his own
+dominions. Henry now made an alliance with the Duke of Burgundy
+against the ruling powers, and prepared to invade the distracted land.
+Thus far he proceeded in imitation of Edward III., who had attacked
+Philip VI. in alliance with the Flemings. With Edward III., however,
+the claim to the French crown had always been a secondary
+consideration. He went to war because French sailors plundered English
+ports and the French king assisted the Scots. Henry had no such reason
+to urge. He went to war because he was young and warlike, because the
+enterprise was easy, and because foreign conquest would unite all
+Englishmen round his throne. When once the war was begun he was
+certain to carry it on in a different spirit from that of Edward III.
+Edward had gone to weaken the plunderers by plundering in return, and
+to fight battles only when they happened to come in his way. Henry
+went with the distinct resolution to conquer France and to place the
+French crown on his own head. Every step which he took was calculated
+with skill for the attainment of this end. Of immediate, perhaps of
+lifelong, success Henry was as nearly certain as it was possible to
+be. Yet, if he had remembered what had been the end of campaigns
+adorned by the brilliant victories of Crecy and Poitiers, he might
+have known that all that he could do would end in ultimate failure,
+and that the day must come when divided France would unite to cast
+out, if not himself, at least his heirs. It was significant that when
+his Chancellor, Beaufort, announced to Parliament the king's
+intention, he took for his text, after the manner of political
+speakers in those days, 'Let us work while it is called to-day.' Henry
+was not inclined, as Edward I. had been, to take thought for a distant
+morrow.
+
+15. =The Invasion of France. 1415.=--In =1415= Henry openly made his
+claim and gathered his army at Southampton. He there detected a
+conspiracy to place the Earl of March on the throne, which had been
+formed by Lord Scrope and Sir Thomas Grey, in combination with March's
+brother-in-law, the Earl of Cambridge, a son of the Duke of York (see
+genealogy at p. 327), the son of Edward III. All three were executed,
+and then Henry sailed for France. He landed at the mouth of the Seine
+and besieged Harfleur. Harfleur fell after an heroic defence, and the
+Seine valley lay open to Henry.[29] Over two-thirds of his army,
+however, had perished from dysentery and fever, and with no more, even
+at the highest calculation, than 15,000 men, he was unable to take
+advantage of the opportunity to march upon Paris. His brother the Duke
+of Clarence, urged him to return to England, but Henry knew that if he
+went back with baffled hopes his throne would hardly stand the shock.
+He resolved to march to Calais. It might be that he would find a Crecy
+on the way.
+
+    [Footnote 29: Havre de Grace was not yet in existence.]
+
+16. =The March to Agincourt. 1415.=--Not a Frenchman could be found
+who would take seriously Henry's claim to be the true king of France.
+When he reached the Somme he found the bridges over the river broken,
+and he was only able to cross it by ascending it almost to its source.
+Then, bending to the left, he pushed on towards Calais. His own army
+was by this time scarcely more than 10,000 strong, and he soon learnt
+that a mighty French host of at least 50,000 men blocked the way at
+Agincourt. Though his little band was worn with hunger, he joyfully
+prepared for battle. He knew that the Duke of Burgundy had kept aloof,
+and that the Armagnac army opposed to him was a feudal host of the
+same character as that which had been defeated at Crecy. There were no
+recognised commanders, no subordination, no notion of the superior
+military power of the English archers.
+
+17. =The Battle of Agincourt, October 25, 1415.=--In the early
+morning, mass was said in the English army, and Henry's scanty
+followers prayed earnestly that their king's right, as they believed
+it to be, might be shown on that day. Henry's own prayers were long
+and fervid. He was told that it was the hour of prime, the first hour
+of prayer. "Now," he said, "is good time, for all England prayeth for
+us, and, therefore, be of good cheer." He then went forth to marshal
+his army. To a knight who wished that every brave Englishman now at
+home were there, he replied that he would not have one man more. Few
+as they were, they were in the hands of God, who could give them the
+victory. Henry's tactics were those of Crecy. He drew up his archers
+between thick woods which defended their flanks, and with sharp stakes
+planted in the ground to defend them in front, placing his dismounted
+horsemen at intervals between the bodies of archers. The French,
+however, showed no signs of attacking, and Henry, knowing that unless
+he cut his way through his soldiers would starve, threw tactics to
+the winds and ordered his archers to advance. He had judged wisely.
+The French horsemen were on ploughed ground soaked with rain, and when
+at last they charged, the legs of their horses stuck fast in the
+clinging mud. The English arrows played thickly on them. Immovable and
+helpless, they were slaughtered as they stood. In vain their
+dismounted horsemen pushed forward in three columns upon the English
+knights. Their charge was vigorously resisted, and the archers,
+overlapping each column, drew forth the heavy leaden mallets which
+each man carried, and fell upon the helpless rout with blows which
+crashed through the iron headpieces of the Frenchmen. Such as could
+escape fled hastily to the rear, throwing into wild confusion the
+masses of their countrymen who had not as yet been engaged. The battle
+was won, but unfortunately the victory was stained by a cruel deed.
+Some French plunderers had got into the rear to seize upon the
+baggage, and Henry, believing that a fresh enemy was upon him, gave
+orders, which were promptly carried out, to slay the prisoners. The
+loss of the French was enormous, and fell heavily on their nobility,
+always eager to be foremost in fight. Amongst the prisoners who were
+spared was the young Duke of Orleans.
+
+18. =Henry's Diplomacy. 1416--1417.=--If Henry had not yet secured the
+crown of France, he had at least made sure of the crown of England.
+When he landed at Dover he was borne to land on the shoulders of the
+multitude. He entered London amidst wild enthusiasm. There was no fear
+of any fresh conspiracy to place the Earl of March on the throne. In
+=1416= he sent his brother, the Duke of Bedford, to secure Harfleur
+against a French attack, whilst he himself was diplomatically active
+in an attempt to win over to his side the Duke of Burgundy and
+Sigismund, King of the Romans, who actually visited him in England.
+Sigismund promised much, but had little power to fulfil his promises,
+whilst the Duke shifted backwards and forwards, looking out for his
+own advantage and giving no real help to either side. In =1417= the
+quarrels in France reached a head. The Count of Armagnac, getting into
+his possession the Dauphin Charles, a boy of fourteen, established a
+reign of terror in Paris, and the Duke of Burgundy, summoned by the
+frightened citizens to their help, levied war against the Armagnacs
+and marched to Paris.
+
+19. =Henry's Conquest of Normandy. 1417--1419.=--Henry seized the
+opportunity and landed in Normandy. Caen was taken by storm, and in a
+few weeks all Normandy except Rouen had submitted to Henry. There had
+been a terrible butchery when Caen was stormed, but when once
+submission was secured Henry took care that justice and order should
+be enforced, and that his soldiers should abstain from plunder and
+outrage. In Paris affairs were growing worse. The citizens rose
+against the Armagnacs and imprisoned all of them on whom they could
+lay hands. Then the mob burst into the prisons and massacred the
+prisoners, the Count of Armagnac himself being one of the number.
+Henry's army in the meanwhile closed round Rouen. The magistrates, to
+prolong the defence, thrust out the poorer inhabitants. Henry, who
+knew not pity when there was a practical object to be gained, thrust
+them back. During five months the poor wretches wandered about half
+starved, dying off day by day. On Christmas Day, in honour of Christ's
+nativity, Henry sent some food to the few who were left. Famine did
+its work within as well as without the walls, and on January 19,
+=1419=, Rouen, the old ducal capital of the Norman kings, surrendered
+to Henry.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of William Phelip, Lord Bardolf (died 1441),
+with the Garter and Lancastrian collar of SS.: from his tomb at
+Dennington, Suffolk. The type of armour here shown prevailed from
+about 1415 to 1435.]
+
+[Illustration: Marriage of Henry V. and Catherine of France: from the
+'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick,' drawn by John Rous about
+1485.]
+
+20. =The Murder of the Duke of Burgundy and the Treaty of Troyes.
+1419--1420.=--In the summer of =1419= English troops swept the country
+even up to the walls of Paris. Henry, however, gained more by the
+follies and crimes of his enemies than by his own skill. Terrified at
+the prospect of losing all, Burgundians and Armagnacs seemed for a
+moment to forget their quarrel and to be ready to join together in
+defence of their common country; but the hatred in their hearts could
+not be rooted out. At a conference between the Duke of Burgundy and
+the Dauphin on the bridge of Montereau, angry words sprang easily to
+the lips of both. The Duke put his hand on the pommel of his sword,
+and some of the Dauphin's attendants, believing their master's life in
+danger, fell on the Duke and slew him. After this an agreement between
+the factions was no longer possible. The new Duke of Burgundy, Philip
+the Good, at once joined the English against the Dauphin, whom he
+regarded as an accomplice of his father's murderers. Even Queen
+Isabella, the mother of the Dauphin, shared in the outcry against her
+own son, and in =1420= was signed the Treaty of Troyes, by which the
+Dauphin was disinherited in favour of Henry, who was to be king of
+France on the death of Charles VI. In accordance with its terms, Henry
+married Charles's daughter Catherine, and ruled France as regent till
+the time came when he was to rule it as king.
+
+21. =The Close of the Reign of Henry V. 1420--1422.=--The Treaty of
+Troyes was very similar in its stipulations to that which Henry II.
+had made with Stephen at Wallingford (see p. 137). The result was, as
+might have been expected, totally different. Henry II. had the English
+nation behind his back. Henry V. presumed to rule over a foreign
+nation, the leaders of which had only accepted him in a momentary fit
+of passion. He never got the whole of France into his power. He held
+Paris and the North, whilst the Duke of Burgundy held the East. South
+of the Loire the Armagnacs were strong, and that part of France stood
+by the Dauphin, though even here the English possessed a strip of land
+along the sea-coast in Guienne and Gascony, and at one time drew over
+some of the lords to admit Henry's feudal supremacy. In =1420= Henry
+fancied it safe for him to return to England, but, in his absence, in
+the spring of =1421= his brother, the Duke of Clarence, was defeated
+and slain at Bauge by a force of Frenchmen and of Scottish
+auxiliaries. Clarence had forgotten that English victories had been
+due to English archery. He had plunged into the fight with his
+horsemen, and had paid the penalty for his rashness with his life.
+Henry hurried to the rescue of his followers, and drove the French
+over the Loire; though Orleans, on the north bank of that river,
+remained unconquered. Instead of laying siege to it Henry turned
+sharply round northwards to besiege Meaux, the garrison of which was
+plundering the country round Paris in the name of the Dauphin, and
+seemed likely to shake the fidelity to Henry even of Paris itself.
+Meaux held out for many months. When at last it fell, in =1422=, Henry
+was already suffering from a disease which carried him off before the
+end of the year at the age of thirty-five. Henry V. had given his life
+to the restoration of the authority of the Church in England, and to
+the establishment of his dynasty at home by means of the glory of
+foreign conquest. What man could do he did, but he could not achieve
+the impossible.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+HENRY VI. AND THE LOSS OF FRANCE. =1422--1451=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Henry VI., 1422-1461
+
+  The accession of Henry VI.                                      1422
+  The relief of Orleans                                           1429
+  End of the alliance with the Duke of Burgundy                   1435
+  Marriage of Henry VI. with Margaret of Anjou                    1445
+  Murder of the Duke of Suffolk and Jack Cade's rebellion         1450
+  Loss of the last French possessions except Calais               1451
+
+
+1. =Bedford and Gloucester. 1422.=--In England Henry V. was succeeded
+in =1422= by his son, Henry VI., a child of nine months. In the same
+year, in consequence of the death of Charles VI., the infant was
+acknowledged as king of France in the north and east of that country.
+The Dauphin, holding the lands south of the Loire, and some territory
+even to the north of it, claimed to reign over the whole of France by
+hereditary right as Charles VII. Henry V. had appointed his eldest
+surviving brother, John, Duke of Bedford, regent in France, and his
+youngest brother, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, regent in England. In
+England there were no longer any parties banded against the Crown, and
+the title of the Earl of March had not a single supporter; but both
+the Privy Council and the Parliament agreed that the late king could
+not dispose of the regency by will. Holding that Bedford as the elder
+brother had the better claim, they nevertheless, in consequence of his
+absence in France, appointed Gloucester Protector, with the proviso
+that he should give up his authority to Bedford if the latter were to
+return to England. They also imposed limitations upon the authority of
+the Protector, requiring him to act by the advice of the Council.
+
+2. =Bedford's Success in France. 1423--1424.=--The English nation was
+bent upon maintaining its supremacy in France. Bedford was a good
+warrior and an able statesman. In =1423= he prudently married the
+sister of Philip of Burgundy, hoping thereby to secure permanently the
+all-important fidelity of the Duke. His next step was to place
+difficulties in the way of the Scottish auxiliaries who poured into
+France to the help of Charles. Through his influence the captive James
+I. (see p. 295) was liberated and sent home to Scotland, on the
+understanding that he would prevent his subjects from aiding the
+enemies of England. Bedford needed all the support he could find, as
+the French had lately been gaining ground. In =1424=, however, Bedford
+defeated them at Verneuil. In England it was believed that Verneuil
+was a second Agincourt, and that the French resistance would soon be
+at an end.
+
+3. =Gloucester's Invasion of Hainault. 1424.=--Bedford's progress in
+France was checked by the folly of his brother Gloucester, who was as
+unwise and capricious as he was greedy of power. Gloucester had lately
+married Jacqueline, the heiress of Holland and Hainault, though her
+husband, the Duke of Brabant, was still living, on the plea that her
+first marriage was null on the ground of nearness of kin. In =1424=
+Gloucester overran Hainault, which was under the government of the
+Duke of Brabant, thereby giving offence to the Duke of Burgundy, who
+was a cousin and ally of the Duke of Brabant, and who had no wish to
+see the English holding a territory so near to his own county of
+Flanders. The Duke of Brabant recovered Hainault and captured
+Jacqueline, who had already been abandoned by Gloucester. A coolness
+arose between the Duke of Burgundy and the English which was never
+completely removed.
+
+[Illustration: Henry VI.: from an original picture in the National
+Portrait Gallery.]
+
+4. =Gloucester and Beaufort. 1425--1428.=--In England as well as on
+the Continent Gloucester's self-willed restlessness roused enemies,
+the most powerful of them being his uncle, the Chancellor, Henry
+Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester (see pp. 301, 335), a wealthy and
+ambitious prelate not without those statesmanlike qualities which were
+sadly lacking to Gloucester. If Beaufort ruled the Council, Gloucester
+had the art of making himself popular with the multitude, whose
+sympathies were not likely to be given to a bishop of the type of
+Beaufort, who practised no austerities and who had nothing in him to
+appeal to the popular imagination. So bitter was the feud between
+Gloucester and Beaufort that in =1426= Bedford was obliged to visit
+England to keep the peace between them. Before he returned to France
+he persuaded Beaufort to surrender the chancellorship to Kemp, the
+Bishop of London, and to leave England for a time. Moreover, in =1427=
+he himself swore that as long as the king was under age the Council
+and not the Protector was to govern. When Gloucester was asked to take
+the same oath, he signed it, but refused to swear. In =1428=, after
+Bedford had returned to France, Beaufort came back, bringing with him
+from Rome the title of Cardinal, and authority to raise soldiers for a
+crusade against heretics in Bohemia. A storm was at once raised
+against him. A Cardinal, it was said, was a servant of the Roman See,
+and as no man could serve two masters, he ought not to hold an English
+bishopric or to sit in the English Council, far less to send to
+Bohemia English troops which were needed in France. Gloucester fancied
+that the opportunity of overthrowing his rival had come. Beaufort,
+however, was too prudent to press his claims. He absented himself from
+the Council and allowed the men whom he had raised for Bohemia to be
+sent to France instead. Before the end of the year the outcry against
+him died away, and, Cardinal as he was, he resumed his old place in
+the Council.
+
+5. =The Siege of Orleans. 1428--1429.=--The time had arrived when the
+presence of every English soldier was needed in France. Bedford had
+made himself master of almost the whole country north of the Loire
+except Orleans. If he could gain that city it would be easy for him to
+overpower Charles, who kept court at Chinon. In =1428=, therefore, he
+laid siege to Orleans. The city, however, defended itself gallantly,
+though all that the French outside could hope to do was to cut off the
+supplies of the besiegers. In February =1429= they attempted to
+intercept a convoy of herrings coming from Paris for the English
+troops, but were beaten off in what was jocosely styled the Battle of
+the Herrings, and it seemed as though Orleans, and with it France
+itself, were doomed. Frenchmen were indeed weary of the foreign yoke
+and of the arrogant insolence of the rough island soldiers. Yet in
+France all military and civil organisation had hitherto come from the
+kings, and unfortunately for his subjects Charles was easy-tempered
+and entirely incapable either of carrying on war successfully or of
+inspiring that enthusiasm without which the most careful organisation
+is as the twining of ropes of sand. It would need a miracle to inspire
+Frenchmen with the belief that it was possible for them to defeat the
+victors of Agincourt and Verneuil, and yet without such a miracle
+irretrievable ruin was at hand.
+
+6. =Jeanne Darc and the Relief of Orleans. 1429.=--The miracle was
+wrought by a young maiden of seventeen, Jeanne Darc, the daughter of a
+peasant of Domremi, in the duchy of Bar. Her home was at a distance
+from the actual scenes of war, but whilst she was still little more
+than a child, tales of horror, reaching her from afar, had filled her
+with 'pity for the realm of France' and for its young king, whom she
+idealised into the pattern of every virtue. As she brooded over the
+thought of possible deliverance, her warm imagination summoned up
+before her bright and saintly forms, St. Michael, St. Catherine, and
+St. Margaret, who bade her, the chosen of God, to go forth and save
+the king, and conduct him to Reims to be crowned and anointed with the
+holy oil from the vessel which, as men believed, had been brought down
+from heaven in days of old. At last in =1428= her native hamlet was
+burnt down by a Burgundian band. Then the voices of the saints bade
+her go to Vaucouleurs, where she would find a knight, Robert de
+Baudricourt, who would conduct her to Charles. Months passed before
+Baudricourt would do aught but scorn her message, and it was not till
+February =1429=, when the news from Orleans was most depressing, that
+he consented to take her in his train. She found Charles at Chinon,
+and, as the story goes, convinced him of her Divine mission by
+recognising him in disguise in the midst of his courtiers. Soldiers
+and theologians alike distrusted her, but her native good sense, her
+simple and earnest faith, and above all her purity of heart and life
+disarmed all opposition, and she was sent forth to lead an army to the
+relief of Orleans. She rode on horseback clothed in armour as a man,
+with a sword which she had taken from behind the altar of St.
+Catherine by her side, and a consecrated banner in her hand. She
+brought with her hope of victory, enthusiasm built on confidence in
+Divine protection, and wide-reaching patriotism. 'Pity for the realm
+of France' inspired her, and even the rough soldiers who followed her
+forsook for a time their debaucheries that they might be fit to follow
+God's holy maid. Such an army was invincible; but whilst to the French
+the maid was an instrument of the mercy of God, to the English she was
+an emissary of hell and the forerunner of defeat. On May 7 she led the
+storm of one of the English fortified posts by which the town was
+hemmed in. After a sharp attack she planted her standard on the wall.
+The English garrison was slain to a man. The line of the besiegers was
+broken through, and Orleans was saved. On the 12th the English army
+was in full retreat.
+
+[Illustration: Fotheringhay Church, Northamptonshire. The contract for
+building it, between Edward Duke of York, and William Horwod,
+freemason, is dated September 24, 1434.]
+
+7. =The Coronation of Charles VII. and the Capture of the Maid.
+1429--1430.=--The Maid followed up her victory. She had at her side
+brave and skilful warriors, such as La Hire and the Bastard of
+Orleans, the illegitimate son of the murdered Louis of Orleans, and
+with their help she pressed the English hard, driving them northwards
+and defeating them at Patay. She insisted on conducting Charles to
+Reims, and he, indolently resisting at first, was carried away by her
+persistent urgency. Hostile towns opened their gates to her on the
+way, and on July 17 she saw with chastened joy the man whom she had
+saved from destruction crowned in the great cathedral of Reims. For
+her part, she was eager to push on the war, but Charles was slothful,
+and in a hurry to be back to the pleasures of his court. When she led
+the troops to the attack of Paris, she was ordered back by the king,
+and the army sent into winter quarters. In the spring of =1430= the
+Maid was allowed again to attack the English, but she had no longer
+the support which she had once had. Many of the French soldiers were
+meanly jealous of her, and were vexed when they were told that they
+owed their victories to a woman. On the other side the Duke of
+Burgundy was frightened by the French successes into giving real aid
+to Bedford, and on May 23, in a skirmish before Compiegne, her
+countrymen doing nothing to save or to rescue her, the Maid was taken
+by Burgundian soldiers. Before the end of the year her captors sold
+her to the English, who firmly believed her to be a witch.
+
+8. =The Martyrdom at Rouen. 1431.=--The English had no difficulty in
+finding an ecclesiastical court to judge their prisoner. Even the
+French clergy detested the Maid as having appealed to supernatural
+voices which had not been recognised by the Church; and in spite of an
+intelligent and noble defence she was condemned to be burnt. At the
+stake she behaved with heroic simplicity. When the flames curled round
+her she called upon the saints who had befriended her. Her last
+utterance was a cry of "Jesus!" An Englishman who had come to triumph
+hung his head for shame. "We are lost," he said; "we have burnt a
+saint!"
+
+9. =The Last Years of the Duke of Bedford. 1431--1435.=--The English
+gained nothing by their unworthy vengeance. Though the personal
+presence of the Maid was no longer there to encourage her countrymen,
+they had learnt from her to cherish that 'pity for the realm of
+France' which had glowed so brightly in her own bosom. It was in vain
+that towards the end of =1431= Bedford carried the young Henry, now a
+boy of ten years, who had already been crowned in England the year
+before, to be crowned at Notre Dame, the cathedral of Paris. The
+Parisians were disgusted by the troop of foreigners which accompanied
+him, and their confidence was shaken when Bedford sent the king back
+to England as not venturing to trust him amongst his French subjects.
+In =1432= the armies of Charles VII. stole forwards step by step, and
+Bedford, who had no money to pay his troops, could do nothing to
+resist them. The English Parliament, which had cheerfully voted
+supplies as long as there seemed a prospect of conquering France, hung
+back from granting them when victories were no longer won. In =1433=
+Bedford was again forced to return to England to oppose the intrigues
+of Gloucester, who, though he had lost the title of Protector when the
+young king was crowned, had thrown the government into confusion by
+his intrigues. When Bedford went back to France in =1434= he found the
+tide running strongly against him. Little more than Paris and Normandy
+were held by the English, and the Duke of Burgundy was inclining more
+and more towards the French. In =1435= a congress was held at Arras,
+under the Duke of Burgundy's presidency, in the hope that peace might
+be made. The congress, however, failed to accomplish anything, and
+soon after the English ambassadors were withdrawn Bedford died at
+Rouen. If so wise a statesman and so skilful a warrior had failed to
+hold down France, no other Englishman was likely to achieve the task.
+
+10. =The Defection of Burgundy. 1435.=--After Bedford's death the Duke
+of Burgundy renounced his alliance with the English and entered into a
+league with Charles VII. In =1430=, by the death of the Duke of
+Brabant, he inherited Brabant, and in =1436= he inherited from the
+faithless Jacqueline Hainault, Holland, Zealand, and Friesland (see p.
+308). He thus, being already Count of Flanders, became ruler over
+well-nigh the whole of the Netherlands in addition to his own
+territories in Burgundy. The vassal of the king of France was now a
+European potentate. England had therefore to count on the enmity of a
+ruler whose power of injuring her was indeed serious.
+
+11. =The Duke of York in France. 1436--1437.=--Bedford's successor was
+the young Richard, Duke of York, whose father was that Earl of
+Cambridge who had been executed at Southampton (see p. 301); whilst
+his mother was Anne Mortimer, the sister of the Earl of March. As the
+Earl of March had died in =1425=, the Duke of York was now, through
+his mother, the heir of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, and thus, if
+hereditary right was to be regarded, heir to the throne. That a man
+with such claims should have been entrusted with such an office shows
+how firmly the victories of Henry V. had established the House of
+Lancaster in England. Disputes in the English Council, however,
+delayed his departure, and in April =1436=, before he could arrive in
+France, Paris was lost, whilst the Duke of Burgundy besieged Calais.
+England, stung by the defection of Burgundy, made an unusual effort.
+One army drove the Burgundians away from before Calais, whilst another
+under the Duke of York himself regained several fortresses in
+Normandy, and in =1437= Lord Talbot drove the Burgundians behind the
+Somme.
+
+12. =The English Lose Ground. 1437--1443.=--Gallant as the Duke of
+York was, he was soon recalled, and in =1437= was succeeded by Richard
+Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick. Warwick, however, failed to do more than
+to hold what his predecessor had gained, and he died in =1439=. Both
+in England and France the suffering was terrible, and England would
+find neither men nor money to support a falling cause. In =1439= a
+peace conference was held at Calais, but the English continued
+arrogantly to claim the crown of France, and peace was not to be had.
+In =1440= York was sent back, and fighting went on till =1443=, in
+which the English lost ground both in Normandy and in Guienne.
+
+[Illustration: Gilt-latten effigy (front view) of Richard Beauchamp,
+Earl of Warwick, died 1439: from his tomb at Warwick. Made by William
+Austen, of London, founder, 1453.]
+
+[Illustration: Gilt-latten effigy (back view) of Richard Beauchamp,
+Earl of Warwick, died 1439: from his tomb at Warwick. Made by William
+Austen, of London, founder, 1453.]
+
+13. =Continued Rivalry of Beaufort and Gloucester. 1439--1441.=--The
+chief advocate in England of the attempt to make peace at Calais in
+=1439= had been Cardinal Beaufort, whose immense wealth gave him
+authority over a Council which was always at its wits' end for money.
+Beaufort was wise enough to see that the attempt to reconquer the lost
+territory, or even to hold Normandy, was hopeless. Such a view,
+however, was not likely to be popular. Nations, like men, often
+refuse openly to acknowledge failure long after they cease to take
+adequate means to avert it. Of the popular feeling Gloucester made
+himself the mouthpiece, and it was by his influence that exorbitant
+pretensions had been put forward at Calais. In =1440= he accused
+Beaufort of using his authority for his own private interests, and
+though Beaufort gave over to the public service a large sum of money
+which he received as the ransom of the Duke of Orleans from a
+captivity which had lasted twenty-four years (see p. 303), Gloucester
+virulently charged him with an unpatriotic concession to the enemy.
+Gloucester's domestic relations, on the other hand, offered an easy
+object of attack. When he deserted Jacqueline he took a mistress,
+Eleanor Cobham, and subsequently married her, which he was able to do
+without difficulty, as his union with Jacqueline was, in the eyes of
+the Church, no marriage at all. The new Duchess of Gloucester being
+aware that if the king should die her husband would be next in order
+of succession to the throne, was anxious to hasten that event. It was
+a superstitious age, and the Duchess consulted an astrologer as to the
+time of the king's death, and employed a reputed witch to make a waxen
+image of the king under the belief that as the wax melted before the
+fire the king's life would waste away. In =1441= these proceedings
+were detected. The astrologer was hanged, the witch was burnt, whilst
+the Duchess escaped with doing public penance and with imprisonment
+for life. Gloucester could not save her, but he did not lose his
+place in the Council, where he continued to advocate a war policy,
+though with less success than before.
+
+[Illustration: Tattershall Castle, Lincolnshire: built of brick by
+Ralph, Lord Cromwell, between 1433 and 1455.]
+
+14. =Beaufort and Somerset. 1442--1443.=--In =1442= Henry was in his
+twenty-first year. Unfeignedly religious and anxious to be at peace
+with all men, his character was far too weak and gentle to fit him for
+governing in those rough times. He had attached himself to Beaufort
+because Beaufort's policy was pacific, and because Gloucester's life
+was scandalous. Beaufort's position was secured at court, but the
+situation was not one in which a pacific statesman could hope for
+success. The French would not consent to make peace till all that they
+had lost had been recovered; yet, hardly bested as the English in
+France were, it was impossible in the teeth of English public opinion
+for any statesman, however pacific, to abandon lands still commanded
+by English garrisons. Every year, however, brought the problem nearer
+to the inevitable solution. In =1442= the French attacked the strip of
+land which was all that the English now held in Guienne and Gascony,
+and with the exception of Bordeaux and Bayonne captured almost every
+fortified town. The command in France was given to Cardinal Beaufort's
+nephew, John Beaufort, Duke of Somerset. Somerset, who was thoroughly
+incompetent, did not even leave England till the autumn of =1443=, and
+when he arrived in France accomplished nothing worthy of his office.
+
+15. =The Angevin Marriage Treaty. 1444--1445.=--Henry now fell under
+the influence of William de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk, a descendant of
+the favourite of Richard II. Suffolk had fought bravely in France, and
+had learnt by sad experience the hopelessness of the English cause. In
+=1444=, with the consent of the king and the Parliament, he negotiated
+at Tours a truce for ten months. In order to make it more lasting
+there was to be a marriage between Henry and Margaret of Anjou. Her
+father, Rene, the Duke of Anjou, was titular king of Jerusalem and
+Sicily, in neither of which did he possess a foot of ground, whilst
+his duchy of Anjou was almost valueless to him in consequence of the
+forays of the English, who still held posts in Maine. Charles had the
+more readily consented to the truce, because it was understood that
+the surrender of Maine would be a condition of the marriage. In =1445=
+Suffolk led Margaret to England, where her marriage to Henry was
+solemnised. A French queen who brought with her no portion except a
+truce bought by the surrender of territory could hardly fail to be
+unpopular in England.
+
+[Illustration: Part of Wingfield manor-house, Derbyshire: built by
+Ralph, Lord Cromwell, about 1440.]
+
+16. =Deaths of Gloucester and Beaufort. 1447.=--The truce was renewed
+from time to time, and Suffolk's authority seemed firmly established.
+In =1447= Gloucester was charged with high treason in a Parliament
+held at Bury St. Edmunds, but before he had time to answer he was
+found dead in his bed. His death may, with strong probability, be
+ascribed to natural causes, but it was widely believed that he had
+been murdered and that Suffolk was the murderer. A few weeks later
+Gloucester's old rival, Cardinal Beaufort, the last real statesman who
+supported the throne of Henry VI., followed him to the grave, and
+Suffolk was left alone to bear the responsibility of government and
+the disgrace of failure.
+
+[Illustration: The Divinity School, Oxford: built between 1445 and
+1454.]
+
+17. =The Loss of the French Provinces. 1448--1449.=--Suffolk had
+undertaken more than he was able to fulfil. Somerset had died in
+=1444=, and Suffolk being jealous of all authority but his own, he
+sent York to govern Ireland. He could not secure the fulfilment of the
+conditions which he had made with the king of France. The English
+commanders refused to evacuate Maine, and in =1448= a French army
+entered the province and drove out the English. Edmund, the new Duke
+of Somerset, was sent to take the command in Normandy, which had
+formerly been held by his brother. In =1449= an Aragonese captain in
+the English service, who had no pay for his troops, having seized
+Fougeres, a place on the frontier of Brittany, for the sake of the
+booty to be gained, Charles made the attack an excuse for the renewal
+of the war. So destitute was the condition in which the English forces
+were left that neither Somerset nor the warlike Talbot (see p. 313),
+who had recently been created Earl of Shrewsbury, was able to resist
+him. Rouen fell in =1450=, and in =1450= the whole of Normandy was
+lost. In =1451= the French attacked Bordeaux and Bayonne, two
+port-towns which, in consequence of their close commercial intercourse
+with England, had no wish to transfer their allegiance to Charles.
+England, however, sent them no succour, and before the end of the year
+they were forced to capitulate. The relics of Guienne and Gascony thus
+passed into the hands of the French, and of all the possessions which
+the kings of England had once held on the Continent Calais alone
+remained.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+THE LATER YEARS OF HENRY VI. =1450--1461=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Henry VI., 1422--1461
+
+  Murder of the Duke of Suffolk and Jack Cade's rebellion         1450
+  First Protectorate of the Duke of York                          1453
+  First Battle of St. Albans and second Protectorate of the
+    Duke of York                                                  1455
+  Battle of Blore Heath and the discomfiture of the Yorkists      1459
+  After a Yorkist victory at Northampton the Duke of York
+    is declared heir to the crown, but is defeated and slain
+    at Wakefield                                                  1460
+  Battles of Mortimer's Cross, St. Albans, and Towton             1461
+  Coronation of Edward IV.                                        1461
+
+
+1. =The Growth of Inclosures.=--Since the insurrection of the peasants
+in =1381= (see p. 268) villeinage had to a great extent been dying
+out, in consequence of the difficulty felt by the lords in enforcing
+their claims. Yet the condition of the classes connected with the land
+was by no means prosperous. The lords of manors indeed abandoned the
+old system of cultivating their own lands by the labour of villeins,
+or by labourers hired with money paid by villeins in commutation for
+bodily service. They began to let out their land to tenants who paid
+rent for it; but even the new system did not bring in anything like
+the old profit. The soil had been exhausted for want of a proper
+system of manuring, and arable land scarcely repaid the expenses of
+its cultivation. For this evil a remedy was found in the inclosure of
+lands for pasturage. This change, which in itself was beneficial by
+increasing the productiveness of the country, and by giving rest to
+the exhausted soil, became oppressive because all the benefit went to
+the lords of the manors, whilst the tenants of the manors were left to
+struggle on as best they might. Not only had they no share in the
+increase of wealth which was brought about by the inclosure of what
+had formerly been the common land of the manors, but the poorer
+amongst them had less employment than before, as it required fewer men
+to look after sheep than to grow corn.
+
+2. =Increasing Power of the Nobility.=--The disproportionate increase
+of the wealth of the landowners threw into their hands a
+disproportionate amount of power. The great landowner especially was
+able to gather bands of retainers and to spread terror around him. The
+evil of liveries and maintenance, which had become prominent in the
+reign of Richard II. (see p. 281), had increased since his deposition.
+It was an evil which the kings were powerless to control. Again and
+again complaints were raised of 'want of governance.' Henry V. had
+abated the mischief for a time by employing the unruly elements in his
+wars in France, but it was a remedy which, when defeat succeeded
+victory, only increased the disease which it was meant to cure. When
+France was lost bands of unruly men accustomed to deeds of violence
+poured back into England, where they became retainers of the great
+landowners, who with their help set king and laws at defiance.
+
+3. =Case of Lord Molynes and John Paston.=--The difficulty of
+obtaining justice may be illustrated by a case which occurred in
+Norfolk. The manor of Gresham belonged to John Paston, a gentleman of
+moderate fortune. It was coveted by Lord Molynes, who had no legal
+claim to it whatever. Lord Molynes, however, took possession of it in
+=1448= with the strong hand. If such a thing had happened at present
+Paston would have gone to law; but to go to law implies the submitting
+of a case to a jury, and in those days a jury was not to be trusted to
+do justice. In the first place it was selected by the sheriff, and the
+sheriff took care to choose such men as would give a verdict pleasing
+to the great men whom he wished to serve, and in the second place,
+supposing that the sheriff did not do this, a juryman who offended
+great men by giving a verdict according to his conscience, but
+contrary to their desire, ran the risk of being knocked on the head
+before he reached home. Paston accordingly, instead of going to law,
+begged Lord Molynes to behave more reasonably. Finding his entreaties
+of no avail, he took possession of a house on the manor. Lord Molynes
+merely waited till Paston was away from home, and then sent a thousand
+men, who drove out Paston's wife and pillaged and wrecked the house.
+Paston ultimately recovered the manor, but redress for the injury done
+him was not to be had.
+
+4. =Suffolk's Impeachment and Murder. 1450.=--A government which was
+too weak to redress injuries was certain to be unpopular. The loss of
+the French possessions made it still more unpopular. The brunt of the
+public displeasure fell on Suffolk, who had just been made a duke, and
+who, through the queen's favour, was all-powerful at court. It was
+believed that he had sold himself to France, and it was known that
+whilst the country was impoverished large grants had been made to
+court favourites. An outcry was raised that the king 'should live of
+his own,' and ask for no more grants from his people. In =1450=
+Suffolk was impeached. Though the charge brought against him was a
+tissue of falsehoods, Henry did not dare to shield him entirely, and
+ordered him into banishment for five years. Suffolk, indeed, embarked
+for the Continent, but a large ship ranged up alongside of the vessel
+in which he was. Having been dragged on board amidst cries of
+"Welcome, traitor!" he was, two days afterwards, transferred to a
+boat, where his head was chopped off with six strokes of a rusty
+sword. His body was flung on the beach at Dover.
+
+5. =Jack Cade's Rebellion. 1450.=--Suffolk's supporters remained in
+office after his death. The men of Kent rose against them, and found a
+leader in an Irish adventurer, Jack Cade, who called himself Mortimer,
+and gave out that he was an illegitimate son of the late Earl of
+March. He established himself on Blackheath at the head of 30,000 men,
+asking that the burdens of the people should be diminished, the Crown
+estates recovered, and the Duke of York recalled from Ireland to take
+the place of the present councillors. Jack Cade's rebellion, in short,
+unlike that of Wat Tyler, was a political, not a social movement. In
+demanding that the government should be placed in the hands of the
+Duke of York, Jack Cade virtually asked that the Duke should step into
+the place, not of the Council, but of the King--that is to say, that a
+ruler who could govern should be substituted for one who could not,
+and in whose name the great families plundered England. It was this
+demand which opened the long struggle which was soon to devastate the
+country. At first it seemed as if Jack Cade would carry all before
+him. London, which had the most to gain by the establishment of a
+strong government, opened its gates to him. When, however, he was
+tested by success, he was found wanting. Striking with his sword the
+old Roman milestone known as London Stone, he cried out, "Now is
+Mortimer lord of this city." His followers gave themselves up to wild
+excesses. They beheaded Lord Say and his son-in-law, the Sheriff of
+Kent, and carried about their heads on pikes. They plundered houses
+and shops. The citizens who had invited them to enter now turned
+against them. After a fight on London Bridge the insurgents agreed to
+go home on the promise of a pardon. Jack Cade himself, attempting to
+gather fresh forces, was chased into Sussex and slain.
+
+6. =Rivalry of York and Somerset. 1450--1453.=--In the summer of
+=1450=, Richard, Duke of York, the real leader of the opposition, came
+back from Ireland. He found that Somerset, who had just returned from
+Normandy after the final loss of that province (see p. 320), had
+succeeded Suffolk in the king's confidence. Somerset, however, was not
+merely the favourite of Henry and the queen. The bulk of the nobility
+was on his side, whilst York was supported by the force of popular
+discontent and by such of the nobility as cherished a personal grudge
+against Somerset and his friends. In =1451= the loss of Guienne and
+Gascony increased the weight of Somerset's unpopularity. In =1452=
+both parties took arms; but, this time, civil war was averted by a
+promise from the king that York should be admitted to the Council, and
+that Somerset should be placed in confinement till he answered the
+charges against him. On this York dismissed his army. Henry, however,
+was not allowed to keep his promise, and Somerset remained in power,
+whilst York was glad to be allowed to retire unhurt. Somerset
+attempted to recover his credit by fresh victories in France, and sent
+the old Earl of Shrewsbury to Bordeaux to reconquer Gascony.
+Shrewsbury was successful for a while, but in =1453= he was defeated
+and slain at Castillon, and the whole enterprise came to nothing.
+
+7. =The First Protectorate of the Duke of York. 1453--1454.=--Henry's
+mind had never been strong, and in =1453= it entirely gave way. His
+insanity was probably inherited from his maternal grandfather, Charles
+VI. The queen bore him a son, named Edward, but though the infant was
+brought to his father, Henry gave no sign of recognising his
+presence. It was necessary to place the government in other hands, and
+in =1454= the Duke of York was named Protector by the House of Lords,
+which, as the majority of its members were at that time ecclesiastics,
+did not always re-echo the sentiments of the great families. If only
+the king had remained permanently insane York might have established
+an orderly government. Henry, however, soon recovered as much sense as
+he ever had, and York's protectorate came to an end.
+
+8. =The First Battle of St. Albans and the Duke of York's Second
+Protectorate.=--The restoration of Henry was in reality the
+restoration of Somerset. In =1455= York, fearing destruction, took
+arms against his rival. A battle was fought at St. Albans, in which
+Somerset was defeated and slain. This was the first battle in the wars
+known as the Wars of the Roses, because a red rose was the badge of
+the House of Lancaster, to which Henry belonged, and a white rose the
+badge of the House of York. After the victory York accompanied the
+king to London. Though the bulk of the nobility was against him, he
+had on his side the powerful family of the Nevills, as he had married
+Cicely Nevill, the sister of the head of that family, the Earl of
+Salisbury. Still more powerful was Salisbury's eldest son, who had
+married the heiress of the Beauchamps, Earls of Warwick, and who held
+the earldom of Warwick in right of his wife.[30] In June =1455= the
+king was again insane, and York was for the second time named
+Protector. This Protectorate, however, did not last long, as early in
+=1456= the king recovered his senses, and York had to resign his post.
+
+    [Footnote 30: Genealogy of the Nevills:--
+
+                                                     John of Gaunt
+                                                           |
+                                             Ralph Nevill, = Joan
+                      Thomas Montague,          Earl of    |
+                      Earl of Salisbury      Westmoreland  |
+                              |                            |
+                              |        ---------------------
+     Richard Beauchamp,       |        |              |
+      Earl of Warwick      Alice = Richard,        Cicely = Richard,
+             |                   |  Earl of                 Duke of
+             |                   | Salisbury,                York,
+             |                   | beheaded at              killed at
+             |                   | Pontefract,              Wakefield,
+             |                   |    1460                    1460
+             |                   |
+             |        -------------------------------------
+             |        |                 |                 |
+           Anne = Richard,            John,            George,
+             Earl of Warwick,       Marquess of       Archbishop
+             the king-maker,         Montague          of York
+             killed at Barnet,
+                 1471]
+
+[Illustration: A sea-fight: from the 'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl
+of Warwick:' drawn by John Rous about 1485.]
+
+9. =Discomfiture of the Yorkists. 1456--1459.=--For two years Henry
+exercised such authority as he was capable of exercising. In =1458= he
+tried his hand at effecting a reconciliation. The chiefs of the two
+parties walked hand in hand in procession to St. Paul's, York himself
+leading the queen. The Yorkists founded masses for the repose of the
+souls of their enemies slain at St. Albans, and paid money to their
+widows. It seemed as if the old practice of the weregild (see p. 32)
+had been unexpectedly revived. The spirit which had made weregild
+possible was, however, no longer to be found. Warwick retired to
+Calais, of which he was governor, and sent out vessels to plunder the
+merchant ships of all nations. When he was summoned to Westminster to
+give account of his actions, a quarrel broke out there between his
+servants and those of the king. Believing his own life to be in
+danger, he made his way back to Calais. The Yorkists spent the winter
+in preparing for war. In the summer of =1459= Lord Audley, sent by the
+queen to seize the Earl of Salisbury, was defeated by him at Blore
+Heath, in Staffordshire. Later in the year the two parties with their
+whole forces prepared for a battle near Ludlow, but the Yorkists found
+themselves no match for their enemies, and, without fighting, York,
+with his second son, the Earl of Rutland, took refuge in Ireland. His
+eldest son Edward, Earl of March, with Salisbury and Warwick, made his
+way to Calais.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of Sir Robert Harcourt, K.G. (died 1471): from
+his tomb at Stanton Harcourt, Oxon; showing armour worn from about
+1445 to 1480.]
+
+10. =The Battle of Northampton and the Duke of York's Claim to the
+Throne. 1460.=--In =1460= the Yorkist Earls of Salisbury, Warwick, and
+March were once more in England. They defeated the royal army at
+Northampton and captured the king. York returned from Ireland, and,
+as soon as Parliament met, took an unexpected step. If hereditary
+descent was to count for anything, his claim to the throne was
+superior to that of Henry himself, as he was the heir of Edward III.
+through his mother Anne, the sister of the last Earl of March.[31] The
+Duke of York now placed his hand on the throne, claiming it in right
+of birth. The Lords decided that Henry, to whom they had sworn oaths
+of fealty, should retain the crown, but that York should succeed him,
+to the exclusion of Henry's son, Edward, Prince of Wales.
+
+    [Footnote 31: Genealogy of the Houses of Lancaster and York:--
+
+                               EDWARD III.
+                               (1307-1377)
+                                    |
+            ------------------------------------------------
+            |                  |              |            |
+         Edward,       Lionel, Duke       John of     Edmund, Duke of
+     the Black Prince   of Clarence          Gaunt       of York
+            |                  |              |            |
+            |            -------              |            ----------------
+            |            |                    |                           |
+       RICHARD II.   Philippa = Edmund     HENRY IV.                      |
+       (1377-1399)            | Mortimer, (1399-1413)                     |
+                              |  Earl of       |                          |
+                              |  March         -----------------          |
+                              |                |               |          |
+                              |          (1) HENRY V.   (2) John, Duke    |
+                              |             (1413-1422)      of Bedford   |
+                              |                |        (3) Thomas, Duke  |
+                     Roger Mortimer,         HENRY VI.       of Clarence  |
+                      Earl of March         (1422-1461) (4) Humphrey,     |
+                              |                             Duke of       |
+                              |                            Gloucester     |
+                              |                                           |
+                  ---------------------        ----------------------------
+                  |                   |        |
+           Edmund Mortimer,          Anne = Richard, Earl of Cambridge
+            Earl of March                 |
+                                      Richard, Duke of York
+                                          |
+                                      Edward, Earl of March,
+                                      afterwards EDWARD IV.]
+
+11. =The Battle of Wakefield. 1460.=--The struggle, which had at first
+been one between two unequal sections of the nobility, each nominally
+acknowledging Henry VI. as their king, thus came to be one between the
+Houses of Lancaster and York. The queen, savage at the wrong done to
+her son, refused to accept the compromise. Withdrawing to the North,
+she summoned to her aid the Earl of Northumberland and the Lancastrian
+lords. The North was always exposed to Scottish invasions, and the
+constant danger kept the inhabitants ready for war, and strengthened
+the authority of the great lords who led them. For the same reason the
+people of the North were ruder and less civilised than their
+fellow-countrymen in the South. Plunder and outrage did not come amiss
+to men who were frequently subjected to plunder and outrage. An army
+composed of 18,000 of these rough warriors placed itself at the
+queen's disposal. With these she routed her enemies at Wakefield. York
+himself was slain. His son, Rutland, was stabbed to death by Lord
+Clifford, whose father had been slain at St. Albans. Salisbury was
+subsequently beheaded by the populace at Pontefract. By command of
+Margaret, York's head was cut off, and, adorned in mockery with a
+paper crown, was fixed with those of Salisbury and Rutland above one
+of the gates of York.
+
+12. =The Battle of Mortimer's Cross and the Second Battle of St.
+Albans. 1461.=--The battle of Wakefield differed in character from the
+earlier battles of the war. They had been but conflicts between bands
+of noblemen and their armed retainers, in which the general population
+took little part, whilst the ordinary business of the country went on
+much as usual. At Wakefield not only were cruel passions developed,
+but a new danger appeared. When Margaret attempted to gain her ends
+with the help of her rude northern followers, she roused against her
+the fears of the wealthier and more prosperous South. The South found
+a leader in York's son, Edward. Though only in his nineteenth year,
+Edward showed that he had the qualities of a commander. Rapid in his
+movements, he fell upon some Lancastrian forces and defeated them on
+February 2, =1461=, at Mortimer's Cross. In the meanwhile Margaret was
+marching with her northern host upon London, plundering and destroying
+as she went. Warwick, carrying the king with him, met her on the way,
+but in the second battle of St. Albans--fought on February 17--was
+driven back, leaving the king behind him.
+
+13. =The Battle of Towton and the Coronation of Edward IV.
+1461.=--With a civilised army at her back, Margaret might have won her
+way into London, and established her authority, at least for a time.
+Her unbridled supporters celebrated their victory by robbery and rape,
+and Margaret was unable to lead them forward. The Londoners steeled
+their hearts against her. Edward was marching to their help, and on
+February 25 he entered London. The men of the neighbouring counties
+flocked in to his support. On March 2 the crown was offered to him at
+Clerkenwell by such lords as happened to be in London. On his
+presenting himself to the multitude in Westminster Hall, he was
+greeted with shouts of "Long live the king!" Edward IV. represented to
+peace-loving England the order which had to be upheld against the
+barbarous host which Margaret and the Lancastrian lords had called to
+their aid. He had yet to justify the choice. The northern host had
+retreated to its own country, and Edward swiftly followed it up. His
+advanced guard was surprised and driven back at Ferry Bridge; but his
+main army pressed on, and on March 29 gained a decisive victory at
+Towton. The slaughter of the defeated side was enormous. Margaret
+escaped with Henry to Scotland, and Edward, returning southwards, was
+crowned at Westminster on June 29.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+THE YORKIST KINGS.
+
+EDWARD IV., =1461--1483=. EDWARD V., =1483=. RICHARD III.,
+=1483--1485=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Coronation of Edward IV.                                        1461
+  Restoration of Henry VI.                                        1470
+  Edward IV. recovers the crown--Battles of Barnet and
+    Tewkesbury                                                    1471
+  Edward V.                                                       1483
+  Richard III. deposes Edward V.                                  1483
+  Richard III. killed at Bosworth                                 1485
+
+
+1. =Edward IV. and the House of Commons. 1461.=--On June 29, =1461=,
+Edward IV. was crowned, and created his two brothers, George and
+Richard, Dukes of Clarence and Gloucester. His first Parliament
+declared the three Lancastrian kings to have been usurpers, and Henry
+VI., his wife, his son, and his chief supporters, to be traitors. At
+the end of the session Edward thanked the Commons for their support,
+and assured them of his resolution to protect them at the hazard of
+his own life. It was the first time that a king had addressed the
+Commons, and his doing so was a sign that a new era had begun, in
+which the wishes of the middle class in town and country were to
+prevail over those of the great nobles. It did not follow that the
+House of Commons would take the control of the government into its own
+hands, as it does at the present day. For a long time the election of
+the members had been carried out under pressure from the local
+nobility. If the great men in a county resolved that certain persons
+should be returned as members, those who came to the place of election
+in support of others would be driven off, and perhaps beaten or
+wounded. Consequently each House of Commons had hitherto represented
+the dominant party, Lancastrian or Yorkist, as the case might be.
+Before there could be a House of Commons capable of governing, the
+interference of the nobles with elections would have to be brought to
+an end, and it was only by a strong king that their power could be
+overthrown. The strengthening of the kingship was the only road to
+future constitutional progress.
+
+[Illustration: Edward IV.: from an original painting belonging to the
+Society of Antiquaries.]
+
+2. =Loss of the Mediaeval Ideals.=--Before the end of the 15th century
+the English people had lost all the ideals of the middle ages. The
+attempt of Henry V. to revive the old ecclesiastical feeling had
+broken down through the race for material power opened by his French
+wars, and through the savagery of the wars of the Roses. The new
+religious feeling of Wycliffe and the nobler Lollards had perished
+with Sir John Oldcastle from the same causes. Neither the Church nor
+the opponents of the Church had any longer a sway over men's hearts.
+The clergy continued to perform their part in the services of the
+Church not indeed without belief, but without the spiritual fervour
+which influences the lives of men. The chivalry of the middle ages was
+as dead as its religion. Men spoke of women as coarsely as they spoke
+of their cattle. Human nature indeed could not be entirely crushed.
+John Paston's wife (see p. 321), for instance, was quaintly
+affectionate. "I would," she once wrote to her husband, "ye were at
+home, if it were for your ease ... now liever than a gown, though it
+were of scarlet." But the system of wardship (see p. 116) made
+marriages a matter of bargain and sale. "For very need," wrote a
+certain Stephen Scrope, "I was fain to sell a little daughter I have
+for much less than I should." When Scrope was old he wished to marry
+Paston's young sister, and the girl was willing to take him if she
+were sure that his land was not burdened with debt. She would be glad
+enough to escape from home. Her mother kept her in close confinement
+and beat her once or twice every week, and sometimes twice a day, so
+that her head was broken in two or three places. This low and material
+view of domestic life had led to an equally low and material view of
+political life, and the cruelty which stained the wars of the Roses
+was but the outcome of a state of society in which no man cared much
+for anything except his own greatness and enjoyment. The ideal which
+shaped itself in the minds of the men of the middle class was a king
+acting as a kind of chief constable, who, by keeping great men in
+order, would allow their inferiors to make money in peace.
+
+3. =Fresh Efforts of the Lancastrians. 1462--1465.=--Edward IV. only
+very partially responded to this demand. He was swift in action when a
+crisis came, and was cruel in his revenge, but he was lustful and
+indolent when the crisis was passed, and he had no statesmanlike
+abilities to lay the foundations of a powerful government. The wars
+were not ended by his victory at Towton. In =1462= Queen Margaret
+reappeared in the North, and it was not till =1464= that Warwick's
+brother, Lord Montague, thoroughly defeated her forces at Hedgeley
+Moor and Hexham; for which victories he was rewarded by Edward with
+the earldom of Northumberland, which had been forfeited by the
+Lancastrian head of the House of Percy. Montague's victory was marked
+by the usual butcheries; the Duke of Somerset, a son of the duke who
+had been slain at St. Albans, being amongst those who perished on the
+scaffold. In =1465= Henry himself was taken prisoner and lodged in the
+Tower.
+
+4. =Edward's Marriage. 1464.=--Whilst these battles were being fought
+Edward was lingering in the South courting the young widow of Sir John
+Grey, usually known by her maiden name as Elizabeth Woodville. His
+marriage to her gave offence to his noble supporters, who disdained to
+acknowledge a queen of birth so undistinguished; and their ill-will
+was increased when they found that Edward distributed amongst his
+wife's kindred estates and preferments which they had hoped to gain
+for themselves. The queen's father became Earl Rivers and Lord
+Constable, and her brothers and sisters were enriched by marriages
+with noble wards of the Crown. One of her brothers, a youth of twenty,
+was married to the old Duchess of Norfolk, who was over eighty.
+
+5. =Estrangement of Warwick. 1465--1468.=--No doubt there was as much
+of policy as of affection in the slight shown by Edward to the Yorkist
+nobility. Warwick--the King-maker, as he was called--had special cause
+for ill-humour. He had expected to be a King-ruler as well as a
+King-maker, and he took grave offence when he found Edward slipping
+away from his control. It seemed as if Edward had the settled purpose
+of raising up a new nobility to counterbalance the old. In =1467=
+Warwick's brother, the Archbishop of York, was deprived of the
+chancellorship. In foreign politics, too, Edward and Warwick
+disagreed. Warwick had taken up the old policy of the Beauforts, and
+was anxious for an alliance with the astute Louis XI., who had in
+=1461= succeeded his father, Charles VII., as king of France. Edward,
+perhaps with some thought passing through his head of establishing his
+throne by following in the steps of Henry V., declared for an alliance
+with Burgundy. In =1467= Warwick was allowed to go to France as an
+ambassador, whilst Edward was entertaining Burgundian ambassadors in
+England. In the same year Charles the Rash succeeded his father,
+Philip the Good (see p. 306), as Duke of Burgundy, and in =1468=
+married Edward's sister, Margaret. The Duke of Burgundy, the rival of
+the king of France, was the lord of the seventeen provinces of the
+Netherlands, and his friendship brought with it that peaceful
+intercourse with the manufacturing towns of Flanders which it was
+always the object of English policy to secure.
+
+6. =Warwick's Alliance with Clarence. 1469--1470.=--Warwick, disgusted
+with Edward, found an ally in Edward's brother, Clarence, who, like
+Warwick, was jealous of the Woodvilles. Warwick had no son, and his
+two daughters, Isabel and Anne, would one day share his vast estates
+between them. Warwick gave Isabel in marriage to Clarence, and
+encouraged him to think that it might be possible to seat him--in days
+when everything seemed possible to the strong--on Edward's throne.
+Edward had by this time lost much of his popularity. His extravagant
+and luxurious life made men doubt whether anything had been gained by
+substituting him for Henry, and in =1469= and =1470= there were
+risings fomented by Warwick. In the latter year Edward, with the help
+of his cannon, the importance of which in battles was now great,
+struck such a panic into his enemies at a battle near Stamford that
+the place of action came to be known as Lose-coat Field, from the
+haste with which the fugitives stripped themselves of their armour to
+make their flight the easier. Warwick and Clarence fled across the
+sea. Warwick was governor of Calais, but his own officer there refused
+to admit him, and he was forced to take refuge in France.
+
+[Illustration: A fifteenth-century ship: from Harl. MS. 2278.]
+
+7. =The Restoration of Henry VI. 1470.=--Warwick knew that he had no
+chance of recovering power without the support of the Lancastrian
+party, and, disagreeable as it was to him, he allowed Louis XI. to
+reconcile him to Queen Margaret, the wife of that Henry VI., of whom
+he had been the bitterest enemy. Louis, who dreaded Edward's alliance
+with the Duke of Burgundy, did everything to support Edward's foes,
+and sent Warwick off to England, where he was subsequently to be
+joined by the queen. Edward, who was in his most careless mood, was
+foolish enough to trust Warwick's brother, Montague, from whom he had
+taken away, not only his new earldom of Northumberland to restore it
+to the head of the Percies (see p. 331), but all the lands connected
+with it, and had thought to compensate him with the mere marquisate
+of Montague, unaccompanied by any estate wherewith to support the
+dignity of his rank. Montague turned against him, and Edward, fearing
+for his life, fled to Holland. Warwick became master of England, and
+this time the King-maker drew Henry from the Tower and placed him once
+more on the throne, imbecile as he now was.
+
+8. =Edward IV. recovers the Throne. 1471.=--In the spring of =1471=
+Edward was back in England, landing at Ravenspur, where Henry IV. had
+landed in =1399=. Like Henry IV., he lyingly declared that he had come
+merely to claim his duchy and estates. Like Henry IV., too, he found a
+supporter in an Earl of Northumberland, who was this time the Percy
+who, Lancastrian as he was, had been restored by Edward to his earldom
+at the expense of Montague. Clarence, too--false, fleeting, perjured
+Clarence, as Shakspere truly calls him--had offered to betray Warwick.
+Edward gathered a sufficient force to march unassailed to London,
+where he was enthusiastically received. Taking with him the
+unfortunate Henry he won a complete victory at Barnet. The battle was
+fought in a dense fog, and was decided by a panic caused amongst
+Warwick's men through the firing of one of their divisions into
+another. Warwick and Montague were among the slain. By this time
+Margaret had landed with a fresh army at Weymouth. Edward caught her
+and her army at Tewkesbury, where he inflicted on her a crushing
+defeat. Her son, Edward Prince of Wales, was either slain in the
+battle, or more probably murdered after the fight was over; and the
+Duke of Somerset, the brother of the duke who had been executed after
+the battle of Hexham (see p. 331), the last male heir of the House of
+Beaufort, as well as others, who had taken refuge in the abbey, were
+afterwards put to death, though Edward had solemnly promised them
+their lives. On the night after Edward's return to London Henry VI.
+ended his life in the Tower. There can be no reasonable doubt that he
+was murdered, and that, too, by Edward's directions.
+
+9. =Edward IV. prepares for War with France. 1471--1474.=--Edward IV.
+was now all powerful. He had no competitor to fear. No descendant of
+Henry IV. remained alive. Of the Beauforts, the descendants of John of
+Gaunt by Catherine Swynford (see p. 282), the male line had perished,
+and the only representative was young Henry, Earl of Richmond, whose
+mother, the Lady Margaret, was the daughter of the first Duke of
+Somerset, and the cousin of the two dukes who had been executed after
+the battles of Hexham and Tewkesbury.[32] His father, Edmund Tudor,
+Earl of Richmond, who died before his birth, was the son of a Welsh
+gentleman of no great mark, who had had the luck to marry Catherine of
+France, the widow of Henry V. The young Richmond was, however, an
+exile, and, as he was only fourteen years of age when Edward was
+restored, no serious danger was as yet to be apprehended from that
+side. Moreover, the slaughter amongst both the Yorkist and the
+Lancastrian nobility had, for the time, put an end to all danger of a
+rising. Edward was, therefore, at liberty to carry out his own foreign
+policy. He obtained grants from Parliament to enable him, in alliance
+with Charles of Burgundy, to make war against Louis XI. The grants
+were insufficient, and he supplemented them by a newly invented system
+of benevolences, which were nominally free gifts made to him by the
+well-to-do, but which were in reality exactions, because those from
+whom they were required dared not refuse to pay. The system raised
+little general ill will, partly because the small owners of property
+who were relieved from taxation were not touched by the benevolences,
+and partly because the end which Edward had put to the civil war made
+his government welcome. In some cases his personal charm counted for
+something. One old lady whom he asked for ten pounds replied that for
+the sake of his handsome face she would give him twenty. He kissed her
+and she at once made it forty.
+
+    [Footnote 32: Genealogy of the Beauforts and the Tudors:--
+
+                                  John of Gaunt = Catherine Swynford
+                                      ----------+------------
+                                      |                     |
+                                John Beaufort,     Cardinal Beaufort,
+                               Earl of Somerset,    legitimated by Act
+                             legitimated by Act of   of Parliament
+     Owen Tudor = Catherine,     Parliament
+                | widow of           |
+                | Henry V.           |----------------------
+                |                    |                     |
+                |    John, 1st Duke of Somerset          Edmund,
+                |           |                          2nd Duke of
+                |           |                           Somerset,
+                |           |                           killed at
+                |           |                          St. Albans,
+                |           |                             1455
+                |           |                  ------------+----
+                |           |                  |               |
+          Edmund Tudor = Margaret            Henry,         Edmund,
+     Earl of Richmond, |                  3rd Duke of     4th Duke of
+     d. 1456           |                   Somerset,       Somerset,
+                   HENRY VII.           executed after    executed after
+                   (1485-1509)           the battle of    the battle of
+                                          Hexham, 1464   Tewkesbury, 1471]
+
+10. =The Invasion of France. 1475.=--In =1475= Edward invaded France.
+If he could have secured the steady support of the Duke of Burgundy he
+might have accomplished something, but the Duke's dominions were too
+scattered to enable him to have a settled policy. He was sometimes led
+to attack the king of France, because he had interests as a French
+vassal; whilst at other times he threw all his strength into projects
+for encroachments in Germany, because he had also interests as a
+vassal of the Emperor. When Edward landed Charles was anxious to carry
+on war in Germany, and would give no help to Edward in France. Louis
+XI., who preferred a victory of diplomacy to one of force, wheedled
+Edward into a seven years' truce by a grant of 75,000 crowns, together
+with a yearly pension of 50,000, and by a promise to marry the Dauphin
+Charles to Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of the king of England.
+Louis also made presents to Edward's chief followers, and was
+delighted when the English army turned its back on France. In
+consequence of this understanding Queen Margaret recovered her
+liberty.
+
+11. =Fall and Death of Clarence. 1476--1478.=--Soon after Edward's
+return he became suspicious of his brother Clarence, who took upon
+himself to interfere with the course of justice. In =1477= the Duke of
+Burgundy, Charles the Rash, was slain at Nancy by the Swiss, leaving
+only a daughter, Mary. Ducal Burgundy was at once seized by Louis, as
+forfeited for want of male heirs, but Franche Comte, or the county of
+Burgundy, was a part of the Empire, and therefore beyond his reach;
+and this latter district, together with the provinces of the
+Netherlands, formed a dower splendid enough to attract suitors for
+Mary's hand. Amongst these was Clarence,[33] now a widower. Edward,
+who had no wish to see his brother an independent sovereign, forbade
+him to proceed with his wooing. Other actions of Clarence were
+displeasing to the king, and when Parliament met, =1478=, Edward with
+his own mouth accused his brother of treason. Clarence was condemned
+to death, and perished secretly in the Tower, being, according to
+rumour, drowned in a butt of malmsey.
+
+    [Footnote 33: Mary was the child of an earlier wife of Charles the
+    Bold than Margaret the sister of Edward IV. and Clarence, and the
+    latter was therefore not related to her.]
+
+12. =The Last Years of Edward IV. 1478--1483.=--The remainder of
+Edward's life was spent in quiet, as far as domestic affairs were
+concerned. In foreign affairs he met with a grave disappointment.
+Mary of Burgundy had found a husband in Maximilian, archduke of
+Austria, the son of the Emperor Frederick III. In =1482= she died,
+leaving two children, Philip and Margaret. The men of Ghent set
+Maximilian at naught, and, combining with Louis, forced Maximilian in
+the treaty of Arras to promise the hand of Margaret to the Dauphin,
+and the cession of some Netherlandish territory to France. Edward died
+on April 9, =1483=, and it has been said that the treaty of Arras,
+which extended French influence in the Netherlands, brought about his
+death. It is more reasonable to attribute it to the dissoluteness of
+his life.
+
+13. =Edward V. and the Duke of Gloucester. 1483.=--Edward IV. left two
+sons. The elder, a boy of twelve, was now Edward V., and his younger
+brother, Richard, was Duke of York.[34] The only grown-up man of the
+family was the youngest brother of Edward IV., Richard, Duke of
+Gloucester. Gloucester had shown himself during his brother's reign to
+be possessed of the qualities which fit a man to fulfil the duties of
+a high position. He was not only a good soldier and an able commander,
+but, unlike his brother Clarence, was entirely faithful to Edward,
+though he showed his independence by refusing to take part in Edward's
+treaty with Louis of France. He had a rare power of winning popular
+sympathy, and was most liked in Yorkshire, where he was best known. He
+had, however, grown up in a cruel and unscrupulous age, and had no
+more hesitation in clearing his way by slaughter than had Edward IV.
+or Margaret of Anjou. Though absolute proof is wanting, there is
+strong reason to believe that he took part in cutting down Prince
+Edward after the battle of Tewkesbury, and that he executed his
+brother's orders in providing for the murder of Henry VI. in the
+Tower. He made no remonstrance against, though he took no part in, the
+death of Clarence, with whom he was on bad terms, because Clarence
+claimed the whole of the estates of the King-maker, whose eldest
+daughter Isabel he had married; whereas Gloucester, having married the
+younger daughter Anne, the widow of the slaughtered son of Henry VI.
+put in a claim to half. Gloucester was now to be tried as he had never
+been tried before, his brother having appointed him by will to be the
+guardian of his young nephew and of the kingdom. If the authority thus
+conferred upon him met with general acceptance, he would probably make
+an excellent ruler. If it were questioned he would strike out, and
+show no mercy. In those hard days every man of high position must be
+either hammer or anvil, and Richard was resolved that he would not be
+the anvil.
+
+    [Footnote 34: Genealogy of the Yorkist Kings:--
+
+                               Richard, Duke of York,
+                              killed at Wakefield, 1460
+                                          |
+                    ----------------------------------------------------
+                    |           |                   |                  |
+     Elizabeth = EDWARD IV.  Margaret = Charles,   George = Isabel   RICHARD
+     Woodville | (1461-1483)           the Rash,  Duke of | Nevil     III.,
+               |                       Duke of   Clarence,|          Duke of
+               |                       Burgundy    d. 1478|        Gloucester,
+               |                                          |        afterwards
+               |                                          |        king, m. to
+               |                                          |        Anne Nevill
+               |                                          |        (1483-1485)
+           ---------------------------                    |             |
+           |           |             |                    |             |
+     Elizabeth, m.  EDWARD V.,    Richard,             Edward,          |
+     to Henry VII.  murdered     Duke of York,        Earl of         Edward,
+                     1483        murdered 1483        Warwick,        d. 1484
+                                                     executed 1499]
+
+14. =Fall of the Queen's Relations. 1483.=--The young king was at
+Ludlow, and rode up towards London, guarded by Earl Rivers, his uncle
+on his mother's side, and by his half-brother, Sir Richard Grey.
+Another half-brother, the Marquis of Dorset, was lieutenant of the
+Tower.[35] Gloucester had strong reasons for believing that the Greys
+intended to keep the young king in their hands and, having him crowned
+at once, so as to put an end to his own guardianship, to make
+themselves masters of the kingdom. He therefore struck the first blow.
+Accompanied by his friend and supporter, the Duke of Buckingham, he
+overtook the cavalcade, and sent Rivers and Grey prisoners to
+Pontefract. The queen-mother at once took refuge in the sanctuary at
+Westminster, whence no one could remove her without violating the
+privileges of the Church.
+
+    [Footnote 35: Genealogy of the Woodvilles and Greys:--
+
+                                 Richard, Earl Rivers
+                                          |
+         +--------------------------------+
+         |                                |
+      Anthony    (1) Sir John Grey = Elizabeth Woodville = (2) EDWARD IV.
+     Woodville,                    |                     |
+     Earl Rivers,       +----------+---------+           +-----+
+      executed          |                    |                 |
+        1483         Thomas Grey,     Sir Richard Grey,     EDWARD V.,
+                   Marquis of Dorset   executed 1483      murdered 1483]
+
+[Illustration: Large ship and boat of the fifteenth century. The
+mainsail of the ship has the Beauchamp arms, and the streamer the bear
+and ragged staff. From the 'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of
+Warwick,' by John Rous; drawn about 1485.]
+
+15. =Execution of Lord Hastings.=--The young king arrived in London on
+May 4. The Council acknowledged Gloucester as Protector, and removed
+Edward to the Tower, which in those days was a place of safety rather
+than a prison. Dorset, however, had equipped a fleet, and Gloucester
+was afraid lest a fresh attempt might be made by the queen's party to
+overthrow him. His fears were increased because Lord Hastings, the
+leading member of the Council, who had taken his part against the
+Woodvilles, now turned against him and began to intrigue with the
+queen's supporters. Coming into the council chamber on June 13, he
+laid bare his left arm, which had been withered from his birth, and
+declared that the mischief was the effect of witchcraft, and that the
+witches were the queen and Jane Shore, who had been one of the many
+mistresses of Edward IV., and was now the mistress of Hastings.
+Hastings admitted that the queen and Jane Shore were worthy of
+punishment if they were guilty. "What!" cried Gloucester, "dost thou
+serve me with ifs and with ands? I tell thee they have done it, and
+that I will make good on thy body, traitor." Gloucester struck his
+fist on the table. Armed men rushed in, dragged Hastings out, and cut
+off his head on a log of wood. Jane Shore was compelled to do public
+penance in a white sheet. Of the causes of Hastings' desertion of
+Gloucester it is impossible to speak with certainty. It is a probable
+conjecture that he had discovered that Gloucester entertained the
+thought of making himself more than Protector. Young Edward's
+coronation would make the boy capable, formally at least, of
+exercising royal power, and as it was known that the boy loved his
+mother's relations, it was almost certain that he would place the
+Woodvilles in power. Now that Gloucester had imprisoned Rivers and
+Grey, it was certain that the first thing done by the Woodvilles, if
+they got a chance, would be to send Gloucester to the scaffold, and
+Gloucester was not the man patiently to allow himself to be crushed.
+It is ridiculous to speak of Gloucester as an accomplished dissembler.
+The story of witchcraft served its purpose, but it was the stupid lie
+of a man who had not hitherto been accustomed to lying.
+
+16. =Deposition of Edward V. 1483.=--The execution of Hastings was
+promptly followed by the execution of Rivers and Grey. Dorset saved
+himself by escaping beyond sea. By threats Gloucester got the Duke of
+York into his hands, and lodged him with his brother in the Tower. He
+was now in a temper which would stop at no atrocity. He put up a Dr.
+Shaw to preach a sermon against Edward's claim to the throne. In those
+days if a man and woman made a contract of marriage neither of the
+contracting parties could marry another, though no actual marriage had
+taken place. Shaw declared that Edward IV. had promised marriage to
+one of his mistresses before he met Elizabeth Woodville, and that
+therefore, his marriage with Elizabeth being invalid, all his children
+by her were illegitimate, and Gloucester was the true heir to the
+throne. Further, Shaw declared that Gloucester was the only legitimate
+son of the Duke of York, both Edward IV. and Clarence being the sons
+of their mother by some other man. That Richard should have authorised
+so base an attack upon his mother's honour shows the depth of infamy
+to which he had now sunk. At first it seemed as if he had lowered
+himself to no purpose. The hearers of the sermon, instead of shouting,
+"God save King Richard!" held their peace. At a meeting in the City
+the Duke of Buckingham told the same story as had been told by Shaw,
+and there the servants of the two dukes shouted for 'King Richard,'
+and their voice was taken as the voice of the City. On June 25
+Parliament declared Gloucester to be the lawful heir, and on July 6 he
+was crowned as Richard III. The Woodvilles were not popular, and the
+bloodshed with which Richard had maintained himself against them was
+readily condoned.
+
+[Illustration: Richard III.: from an original painting belonging to
+the Society of Antiquaries.]
+
+17. =Buckingham's Rebellion. 1483.=--Richard's enemies were chiefly to
+be found amongst the nobility. No nobleman could feel his life secure
+if he crossed Richard's path. The first to revolt was Buckingham, who
+had played the part of a king-maker, and who was disappointed because
+Richard did not reward him by conceding his claim to estates so vast
+that if he possessed them he would have been master of England.
+Buckingham, who was descended from Edward III. through his youngest
+son, the Duke of Gloucester, at first thought of challenging a right
+to the throne for himself, but afterwards determined to support the
+claim of the Earl of Richmond, the Tudor heir of the House of
+Lancaster (see p. 334). He was skilfully led from one step to another
+by John Morton, Bishop of Ely, one of the ablest statesmen of the
+day. Richmond was to sail from Brittany, where he was in exile, and
+Buckingham was to raise forces in Wales, where the Welsh Tudors were
+popular, whilst other counties were to rise simultaneously. The
+rebellion came to nothing. Heavy rains caused a flood of the Severn,
+and Buckingham, in Shropshire, was cut off from his army in Wales.
+Buckingham was betrayed to Richard, and on November 2 was beheaded at
+Salisbury.
+
+18. =Murder of the Princes. 1483.=--At some time in the summer or
+autumn the princes in the Tower ceased to live. There had been
+movements in their favour in some counties, and there can be no
+reasonable doubt that Richard had them secretly killed. It was only by
+degrees that the truth leaked out. Wherever it was believed it roused
+indignation. Murders there had been in plenty, but the murdered as yet
+had been grown men. To butcher children was reserved for Richard
+alone.
+
+19. =Richard's Government. 1484--1485.=--As long as the last tale of
+murder was still regarded as doubtful, Richard retained his
+popularity. In a Parliament which met in January =1484= he enacted
+good laws, amongst which was one declaring benevolences illegal. In
+the summer he was welcomed as he moved about, yet he knew that danger
+threatened. Richmond was preparing invasion and the hollow friendship
+of the English nobility was not to be trusted. In vain Richard
+scattered gifts in profusion amongst them. They took the gifts and
+hoped for deliverance. The popular goodwill grew cooler, and in the
+winter Richard, needing money, and not venturing to summon another
+Parliament, raised a forced loan. A loan not being a gift, he did not
+technically break the statute against benevolences though practically
+he set it at naught. Domestic misfortunes came to add to Richard's
+political troubles. His only son, Edward, died in =1484=. His wife,
+Anne, died in =1485=. Richard was now eager, if he had not been eager
+before, to marry his niece, Elizabeth of York, the daughter of Edward
+IV. This monstrous proposal was scouted by his own supporters, and he
+had reluctantly to abandon the scheme. If there could be queens in
+England, Elizabeth was on hereditary principles the heiress of the
+throne, unless, indeed, Richard's argument against her mother's
+marriage (see p. 340) was to be accepted. Richmond was naturally as
+anxious as Richard could be to win her hand, and his promise to marry
+her was the condition on which he obtained the support of those
+Yorkists who were Richard's enemies.
+
+20. =Richard Defeated and Slain at Bosworth. 1485.=--In August =1485=
+Richmond landed at Milford Haven. As he marched on he was joined by
+considerable numbers, but on August 22 he found Richard waiting for
+him near Bosworth, with a host far larger than his own. Richard,
+however, could not count on the fidelity of his own commanders. Lord
+Stanley, who had married Richmond's widowed mother, the Lady Margaret
+(see p. 334), together with his brother, Sir William Stanley, were
+secretly in accord with Richmond, though they had placed themselves on
+Richard's side. When the battle began Stanley openly joined Richmond,
+whilst the Earl of Northumberland who was also nominally on Richard's
+side withdrew his forces and stood aloof. Knowing that defeat was
+certain, Richard, with the crown on his head, rushed into the thick of
+the fight and met a soldier's death. After the battle the fallen crown
+was discovered on a bush, and placed by Stanley, amidst shouts of
+'King Henry!' on Richmond's head.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+HENRY VII. 1485--1509.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+  Accession of Henry VII.                                         1485
+  The Battle of Stoke                                             1487
+  Poynings' Acts                                                  1494
+  Capture of Perkin Warbeck                                       1497
+  Alliance with Scotland                                          1503
+  Death of Henry VII.                                             1509
+
+
+[Illustration: Henry VII.: from an original picture in the National
+Portrait Gallery.]
+
+1. =The First Measures of Henry VII. 1485--1486.=--Henry VII. owed his
+success not to a general uprising against Richard, but to a
+combination of the nobles who had hitherto taken opposite sides. To
+secure this combination he had promised to marry Elizabeth, the
+heiress of the Yorkist family. Lest an attempt should be made to
+challenge her title, Henry imprisoned in the Tower the Earl of
+Warwick, the son of Clarence, who might possibly maintain that a
+female was incapable of inheriting. He was indeed unwilling to have it
+thought that he derived his title from a wife, and when Parliament met
+on November 7 he obtained from it a recognition of his own right to
+the throne, though it would have puzzled the most acute
+controversialist to discover in what that right consisted. Parliament,
+therefore, contented itself with declaring that the inheritance of the
+crown was to 'be, rest, and abide in King Henry VII. and his heirs,'
+without giving any reasons why it was to be so.[36] As far as the
+House of Lords was concerned the attendance when this declaration was
+made was scanty. Only twenty-nine lay peers were present, not because
+many of the great houses had become extinct, but because some of the
+principal Yorkist peers had been attainted, and others had been left
+without a summons. In the quieter times which followed this slur upon
+them was removed, and the House of Lords was again filled. On January
+18, =1486=, Henry married Elizabeth. This marriage and the blending of
+the white and red rose in the Tudor badge was Henry's way of
+announcing that he intended to be the king of both parties.
+
+    [Footnote 36: Abbreviated genealogy of Henry VII. and his
+    competitors:--
+
+                            EDWARD III.
+                                |
+               +----------------+----------------+
+               |                                 |
+     Lionel, Duke of Clarence             John of Gaunt,
+               :                         Duke of Lancaster
+               :                                 :
+         +-----+-----------+                     :
+         |                 |                     :
+         |               George                  :
+         |            Duke of Clarence           :
+         |                 |                     :
+     EDWARD IV.         Edward,                  :
+         |           Earl of Warwick             :
+      Elizabeth                              HENRY VII.]
+
+[Illustration: Elizabeth of York, queen of Henry VII.: from an
+original picture in the National Portrait Gallery.]
+
+2. =Maintenance and Livery.=--Henry could not maintain himself on the
+throne merely by the support of the nobility. The middle classes, as
+in the days of Edward IV., called out for a strong king, and were
+ready to overlook violence and cruelty if only order could be secured.
+Henry was shrewd enough to know that their aid was indispensable, and,
+Lancastrian as he was, he adopted the policy of the Yorkist kings.
+Economical and patient, he might succeed where Edward IV. had
+partially failed. He had no injuries to avenge, no cruelties to repay.
+He clearly saw that both the throne and the lives and properties of
+the middle classes were rendered insecure by maintenance and
+livery--the support given by the great landowners to their retainers,
+and the granting of badges by which the retainers might recognise one
+another, and thus become as it were a uniformed army ready to serve
+their lords in the field. Against these abuses Richard II. had
+directed a statute, (see p. 281) and that statute had been confirmed
+by Edward IV. These laws had, however, been inoperative; and Henry, in
+his first Parliament, did not venture to do more than to make the
+peers swear to abandon their evil courses.
+
+3. =Lovel's Rising. 1486.=--In =1486= Lord Lovel, who had been one of
+Richard's ministers, rose in arms and seized Worcester. Henry found
+warm support even in Yorkshire, where Richard had been more popular
+than elsewhere. At short warning a 'marvellous great number of
+esquires, gentlemen, and yeomen' gathered round him, and the rebellion
+was easily put down. Lovel escaped to Flanders, where he found a
+protector in Margaret, the dowager Duchess of Burgundy, the sister of
+Edward IV. and Richard III. Before long a new attack upon Henry was
+developed. For the first time an English king had to ward off danger
+from Ireland.
+
+[Illustration: Tudor rose (white and red): from the gates of the
+Chapel of Henry VII.]
+
+4. =Lancaster and York in Ireland. 1399--1485.=--Since the expedition
+of Richard II. no king had visited Ireland, and the English colonists
+were left to defend themselves against the Celtic tribes as best they
+might. In =1449= Richard, Duke of York, who had not at that time
+entered on his rivalry with Henry VI., was sent to Dublin as Lord
+Lieutenant (see p. 319) where he remained till =1450=, and gained
+friends amongst both races by his conciliatory firmness. In =1459=,
+after the break-up of his party at Ludlow (see p. 326), he appeared in
+Ireland in the character of a fugitive seeking for allies. Between him
+and the English colony a bargain was soon struck. They gave him troops
+which fought gallantly for him at Wakefield, and he, claiming to be
+Lord Lieutenant, assented to an act in which they asserted the
+complete legislative independence of the Parliament of the colony. The
+colony, therefore, became distinctly Yorkist. Its leader was the Earl
+of Kildare, the chief of the eastern Fitzgeralds or Geraldines, the
+Earl of Desmond being the chief of the Geraldines of the West. Between
+them was the Earl of Ormond, the chief of the Butlers, the hereditary
+foe of the Geraldines, who, probably merely because his rivals were
+Yorkist, had attached himself to the Lancastrian party. All three were
+of English descent, but all three exercised the tribal authority of an
+Irish chief, and were practically independent of English control.
+Ormond fought at Towton on the Lancastrian side, and was executed
+after the battle. Family quarrels broke out amongst his kindred, and
+for the time Kildare was supreme in the English Pale (see p. 265).
+
+5. =Insurrection of Lambert Simnel. 1487.=--Kildare and the colonists
+had every reason to distrust Henry, but to oppose him they needed a
+pretender. They found one in the son of an Oxford tradesman, a boy of
+ten, named Lambert Simnel, who had been persuaded to give himself out
+as the Earl of Warwick, who, as it was said, had escaped from the
+Tower. In =1487= Simnel landed in Ireland, where he was soon joined by
+Lord Lovel from Flanders, and by the Earl of Lincoln, of the family of
+Pole or De la Pole,[37] whose mother, Elizabeth, was the eldest sister
+of Edward IV., and who had been named by Richard III. as his heir
+after the death of his son (see p. 342). Lincoln and Lovel, after
+crowning Simnel at Dublin, crossed to Lancashire, taking with them the
+pretender, and 2,000 trained German soldiers under Martin Schwarz; as
+well as an Irish force furnished by Kildare. Scarcely an Englishman
+would join them, and on June 16 they were utterly defeated by Henry at
+Stoke, a village between Nottingham and Newark. Lincoln and Schwarz
+were slain. Lovel was either drowned in the Trent or, according to
+legend, was hidden in an underground vault, where he was at last
+starved to death through the neglect of the man whose duty it was to
+provide him with food. Simnel was pardoned, and employed by Henry as
+a turnspit in his kitchen.
+
+    [Footnote 37: Genealogy of the De la Poles and Poles:--
+
+                        Richard, Duke of York
+                                  |
+         +------------------------+--------------------------+
+         |                                                   |
+     Elizabeth= John de la Pole,                        George, Duke
+              | Duke of Suffolk                         of Clarence,
+              |                                         died 1477
+           +--+--------------+----------------------+        |
+           |                 |                      |        |
+     John de la Pole,  Edmund de la Pole,  Sir Richard   Margaret, = Sir Richard
+     Earl of Lincoln,  Earl of Suffolk,    de la Pole,   Countess  |    Pole
+     killed at Stoke,  beheaded 1513       killed at       of      |
+     1487                                  Pavia, 1525   Salisbury |
+                                                                   |
+              +-------------------------------+--------------------+
+              |                               |
+     Henry, Lord Montague,                Reginald Pole,
+     beheaded 1538                        Cardinal and Archbishop
+                                          of Canterbury, died 1558]
+
+6. =The Court of Star Chamber. 1487.=--Nothing could serve Henry
+better than this abortive rising. At Bosworth he had been the leader
+of one party against the other. At Stoke he was the leader of the
+nation against Irishmen and Germans. He felt himself strong enough in
+his second Parliament to secure the passing of an act to ensure the
+execution of the engagements to which the lords had sworn two years
+before (see p. 345). A court was to be erected, consisting of certain
+specified members of the Privy Council and of two judges, empowered to
+punish with fine and imprisonment all who were guilty of interfering
+with justice by force or intrigue. The new court, reviving, to some
+extent, the disused criminal authority of the king's Council, sat in
+the Star Chamber[38] at Westminster. The results of its establishment
+were excellent. Wealthy landowners, the terror of their neighbours,
+who had bribed or bullied juries at their pleasure, and had sent their
+retainers to inflict punishment on those who had displeased them, were
+brought to Westminster to be tried before a court in which neither
+fear nor favour could avail them. It was the greatest merit of the new
+court that it was not dependent on a jury, because in those days
+juries were unable or unwilling to give verdicts according to their
+conscience.
+
+    [Footnote 38: So called either because the roof was decorated with
+    stars or because it was the room in which had formerly been kept
+    Jewish bonds or 'starres.']
+
+7. =Henry VII. and Brittany. 1488--1492.=--Henry VII. was a lover of
+peace by calculation, and would gladly have let France alone if it had
+been possible to do so. France, however, was no longer the divided
+power which it had been in the days of Henry V. When Louis XI. died in
+=1483=, he left to his young son, Charles VIII., a territory the whole
+of which, with the exception of Brittany, was directly governed by the
+king. Charles's sister, Anne of Beaujeu, who governed in his name,
+made it the object of her policy to secure Brittany. She waged war
+successfully against its duke, Francis II., and after he died, in
+=1488=, she continued to wage war against his daughter, the Duchess
+Anne. In England there was a strong feeling against allowing the
+Duchess to be overwhelmed. At the beginning of =1489= Henry, having
+received from Parliament large supplies, sent 6,000 Englishmen to
+Anne's assistance. Maximilian--whose hold on the Netherlands, where he
+ruled in the name of his young son, Philip (see p. 337), was always
+slight--proposed marriage to the young duchess, and in =1490= was
+wedded to her by proxy. He was a restless adventurer, always aiming at
+more than he had the means of accomplishing. Though he could not find
+time to go at once to Brittany to make good his claim, yet in =1491=
+he called on Henry to assist him in asserting it.
+
+8. =Cardinal Morton's Fork. 1491.=--Henry, who knew how unpopular a
+general taxation was, fell back on the system of benevolences (see p.
+335), excusing his conduct on the plea that the statute of Richard
+III. abolishing benevolences (see p. 342) was invalid, because Richard
+himself was a usurper. In gathering the benevolence the Chancellor,
+Cardinal Morton, who had been helpful to Henry in the days of his
+exile (see p. 341), invented a new mode of putting pressure on the
+wealthy, which became known as Cardinal Morton's fork. If he addressed
+himself to one who lived in good style, he told him that his mode of
+living showed that he could afford to give money to the king. If he
+had to do with one who appeared to be economical, he told him that he
+must have saved and could therefore afford to give money to the king.
+Before Henry could put the money thus gained to much use, Anne,
+pressed hard by the French, repudiated her formal marriage with
+Maximilian, who had never taken the trouble to visit her, and gave her
+hand to Charles VIII., who on his part refused to carry out his
+contract to marry Maximilian's daughter Margaret (see p. 337). From
+that time Brittany, the last of the great fiefs to maintain its
+independence, passed under the power of the king of France. Feudality
+was everywhere breaking down, and in France, as in England, a strong
+monarchy was being erected on its ruins.
+
+9. =The Invasion of France. 1492.=--Maximilian's alliance had proved
+but a broken reed, but there was now arising a formidable power in the
+south of Europe, which might possibly give valuable support to the
+enemies of France. The peninsula to the south of the Pyrenees had
+hitherto been divided amongst various states, but in =1469= a marriage
+between Ferdinand, king of Aragon, and Isabella, the heiress of
+Castile, united the greater part under one dominion. Ferdinand and
+Isabella were, for the present, fully occupied with the conquest of
+Granada, the last remnant of the possessions of the Moors in Spain,
+and that city did not surrender till early in =1492=. In the meanwhile
+all England was indignant with the king of France on account of his
+marriage with the heiress of Brittany. Money was voted and men were
+raised, and on October 2, =1492=, Henry crossed to Calais to invade
+France. He was, however, cool enough to discover that both Ferdinand
+and Maximilian wanted to play their own game at his expense, and as
+Anne of Beaujeu was ready to meet him half-way, he concluded a treaty
+with the French king on November 3 at Etaples, receiving large sums of
+money for abandoning a war in which he had nothing to gain. In =1493=
+the Spaniards followed Henry's example, and made a peace with France
+to their own advantage.[39]
+
+    [Footnote 39: Genealogy of the Houses of Spain and Burgundy:--
+
+     Charles the Rash, Duke of Burgundy   Frederick III., Emperor
+                       |                         |
+                       |         +---------------+
+                       |         |
+                      Mary = Maximilian I.    Ferdinand V. = Isabella,
+                           |   Emperor      King of Aragon | Queen of
+                           |                               | Castile
+                           |                               |
+                     +-----+--+        +----------+--------+
+                     |        |        |          |
+                  Margaret  Philip = Juana    Catharine = HENRY VIII.,
+                                   |                    |    King
+                                   |                    | of England
+                 +-----------------+---+                |
+                 |                     |              MARY,
+             Charles V.,          Ferdinand I.,   Queen of England
+              Emperor              Emperor]
+
+10. =Perkin Warbeck. 1491--1494.=--Henry's prudent relinquishment of a
+war of conquest was not likely to bring him popularity in England, and
+his enemies were now on the watch for another pretender to support
+against him. Such a pretender was found in Perkin Warbeck, a Fleming
+of Tournay, who had landed at Cork in the end of =1491= or the
+beginning of =1492=, and who had been pressed by the townsmen to give
+himself some name which would attach him to the Yorkist family. He
+allowed them to call him Richard, Duke of York, the younger of the
+princes who had been murdered in the Tower. He received support from
+Desmond, and probably from Kildare, upon which Henry deprived Kildare
+of the office of Lord Deputy. Perkin crossed to France, and ultimately
+made his way to Flanders, where he was supported by Margaret of
+Burgundy. In =1493= Henry demanded his surrender, and on receiving a
+refusal broke off commercial intercourse between England and Flanders.
+The interruption of trade did more harm to England than to Flanders,
+and gave hopes to the Yorkist party that it might give rise to
+ill-will between the nation and the king. For some time, however, no
+one gave assistance to Perkin, and in =1494= Charles VIII. crossed the
+Alps to invade Italy, and drew the attention of the Continental powers
+away from the affairs of England.
+
+11. =Poynings' Acts. 1494.=--Henry seized the opportunity to bring
+into obedience the English colony in Ireland. He sent over as Lord
+Deputy Sir Edward Poynings, a resolute and able man. At a Parliament
+held by him at Drogheda two acts were passed. By the one it was
+enacted that all English laws in force at that time should be obeyed
+in Ireland; by the other, known for many generations afterwards as
+Poynings' Law, no bill was to be laid before the Irish Parliament
+which had not been previously approved by the king and his Council in
+England. At the same time the greater part of the Statute of Kilkenny
+(see p. 265) was re-enacted; and restricted the authority of the
+Government at Dublin to the English Pale.
+
+12. =Perkin's First Attempt on England. 1495.=--Henry's firm
+government in England had given offence even to men who were not
+Yorkists. Early in =1495= he discovered that Sir William Stanley, who
+had helped him to victory at Bosworth, had turned against him.
+Stanley, who was probably involved in a design for sending Perkin to
+invade England, was tried and executed. In the summer of =1495= Perkin
+actually arrived off Deal. Being no warrior, he sent a party of his
+followers on shore, though he remained himself on shipboard to see
+what would happen. The countrymen fell upon the invaders, who were all
+slain or captured. Then Perkin sailed to Ireland, was repulsed at
+Waterford, and ultimately took refuge in Scotland, where King James
+IV., anxious to distinguish himself in a war with England,
+acknowledged him as the Duke of York, and found him a wife of noble
+birth, Lady Catherine Gordon. It was probably in order to rally even
+the most timid around him, in face of such a danger, that Henry
+obtained the consent of Parliament to an act declaring that no one
+supporting a king in actual possession of the crown could be subjected
+to the penalty of treason in the event of that king's dethronement.
+
+13. =The Intercursus Magnus. 1496.=--The danger of a Scottish invasion
+made Henry anxious to be on good terms with his neighbours. Maximilian
+had become Emperor in =1493= upon his father's death. In the
+Netherlands, however, his influence had declined, as his son, the
+young Archduke Philip, was now growing up, and claimed actually to
+rule the country which he had inherited from his mother, Mary of
+Burgundy (see p. 337), his father having merely the right of
+administering the government of it till he himself came of age. It was
+therefore with Philip, and not with Maximilian, that Henry concluded,
+in =1496=, a treaty known as the _Intercursus Magnus_, for the
+encouragement of trade between England and the Netherlands, each
+party engaging at the same time to give no shelter to each other's
+rebels.
+
+14. =Kildare Restored to the Deputyship. 1496.=--In Ireland also Henry
+was careful to avert danger. The government of Poynings had not been
+entirely successful, and the Geraldines had taken good care to show
+that they could be troublesome in spite of the establishment of
+English government. The Earl of Kildare was at the time in England,
+and a story is told of some one who, having brought a long string of
+charges against him, wound up by saying that all Ireland could not
+govern the Earl, whereupon the king replied that then the Earl should
+govern all Ireland. The story is untrue, but it well represents the
+real situation. In =1496= Henry sent Kildare back as Lord Deputy. A
+bargain seems to have been struck between them. Henry abandoned his
+attempt to govern Ireland from England, and Kildare was allowed to use
+the king's name in any enterprise upon which his heart was set,
+provided that he did not support any more pretenders to the English
+throne.
+
+15. =Perkin's Overthrow. 1496--1497.=--In the autumn of =1496= James
+IV. made an attack on England in Perkin's name, but it was no more
+than a plundering foray. Henry, however, early in =1497=, obtained
+from Parliament a grant of money, to enable him to resist any attempt
+to repeat it. This grant had unexpected consequences. The Cornishmen,
+refusing payment, marched up to Blackheath, where on June 18 they were
+overpowered by the king's troops. James IV., thinking it time to be
+quit of Perkin, sent him off by sea. In July Perkin arrived at Cork,
+but there was no shelter for him there now that Kildare was Lord
+Deputy, and in September he made his way to Cornwall. Followed by
+6,000 Cornishmen he reached Taunton, but the news of the defeat of the
+Cornish at Blackheath depressed him, and the poor coward ran away from
+his army and took sanctuary in Beaulieu Abbey. He was brought to
+London, where he publicly acknowledged himself to be an impostor.
+Henry was too humane to do more than place him in confinement.
+
+[Illustration: Tower of St. Mary's Church, Taunton: built about 1500.]
+
+16. =European Changes. 1494--1499.=--In =1494= Charles VIII. had
+passed through Italy as a conqueror to make good his claims to the
+kingdom of Naples. In =1495= he had returned to France, and in =1496=
+the French army left behind had been entirely destroyed. Yet the
+danger of a renewed attack from France made the other Continental
+powers anxious to unite, and in =1496= the Archduke Philip married
+Juana, the eldest daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, whilst his
+sister was sent to Spain to be married to their only son, Juan. In
+=1497= the death of the young prince led to consequences unexpected
+when the two marriages were arranged. Philip, who held Franche Comte
+and the Netherlands, and who was through his father Maximilian heir to
+the German dominions of the House of Austria, would now, that his wife
+had become the heiress of Spain, be able to transmit to his
+descendants the whole of the Spanish monarchy as well. That monarchy
+was no longer confined to Europe. Portugal at the end of the
+fourteenth century had led the way in maritime adventure, and
+Portuguese navigators discovered a way to India round the Cape of Good
+Hope. Spain was anxious to do as much, and in =1492= Columbus had
+discovered the West Indies, and the kings of Spain became masters of
+the untold wealth produced by the gold and silver mines of the New
+World. It was impossible but that the huge power thus brought into
+existence would one day arouse the jealousy of Europe. For the
+present, however, the danger was less than it would be after the
+deaths of Ferdinand and Isabella, as the actual combination of their
+territories with those which Philip was to inherit from Maximilian had
+not been effected. In =1499= France gave a fresh shock to her
+neighbours. Charles VIII. had died the year before, and his successor,
+Louis XII., invaded Italy and subdued the duchy of Milan, to which he
+had set up a claim. Naturally the powers jealous of France sought to
+have Henry on their side. There had been for some time a negotiation
+for a marriage between Henry's eldest son, Arthur, Prince of Wales,
+and Catherine of Aragon, the youngest daughter of Ferdinand and
+Isabella, but hitherto nothing had been concluded.
+
+17. =Execution of the Earl of Warwick. 1499.=--Perkin had long been
+eager to free himself from prison. In =1498= he was caught attempting
+to escape, but Henry contented himself with putting him in the stocks.
+He was then removed to the Tower, where he persuaded the unhappy Earl
+of Warwick (see p. 343) to join him in flight. It is almost certain
+that Warwick was guilty of no more, but Henry, soured by the repeated
+attempts to dethrone him, resolved to remove him from his path. On
+trumped-up evidence Warwick was convicted and executed, and Perkin
+shared his fate.
+
+[Illustration: King's College Chapel, Cambridge (looking east). Begun
+by Henry VI. in 1441, completed by Henry VII. The screen built between
+1531 and 1535.]
+
+18. =Prince Arthur's Marriage and Death. 1501--1502.=--Warwick's death
+was the one judicial murder of Henry's reign. To the Spaniards it
+appeared to be a prudent action which had cleared away the last of
+Henry's serious competitors. The negotiations for the Spanish
+marriage were pushed on, and in =1501= Catherine, a bride of fifteen,
+gave her hand to Arthur, a bridegroom of fourteen. In =1502= the
+prince died, and the attempt to bind England and Spain together seemed
+to have come to an end.
+
+19. =The Scottish Marriage. 1503.=--Another marriage treaty proved
+ultimately to be of far greater importance. Henry was sufficiently
+above the prejudices of his time to be anxious to be on good terms
+with Scotland. For some time a negotiation had been in progress for a
+marriage between James IV. and Henry's daughter, Margaret. The
+marriage took place in =1503=. To the counsellors who urged that in
+the case of failure of Henry's heirs in the male line England would
+become subject to Scotland Henry shrewdly replied that there was no
+fear of that, as 'the greater would draw the less.'
+
+20. =Maritime Enterprise.=--Henry's chief merit was that he had
+re-established order. Commercial prosperity followed, though the
+commerce was as yet on a small scale. It is probable that the
+population of England was no more than 2,500,000. London contained but
+130,000 inhabitants, whilst Paris contained 400,000. There was no
+royal navy, as there was no royal army, but merchant vessels were
+armed to protect themselves. The company of Merchant Adventurers made
+voyages to the Baltic, and the men of Bristol sent out fleets to the
+Iceland fishery. Henry did what he could to encourage maritime
+enterprise. He had offered to take Columbus into his service before
+the great navigator closed with Spain, and in =1497= he sent the
+Venetian, John Cabot, and his sons across the Atlantic, where they
+landed in Labrador before any Spaniards had set foot on the American
+continent. England however, was as yet too poor to push these
+discoveries farther, and the lands beyond the sea were for the present
+left to Spain.
+
+21. =Growth of the Royal Power.=--The improvement in the general
+well-being of the country had been rendered possible by the extension
+of the royal power, and the price paid for order was the falling into
+abeyance of the constitutional authority of Parliaments. The loss
+indeed was greater in appearance than in reality. In the fifteenth
+century the election of members of the House of Commons depended more
+upon the will of the great lords than upon the political sentiments of
+the community. In the first half of the sixteenth century they
+depended on the will of the king. The peculiarity of the Tudor rule
+was that its growing despotism was exercised without the support of
+the army. It rested on the goodwill of the middle classes. Treading
+cautiously in the steps of Edward IV., Henry VII. recognised that in
+order to have a full treasury it was less dangerous to exact payments
+illegally from the few than to exact them legally from the many. Hence
+his recourse in times of trouble to benevolences. Hence, too, the
+eagerness with which he gathered in fines. The Cornish rebels were
+fined individually. The great lords who persisted in keeping retainers
+were fined. On one occasion the king visited the Earl of Oxford, and
+found, when he went away, a band of retainers drawn up to do him
+honour. "My lord," he said, "I thank you for your entertainment, but
+my attorney must speak with you." If there was a man in England who
+had deserved well of Henry it was Oxford, but Oxford had to pay
+15,000_l._, a sum worth perhaps 180,000_l._ at the present day, to
+atone for his offence. No services rendered to Henry were to excuse
+from obedience to the law.
+
+22. =Empson and Dudley.=--As Henry grew older the gathering of money
+became a passion. His chief instruments were Empson and Dudley, who
+under pretence of enforcing the law established the worst of
+tyrannies. Even false charges were brought for the sake of extracting
+money. At the end of his reign Henry had accumulated a hoard of
+1,800,000_l._, mainly gathered by injustice and oppression. The
+despotism of one man was no doubt better than the despotism of many,
+but the price paid for the change was a heavy one.
+
+23. =Henry and his Daughter-in-law. 1502--1505.=--On the death of
+Prince Arthur in =1502=, Ferdinand and Isabella proposed that their
+daughter Catharine should marry her brother-in-law, Henry, the only
+surviving son of the king of England, though the boy was six years
+younger than herself. They had already paid half their daughter's
+marriage portion, and they believed, probably with truth, that they
+had little chance of recovering it from Henry VII., and that it would
+therefore be more economical to re-marry their daughter where they
+would get off with no more expense than the payment of the other half.
+Henry on the other hand feared lest the repayment of the first half
+might be demanded of him, and consequently welcomed the proposal. In
+=1503= a dispensation for the marriage was obtained from Pope Julius
+II., but in =1505=, when the time for the betrothal arrived, the young
+Henry protested, no doubt at his father's instigation, that he would
+proceed no farther.
+
+24. =The Last Years of Henry VII. 1505--1509.=--Circumstances were
+changed by the death of Isabella in =1504=, when her son-in-law, the
+Archduke Philip, claimed to be sovereign of Castile in right of his
+wife Juana. Philip, sailing from the Netherlands to Spain in =1506=,
+was driven into Weymouth by a storm, and Henry seized the opportunity
+of wringing from him commercial concessions as well as the surrender
+of Edmund de la Pole, a brother of the Earl of Lincoln who perished at
+Stoke, and a nephew of Edward IV. Henry was himself now a widower on
+the look-out for a rich wife, and Philip promised him the hand of his
+sister, Margaret, who had formerly been betrothed to Charles VIII.
+(see p. 337). Once more, however, the conditions of the game changed.
+Philip died a few months after his arrival in Spain, leaving a mad
+widow, and as Ferdinand then regained his authority Catharine's
+marriage was again discussed. Other schemes were also proposed,
+amongst them one for marrying Catharine, not to the young prince, but
+to her old father-in-law, the king. In =1509=, before any of these
+plans could take effect, Henry VII. died. He deserves to be reckoned
+amongst the kings who have accomplished much for England. If he was
+not chivalrous or imaginative, neither was the age in which he lived.
+His contemporaries needed a chief constable to keep order, and he gave
+them what they needed.
+
+25. =Architectural Changes and the Printing Press.=--Architecture,
+which in England, as upon the Continent, had been the one great art of
+the Middle Ages, was already, though still instinct with beauty,
+giving signs in its over-elaboration of approaching decadence. To the
+tower of Fotheringhay Church (see p. 311) had succeeded the tower of
+St. Mary's, Taunton. To the roof of the nave of Winchester Cathedral
+(see p. 276) had succeeded the roof of the Divinity School at Oxford
+(see p. 319), and of the chapel of King's College, Cambridge (see p.
+355). Art in this direction could go no farther. The new conditions in
+which the following age was to move were indicated by the discovery of
+America and the invention of printing. New objects of knowledge
+presented themselves, and a new mode of spreading knowledge was at
+hand. In the reign of Edward IV., Caxton, the earliest English
+printer, set up his press at Westminster, and the king and his nobles
+came to gaze at it as at some new toy, little knowing how profoundly
+it was to modify their methods of government. Henry VII. had enough to
+do without troubling himself with such matters. It was his part to
+close an epoch of English history, not to open a fresh one.
+
+
+_Books recommended for further study of Part IV._
+
+GREEN, J. R. History of the English People. Vol. i. p. 521-Vol. ii. p.
+77.
+
+STUBBS, W. (Bishop of Oxford). Constitutional History of England. Vol.
+ii. from p. 441, and Vol. iii.
+
+HALLAM, H. Constitutional History of England. Vol. i. pp. 1-15.
+
+ROGERS, J. E. THOROLD. History of Agriculture and Prices. Vols. iii.
+and iv.
+
+CUNNINGHAM, W. The Growth of English Industry and Commerce. Vol. i.
+pp. 335-449.
+
+WYLIE, J. H. History of England under Henry IV.
+
+GAIRDNER, JAMES. Lancaster and York.
+
+-------- Richard III.
+
+-------- Henry VII.
+
+RAMSAY, SIR JAMES. Lancaster and York.
+
+OMAN, C. The Political History of England. Vol. iv. From the Accession
+of Richard II. to the Death of Richard III. (1377-1485).
+
+FISHER, H. A. L. The Political History of England. Vol. v. From the
+Accession of Henry VII. to the Death of Henry VIII. (1485-1547).
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+TO
+
+THE FIRST VOLUME
+
+
+  Aaron, martyrdom of, 23.
+
+  Aclea, battle of, 57.
+
+  Acre, captured by the Crusaders, 161;
+    Edward I. at, 204.
+
+  Adrian IV. grants Ireland to Henry II., 152.
+
+  Adulterine castles, 137.
+
+  Aedan, king of the Scots, is defeated at Degsastan, 42.
+
+  AElfgar, earl of the Mercians, 90.
+
+  AElfgifu, wife of Eadwig, 65, 66.
+
+  AElfheah, Archbishop, murdered by the Danes, 82.
+
+  AElfred, his struggle with the Danes, 58;
+    his position after the Treaty of Wedmore, 59;
+    gains London, _ib._;
+    character of his work, 60.
+
+  AElfred the AEtheling, murder of, 85, 86.
+
+  AElfthryth, wife of Eadgar, 78.
+
+  AElla, king of Deira, slave-boys from his kingdom found at Rome, 38.
+
+  AEscesdun, battle of, 58.
+
+  AEthelbald, king of the Mercians, 53.
+
+  AEthelbald, king of the West Saxons, 57.
+
+  AEthelberht, king of Kent, his supremacy, 38;
+    becomes a Christian, 39;
+    helps Augustine to set up bishoprics, 40;
+    death of, 41.
+
+  AEthelberht, king of the West Saxons, 57.
+
+  AEthelflaed, the Lady of the Mercians, 62.
+
+  AEthelfrith, king of North-humberland, his struggle with the northern
+      Welsh, 41;
+    defeats the Scots at Degsastan, 42;
+    and the Kymry near Chester, 43;
+    is defeated and slain by Eadwine, _ib._
+
+  AEthelred, ealdorman of Mercia, 60.
+
+  AEthelred, king of the West Saxons, his struggle with the
+    Danes, 58, 62.
+
+  AEthelred the Unready, his relations with the Danes, 79;
+    and with the Normans, 80;
+    orders a massacre of the Danes, 81;
+    flies to Normandy, 82;
+    returns and dies, 83.
+
+  AEthelric unites North-humberland, 41.
+
+  AEthelstan, reign of, 63.
+
+  AEthelstan, the Half-King, 73.
+
+  AEthelwold drives secular canons from Winchester, 68.
+
+  AEthelwulf defeats the Northmen, 57.
+
+  Aetius refuses help to the Britons, 26.
+
+  Agincourt, battle of, 302.
+
+  Agricola, campaigns of, 16;
+    forts built by, 17.
+
+  Agriculture in Eadgar's time, 75.
+
+  Aidan establishes himself in Holy Island, 47;
+    his relations with Oswald, _ib._;
+    and with Oswine, _ib._
+
+  Alban, martyrdom of, 23.
+
+  Albany, the Duke of, suspected of the murder of the Duke of
+      Rothesay, 295;
+    is regent of Scotland, 296.
+
+  Albigeois, the, crusade against, 193.
+
+  Albin, probable Iberian derivation of the name, 6.
+
+  Albion, _see_ Albin.
+
+  Alcluyd (Dumbarton), the capital of Strathclyde, 43.
+
+  Alexander, bishop of Lincoln, 134.
+
+  Alexander III., king of Scotland, death of, 214.
+
+  Alexander III., Pope, shrinks from supporting Archbishop
+    Thomas, 145.
+
+  Alexander IV., Pope, confirms a grant of Sicily to Edmund
+    Crouchback, 197.
+
+  Allectus asserts a claim to the Empire, 22.
+
+  Alnwick, Malcolm Canmore slain at, 119;
+    William the Lion captured at, 154;
+    dismantled, 296.
+
+  Ambresbyrig (Amesbury) named from Ambrosius, 34.
+
+  Ambrosius fights with the West Saxons, 34.
+
+  Ambrosius Aurelianus, fights with the Jutes, 27.
+
+  Amiens, the mise of, 200.
+
+  Anderida destroyed by the South Saxons, 28.
+
+  Andred's Wood covers the Weald, 27.
+
+  Angevin kings, Church and State under, 165;
+    growth of learning under, 167;
+    growth of commerce under, 168;
+    architectural changes under, 170.
+
+  Angles ravage Roman Britain, 24;
+    settle in Britain, 28;
+    advance gradually, 36;
+    _see_ Bernicia, Deira, East Anglia, Mercia, North-humberland.
+
+  Anglesea, _see_ Mona.
+
+  Anjou, Geoffrey, Count of, 131;
+    united with Normandy, 137;
+    declares for Arthur, 174;
+    conquered by Philip II., 176;
+    English forays in, 317.
+
+  Anne of Beaujeu, policy of, 348.
+
+  Anne of Bohemia marries Richard II., 278.
+
+  Anne of Brittany is married to Maximilian by proxy, 349;
+    married to Charles VIII., 349.
+
+  Anselm acknowledges AElfheah to be a martyr, 82;
+    character of, 117;
+    becomes Archbishop of Canterbury, 118;
+    quarrels with William II., _ib._;
+    his relations with Henry I., 125.
+
+  Antoninus Pius, wall of, 17.
+
+  Appellant, the Lords, 279.
+
+  Aquitaine, Duchy of, passes to Henry II. by his marriage, 137;
+    is given to Richard, 155;
+    divided in language and character from the North of France, 176;
+    intrigues of Philip IV. in, 218;
+    efforts of Philip VI. to gain, 234;
+    ceded to Edward III., 253;
+    the Black Prince made Duke of, 254;
+    resistance to the Black Prince in, 256;
+    almost wholly lost, 257;
+    complete loss of, 320.
+
+  Aquae Sulis (Bath) subdued by the West Saxons, 35.
+
+  Archers employed at Senlac, 96;
+    armed with the long bow at Falkirk, 221;
+    improperly employed at Bannockburn, 226;
+    effect of, at Halidon Hill, 234;
+    drawn from the yeomen, 236;
+    win the battle of Crecy, 242;
+    are successful at Poitiers, 251.
+
+  Architecture before the Conquest, 51;
+    Norman, 89;
+    under the Angevins, 170;
+    Early English style of, 207;
+    Decorated and Perpendicular styles of, 247;
+    later development of, 358.
+
+  Arles, Council of, 23.
+
+  Armagnac, the Count of, establishes a reign of terror, 303;
+    murder of, 304.
+
+  Armagnacs, party of the, oppose the Burgundians, 296;
+    relations of Henry IV. with, 299;
+    make war with the Burgundians, 301;
+    insurrection of the Parisians against, 304.
+
+  Army, the, the folk-moot in arms, 33;
+    AElfred's organisation of, 60;
+    under William I., 104, 106;
+    reorganised by Henry II., 141;
+    its condition under Edward III., 236.
+
+  Arras, congress at, 313;
+    Treaty of, 337.
+
+  Arteveldt, Jacob van, 235.
+
+  Arteveldt, Philip van, 278.
+
+  Arthur, legend of, 33.
+
+  Arthur, nephew of John, descent of, 173;
+    murder of, 174.
+
+  Arthur, Prince of Wales, marriage and death of, 356.
+
+  Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury, banished, 282;
+    his position under Henry IV., 292;
+    deprived of the Chancellorship, 299;
+    Oldcastle tried before, 300.
+
+  Arundel, the Earl of, opposes Richard II., 279;
+    executed, 282.
+
+  Aryans, the, 5.
+
+  Assandun, battle of, 83.
+
+  Asser, life of AElfred by, 61.
+
+  Assize of Arms, 154.
+
+  Assize of Clarendon, _see_ Clarendon.
+
+  Athelney, AElfred takes refuge in, 58.
+
+  Augustine preaches to the men of Kent, 39;
+    becomes Archbishop of Canterbury and founds other bishoprics, 40;
+    fails to obtain the co-operation of the Welsh bishops, 41.
+
+  Aumale, Earl of, surrenders his castles to Hubert de Burgh, 187.
+
+  Austria, imprisonment of Richard I. in, 161.
+
+  Avice of Gloucester divorced by John, 174.
+
+  Avignon, the Popes at, 257.
+
+
+  Badby burnt as a heretic, 298.
+
+  Badon, Mount, _see_ Mount Badon.
+
+  Balliol, Edward, wins and loses the crown of Scotland, 232, 233.
+
+  Balliol, John, descent of, 215;
+    declared King of Scotland, 216;
+    is defeated and surrenders the crown, 219.
+
+  Bamborough, Ida's fortress at, 36;
+    Mowbray besieged in, 120.
+
+  Bangor-iscoed, monastery at, 42;
+    slaughter of the monks of, 43.
+
+  Bannockburn, battle of, 226.
+
+  Barnet, battle of, 334.
+
+  Basques, the, Iberian descent of, 5.
+
+  Bath, _see_ Aquae Sulis.
+
+  Battle Abbey, site of, 96.
+
+  Bauge, battle of, 306.
+
+  Bayeux Tapestry, the, 98.
+
+  Bayonne taken by the French, 320.
+
+  Bears, performing, 275.
+
+  Beaufort, Henry, Bishop of Winchester, becomes Chancellor, 299;
+    invites Parliament to support Henry V., 301;
+    opposes Gloucester, 308;
+    becomes a cardinal, 309;
+    continues his opposition to Gloucester, 314;
+    policy of, 317;
+    death of, 318.
+
+  Bec, Abbey of, 89, 117.
+
+  Becket, _see_ Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury.
+
+  Bede, Ecclesiastical History of, 52.
+
+  Bedford, West Saxon victory at, 35;
+    castle of Faukes de Breaute at, 187.
+
+  Bedford, John, Duke of, brother of Henry V., sent to secure
+      Harfleur, 303;
+    Regent of France, 307;
+    marries the Duke of Burgundy's sister, _ib._;
+    defeats the French at Verneuil, 308;
+    returns to England, 312;
+    death of, 313.
+
+  Belgians land in Britain, 8.
+
+  Belleme, _see_ Robert of Belleme.
+
+  Benedict of Nursia establishes the Benedictine rule, 40.
+
+  Benedictines, monasteries of the, 128.
+
+  Benevolences invented by Edward IV., 335;
+    abolished by Richard III., 342.
+
+  Bensington, Mercian victory at, 53.
+
+  Berengaria marries Richard I., 161.
+
+  Bernard du Guesclin, _see_ Du Guesclin.
+
+  Bernicia, formation of the kingdom of, 36;
+    is merged for a time in North-humberland, 41;
+    is untouched by the preaching of Paulinus, 46;
+    is finally merged in North-humberland, 48;
+    maintains its independence after the Danish conquest, 59.
+
+  Bertha obtains from AEthelberht a disused church, 38.
+
+  Bigod, Hugh, appointed justiciar by the barons, 199.
+
+  Bigod, Roger, Earl of Norfolk, resists Edward I., 220.
+
+  Black Death, the, 248, 259.
+
+  Black Prince, the, fights at Crecy, 242;
+    ravages the south of France, and defeats the French at
+      Poitiers, 251;
+    his courtesy to King John, 252;
+    is sent to Aquitaine, 254;
+    his expedition into Spain, 255;
+    taxes Aquitaine, 256;
+    loses Aquitaine, 257;
+    leads the Good Parliament, and dies, 262.
+
+  Blanche Tache, ford of, 240.
+
+  Blore Heath, battle of, 326.
+
+  Boadicea, insurrection of, 15.
+
+  Bohun, Humfrey, Earl of Hereford, resists Edward I., 220.
+
+  Boniface VIII., 220.
+
+  Boniface of Savoy, Archbishop of Canterbury, 197.
+
+  Bordeaux taken by the French, 320.
+
+  Boroughbridge, defeat of Thomas of Lancaster at, 228.
+
+  Bosworth, battle of, 343.
+
+  Bouvines, battle of, 181.
+
+  Brabant, the Duke of, captures Jacqueline of Hainault, 308.
+
+  Bradford-on-Avon, early stone church at, 51.
+
+  Bramham Moor, defeat of Northumberland on, 296.
+
+  Brember hanged, 280.
+
+  Bretigni, Treaty of, 253.
+
+  Bretwalda, title of, 44.
+
+  Bridgenorth, Robert of Belleme's castle at, 121;
+    besieged by Henry I., 124.
+
+  Bridges, making and repair of, 272, 273.
+
+  Brigantes, the, conquest of, 16.
+
+  Brihtnoth slain at Maldon, 79.
+
+  Bristol garrisoned by Robert of Gloucester, 134.
+
+  Britain, its name derived from the Britons, 6;
+    tin trade opened to, 8;
+    Gauls and Belgians in, _ib._;
+    Caesar's invasion of, 11;
+    trade of Gaul with, 12;
+    beginning of the Roman conquest of, 13-17;
+    condition of the Roman province of, 19-22;
+    emperors specially connected with, 22;
+    Christianity in, 23;
+    ravaged by the Picts and Scots, 23;
+    and by the Saxons, 24;
+    military divisions of, _ib._;
+    end of the Roman government of, 25, 26;
+    is deserted by the Romans, 26;
+    its organisation after the departure of the Romans, _ib._;
+    the English conquest of, 27-29.
+
+  Britons, the, succeed the Goidels, 6;
+    languages spoken by the descendants of, 7;
+    habits of, 9;
+    religion of, 10;
+    introduction of Roman manners amongst, 13;
+    increased civilisation of, 21;
+    non-existence of a national feeling amongst, 22;
+    ask Honorius in vain for help, 25;
+    the groans of the, 26;
+    treatment of, by the English conquerors, 29;
+    are better treated in the West, 31;
+    slight modification of English language by them, 31;
+    _see_ Kymry.
+
+  Brittany, its relation with Henry II., 155;
+    Edward III. sends forces to, 240;
+    annexed to France, 349.
+
+  Bruce, Edward, invades Ireland, 264.
+
+  Bruce, Robert, claims the crown of Scotland, 215.
+
+  Bruce, Robert, grandson of the preceding, _see_ Robert I.
+
+  Brunanburh, battle of, 63.
+
+  Brut, Layamon's, 207.
+
+  Brythons, _see_ Britons.
+
+  Buchan, Countess of, imprisoned, 224.
+
+  Buckingham, Edward Stafford, Duke of, supports
+      Richard III., 338, 341;
+    executed as a rebel, 342.
+
+  Burford, West Saxon victory at, 53.
+
+  Burgundians, party of the, opposed to the Armagnacs, 296, 299;
+    are friendly to Henry V., 301.
+
+  Burgundy, Charles the Rash, Duke of, marries the sister of
+      Edward IV., 332;
+    policy of, 336;
+    is slain at Nancy, _ib._
+
+  Burgundy, John the Fearless, Duke of, has the Duke of Orleans
+      murdered, 296;
+    allies himself with Henry V., 301;
+    holds aloof in the campaign of Agincourt, 302;
+    makes war upon the Armagnacs, 303;
+    murder of, 305.
+
+  Burgundy, Philip the Good, Duke of, joins the English against
+      the Dauphin, 306;
+    allies himself with the Duke of Bedford, 307;
+    forms a league with Charles VII., 313;
+    inherits territories in the Netherlands, _ib._
+
+  Burhs erected by Eadward the Elder, 62.
+
+  Burley, Sir Simon, executed, 280.
+
+  Bury St. Edmunds, foundation of the monastery at, 58;
+    death of Svend at, 82;
+    meeting of barons at, 181.
+
+
+  CADE, JACK, rebellion of, 322.
+
+  Caedmon, poetry of, 52.
+
+  Caedwalla, allied with Penda, 46;
+    is defeated by Oswald, 47.
+
+  Caen, burial of William I. at, 114;
+    stormed by Henry V., 303.
+
+  Caerleon upon Usk, _see_ Isca Silurum.
+
+  Caesar, Gaius Julius, makes war in Gaul and Germany, 10;
+    twice invades Britain, 11.
+
+  Caint, the, occupied by the Cantii, 8.
+
+  Calais taken by Edward III., 243;
+    besieged by the Duke of Burgundy, 313.
+
+  Caledonians, the, wars of Agricola with, 16.
+
+  Cambridge, the Earl of, execution of, 301.
+
+  Camulodunum, Cunobelin's headquarters at, 12;
+    Roman colony of, 13;
+    captured by Boadicea, 15.
+
+  Cannon, first use of, 242.
+
+  Canterbury, AEthelberht's residence at, 38;
+    Augustine preaches at, 39;
+    foundation of the archbishopric of, 40;
+    murder of Archbishop Thomas at, 150;
+    Henry II. does penance at, 153;
+    architecture of the choir of, 171;
+    disputed election of the Archbishop of, 177.
+
+  _Canterbury Tales_, the, 270.
+
+  Caractacus, defeat and flight of, 13;
+    capture of, 14.
+
+  Carausius claims to be emperor, 22.
+
+  Carham, battle of, 84.
+
+  Carlisle fortified by William II., 119.
+
+  Carnarvon, Edward I. builds a castle at, 210.
+
+  Carriages and carts, 273.
+
+  Carucage substituted for Danegeld, 162.
+
+  Cashel, synod at, 152.
+
+  Cassel, battle of, 235.
+
+  Cassiterides, the geographical position of, 8.
+
+  Cassivelaunus, resistance to Caesar by, 11.
+
+  Castile, intervention of the Black Prince in, 255;
+    united with Aragon, 349.
+
+  Catherine of Aragon married to Prince Arthur, 356;
+    marriages proposed for, 357.
+
+  Catherine of France marries Henry V., 306;
+    marries Owen Tudor, 335.
+
+  Catuvellauni, the, position of, 9;
+    attacked by Caesar, 11;
+    subsequent history of, 12.
+
+  Caxton, William, establishes a printing press at Westminster, 358.
+
+  Ceawlin overruns the Severn Valley, 35;
+    defeated at Wanborough, 36.
+
+  Celibacy of the clergy, early opinion in favour of, 65;
+    inculcated at Cluny, 67.
+
+  Celtic Christianity, influence of, 47, 49.
+
+  Celts, the, succeed the Iberians in Western Europe, 5;
+    are divided into two stocks, 7;
+    know their conquerors as Saxons, 29.
+
+  Ceorls, distinguished from Eorls, 29;
+    are the tillers of the soil, 30.
+
+  Chancellor, the official position of, 127;
+    becomes a judge, 260.
+
+  Charles Martel defeats the Mohammedans, 54.
+
+  Charles the Great, Emperor, 55, 63.
+
+  Charles the Simple, king of the West Franks, 63;
+    cedes Normandy to Hrolf, 80.
+
+  Charles IV., king of France, death of, 232.
+
+  Charles V., king of France, opposes the English in Spain, 255;
+    summons the Black Prince to Paris, 256;
+    renews the war against the English, _ib._;
+    avoids a battle, 257.
+
+  Charles VI., king of France, defeats the Flemings, 278;
+    allies himself with Richard II., 282;
+    loses his senses, 295;
+    disinherits the Dauphin, 306;
+    dies, 307.
+
+  Charles VII., king of France, as Dauphin, falls into the hands
+      of the Armagnacs, 303;
+    is present at the murder of John, Duke of Burgundy, 305;
+    is disinherited, 306;
+    claims to succeed to the crown at his father's death, 307;
+    his weakness, 309;
+    is helped by the Maid of Orleans, 310;
+    is crowned, 311;
+    consents to a truce, 317;
+    renews the war, 320.
+
+  Charles VIII., king of France, succeeds to the crown, 348;
+    invades Italy, 352;
+    death of, 354.
+
+  Chateau Gaillard built by Richard I., 165;
+    lost by John, 354.
+
+  Chaucer, Geoffrey, his _Canterbury Tales_, 270.
+
+  Chester (_see_ Deva) submits to William I., 103.
+
+  Chinon, Henry II. dies at, 157.
+
+  Chivalry, 235.
+
+  Christ Church, at Canterbury, privileges of, 177;
+    expulsion of the monks of, 178.
+
+  Christianity introduced into Britain, 23;
+    into England, 39;
+    character of early English, _see_ England, the Church of.
+
+  Chronicle, the, begun under AElfred, 61;
+    continued at Worcester, 68, 129;
+    completed at Peterborough, 129.
+
+  Church of England, _see_ England, the Church of.
+
+  Cinque Ports, the, 218.
+
+  Cirencester, _see_ Corinium.
+
+  Cistercians, the, introduced into England, 129;
+    decline of asceticism amongst, 167;
+    are fined by John, 179.
+
+  Clare, Gilbert de, _see_ Gloucester, Earl of.
+
+  Clare, Richard de, _see_ Strongbow.
+
+  Clare, Richard de, _see_ Gloucester, Earl of.
+
+  Clarence, Lionel, Duke of, sent to Ireland, 265.
+
+  Clarence, George, Duke of, brother of Edward IV., created a
+      duke, 329;
+    marries Warwick's daughter, and quarrels with Edward IV., 332;
+    put to death, 336.
+
+  Clarence, Thomas, Duke of, brother of Henry IV., killed at
+    Bauge, 306.
+
+  Clarendon, the Constitutions of, 144;
+    the assize of, 146.
+
+  Claudius, the Emperor, plans the conquest of Britain, 13.
+
+  Clergy, the, _see_ Ecclesiastical Courts, England, Church of.
+
+  _Clericis Laicos_, the Bull named, 220.
+
+  Clifford, Lord, stabs the Earl of Rutland, 328.
+
+  Cluny, clerical celibacy inculcated at, 67;
+    reforms originated at, 107.
+
+  Cnut, reign of, 83-85.
+
+  Cobham, Eleanor, mistress and wife of the Duke of Gloucester, 315;
+    does penance for witchcraft, 316.
+
+  Colleges, first foundation of, at Oxford, 207.
+
+  Colman disputes with Wilfrid, 50.
+
+  Columba founds a monastery at Iona, 47.
+
+  Columbus discovers the West Indies, 354.
+
+  Commerce between Britain and Gaul, 8, 12;
+    between England and Gaul, 38;
+    under the Angevin kings, 168;
+    under Edward I., 211;
+    under Edward III., 235, 236;
+    under Henry VII., 351.
+
+  Common Pleas, establishment of a separate Court of, 212.
+
+  Commons, the House of (_see_ Parliament), finally separated
+      from the Lords, 243;
+    struggle of, against unparliamentary taxation, 244;
+    importance of the constitution of, 245;
+    supported by the Black Prince, 261;
+    influence over the elections of, 281;
+    proposes to confiscate Church property, 294;
+    addressed by Edward IV., 329.
+
+  Compurgation, system of, 32;
+    set aside by Henry II., 146, 147.
+
+  Comyn, John (the Red), slain by Bruce, 224.
+
+  _Confirmatio Cartarum_, 221.
+
+  Conrad III., Emperor, takes part in the second Crusade, 157.
+
+  Constance of Brittany marries Geoffrey, 155.
+
+  Constantine takes an army from Britain, 25.
+
+  Constantine, king of the Scots, allies himself with Eadward, 63.
+
+  Constantine the Great becomes sole Emperor, 22;
+    acknowledges Christianity as the religion of the Empire, 23.
+
+  Constantius, the Emperor, 22.
+
+  Constitutions of Clarendon, 144;
+    renounced by Henry II., 153.
+
+  Convocations of the clergy vote money, 219.
+
+  Conway, Edward I. builds a castle at, 210.
+
+  Corinium (Cirencester), West Saxon conquest of, 35.
+
+  Cornish, the, derivation of the old language of, 7;
+    submit to Ecgberht, 55.
+
+  Cotentin, the, sold to Henry, 119.
+
+  County courts derived from the shire-moots, 141.
+
+  Courtenay, Bishop of London, supported by the citizens against
+    Lancaster, 263.
+
+  Crecy, battle of, 241, 242.
+
+  Cressingham, Sir Hugh, governs Scotland in the name of
+    Edward I., 219.
+
+  Crown, the, _see_ King.
+
+  Crusade, the first, 120;
+    the second, 157;
+    the third, 161;
+    against the Albigeois, 193;
+    the seventh, 204.
+
+  Cumberland, origin of the name of, 37;
+    annexed by William II., 119;
+    left to David I., 133;
+    regained by Henry II., 140.
+
+  Cunedda, extensive rule of, 37.
+
+  Cunobelin, government of, 12.
+
+  _Curia Regis_, the, organised under Henry I., 127;
+    strengthened by Henry II., 141;
+    powers assigned by the Constitutions of Clarendon to, 145;
+    orders the appointment of recognitors, 147;
+    divided into three courts, 212.
+
+  Customs on imports and exports under Edward I., 211, 221.
+
+  Cutha, 35.
+
+  Cymbeline, original of Shakspere's, 12.
+
+  Cynric captures Sorbiodunum, 34.
+
+
+  Danegeld, levy of, 81; abolition of, 143.
+
+  Danelaw, the, formation of, 59.
+
+  Danes, the, invade England, 58;
+    make peace with AElfred, 59;
+    extent of the settlements of, 62;
+    are amalgamated with the English, 64;
+    relations of Dunstan with, 67;
+    reappear as invaders, 79;
+    conquer England, 81-83;
+    settle in Ireland, 152.
+
+  Darc, Jeanne, delivers Orleans, 310;
+    conducts Charles VII. to Rheims, 311;
+    martyrdom of, 312.
+
+  David I., king of the Scots, invades England, 131.
+
+  David II. (Bruce), king of Scotland, 232;
+    takes refuge with Philip VI., 234;
+    restoration of, 240;
+    taken prisoner at Nevill's Cross, 242;
+    restored by Edward III., 252.
+
+  David, brother of Llewelyn, executed, 140.
+
+  David, Earl of Huntingdon, 215.
+
+  David, St., piety of, 42.
+
+  Decorated style, the, 247.
+
+  Degsastan, AEthelfrith's victory at, 42.
+
+  Deira, formation of the kingdom of, 36;
+    is merged for a time in North-humberland, 41;
+    accepts Christianity, 46;
+    is finally merged in North-humberland, 48;
+    Danish kingdom of, 62, 63.
+
+  Deorham, battle of, 35.
+
+  Derby, Earl of (son of John of Gaunt), opposes Richard II., 279;
+    defeats the Duke of Ireland, 280;
+    becomes Duke of Hereford, and is banished, 283;
+    succeeds to the Duchy of Lancaster, 284;
+    and forces Richard II. to abdicate, 285;
+    _see_ Henry IV.
+
+  Dermot invites Strongbow to Ireland, 152.
+
+  Despensers, the, 228, 229.
+
+  Deva, Roman colony of, 14, 19.
+
+  Devizes, surrender of the castle of, 134.
+
+  _Dialogus de Scaccario_, 167.
+
+  Diocletian reorganises the Empire, 22.
+
+  Domesday Book, 111.
+
+  Domestic life in Eadgar's time, 75.
+
+  Domfront occupied by Henry, 119.
+
+  Dominic, St., 190.
+
+  Dominicans arrive in England, 191.
+
+  Donald Bane made king of the Scots by the Celts, 119.
+
+  Dorchester, abandonment of the see of, 107.
+
+  Dorset, Marquis of, his relations with Richard III., 338.
+
+  Druids, character of the, 10;
+    resist Suetonius, 14.
+
+  Dublin, Danish settlement in, 152.
+
+  Du Chatel, Tannegui, murders the Duke of Burgundy, 305.
+
+  Du Guesclin, Bernard, supports Henry of Trastamara, 255;
+    his mode of fighting with the English, 256.
+
+  Dunbar, Balliol defeated at, 219.
+
+  Duncan II., king of the Scots, 120.
+
+  Dunstan, character and work of, 65;
+    banished by Eadwig, 67;
+    becomes Eadgar's Minister, _ib._;
+    his attitude towards the monks, 68;
+    supports Eadward's succession, 78;
+    death of, 79.
+
+  Dupplin, Edward Balliol's victory at, 234.
+
+  Durham, architecture of the choir and galilee of, 171.
+
+
+  Eadgar, reign of, 67.
+
+  Eadgar, king of the Scots, 121.
+
+  Eadgar the AEtheling, early years of, 90;
+    chosen king, 98;
+    is abandoned, 100.
+
+  Eadgyth married to Eadward the Confessor, 87.
+
+  Eadgyth married to Henry I., 122;
+    is known as Matilda, 124.
+
+  Eadmund Ironside, 83.
+
+  Eadmund, king of East Anglia, killed by the Danes, 58.
+
+  Eadmund, king of the English, 63.
+
+  Eadred, king of the English, 64.
+
+  Eadward the Confessor, his life in Normandy, 85;
+    is chosen king, 86;
+    his relations with Godwine, 87;
+    makes William his heir, 88;
+    dies, 91.
+
+  Eadward the Elder, reign of, 62;
+    his relations with the Scots, 63.
+
+  Eadward the AEtheling, death of, 90.
+
+  Eadward the Martyr, 78.
+
+  Eadwig, reign of, 64;
+    his quarrel with the clergy, 65;
+    his marriage and death, 67.
+
+  Eadwine, king of North-humberland, greatness of, 43;
+    marries AEthelburh, 44;
+    is converted and slain, 46.
+
+  Eadwine, son of AElfgar, becomes Earl of the Mercians, 90;
+    is present at Eadgar's election, 98;
+    submits to William, 102;
+    is murdered, 103.
+
+  Eadwinesburh, _see_ Edinburgh.
+
+  Ealdhelm as a builder and teacher, 51.
+
+  Ealdormen, the, are the leaders of the English conquerors, 30;
+    preside over the folk-moot, 33;
+    growing power of, 73;
+    their position under AEthelred the Unready, 79.
+
+  Ealdred, Archbishop of York, crowns William I., 100.
+
+  Earl, title of, derivation of, 64.
+
+  Earldoms under Cnut, 83;
+    diminished after the Norman Conquest, 105.
+
+  Early English architecture, 171.
+
+  East Anglia, first settlement of, 28;
+    growth of, 36;
+    comparative weakness of, 41;
+    its relations with Ecgberht, 55;
+    overrun by the Danes, 58.
+
+  East Saxons establish themselves to the north of the Thames, 28;
+    capture London, 35;
+    _see_ Essex.
+
+  Easter, dispute on the mode of keeping, 50.
+
+  Ebbsfleet, landing of the Jutes at, 27;
+    landing of Augustine at, 39.
+
+  Ecclesiastical courts, jurisdiction of, 106;
+    conflict of Henry II. with, 142.
+
+  Ecgberht, at the court of Charles the Great, 53;
+    becomes king of the West Saxons, and over-lord of the other
+      kingdoms, 55.
+
+  Edinburgh, Eadwine builds the castle of, 43;
+    occupied by the Scots, 68.
+
+  Edmund Crouchback, second son of Henry III., named king of
+      Sicily and Naples, 196;
+    supposed primogeniture of, 286.
+
+  Education in the time of AElfred, 61;
+    in the time of Dunstan, 65;
+    carried on at Oxford, 167, 207.
+
+  Edward I., appeal of the Knights Bachelors to, 199;
+    taken prisoner at Lewes, 201;
+    defeats Earl Simon at Evesham, 203;
+    takes part in the seventh Crusade 204;
+    becomes king, 208;
+    constitutional position of, 209;
+    his dealings with Wales, 210;
+    finance of, 211;
+    judicial reforms and legislation of, 212;
+    arranges for a personal union between England and Scotland, 214;
+    erects the Eleanor crosses, 215;
+    awards the Scottish crown to John Balliol, 216;
+    his relations with Philip IV., 218;
+    summons the Model Parliament, 218;
+    his first conquest of Scotland, 219;
+    grants the _Confirmatio Cartarum_, 220;
+    his second conquest of Scotland, 221;
+    incorporates Scotland with England, 222;
+    his third conquest of Scotland, and death, 224.
+
+  Edward II., birth of, 210;
+    succeeds to the crown, 224;
+    marriage of, 225;
+    resistance of the barons to, _ib._;
+    defeated at Bannockburn, 226;
+    overthrows Lancaster and effects a constitutional settlement, 228;
+    deposed and murdered, 229.
+
+  Edward III., accession and marriage of, 231;
+    does homage to Philip VI., 232;
+    sets up Edward Balliol in Scotland and begins war with
+      France, 234;
+    allies himself with the Emperor and the cities of Flanders, 235;
+    encourages trade, 236;
+    is named Imperial Vicar, 237;
+    claims the crown of France, 239;
+    wins the battle of Sluys, _ib._;
+    marches through the north of France, 240;
+    wins the battle of Crecy, 241, 242;
+    takes Calais, 243;
+    constitutional progress under, _ib._;
+    restores David Bruce, 252;
+    makes peace with France, 253;
+    enters on a fresh war with France, 256.
+
+  Edward IV., as Earl of March, takes part in the battle of
+      Northampton, 326;
+    wins the battle of Mortimer's Cross,
+      and is acknowledged by the Londoners as king, 328;
+    wins the battle of Towton, and is crowned, 329;
+    marries Elizabeth Woodville, and promotes her kindred, 331;
+    allies himself with Burgundy, 332;
+    loses and recovers the crown, 334;
+    invents benevolences, 335;
+    invades France, 336;
+    puts Clarence to death, 336;
+    death of, 337.
+
+  Edward V. succeeds to the throne, 337;
+    lodged in the Tower, 340;
+    deposed, 341;
+    murdered, 342.
+
+  Edward, Prince of Wales, _see_ Black Prince, the.
+
+  Edward, Prince of Wales, son of Henry VI., birth of, 323;
+    slain at Tewkesbury, 334.
+
+  Edward, Prince of Wales, son of Richard III., death of, 342.
+
+  Eleanor of Aquitaine marries Henry II., 137;
+    imprisonment of, 155;
+    takes part with John against Arthur, 174.
+
+  Eleanor of Castile, wife of Edward I., accompanies her husband
+      on the Crusade, 204;
+    death of, 214.
+
+  Eleanor of Provence marries Henry III., 192.
+
+  Eleanor, sister of Henry III., marries Simon de Montfort, 193.
+
+  Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., proposed marriage of the
+      Dauphin to, 336;
+    proposed marriage of Richard III. to, 342;
+    marries Henry VII., 345.
+
+  Elmet conquered by Eadwine, 43.
+
+  Emma marries AEthelred, 81.
+
+  Empire, the Western, revived by Charles the Great, 55.
+
+  Empson and Dudley, exactions of, 357.
+
+  England, early social and political institutions of, 29-32;
+    contrasted with Gaul, 37;
+    commerce with Gaul renewed by, 38;
+    Christianity introduced into, 39;
+    growing power of three kingdoms in, 41;
+    character of the later conquests in, 44;
+    political changes in, 45;
+    spread of Christianity in, 49;
+    influence of Church Councils on the political unity of, 52;
+    Ecgberht's over-lordship in, 55;
+    attacks of the Northmen and Danes on, 56;
+    its condition under AElfred, 60;
+    its relations with Scotland, 63, 68;
+    development of the institutions of, 69;
+    Danish conquest of, 79-83;
+    Norman conquest of, 96-103;
+    Norman constitution of, 113;
+    civil war in, 134;
+    pacification of, 137;
+    administrative reforms of Henry II. in, 140;
+    made tributary to the Papacy, 180;
+    military reforms in, 154;
+    effect of the reign of Henry II. on, 158;
+    constitutional result of the administration of Hubert Walter
+      in, 163;
+    growth of learning in, 167;
+    growth of commerce in, 168;
+    architectural changes in, 170;
+    the Barons' Wars in, 200-203;
+    architectural and literary growth in, 206, 207;
+    complete national unity of, 208;
+    completion of the Parliamentary constitution of, 218, 220, 228, 243;
+    relieved of tribute to the Papacy, 258;
+    social and moral condition of, during the Wars of the Roses, 330.
+
+  England, the Church of, Wilfrid's influence on, 50;
+    parochial organisation of, _ib._;
+    its close connection with the State, 52;
+    councils of, _ib._;
+    organisation of, after the Norman Conquest, 106;
+    its relations with Stephen, 134;
+    and with Henry II., 149;
+    result of the Angevin reigns on, 166;
+    Papal exactions resisted by, 194;
+    payments exacted from, 197;
+    temporary Parliamentary representation of the clergy of, 219;
+    taxation resisted by the clergy of, 220;
+    social condition of, 236;
+    supports Henry IV., 291;
+    members of noble families in the episcopate of, _ib._;
+    procures a statute for burning heretics, 292;
+    proposal to confiscate the property of, 294.
+
+  English, the, origin of the name of, 28;
+    nature of their conquest of Britain, 29;
+    village settlements of, _ib._;
+    division of ranks among, _ib._;
+    effect of the conquest of Britain on the language of, 31;
+    early political organisation of, _ib._;
+    early judicial system of, 32;
+    position of, under William I., 104;
+    support William II., 115;
+    support Henry I. 124;
+    cease to be distinguished from Normans, 155;
+    reappearance of their language in literature, 207;
+    predominance of their language, 258.
+
+  Eorls, distinguished from Ceorls, 29;
+    their relation to Gesiths, 30.
+
+  Erse, a Goidelic language, 7.
+
+  Eskimos, compared with palaeolithic men, 3.
+
+  Essex, Saxon settlement in, 28;
+    is dependent on Kent, and accepts Christianity, 40;
+    relapses into heathenism, 41;
+    comparative weakness of, _ib._
+
+  Eustace, Count of Boulogne, visits Eadward the Confessor, 87.
+
+  Eustace, son of Stephen, death of, 137.
+
+  Evesham, battle of, 203.
+
+  Exchequer, the, organised by Roger of Salisbury, 127;
+    disorganised under Stephen, 134;
+    reorganised under Henry II., 140;
+    establishment of a separate Court of, 212.
+
+  Exeter taken by William I., 102.
+
+
+  Faddiley, battle of, 35.
+
+  Falaise, Treaty of, 154;
+    abandoned by Richard I., 159.
+
+  Falkirk, Wallace defeated at, 222.
+
+  Faukes de Breaute, banishment of, 187.
+
+  Ferdinand V., king of Aragon, marries Isabella of Castile, 349.
+
+  Ferry Bridge, skirmish at, 429.
+
+  Feudality, early forms of, 81;
+    after the Norman Conquest, 104;
+    organised by William I., 113;
+    Flambard's further organisation of, 116;
+    ideas of Edward I. on, 214.
+
+  Fitz-Osbern, William, oppresses the English, 102.
+
+  Five Boroughs, the, 62.
+
+  Flambard, Ranulf, tyranny of, 116;
+    imprisonment of, 122;
+    escapes, 124.
+
+  Flanders, commercial intercourse with, 211;
+    Edward I. in, 221;
+    alliance of Edward III. with, 235;
+    falls under the control of France, 278.
+
+  Flemings emigrate to Wales, 128;
+    introduced as weavers by Edward III., 236.
+
+  Folk-moot, functions of the, 33.
+
+  Fountains Abbey, 129.
+
+  France, social condition of, 235;
+    miserable state of, 251, 252;
+    friendship of Richard II. with, 282.
+
+  Francis of Assisi, St., 190.
+
+  Franciscans, the, constitution of, 190;
+    arrive in England, 191.
+
+  Frederick I., Barbarossa, Emperor, supports an anti-pope, 145.
+
+  Frederick II., Emperor, excommunication of, 194;
+    death of, 195.
+
+  Freemen, gradual disappearance of, 69.
+
+  French, the, Dukes of, 63;
+    Hugh Capet, king of, 80.
+
+  Friars, the, orders of, 190;
+    arrive in England, 191.
+
+  Fyrd, the, a general army of the villagers, 30;
+    AElfred reforms, 60;
+    comparative disuse of, 69;
+    retained after the Norman Conquest, 106;
+    _see_ Assize of Arms.
+
+
+  Gaelic a Goidelic language, 7.
+
+  Gainas, the, settlements of, 28.
+
+  Gainsborough, origin of the name of, 28.
+
+  Garter, the order of the, institution of, 246.
+
+  Gascoigne, Chief Justice, 299.
+
+  Gaul, trade of Britain with, 8, 12;
+    persistency of Roman civilisation in, 37;
+    renewal of trade with, 38.
+
+  Gauls arrive in Britain, 8.
+
+  Gaveston, Piers, favoured by Edward II., 224;
+    execution of, 226.
+
+  Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, marries the Empress Matilda, 131;
+    conquers Normandy, 136.
+
+  Geoffrey Fitz-Peter, Justiciar, 163.
+
+  Geoffrey, son of Henry II., marries the heiress of Brittany, 155;
+    dies, 156.
+
+  Gesiths, the, personal devotion of, 30;
+    their relation to the Ceorls, _ib._;
+    their name changed to that of Thegns, 31.
+
+  Gewissas, the, combine with Jutes, 28;
+    _see_ West Saxons.
+
+  Ghent, Jacob van Arteveldt at, 235;
+    Philip van Arteveldt at, 278.
+
+  Giraldus Cambrensis, 167.
+
+  Glanvile, Ranulf de, captures William the Lion, 154;
+    writes the first English law-book, 167.
+
+  Glastonbury, Dunstan, abbot of, 65;
+    proceedings of Dunstan at, 106.
+
+  Glendower, Owen, heads the Welsh, 293;
+    decline of the power of, 296.
+
+  Glevum (Gloucester), Saxon conquest of, 35.
+
+  Gloucester, Duke of (brother of Edward IV.), _see_ Richard III.
+
+  Gloucester, Duke of, Humphrey (brother of Henry V.), appointed
+      Protector, 307;
+    marries Jacqueline of Hainault, 308;
+    quarrels with Cardinal Beaufort, 309, 314;
+    his relations with Eleanor Cobham, 315;
+    advocates a war policy, 317;
+    death of, 318.
+
+  Gloucester, Duke of, Thomas, son of Edward III., heads the
+      opposition to Richard II., 279;
+    driven from power, 280;
+    murdered, 282.
+
+  Gloucester, Earl of (Gilbert de Clare), allies himself with Earl
+      Simon, 200;
+    becomes one of the three Electors, 201;
+    joins Edward against Simon at Evesham, 203.
+
+  Gloucester, Earl of, _see_ Robert.
+
+  Gloucester, Earl of (Richard de Clare), quarrels with Earl
+      Simon, 199;
+    joins Earl Simon, and dies, 200.
+
+  Gloucester, _see_ Glevum.
+
+  Godfrey of Bouillon, 121.
+
+  Godwine becomes Earl of the West Saxons, 84;
+    supports Harthacnut, 85;
+    charged with the murder of AElfred, 86;
+    governs under Eadward, 87;
+    outlawed, 88;
+    return and death of, 89.
+
+  Goidels, the, a branch of the Celts, 6;
+    languages spoken by the descendants of, 7.
+
+  Good Parliament, the, 262.
+
+  Granada, conquest of, 349.
+
+  Graupian Hill, the, battle of, 17.
+
+  Great Council, the, composition of, 113;
+    urges William to name an archbishop, 117;
+    summoned to Rockingham, 118;
+    becomes unimportant under Henry I., 126;
+    frequently consulted by Henry II., 141;
+    meets at Clarendon, 144;
+    remonstrates with Henry III., 188, 192;
+    refuses money to Henry III., 194;
+    begins to be known as Parliament, 195;
+    _see_ Parliament.
+
+  Gregory I., Pope, finds English slave-boys at Rome, 28;
+    sends Augustine to England, 39.
+
+  Gregory VII., Pope, his relations with William I., 107.
+
+  Gregory IX., Pope, demands money from England, 194.
+
+  Grey, John de, nominated Archbishop of Canterbury by John, 177;
+    unpopularity of, 178.
+
+  Grey, family of, favoured by Edward IV., 331.
+
+  Grey, Sir Thomas, execution of, 301.
+
+  Grossetete, Robert, Bishop of Lincoln, opposes Henry III., 194, 195;
+    death of, 197.
+
+  Gualo, legate of Honorius III., 185.
+
+  Guthrum defeats AElfred, 58;
+    makes peace at Wedmore, 59;
+    cedes London to AElfred, _ib._;
+    extent of the kingdom of, 62.
+
+  Gwledig, British title of, 26;
+    title thought to have been assumed by Eadwine, 44.
+
+  Gwynnedd under Caedwalla, 46.
+
+  Gyrth, Earl of East Anglia, 89.
+
+
+  Hadrian, the Emperor, wall of, 17.
+
+  Halidon Hill, the Scots defeated at, 234.
+
+  Harfleur taken by Henry V., 302;
+    secured by the Duke of Bedford, 303.
+
+  Harold Hardrada invades England, 94;
+    is slain at Stamford Bridge, 96.
+
+  Harold, son of Cnut, chosen king by the Mercians, 85;
+    death of, 86.
+
+  Harold, son of Godwine, earl of the West Saxons, 89;
+    rules England under Eadward, 90;
+    chosen king, 91;
+    his oath to William, 93;
+    marches into the North, 94;
+    defeats Harold Hardrada at Stamford Bridge, 95;
+    defeated and slain at Senlac, 98.
+
+  Harthacnut, chosen king of the West Saxons, 85;
+    comes to England, and dies, 86.
+
+  Hastings, battle of, _see_ Senlac.
+
+  Hastings, John, claims a third of Scotland, 215.
+
+  Hastings, Lord, turns against Richard III., 339;
+    execution of, 340.
+
+  Heathfield, battle of, 46.
+
+  Heavenfield, battle of, 47.
+
+  Hedgeley Moor, battle of, 331.
+
+  Helie de la Fleche opposes William II., 121.
+
+  Hengist, traditional leader of the Jutes, 27.
+
+  Henry I. receives no land at his father's death, 114;
+    his wars with his brothers, 119;
+    accession and marriage of, 122;
+    puts down insurrections, 124;
+    conquers Normandy, 125;
+    his dispute with Anselm, _ib._;
+    judicial reforms of, 127;
+    makes war in Normandy, 129;
+    loses his only son, 130;
+    death of, 131.
+
+  Henry II., early career of, 136;
+    marries Eleanor, 137;
+    character of, 138;
+    advances Thomas of London, 140;
+    administrative system of, 140-142;
+    appoints Thomas archbishop, and quarrels with him, 143;
+    draws up the Constitutions of Clarendon, 144;
+    persecutes Thomas, 145;
+    issues the Assize of Clarendon, 146;
+    renews the itinerant justices, and inquires into the conduct
+      of the sheriffs, 148;
+    has young Henry crowned, 149;
+    uses strong language against Thomas, 150;
+    goes to Ireland, 151;
+    renounces the Constitutions of Clarendon, 153;
+    does penance, 154;
+    issues the Assize of Arms, _ib._;
+    his domestic troubles, 155;
+    takes the cross and dies, 157;
+    his weakness on the Continent and strength in England, 158;
+    literary vigour under, 167.
+
+  Henry III., minority of, 185;
+    favours Poitevins under the influence of Peter des Roches, 187;
+    marries Eleanor of Provence and favours Provencals, 192;
+    frequently renews the Great Charter, 192;
+    quarrels with Simon de Montfort, 193;
+    surrenders Poitou, 194;
+    is opposed by Parliament, 195;
+    hopes to make his second son King of Sicily, 196;
+    misgovernment of, 197;
+    consents to the Provisions of Oxford, 198;
+    recovers power, 200;
+    taken prisoner at Lewes, 201;
+    last years of, 204;
+    progress of the country in the reign of, 206.
+
+  Henry IV., (_see_ Derby) Earl of, claims the throne, 286;
+    meets with difficulties, 289;
+    leans on the Church, 291;
+    rebellion of the Percies against, 293;
+    keeps James I. as a hostage, 295;
+    suppresses a rebellion in the North, 296;
+    quarrels with the Prince of Wales, 298;
+    death of, 299.
+
+  Henry IV., Emperor, resists Gregory VII., 108.
+
+  Henry V., career of, as Prince of Wales, 297-299;
+    domestic policy of, 299;
+    claims the crown of France, 300;
+    defeats the French at Agincourt, 302;
+    conquers Normandy, 303;
+    forms an alliance with the Duke of Burgundy, and is declared
+      heir to the French throne, 306;
+    marriage and death of, _ib._
+
+  Henry V., Emperor, marries Matilda, 131.
+
+  Henry VI., accession of, 307;
+    crowned at Westminster and Paris, 312;
+    marriage of, 317;
+    supports Somerset, 323;
+    insanity of, _ib._;
+    recovery and renewed insanity of, 324;
+    second recovery of, _ib._;
+    attempts to reconcile the parties, 325;
+    declared a traitor by Edward IV., 329;
+    restoration of, 333;
+    murder of, 334.
+
+  Henry VI., Emperor, his relations with Richard I., 161, 162.
+
+  Henry VII., as Earl of Richmond, genealogy of, 334;
+    invades England, 343;
+    defeats Richard III. and becomes king, _ib._;
+    supported by the middle classes, 345;
+    suppresses Lord Lovel's rising, 346;
+    his relations with Brittany and France, 348;
+    assailed by Perkin Warbeck, 350;
+    sends Poynings to Ireland, 352;
+    restores Kildare to the Deputyship, 352;
+    secures Warbeck, _ib._;
+    effects an alliance with Scotland, 356;
+    encourages maritime enterprise, 356;
+    fills his treasury, 357;
+    his alliance with the Archduke Philip, 358;
+    last years and death of, 358.
+
+  Henry of Blois, Bishop of Winchester, 131;
+    declares against Stephen, 134.
+
+  Henry of Trastamara, 255.
+
+  Henry, son of Henry II., coronation of, 149;
+    rebellion of, 153;
+    death of, 156.
+
+  Henry the Fowler, his mode of warfare, 79.
+
+  Hereford, Duke of, _see_ Derby, Earl of.
+
+  Hereford, Earl of, _see_ Bohun, Humfrey.
+
+  Heretics, Statute for burning, 292.
+
+  Hereward, rising of, 103.
+
+  Herrings, battle of the, 309.
+
+  Hexham, battle of, 331.
+
+  Hii, _see_ Iona.
+
+  Hlaford, _see_ Lord.
+
+  Homildon Hill, battle of, 293.
+
+  Honorius III., Pope, protects Henry III., 185.
+
+  Horsa, a traditional leader of the Jutes, 27.
+
+  Horses used to carry warriors to battle, 75.
+
+  House-carls, 83, 93.
+
+  Hrolf, Duke of the Normans, 80.
+
+  Hubert, Walter, administration of, 163;
+    death of, 177.
+
+  Hubert de Burgh holds Dover Castle, 185;
+    administration of, 186-188.
+
+  Hugh Capet, 80.
+
+  Hugh of Lusignan rises against John, 174.
+
+  Hugh the Great, Duke of the French, 63.
+
+  Hundreds, early political organisation of the, 31.
+
+  Hundred Years' War, the, 234.
+
+  Hundred-moot, the, organisation of, 31;
+    judicial functions of, 32;
+    gradual decay of, 72.
+
+  Huntingdon, David I. holds the earldom of, 132.
+
+  Hwiccas, the, split off from the West Saxons, 36.
+
+
+  Iberians, the, 5.
+
+  Iceni, the geographical position of, 8;
+    take part with the Romans, 13;
+    roused to insurrection by Boadicea, 15.
+
+  Ictis, probably identified with Thanet, 8.
+
+  Ida becomes king of Bernicia, 36.
+
+  Idle, the, Eadwine's victory on, 43.
+
+  Impeachment of Latimer and Lyons, 262;
+    of Suffolk, 322.
+
+  Inclosures, growth of, 320.
+
+  Ine, his rule in Wessex, 53.
+
+  Innocent III., Pope, influences the election of Stephen
+      Langton, 177;
+    puts England under an interdict, and reduces John to
+      submission, 178-180;
+    declares against the barons, 181-184;
+    establishes the Friars, 190.
+
+  Innocent IV. becomes Pope, 195;
+    wins over Henry III., 196.
+
+  Inquisition of the Sheriffs, the, 148.
+
+  _Intercursus Magnus_, the, 351.
+
+  Interdict, England under, 178.
+
+  Investiture, William I. claims the right of granting, 108;
+    Anselm's position with regard to, 125;
+    compromise on, 126.
+
+  Iona, missionaries sent forth from, 47.
+
+  Ireland, ancient language of, 7;
+    Druids in, 10;
+    Christianity introduced into, 47;
+    state of civilisation in, 151;
+    partially conquered by Henry II., 152;
+    results of the conquest of, 264;
+    weakness of the English colony in, 265;
+    under Lancaster and York, 346;
+    under Henry VII., 350, 351.
+
+  Ireland, Duke of (_see_ Oxford, Earl of), supports Richard II., 279;
+    is condemned to death, but escapes, 280.
+
+  Isabella of Angouleme marries John, 174.
+
+  Isabella of Bavaria, Queen of France, takes part against her
+    son, 306.
+
+  Isabella of France marries Edward II., 225;
+    obtains the deposition of her husband, 229;
+    gives power to Mortimer, 231;
+    is placed in seclusion, 232.
+
+  Isca Silurum, Roman colony of, 14;
+    martyrdom of Aaron at, 23.
+
+  Isle of Wight, Jutish settlements in, 28;
+    plundered by the French, 234.
+
+  Itinerant justices under Henry I., 127;
+    under Henry II., 148.
+
+
+  Jacquerie, the, 252.
+
+  Jacqueline of Hainault, marriage of, 308.
+
+  James I., king of Scotland, kept in custody by Henry IV., 295;
+    liberation of, 307.
+
+  James IV., king of Scotland, invades England, 352;
+    marries the daughter of Henry VII., 356.
+
+  Jerusalem captured by the Crusaders, 121;
+    captured by Saladin, 157;
+    Richard I. refuses to look at, 161.
+
+  Jews, the, encouraged by William II., 115;
+    protected by Henry I., 128;
+    massacre of, 160;
+    persecuted by John, 179;
+    banished by Edward I., 212.
+
+  Jews' House, the so-called, 170.
+
+  John, king of England, his misconduct in Ireland, 156;
+    leads the opposition to William of Longchamps, 161;
+    joins Philip II. against Richard, 162;
+    accession of, 173;
+    loses Normandy and Anjou, 174;
+    appoints an Archbishop of Canterbury, 177;
+    quarrels with the Pope, 178;
+    submits to the Pope, 180;
+    quarrels with the barons, 181;
+    confirms _Magna Carta_, 182;
+    makes war with the barons, 184;
+    dies, 185.
+
+  John, king of France, defeated at Poitiers, 251;
+    brought to England, 252;
+    is liberated, but returns to England and dies, 254.
+
+  John Ball, 268.
+
+  Judicial system of the early English, 31;
+    of Eadgar, 72;
+    of William I., 107;
+    of Henry I., 127;
+    of Henry II., 146.
+
+  Judith accuses Waltheof, 110.
+
+  Jury of presentment, 147.
+
+  Jury system, the, germ of, 147;
+    completed, 321.
+
+  Justices of the peace, the, origin of, 277.
+
+  Justiciar, institution of the office of, 116;
+    his position under Henry I., 127.
+
+  Jutes, probably ravage Roman Britain, 24;
+    subdue Kent, 27;
+    settle in the Isle of Wight and the mainland opposite, 28.
+
+
+  Kemp, Bishop of London, becomes Lord Chancellor, 309.
+
+  Kenilworth, Earl, Simon's castle at, 199.
+
+  Kenneth, king of the Scots, receives Lothian from Eadgar, 68.
+
+  Kenneth MacAlpin unites the Scots and Picts, 63.
+
+  Kent, foundation of the Jutish kingdom of, 27;
+    its inhabitants driven back by the West Saxons, 35;
+    Gaulish traders in, 38;
+    accepts Christianity, 39;
+    is kept by Lawrence from relapsing, 41;
+    comparative weakness of, _ib._
+
+  Kent, Earl of (brother of Edward II.), execution of, 231.
+
+  Kildare, Earl of, supports the Yorkists, 347;
+    supports Lambert Simnel, _ib._;
+    is deprived of the Deputyship for supporting Warbeck, 350;
+    restored to the Deputyship, 352.
+
+  Kilkenny, Statute of, 265.
+
+  King, authority of the, origin of, 33;
+    effect of the enlargement of the kingdoms on, 45;
+    increased importance of, 69;
+    limitations imposed by _Magna Carta_ on, 182;
+    proposed administrative restrictions on, 195;
+    effect of the revolution of 1399 upon, 289.
+
+  King's Bench, Court of, 212.
+
+  Knights Bachelors, the, appeal to Edward, 199.
+
+  Knights of the shire first admitted to Parliament, 196;
+    later elections of, 200, 201;
+    importance of their conjunction with borough members, 245.
+
+  Kymry, the, origin of the name, 37;
+    share in the defeat of the Scots at Degsastan, 42;
+    are defeated by AEthelfrith near Chester, 43;
+    geographical dismemberment of, _ib._;
+    in alliance with Penda, 46;
+    weakness of, 49;
+    _see_ Welsh.
+
+
+  Labourers, Statute of, 248, 268.
+
+  Lambeth, ford over the Thames at, 20.
+
+  Lancaster, Duke of (John of Gaunt), makes unsuccessful war
+      in France, 257;
+    heads the anti-clerical party, 260;
+    opposes the Black Prince, 262;
+    reverses the proceedings of the Good Parliament, _ib._;
+    supports Wycliffe, 263;
+    takes the lead at the accession of Richard II., 266;
+    goes to Spain, 279;
+    marries Catherine Swynford, 282.
+
+  Lancaster, Earl of (Thomas), opposes Edward II., 225;
+    execution of, 228.
+
+  Lanfranc trusted by William I., 88;
+    becomes Archbishop of Canterbury, 106;
+    crowns William II., 114;
+    death of, 117.
+
+  Langland, William, 259.
+
+  Langton, Stephen, chosen Archbishop of Canterbury at Rome, 177;
+    allowed by John to come to England, 180;
+    produces a charter of Henry I., 181;
+    his part in obtaining the Great Charter, 182.
+
+  Latimer, Lord, impeached, 262.
+
+  Lawrence, Archbishop of Canterbury, keeps Kent Christian, 41.
+
+  Layamon's Brut, 207.
+
+  Leicester, Anglian settlement at, 36;
+    earldom of, inherited by Simon de Montfort, 193.
+
+  Leicester, Earl of, shares the Justiciar's office with Richard
+    de Lucy, 140.
+
+  Le Mans, sieges of, 121.
+
+  Leo IX., Papacy of, 88.
+
+  Leofric, Earl of the Mercians, 85, 90.
+
+  Leofwine, Earl of the Mercians, 84.
+
+  Leofwine, son of Godwine, earl of the shires about the Thames, 90.
+
+  Leopold, Duke of Austria, imprisons Richard I., 161.
+
+  Lewes, battle of, 201.
+
+  Lewis III. (the Bavarian), Emperor, supports Edward III., 235.
+
+  Lilla gives his life for his lord, 44.
+
+  Limoges taken by the Black Prince, 257.
+
+  Lincoln (_see_ Lindum), settlement of the Lindiswaras round, 28;
+    establishment of the see of, 107;
+    Stephen taken prisoner at, 135;
+    cathedral at, 171, 207.
+
+  Lincoln, Earl of, killed at Stoke, 347.
+
+  Lindiswaras, settlement of, 28;
+    possible advance of, 36.
+
+  Lindum, Roman city at, 20;
+    Anglian settlers round, 28.
+
+  Liveries, _see_ Maintenance and Livery.
+
+  Llewelyn, career of, 140.
+
+  Loidis conquered by Eadwine, 43.
+
+  Lollards, the, rise of, 269;
+    Oldcastle's leadership of, 300.
+
+  Londinium, _see_ London.
+
+  London, early importance of the position of, 20;
+    foundation of the bishopric of, 40;
+    its commercial position under the kings of Essex, _ib._;
+    acquired and fortified by AElfred, 62, 63;
+    attacked by Olaf Trygvasson and Svend, 79;
+    after the Conquest, 127;
+    supports Stephen, 131, 134;
+    submits for a time to Matilda, 135;
+    municipal organisation of, 169;
+    sends troops to the battle of Lewes, 201;
+    Wat Tyler in, 269;
+    Jack Cade in, 323;
+    Edward IV. in, 328.
+
+  London Bridge, building of, 272.
+
+  Long bow, the, _see_ Archers.
+
+  Longchamps, William of, appointed a justiciar in the absence
+      of Richard I., 159;
+    is banished, 161.
+
+  Lord, devotion of Gesiths to their, 30;
+    is expected to marry, _ib._;
+    growth of his jurisdiction, 72.
+
+  Lords, House of, names the Duke of York Protector, 324;
+    decides on his claim to the crown, 329.
+
+  Lose-coat Field, 332.
+
+  Lothian, cession of, to Scotland, 68, 84.
+
+  Louis VI., king of France, makes war with Henry I., 129.
+
+  Louis VII., king of France, divorces Eleanor of Aquitaine, 137;
+    supports young Henry's rebellion, 153;
+    takes part in the second Crusade, 157.
+
+  Louis (afterwards Louis VIII., king of France) opposes John, 184;
+    expelled from England, 185.
+
+  Louis IX., Saint, king of France, surrenders territory to
+      Henry III., 200;
+    mediates between Henry III. and the barons, _ib._
+
+  Louis X., king of France, succeeded by his brother, 232.
+
+  Louis XI., king of France, succeeds his father, 332;
+    buys off Edward IV., 336.
+
+  Louis XII., king of France, invades Italy, 354.
+
+  Lovel, Lord, insurrection of, 345;
+    supports Simnel, and is defeated at Stoke, 346, 347.
+
+  Lucy, Richard de, joint justiciar with the Earl of Leicester, 140;
+    makes head against young Henry's rebellion, 153.
+
+  Ludlow, break-up of the Yorkists at, 326.
+
+  Lynn supports Stephen, 134.
+
+  Lyons, Richard, impeached, 262.
+
+
+  Mad Parliament, the, 198.
+
+  _Magna Carta_, 182;
+    partially renewed at the accession of Henry III., 185;
+    attitude of Edward I. to, 288.
+
+  Magnus, king of Norway, 85.
+
+  Maiden Castle, 4.
+
+  Maine conquered by William I., 91;
+    failures of William II. in, 121;
+    conquered by Philip II., 176;
+    surrendered to Rene by Henry VI., 317;
+    the English driven out of, 319.
+
+  Maintenance and livery, Statute against, 281;
+    increase of, 321;
+    measures of Henry VII. against, 345.
+
+  Malcolm, king of the Scots, his alliance with Eadmund, 64.
+
+  Malcolm III., Canmore, ravages England, 103;
+    submits to William I., 104;
+    death of, 119.
+
+  Malcolm IV. loses North-humberland and Cumberland, 140.
+
+  Man, Isle of, subdued by Eadwine, 43.
+
+  Manfred, king of Sicily and Naples, 195, 197.
+
+  Manor courts, 141.
+
+  Mantes burnt by William I., 114.
+
+  Manx, a Goidelic language, 7.
+
+  March, Earl of, _see_ Edward IV.
+
+  March, Edmund Mortimer, Earl of, his claim to the crown, 287;
+    imprisoned by Henry IV., 291;
+    freed by Henry V., 299.
+
+  March, Roger, Earl of, grandson of the Duke of Clarence, named
+    heir by Richard II., 287.
+
+  Margaret, daughter of Henry VII., married to James IV., 356.
+
+  Margaret of Anjou marries Henry VI., 317;
+    gives birth to a son, 323;
+    puts herself at the head of the Northern forces, 326;
+    defeats the Duke of York at Wakefield, and Warwick at the
+      second battle of St. Albans, 328;
+    is defeated at Towton, 329;
+    is defeated at Hedgeley Moor and Hexham, 331;
+    reconciled to Warwick, 333;
+    defeated at Tewkesbury, 334.
+
+  Margaret, sister of Edward IV., married to Charles the Rash, 332;
+    protects Lord Lovel, 346.
+
+  Margaret, the Lady, 334.
+
+  Margaret, the Maid of Norway, 214.
+
+  Margaret, first wife of Malcolm Canmore, 119.
+
+  Marlborough, Statute of, 204.
+
+  Marriages of heiresses arranged by the lord, 117.
+
+  Marshal, Richard the, 188, 189.
+
+  Marshal, William, the, guardian of Henry III., 185.
+
+  Martin, Master, his exactions, 195.
+
+  Mary, heiress of Burgundy, 336;
+    marries the Archduke Maximilian, and dies, 337.
+
+  Maserfield, Oswald slain at, 48.
+
+  Massalia, tin-trade of, 8.
+
+  Matilda, daughter of Henry I., married to the Emperor Henry V.,
+      and to Geoffrey of Anjou, 131;
+    claims the crown, 134;
+    fails to maintain her claim, 135.
+
+  Matilda, wife of Henry I., _see_ Eadgyth.
+
+  Maximilian I., Emperor, as Archduke, marries Mary of Burgundy, 337;
+    marries Anne of Brittany by proxy, 348.
+
+  Maximus leads an army out of Britain, 25.
+
+  Meaux besieged by Henry V., 306.
+
+  Mercenaries employed on the Continent by Henry II., 142;
+    temporarily brought to England, 153, 155;
+    employed by John, 182.
+
+  Merchant Adventurers, the, 356.
+
+  Merchant Gild, the, 169.
+
+  Mercia, first settlement of, 36;
+    comparative smallness of, 41;
+    unites with other districts under Penda, 46;
+    accepts Christianity, and rejects the supremacy of
+      North-humberland, 48;
+    its relations with Ecgberht, 55;
+    its relations with AElfred, 60;
+    under Leofwine, 84;
+    under Leofric, 85, 87;
+    under AElfgar and Eadwine, 90.
+
+  Mercians, the, distinguished from the Middle English, 36.
+
+  Merciless Parliament, the, 280.
+
+  Merton College, foundation of, 207.
+
+  Middle English, the, first settlements of, 36.
+
+  Middle Saxons a branch of the East Saxons, 35.
+
+  Middlesex, Saxon settlement in, 35.
+
+  Ministerial responsibility, proposal to establish, 195.
+
+  Mirebeau, Eleanor besieged in, 174.
+
+  Mise of Amiens, the, 200.
+
+  Mohammedanism, origin and spread of, 54.
+
+  Molynes, Lord, ill-treats John Paston, 321.
+
+  Mona (Anglesey) conquered by Suetonius, 14.
+
+  Monasticism, character of early, 39;
+    converts made in England by, 40;
+    character of Irish, 47;
+    Benedictine, 128.
+
+  Monks contrasted with Friars, 191.
+
+  Montague, Lord, made Earl of North-humberland, 331;
+    is deprived of the earldom, 333;
+    turns against Edward IV., and is killed at Barnet, 332.
+
+  Montfort, de, _see_ Simon de Montfort.
+
+  Morkere, becomes Earl of North-humberland, 90;
+    is present at Eadgar's election, 98;
+    submits to William, 102;
+    is banished, 103.
+
+  Mortimer, Edmund, _see_ March, Earl of.
+
+  Mortimer, Roger, paramour of Queen Isabella, 229;
+    governs in the name of Edward III., 231;
+    is hanged, 232.
+
+  Mortimer, Sir Edmund, imprisoned by Glendower, 293.
+
+  Mortimer's Cross, battle of, 328.
+
+  Mortmain, Statute of, 212.
+
+  Morton, Thomas, Bishop of Ely, afterwards Cardinal and Archbishop
+      of Canterbury, gives advice to Buckingham, 341, 342;
+    his 'fork,' 349.
+
+  Mount Badon, British victory at, 28.
+
+  Mowbray, Robert of, rebellion of, 120.
+
+
+  Navarrete, battle of, 255.
+
+  Navy, AElfred's, 60.
+
+  Neolithic man, 3.
+
+  Nevill, influence of the family of, 324.
+
+  Nevill, George, Archbishop of York, deprived of the
+    Chancellorship, 332.
+
+  Nevill's Cross, battle of, 242.
+
+  Newark, death of John at, 185.
+
+  Newcastle-on-Tyne, foundation of, 120.
+
+  New Forest, the, making of, 110;
+    death of William II. in, 122.
+
+  Nigel, Bishop of Ely, Treasurer of Henry I., Stephen's attack on, 134;
+    is reappointed Treasurer, 140.
+
+  Norfolk, origin of the name of, 28.
+
+  Norfolk, Duke of, banished by Richard II., 283.
+
+  Norfolk, Earl of, _see_ Bigod, Roger.
+
+  Norham, award of the crown of Scotland at, 216.
+
+  Norman Conquest, the, 96-103.
+
+  Normandy, early dukes of, 80;
+    institutions of, 81;
+    its condition under Robert, 118;
+    pledged to William II., 121;
+    recovered by Robert, 124;
+    conquered by Henry I., 125;
+    conquered by Geoffrey, 136;
+    Henry, Duke of, 137;
+    conquered by Philip II., 174, 176;
+    invaded by Edward III., 240;
+    conquered by Henry V., 303;
+    reconquered by the French, 320.
+
+  Normans favoured by Eadward, 87;
+    their style of architecture, 89.
+
+  Northampton, Archbishop Thomas called to account at, 145;
+    battle of, 326.
+
+  North-humberland, component parts of, 36;
+    united by AEthelric, 41;
+    divided by Penda, and re-united under Oswald, 47;
+    is again divided, but re-united under Oswiu, 48;
+    its relations with Ecgberht, 55;
+    overrun by the Danes, 58;
+    Danish kingdom in, 62, 63;
+    is amalgamated with England, 64;
+    its condition under Cnut, 84;
+    under Siward, 84, 87.
+
+  Northmen, their attacks on England, 56;
+    religion of, 57;
+    _see_ Danes.
+
+  Northumberland invaded by Malcolm Canmore, 119;
+    given to Henry, son of David I. 133;
+    recovered by Henry II., 140.
+
+  Northumberland, the Earl of, assists Henry IV., 284;
+    quarrels with Henry IV., 293;
+    imprisoned and pardoned, 294;
+    defeated and slain, 296.
+
+  Norwich, establishment of the see of, 107.
+
+  Nottingham, Anglian settlement at, 56;
+    seizure of Mortimer at, 232.
+
+  Nottingham, Earl of, opposes Richard II., 279;
+    is made Duke of Norfolk and banished, 283.
+
+
+  Oda, Archbishop, advocates the celibacy of the clergy, 65;
+    separates Eadwig and AElfgifu, 67.
+
+  Odo oppresses the English, 102;
+    is banished by William II., 115.
+
+  Offa, king of the Mercians, defeats the West Saxons at Bensington, 53;
+    his dyke, 54.
+
+  Olaf Trygvasson, 79, 80.
+
+  Oldcastle, Sir John, burnt as a Lollard, 300.
+
+  Old Sarum, earthworks of Sorbiodunum at, 34.
+
+  Ordainers, the Lords, 226.
+
+  Ordeal, system of, 32;
+    continued by Henry II., 146.
+
+  Ordovices, the, resist the Romans, 14.
+
+  Orleans, siege of, 309.
+
+  Orleans, Duke of, Charles, captured at Agincourt, 303;
+    ransomed, 315.
+
+  Orleans, Duke of, Louis, makes an alliance with Glendower, 295;
+    murdered, 296.
+
+  Ormond, Earl of, supports the Lancastrians, 346.
+
+  Osric governs Deira, 48.
+
+  Ostorius Scapula arrives in Britain, 13;
+    conquests of, 14.
+
+  Oswald, bishop of Worcester, 68.
+
+  Oswald, King of North-humberland, his greatness and piety, 47;
+    is slain at Maserfield, 48.
+
+  Oswini, his relations with Aidan, 48;
+    is murdered, _ib._
+
+  Oswiu unites North-humberland, 48;
+    defeats Penda, _ib._;
+    decides for Wilfrid against Colman, 50.
+
+  Otho, Cardinal, legate of Gregory IX., 194.
+
+  Otto I., Emperor, 63.
+
+  Otto IV., Emperor, supports John, 179;
+    defeated at Bouvines, 181.
+
+  Over-lordship, character of, 38.
+
+  Oxford, growth of the University of, 167;
+    the so-called Mad Parliament meets at, 198;
+    thronged with scholars, 207.
+
+  Oxford, Earl of (Robert de Vere), made Duke of Ireland, 278;
+    _see_ Ireland, Duke of.
+
+
+  Palaeolithic man, 1.
+
+  Pandulf receives John's submission, 180.
+
+  Papacy, influence of, in the time of Gregory I., 39;
+    strength of, in the eleventh century, 88;
+    its position in the time of Gregory VII., 107;
+    in the time of Innocent III., 178;
+    Babylonian captivity of, 257;
+    England relieved of tribute to, 258;
+    great schism of, 266.
+
+  Paris, the capital of Hugh Capet's duchy, 80;
+    rising against the Armagnacs in, 304;
+    Henry VI. crowned at, 312;
+    lost to the English, 313.
+
+  Parliament (_see_ Great Council, the), germ of representation in, 180;
+    first use of the name of, 195;
+    scheme of administrative reform proposed in, _ib._;
+    knights of the shire elected to, 196;
+    relations between the clergy and the barons, 197;
+    insists on the Provisions of Oxford, 197;
+    representatives of towns admitted by Earl Simon to, 201;
+    growth of, under Edward I., 210, 218;
+    Scottish representatives in, 222;
+    acknowledgment of the legislative power of the Commons in, 228;
+    finally separated into two Houses, 244;
+    opposition to the clergy in, 259;
+    Richard II. invites complaints in, 280.
+
+  Paston, John, attacked by Lord Molynes, 321;
+    domestic life of, 330.
+
+  Patay, battle of, 311.
+
+  Patrick, St., introduces Christianity into Ireland, 47.
+
+  Paulinus effects conversions in Deira, 46.
+
+  Peasants' Revolt, the, 268.
+
+  Pedro the Cruel, 255.
+
+  Pembroke, Earl of, _see_ William the Marshal.
+
+  Penda defeats Eadwine at Heathfield, 46;
+    splits up North-humberland, 47;
+    is defeated and slain, 48.
+
+  Penitential system, the, introduced by Theodore, 50.
+
+  Percies, the, territorial influence of, 293.
+
+  Percy, Henry (Hotspur), 293, 294.
+
+  Perpendicular style, the, 247.
+
+  Perrers, Alice, 260, 262.
+
+  Peter des Roches influences Henry III., 188;
+    is dismissed, 189.
+
+  Peter the Hermit, 120.
+
+  Pevensey, landing of William at, 96.
+
+  Philip I., king of France, makes war with William I., 114.
+
+  Philip II., king of France, stirs up enmity between Henry II.
+      and his sons, 156;
+    quarrels with Richard I., 161;
+    stirs up John against Richard, 162;
+    supports Arthur against John, 174;
+    wins Normandy and Anjou from John, 175;
+    prepares an invasion of England, 179;
+    wins a victory at Bouvines, 181.
+
+  Philip IV., king of France, his relations with Edward I. and
+    with Scotland, 218.
+
+  Philip V., king of France, succeeds in virtue of the so-called
+    Salic law, 232.
+
+  Philip VI., king of France, succeeds in virtue of the so-called
+      Salic law, and receives the homage of Edward III., 232;
+    protects David Bruce, 234;
+    defeats the Flemings at Cassel, 235;
+    avoids fighting the English, 239;
+    is defeated at Crecy, 242;
+    death of, 251.
+
+  Philip, the Archduke, birth of, 337;
+    marries Juana, 352;
+    dies, 358.
+
+  Philippa of Hainault marries Edward III., 231;
+    begs the lives of the burgesses of Calais, 243.
+
+  Phoenicians, the, supposed visits to Britain of, 7.
+
+  Picts, the, ravages of, 23, 26;
+    unite with the Scots, 63.
+
+  _Piers the Plowman_, 259.
+
+  Pippin becomes king of the Franks, 54.
+
+  Plautius, Aulus, subdues south east Britain, 13.
+
+  Poitevins, favour of Henry III. to, 187, 194.
+
+  Poitiers, battle of, 251.
+
+  Poitou, John's attack on the barons of, 174;
+    submission to Philip II. of part of, 176;
+    John attempts to recover, 180;
+    Henry III. surrenders, 194.
+
+  Poll-taxes, 267, 268.
+
+  Poor priests sent out by Wycliffe, 268.
+
+  Posidonius visits Britain, 8.
+
+  Poynings' Acts, 350.
+
+  Praemunire, Statute of, 258;
+    re-enacted, 282.
+
+  Printing press, the, 358.
+
+  Prisons, condition of, 275.
+
+  Provencals favoured by Henry III., 192.
+
+  Provisions of Oxford, the, 198.
+
+  Provisors, Statute of, 258;
+    re-enacted, 282.
+
+  Puiset, Hugh de, appointed a justiciar in the absence of
+    Richard I., 159.
+
+  Punishments, early English, 32;
+    mediaeval, 275.
+
+  Purveyors, 274.
+
+  Pytheas opens a trade-route to Britain, 8.
+
+
+  _Quia emptores_, Statute of, 212.
+
+
+  Radcot Bridge, the Duke of Ireland defeated at, 280.
+
+  Raedwald, king of East Anglia, 41;
+    Eadwine takes refuge with, 43.
+
+  Ralph de Diceto, 167.
+
+  Ralph of Wader takes part in the Rising of the Earls, 110.
+
+  Ranulph Flambard, _see_ Flambard.
+
+  Recognitions, 147.
+
+  Reginald elected Archbishop of Canterbury by the monks, 177.
+
+  Regni, the, join Aulus Plautius, 13.
+
+  Regular clergy, the, 65.
+
+  Rent, land let for, 321.
+
+  Representative institutions, _see_ Parliament.
+
+  Retainers substituted for vassals, 281;
+    increase of the number of, 321.
+
+  Rich, Edmund, Archbishop of Canterbury, 189.
+
+  Richard I., as Duke of Aquitaine, 155;
+    takes the cross, 157;
+    becomes King of England, 159;
+    sells the homage of Scotland, _ib._;
+    his Crusade and imprisonment, 161;
+    is liberated, 162;
+    his short visit to England, _ib._;
+    death of, 165.
+
+  Richard II., proposal to set aside, 261;
+    his minority, 266;
+    meets the insurgents, 268;
+    offers to head them, 269;
+    marries Anne of Bohemia, 278;
+    his favouritism, _ib._;
+    superseded in his authority by a Commission of Regency, 279;
+    regains power and governs constitutionally, 280;
+    makes an alliance with France, and marries Isabella, 282;
+    makes himself absolute, _ib._;
+    banishes Norfolk and Hereford, 283;
+    goes to Ireland, 284;
+    forced to abdicate, 285;
+    murdered, 291;
+    alleged reappearance of, 293;
+    buried at Westminster, 299.
+
+  Richard III. (_see_ Duke of Gloucester) is created a duke, 329;
+    character of, 337;
+    becomes Protector, 338;
+    has Hastings executed, 340;
+    is crowned king, 341;
+    his government, 342;
+    defeated and slain, 343.
+
+  Richard, Earl of Cornwall, leads the barons against Henry III., 192;
+    deserts the barons, 195;
+    takes part in summoning knights of the shire to Parliament, 196;
+    is chosen king of the Romans, 198;
+    hides himself after the battle of Lewes, 201.
+
+  Richard Fitz-Nigel writes the _Dialogus de Scaccario_, 167.
+
+  Richard the Fearless, Duke of the Normans, 80.
+
+  Richard the Good, Duke of the Normans, 81.
+
+  Richmond, Earl of, _see_ Henry VII.
+
+  Riding on horseback, 273.
+
+  Ripon, architecture of the choir of, 171.
+
+  Rising of the Earls, the, 110.
+
+  Rivers, Earl, becomes Lord Constable, 331;
+    imprisoned, 338;
+    executed, 340.
+
+  Roads, making and repair of, 272, 273.
+
+  Robert I. (Bruce), king of Scotland, allied with Edward I., 223;
+    slays Comyn, and is crowned King of Scotland, 224;
+    defeats Edward II. at Bannockburn, 226;
+    leprosy of, 231;
+    death of, 232.
+
+  Robert II., king of Scotland, 295.
+
+  Robert III., king of Scotland, 295.
+
+  Robert, Earl of Gloucester, his power in the West of England, 133;
+    declares for Matilda, 134;
+    taken prisoner, and exchanged for Stephen, 135;
+    death of, _ib._
+
+  Robert, Duke of the Normans (father of William the Conqueror), 88.
+
+  Robert, Duke of the Normans (son of William the Conqueror),
+      incapacity of, 114;
+    rebellion in England in favour of, 115;
+    goes on the first Crusade, 121;
+    fails to overthrow Henry I., 124;
+    defeat, imprisonment, and death of, 125.
+
+  Robert of Belleme, cruelty of, 119;
+    becomes Earl of Shrewsbury, 121;
+    expelled by Henry I., 124;
+    imprisonment of, 125.
+
+  Robert of Jumieges, Archbishop of Canterbury, 87.
+
+  Robin Hood, legend of, 275.
+
+  Rochester, foundation of the bishopric of, 40;
+    Odo besieged in, 115.
+
+  Rockingham, Council at, 118.
+
+  Roger, Archbishop of York, crowns the young Henry, 149.
+
+  Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, Minister of Henry I., 126;
+    quarrels with Stephen, 134.
+
+  Roger, Earl of Hereford, takes part in the Rising of the Earls, 110.
+
+  Roger of Hoveden, 167.
+
+  Roger, son of Roger of Salisbury, 134.
+
+  Roman Empire, the establishment of, 12;
+    continuance of, in the East after its destruction in the West, 27.
+
+  Romans, the, invasion of Gaul by, 10;
+    invasion of Britain by, 11;
+    commencement of the conquest of Britain by, 12;
+    massacre of, 15;
+    complete conquest of the greater part of Britain by, 17;
+    civilisation introduced into Britain by, 21;
+    end of their rule in Britain, 26;
+    persistency of their civilisation in Gaul, 37.
+
+  Romney Marsh divides Jutes from South Saxons, 27.
+
+  Roosebeke, battle of, 278.
+
+  Roses, Wars of the, _see_ Wars of the Roses.
+
+  Rothesay, Duke of, death of, 295.
+
+  Rouen occupied by Hrolf, 80;
+    surrenders to Henry V., 304;
+    retaken by the French, 320.
+
+  Rutland, Earl of (son of the Duke of York), accompanies his
+      father to Ireland, 326;
+    murdered, 328.
+
+
+  St. Albans (_see_ Verulam), architecture of the nave of the
+      abbey of, 171;
+    meeting of a national jury at, 180;
+    the first battle of, 324;
+    the second battle of, 328.
+
+  St. John, Knights of, 157.
+
+  St. Michael's Mount, Henry besieged at, 119.
+
+  Saladin takes Jerusalem, 157.
+
+  Saladin tithe, the, 157.
+
+  Salic law, the so-called, 232.
+
+  Salisbury, great Gemot at, 113;
+    cathedral at, 207.
+
+  Salisbury, Richard, Earl of, his connection with the Duke of York, 324;
+    takes part in the battles of Blore Heath and Northampton, 326;
+    beheaded, 328.
+
+  Sarum, Old, 34.
+
+  Savoy, the, burnt, 269.
+
+  Saxon shore, the defence of, 25;
+    over run by the Jutes, 27.
+
+  Saxons, the (_see_ East Saxons, South Saxons, West Saxons), ravage
+      Roman Britain, 24;
+    settle in Britain, 27;
+    merge their name in that of English, 28;
+    are known by the Celts as Saxons, 29.
+
+  Sawtre, William, burnt as a heretic, 292.
+
+  Say, Lord, beheaded by Jack Cade, 323.
+
+  Schwartz, Martin, defeated at Stoke, 347.
+
+  Scotland, kingdom of, formed by a union of Scots and Picts, 63;
+    its relations with England under Eadmund, 64;
+    its relations with Cnut, 84;
+    with William I., 104;
+    with William II., 119;
+    with Stephen, 133;
+    with Henry II., 154;
+    with Richard I., 159;
+    disputed succession in, 214;
+    Edward I. acknowledged Lord Paramount of, 216;
+    its league with France, 218;
+    twice conquered by Edward I., 219, 221;
+    incorporated with England, 222;
+    conquered a third time by Edward I., 224;
+    independence of, 226;
+    first war of Edward III. with, 231;
+    struggle between Edward Balliol and David Bruce in, 233, 234;
+    accession of the Stuarts to the throne of, 295;
+    assists France in its wars with England, 307.
+
+  Scots, the ravages of, 23;
+    abode of, in Ireland, 23;
+    renewed ravages of, 26;
+    settle in Argyle, and are defeated at Degsastan, 42;
+    their relations with Eadward the Elder, 63;
+    _see_ Scotland.
+
+  Scrope, Archbishop of York, executed, 296.
+
+  Scrope, Lord, execution of, 301.
+
+  Scutage, 141.
+
+  Secular clergy, the, 67.
+
+  Selsey, landing of the South Saxons near, 27.
+
+  Senlac, battle of, 96.
+
+  Serfs, _see_ Villeins.
+
+  Severn, West Saxon conquest of the Valley of, 35.
+
+  Severus fails in conquering the Caledonians, 19.
+
+  Sheriffs, their position in Eadgar's reign, 73;
+    weakened by Henry II., 148.
+
+  Shires, origin of, 73.
+
+  Shire-moot, the, 73;
+    _see_ County Courts.
+
+  Shore, Jane, penance of, 340.
+
+  Shrewsbury, Earl of, _see_ Talbot, Lord.
+
+  Shrewsbury, Parliament of, 283;
+    battle of, 294.
+
+  Silchester, Roman church at, 23.
+
+  Simnel, Lambert, insurrection in favour of, 347.
+
+  Simon de Montfort, early career of, 193;
+    takes the side of the barons, 195;
+    employed in Gascony, 196;
+    executes the Provisions of Oxford, 199;
+    heads the baronial party, 200;
+    wins the battle of Lewes, 201;
+    constitutional scheme of, _ib._;
+    killed at Evesham, 203;
+    compared with Archbishop Thomas, 204.
+
+  Siward, Earl of North-humberland, 84, 87.
+
+  Slaves preserved alive at the English conquest, 30.
+
+  Sluys, battle of, 239.
+
+  Somerset, Welsh driven out of, 53.
+
+  Somerset, Edmund Beaufort, second Duke of, commands in Normandy, 320;
+    supported by Henry VI., 323;
+    slain at St. Albans, 324.
+
+  Somerset, Edmund Beaufort, fourth Duke of, executed, 334.
+
+  Somerset, John Beaufort, first Duke of, commands in France, 317;
+    kept from court by Suffolk, 318;
+    dies, 320.
+
+  Somerset, Henry Beaufort, third Duke of, executed, 331.
+
+  Sorbiodunum (_Old Sarum_), the stronghold of Ambrosius, 34.
+
+  South Saxons, the, first conquests of, 27;
+    destroy Anderida, 28.
+
+  Spain, union of the kingdoms of, 349;
+    growth of the monarchy of, 354.
+
+  Spencer, Henry, bishop of Norwich, leads an expedition to
+    Flanders, 278.
+
+  Stamford Bridge, battle of, 95.
+
+  Standard, battle of the, 133.
+
+  Stanley, Lord, joins Henry VII., 343.
+
+  Stanley, Sir William, deserts Richard III., 343;
+    execution of, 351.
+
+  Star Chamber, Court of, organisation of, 348.
+
+  States-General, the French, meet during John's captivity, 252.
+
+  Statute of Wales, 210.
+
+  Stephen, accession of, 131;
+    makes peace with the Scots, 133;
+    quarrels with the barons, _ib._;
+    quarrels with the clergy, 134;
+    death of, 135.
+
+  Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury, 89.
+
+  Stirling, Wallace's victory at, 221.
+
+  Stoke, battle of, 347.
+
+  Stone implements, 1-4.
+
+  Strathclyde, formation of the kingdom of, 43;
+    is not dependent on Ecgberht, 55;
+    its relations with Eadmund, 64.
+
+  Strongbow in Ireland, 152.
+
+  Stuart, family of, inherit the throne of Scotland, 295.
+
+  Suetonius Paullinus, campaigns of, 14-16.
+
+  Suffolk, origin of the name of, 28.
+
+  Suffolk, Michael de la Pole, Earl of, Chancellor of Richard II., 278;
+    driven from power, 279;
+    condemned to death, 280.
+
+  Suffolk, William de la Pole, Earl of, arranges a truce with
+      France, 317;
+    presides over the government of England, 318;
+    impeached and murdered, 322.
+
+  Surrey, Earl of, governs Scotland in the name of Edward I., 219.
+
+  Sussex, conquest of, 27, 28;
+    weakness of, 41;
+    accepts Christianity, 49.
+
+  Svend attacks London, 79;
+    returns to Denmark, 80;
+    invades England, 81;
+    death of, 83.
+
+  Swegen, son of Godwine, misconduct of, 87;
+    death of, 88.
+
+  Swynford, Catherine, marries John of Gaunt, 282.
+
+
+  Talbot, Lord, defeats the Burgundians, 313;
+    becomes Earl of Shrewsbury, 320;
+    defeated and slain, 323.
+
+  Tallages levied by Edward I., 221;
+    abolished by Edward III., 243.
+
+  Taxation, _see_ Danegeld, Customs.
+
+  Templars, the Knights, 157.
+
+  Tewkesbury, battle of, 334.
+
+  Thames, the, early ferry over, 20.
+
+  Thanet, probable identification of Ictis with, 8;
+    Jutes established in, 27.
+
+  Thegns, how distinguished from Gesiths, 31;
+    their devotion to their lord, 44;
+    growing military importance of, 69.
+
+  Theodore, Archbishop, his influence on the Church of England, 50;
+    assembles the first Church Council, 52.
+
+  Thetford, removal of the see from, 107.
+
+  Thomas of London (Becket), Chancellor, 140;
+    being appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, resists Henry II., 143;
+    takes refuge in France, 145;
+    returns to England, 149;
+    is murdered, 150.
+
+  Thurstan, Archbishop, leads the levies at the Battle of the
+    Standard, 132.
+
+  Tiberias, battle of, 157.
+
+  Tin, Phoenician and Greek trade in, 8.
+
+  Tinchebrai, battle of, 125.
+
+  Tintern Abbey, 129.
+
+  Togidumnus, death of, 13.
+
+  Tostig, Earl of North-humberland, 89;
+    driven from his earldom, 90;
+    allied to Harold Hardrada, 94;
+    killed at Stamford Bridge, 96.
+
+  Touraine conquered by Philip II., 176.
+
+  Towns, growth of, 62, 72, 168;
+    condition of the outskirts of, 191.
+
+  Townships, early political organisation of, 31.
+
+  Towton, battle of, 329.
+
+  Trade, _see_ Commerce.
+
+  Transition from round-arched to Pointed architecture, 171.
+
+  Travelling modes of, 273.
+
+  Treasons, Statute of, 250.
+
+  Trent, the Anglian occupation of the Valley of, 36.
+
+  Tresilian, Chief Justice, hanged, 280.
+
+  Trinobantes, the geographical position of, 8;
+    side with Caesar, 11;
+    submit to Cunobelin, 12.
+
+  Troyes, the Treaty of, 306.
+
+  Tudor, Owen, marries the widow of Henry V., 335.
+
+  Tumblers, 275.
+
+  Tyre in danger, 157.
+
+
+  Universities, growth of, 167.
+
+  Urban II., Pope, supported by Lanfranc, 118;
+    preaches a Crusade, 120.
+
+  Uriconium, _see_ Viriconium.
+
+
+  Valence, William de, resists the Provisions of Oxford, 199.
+
+  Val-es-dunes, battle of, 88.
+
+  Verneuil, battle of, 308.
+
+  Verulamium, Roman city at, 19;
+    martyrdom of St. Alban at, 23.
+
+  Vicar, meaning of the term, 129.
+
+  Villages, arrangements of, 75.
+
+  Villeins, the, uncertain origin of, 31;
+    increase of, 69;
+    position of, after the Norman conquest, 102;
+    partial commutation of the services of, 168;
+    effect of the Black Death upon, 248;
+    insurrection of, 268;
+    take refuge in towns, 275;
+    land ceases to be cultivated by, 320, 321.
+
+  Viriconium, Roman colony at, 14.
+
+  Vortigern establishes Jutes in Thanet, 27.
+
+
+  Wakefield, battle of, 328.
+
+  Wales reduced by Harold, 90;
+    Flemish settlement in, 128;
+    conquered by Edward I., 210;
+    marches of, _ib._;
+    supports Richard II., 285.
+
+  Wallace, William, rises against Edward I., 221;
+    execution of, 222.
+
+  Wallingford, Treaty of, 137.
+
+  Walls, the Roman, 17.
+
+  Walter Map, 167.
+
+  Waltheof, Earl of Northamptonshire and Huntingdonshire, 90;
+    is beheaded, 110.
+
+  Wanborough, Ceawlin defeated at, 36.
+
+  War-band, the, composed of Gesiths, 30.
+
+  Warbeck, Perkin, insurrection of, 350-352;
+    execution of, 354.
+
+  Wardship, nature of the lord's claim to, 116;
+    results of the system, 330.
+
+  Wars of the Roses, origin of the name of, 324;
+    state of society during, 330.
+
+  Warwick, Earl of, opposes Richard II., 279;
+    banishment of, 282.
+
+  Warwick, Earl of (son of the Duke of Clarence), imprisonment of, 343;
+    execution of, 354.
+
+  Warwick, Richard Beauchamp, Earl of, regent in France, 313.
+
+  Warwick, Richard Nevill, Earl of (the King-maker), influence of, 324;
+    retires to Calais, and comes back and defeats the Lancastrians
+      at Northampton, 326;
+    estranged from Edward IV., 332;
+    is reconciled to Queen Margaret, 333;
+    restores Henry VI., and is defeated and slain at Barnet, 334.
+
+  Wat Tyler, insurrection of, 268, 269.
+
+  Wedmore, Peace of (the so-called), 59.
+
+  Welsh, the, speak a language derived from that of the Britons, 7;
+    origin of their name, 31;
+    adopt the name Kymry, 37;
+    defeated by AEthelfrith near Chester, 43;
+    split up into three divisions, _ib._;
+    driven out of Somerset, 53;
+    their relations with Ecgberht, 56;
+    _see_ Wales.
+
+  Weregild, system of, 32.
+
+  Wessex, gradual formation of, 28, 34, 35;
+    is weakened by internal quarrels, 41;
+    accepts Christianity, 48;
+    growing unity of, 53;
+    causes of the supremacy of, 55;
+    an earldom under Godwine and Harold, 84, 89.
+
+  West Saxons, the, first conquests of, 28;
+    defeated at Mount Badon, _ib._;
+    occupy Salisbury Plain, 34;
+    wage war with the men of Kent and with the Britons of the
+      Severn Valley, 35;
+    are defeated at Faddiley, _ib._;
+    _see_ Wessex.
+
+  West Wales split off from other Welsh territory, 42.
+
+  Westminster Abbey, consecration of, 91;
+    coronation of William I. in, 100.
+
+  White Ship, the, wreck of, 129.
+
+  Wilfrid supports Papal authority, 50.
+
+  William I. (the Conqueror) declared heir of Eadward the
+      Confessor, 88;
+    his rule in Normandy, _ib._;
+    claims the crown from Harold, 91;
+    lands at Pevensey, and defeats Harold at Senlac, 96-98;
+    crowned at Westminster, 100;
+    progress of his conquest, 101-103;
+    devastates the Vale of York, 103;
+    subdues Hereward, and receives Malcolm's submission, 104;
+    his method of keeping English and Normans in subjection, 104-106;
+    his relations with the Church, 106-110;
+    suppresses the Rising of the Earls, 110;
+    lays waste the New Forest, _ib._;
+    has Domesday Book prepared, 111;
+    receives oaths at Salisbury, 113;
+    death of, 114.
+
+  William II. (Rufus) is crowned King of England, 114;
+    is supported by the English against Robert, 115;
+    character of, _ib._;
+    his treatment of Anselm, 117;
+    his quarrels with his brothers, 118;
+    his relations with Scotland, 119;
+    suppresses Mowbray's rebellion, 120;
+    last years of, 121;
+    is murdered, 122.
+
+  William, son of Henry I., wrecked, 129.
+
+  William Clito, son of Robert, 129.
+
+  William Longbeard, 169, 170.
+
+  William of Malmesbury, 129.
+
+  William of Newburgh, 167.
+
+  William the Lion, king of Scotland, acknowledges himself to be
+      a vassal of Henry II., 154;
+    frees himself from vassalage, 159.
+
+  Winchelsey, Archbishop, 221.
+
+  Winchester, secular canons driven out of 68;
+    burial of William II. at, 122;
+    Stephen chosen king at, 131.
+
+  Winwaed, the battle of, 48.
+
+  Witenagemot, the, constitution of, 45;
+    discussion on the acceptance of Christianity in, 46;
+    constitutional powers of, 74;
+    becomes the Great Council, 113;
+    _see_ Great Council, the.
+
+  Women, education of, in the Middle Ages, 65.
+
+  Wonderful Parliament, the, 280.
+
+  Worcester, secular canons driven from, 68.
+
+  Wroxeter, _see_ Viriconium.
+
+  Wulfhere maintains the independence of Mercia, 48.
+
+  Wycliffe, John, his doctrines, 261;
+    summoned before an ecclesiastical court at St. Paul's, 262;
+    sends out 'poor priests,' and renounces transubstantiation, 266;
+    retires, and dies, 269.
+
+  Wykeham, William of, deprived of the Chancellorship, 260;
+    restored to the Council, and again dismissed, 262.
+
+
+  Yarmouth supports Stephen, 134.
+
+  York (_see_ Eboracum) submits to Harold Hardrada, 95;
+    taken by William I., 102;
+    devastation of the Vale of, 103;
+    massacre of Jews at, 160.
+
+  York Archbishop of, his right to crown a king questioned, 149.
+
+  York, Archbishopric of, founded, 46.
+
+  York, Duke of Edmund (son of Edward III.), joins Henry IV., 285.
+
+  York, Richard, Duke of, (father of Edward IV.), is regent in
+      France, 313;
+    governs Ireland, 319;
+    first Protectorate of, 323;
+    second Protectorate of, 324;
+    driven to Ireland, 326;
+    claims the throne, 327;
+    defeated and slain, 328.
+
+  York, Richard, Duke of (son of Edward IV.), lodged in the Tower, 341;
+    murdered, 342.
+
+
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