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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Student's History of England, v. 1 (of 3),
+by Samuel Rawson Gardiner
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Student's History of England, v. 1 (of 3)
+ From the earliest times to the Death of King Edward VII
+
+Author: Samuel Rawson Gardiner
+
+Release Date: February 23, 2009 [EBook #28157]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ENGLAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Darren Izzard, Christine P. Travers and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected, all
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling
+has been maintained.
+
+Each page of the original book had a side note stating the time span
+treated on that page. Those side notes have been deleted.
+
+Bold text has been marked with =.]
+
+
+
+
+STUDENT'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND
+
+
+_FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE DEATH OF KING EDWARD VII_
+
+
+BY
+
+
+SAMUEL R. GARDINER, D.C.L., LL.D.
+
+LATE FELLOW OF MERTON COLLEGE, OXFORD ETC.
+
+
+
+
+VOL. I.
+
+B.C. 55--A.D. 1509
+
+
+
+
+_NEW IMPRESSION (1915)_
+
+REISSUE
+
+ LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
+ 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
+ FOURTH AVENUE & 30th STREET, NEW YORK
+ BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, AND MADRAS
+ 1916
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+WORKS BY SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER.
+
+
+HISTORY OF ENGLAND, from the Accession of James I. to the Outbreak of
+the Civil War, 1603-1642. With Maps. 10 vols. crown 8vo. 5_s._ net
+each.
+
+A HISTORY OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR, 1642-1649. With Maps. 4 vols. crown
+8vo. 5_s._ net each.
+
+A HISTORY OF THE COMMONWEALTH AND THE PROTECTORATE, 1649-1656. With
+Maps. 4 vols. crown 8vo. 5_s._ net each.
+
+THE LAST YEARS OF THE PROTECTORATE, 1656-1658. By CHARLES HARDING
+FIRTH, M.A., Regius Professor of Modern History in the University of
+Oxford. With 3 Plans. 2 vols. 8vo. 24_s._ net.
+
+A STUDENT'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. From the Earliest Times to the Death
+of King Edward VII.
+
+ Vol. I. B.C. 55-A.D. 1509. With 173 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 4_s._
+
+ Vol. II. 1509-1689. With 96 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 4_s._
+
+ Vol. III. 1689-1910. With 112 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 4_s._
+
+ _Complete in One Volume, with 381 Illustrations, crown 8vo. 12s._
+
+PREPARATORY QUESTIONS ON S. R. GARDINER'S STUDENT'S HISTORY OF
+ENGLAND. By R. SOMERVELL, M.A. Crown 8vo. 1_s._
+
+SUMMARY OF ENGLISH HISTORY, based on S. R. Gardiner's 'Outline of
+English History.' Brought down to the Accession of Edward VII. By W.
+REEP. Fcp. 8vo. 6_d._
+
+A SCHOOL ATLAS OF ENGLISH HISTORY. Edited by SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER,
+D.C.L., LL.D. With 66 Coloured Maps and 22 Plans of Battles and
+Sieges. Fcp. 4to. 5_s._
+
+LONGMANS' ELEMENTARY HISTORICAL ATLAS, abridged from S. R. Gardiner's
+'School Atlas of English History.' Post 4to. 1_s._
+
+CROMWELL'S PLACE IN HISTORY. Founded on Six Lectures delivered at
+Oxford. Crown 8vo. 3_s._ 6_d._
+
+OLIVER CROMWELL. With Portrait. Crown 8vo. 5_s._ net.
+
+THE FIRST TWO STUARTS AND THE PURITAN REVOLUTION, 1603-1660. 4 Maps.
+Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR, 1618-1648. With a Map. Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+OUTLINE OF ENGLISH HISTORY, B.C. 55-A.D. 1910. With 67 Woodcuts and 17
+Maps. Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+ * * * * *
+
+THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, 1789-1795. By Mrs. S. R. GARDINER. With 7 Maps.
+Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+ * * * * *
+
+LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO., 39 Paternoster Row, London, New York, Bombay,
+Calcutta, and Madras.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION
+
+
+The present work is intended for such students as have already an
+elementary knowledge of the main facts of English history, and aims at
+meeting their needs by the use of plain language on the one hand, and
+by the avoidance, on the other hand, of that multiplicity of details
+which is apt to overburden the memory.
+
+At the close of the book I have treated the last eleven years, 1874 to
+1885, in a manner which precludes all expression of my own views,
+either on the characters of the actors or on the value of the work
+performed by them; and something of the same reticence will be
+observed in the pages dealing with the years immediately preceding
+1874. We have not the material before us for the formation of a final
+judgment on many points arising in the course of the narrative, and it
+is therefore better to abstain from the expression of decided opinion,
+except on matters so completely before the public as to leave no room
+for hesitation. Especially is this rule to be observed in a book
+addressed to those who are not yet at an age when independent
+investigation is possible.
+
+I hope it will be understood that in my mention of various authors I
+have had no intention of writing a history of literature, however
+brief. My object has been throughout to exhibit that side of
+literature which connects itself with the general political or
+intellectual movement of the country, and to leave unnoticed the
+purely literary or scientific qualities of the writers mentioned. This
+will explain, for instance, the total omission of the name of Roger
+Bacon, and the brief and, if regarded from a different point of view,
+the very unsatisfactory treatment of writers like Dickens and
+Thackeray.
+
+Those of my readers who have complained that no maps were to be found
+in the book may now be referred to a 'School Atlas of English
+History,' recently edited by me for Messrs. Longmans & Co. To include
+an adequate number of maps in this volume would have increased its
+size beyond all fitting limits.
+
+In the spelling of Indian names I have not adopted the modern and
+improved system of transliteration. Admirable as it is when used by
+those who are able to give the right sound to each letter, it only
+leads to mispronunciation in the mouths of those who are, as most of
+the readers of this volume will be, entirely in the dark on this
+point. The old rough method of our fathers at least ensures a fair
+approximation to the true pronunciation.
+
+My warmest thanks are due to Mr. GEORGE NUTT, of Rugby, and to the
+Rev. W. HUNT. Mr. NUTT not only looked over the proof-sheets up to the
+death of Edward I. with excellent results, but gave me most valuable
+advice as to the general arrangement of the book, founded on his own
+long experience of scholastic teaching. The Rev. W. HUNT looked over a
+considerable portion of the remaining proof-sheets, and called my
+attention to several errors and omissions which had escaped my eye.
+
+The illustrations have been selected by Mr. W. H. ST. JOHN HOPE,
+Assistant-Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries. He wishes to
+acknowledge much valuable assistance given to him in the choice of
+portraits by GEORGE SCHARF, Esq., C.B., F.S.A., who is recognised as
+the highest authority on the subject.
+
+I am indebted to Her Majesty the QUEEN for permission to engrave two
+of the portraits appearing in the following pages--viz., those of
+Bishop Fisher, on p. 393, and the Duke of Norfolk, on p. 410--the
+originals in both cases being at Windsor Castle.
+
+I have to thank Earl SPENCER for permission to engrave the portrait on
+p. 362; the Earl of ESSEX for that on p. 476; the Earl of WARWICK for
+that on p. 403; the Earl of CARLISLE for that on p. 459; the Viscount
+DILLON, F.S.A., for that on p. 376; the Hon Sir SPENCER PONSONBY-FANE,
+K.C.B., for that on p. 365; Sir JOHN FARNABY LENNARD, Bart., for that
+on p. 463; Dr. EVANS for those on pp. 2, 4, 6; EDWARD HUTH, Esq., for
+that on p. 387; Mrs. DENT, of Sudeley, for that on p. 395; H. HUCKS
+GIBBS, Esq., for that on p. 419; T. A. HOPE, Esq., for that on p. 487;
+E. B. NICHOLSON, Esq., for the portrait of Lord Burghley in the
+Bodleian Library, Oxford, engraved at p. 479; the authorities of the
+University of Cambridge for that on p. 477; of Jesus College,
+Cambridge, for that on p. 414; and of Sidney Sussex College,
+Cambridge, for that on p. 567; and the Treasurer of Christ's Hospital,
+London, for the portrait of Charles II. on p. 579. I have also to
+thank Mr. JOHN MURRAY for permission to engrave the figures on pp.
+130, 150, 160, 166, 177, 188, 260; Messrs. PARKER & Co., Oxford, for
+those on pp. 19, 51, 75, 91, 107, 128, 170, 192, 197, 230, 245, 246,
+247, 253, 409, 451; Mr. W. NIVES for those at pp. 381, 409, 451; Mr.
+J. G. WALLER for those on pp. 219, 229, 292, 298, 515; Mr. BRUCE for
+those on pp. 17, 18, 21; Messrs. POULTON & SONS, Lee, for those on pp.
+7, 132; Mr. G. A. NICHOLS, Stamford, for those on pp. 311, 316, Mr.
+G. T. CLARKE, for that on p. 74; Messrs. CARL NORMAN & Co., Tunbridge
+Wells, for that on p. 171; Mr. R. KEENE, Derby, for that on p. 318;
+the Rev. H. H. HENSON, Vicar of Barking, Essex, for the photograph of
+the monument of Sir Charles Montague on p. 507; the Science and Art
+Department for those on pp. 371, 440, 518, 612; Mr. W. H. WHEELER, of
+Oxford, for those on pp. 319, 384; Messrs. VALENTINE & SONS, Dundee,
+for those on pp. 109, 206, 213, 238, 244, 276, 355, 378, 485, 662,
+666, 668, 683, 907, 919, 937, 942; and Mr. R. KEENE, Derby, for those
+on pp. 466, 467, 469, 471.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME
+
+
+PART I.
+
+_ENGLAND BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST._
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+PREHISTORIC AND ROMAN BRITAIN.
+ PAGE
+
+ 1. Palaeolithic Man of the River-Drift 1
+
+ 2. Cave-dwelling Palaeolithic Man 2
+
+ 3. Neolithic Man 3
+
+ 4. Celts and Iberians 5
+
+ 5. The Celts in Britain 6
+
+ 6. Goidels and Britons 6
+
+ 7. Phoenicians and Greeks 7
+
+ 8. Gauls and Belgians in Britain 8
+
+ 9. Culture and War 9
+
+ 10. Religion of the Britons 10
+
+ 11. The Romans in Gaul B.C. 55 10
+
+ 12. Caesar's First Invasion. B.C. 55 11
+
+ 13. Caesar's Second Invasion. B.C. 54 11
+
+ 14. South-eastern Britain after Caesar's Departure.
+ B.C. 54--A.D. 43 12
+
+ 15. The Roman Empire 12
+
+ 16. The Invasion of Aulus Plautius. A.D. 43 12
+
+ 17. The Colony of Camulodunum 13
+
+ 18. The Conquests of Ostorius Scapula 14
+
+ 19. Government of Suetonius Paullinus. 58 14
+
+ 20. Boadicea's Insurrection. 61 15
+
+ 21. The Vengeance of Suetonius 15
+
+ 22. Agricola in Britain. 78--84 16
+
+ 23. Agricola's Conquests in the North 16
+
+ 24. The Roman Walls 17
+
+ 25. The Roman Province of Britain 19
+
+ 26. Extinction of Tribal Antagonism 21
+
+ 27. Want of National Feeling 22
+
+ 28. Carausius and Allectus. 288--296 22
+
+ 29. Constantius and Constantine. 296--337 22
+
+ 30. Christianity in Britain 23
+
+ 31. Weakness of the Empire 23
+
+ 32. The Picts and Scots 23
+
+ 33. The Saxons 24
+
+ 34. Origin of the Saxons 24
+
+ 35. The Roman Defence 24
+
+ 36. End of the Roman Government. 383--410 25
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS.
+
+ 1. Britain after the Departure of the Romans.
+ 410--449? 26
+
+ 2. The Groans of the Britons 26
+
+ 3. The Conquest of Kent. 449? 27
+
+ 4. The South Saxons. 477 27
+
+ 5. The West Saxons and the East Saxons 28
+
+ 6. The Anglian Settlements 28
+
+ 7. Nature of the Conquest 28
+
+ 8. The Cultivators of the Soil 29
+
+ 9. Eorls, Ceorls, Gesiths 29
+
+ 10. The Gesiths and the Villagers 30
+
+ 11. English and Welsh 31
+
+ 12. The Township and the Hundred 31
+
+ 13. Weregild 32
+
+ 14. Compurgation and Ordeal 32
+
+ 15. Punishments 32
+
+ 16. The Folk-moot 33
+
+ 17. The Kingship 33
+
+ 18. The Legend of Arthur 33
+
+ 19. The West Saxon Advance 34
+
+ 20. Repulse of the West Saxons 35
+
+ 21. The Advance of the Angles 36
+
+ 22. The Kymry 36
+
+ 23. Britain at the End of the Sixth Century 37
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE STRIFE OF THE ENGLISH KINGDOMS.
+
+ 1. England and the Continent 37
+
+ 2. AEthelberht's Supremacy 38
+
+ 3. Gregory and the English 38
+
+ 4. Augustine's Mission. 597 39
+
+ 5. Monastic Christianity 39
+
+ 6. The Archbishopric of Canterbury 40
+
+ 7. Death of AEthelberht. 616 41
+
+ 8. The Three Kingdoms opposed to the Welsh 41
+
+ 9. AEthelfrith and the Kymry 41
+
+ 10. AEthelfrith's Victories 42
+
+ 11. The Greatness of Eadwine 43
+
+ 12. Eadwine's Supremacy 44
+
+ 13. Character of the later Conquests 44
+
+ 14. Political Changes 45
+
+ 15. Eadwine's Conversion and Fall 46
+
+ 16. Oswald's Victory at Heavenfield 47
+
+ 17. Oswald and Aidan 47
+
+ 18. Oswald's Greatness and Overthrow 47
+
+ 19. Penda's Overthrow 48
+
+ 20. The Three Kingdoms and the Welsh 48
+
+ 21. The English Missionaries 49
+
+ 22. Dispute between Wilfrid and Colman. 664 49
+
+ 23. Archbishop Theodore and the Penitential System 50
+
+ 24. Ealdhelm and Caedmon 51
+
+ 25. Bede. 673--735 52
+
+ 26. Church Councils 52
+
+ 27. Struggle between Mercia and Wessex 52
+
+ 28. Mohammedanism and the Carolingian Empire 54
+
+ 29. Ecgberht's Rule. 802--839 54
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP AND THE STRUGGLE WITH THE DANES.
+
+ 1. The West Saxon Supremacy 55
+
+ 2. The Coming of the Northmen 56
+
+ 3. The English Coast Plundered 57
+
+ 4. The Danes in the North 57
+
+ 5. AElfred's Struggle in Wessex. 871--878 58
+
+ 6. The Treaty of Chippenham, and its Results. 878 59
+
+ 7. AElfred's Military Work 60
+
+ 8. His Laws and Scholarship 60
+
+ 9. Eadward the Elder. 899--925 62
+
+ 10. Eadward's Conquests 62
+
+ 11. Eadward and the Scots 63
+
+ 12. AEthelstan. 925--940 63
+
+ 13. Eadmund (940--946) and Eadred (946--955) 63
+
+ 14. Danes and English 64
+
+ 15. Eadwig. 955--959 64
+
+ 16. Dunstan 65
+
+ 17. Archbishop Oda 65
+
+ 18. Eadwig's Marriage 67
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+EADGAR'S ENGLAND.
+
+ 1. Eadgar and Dunstan. 959--975 67
+
+ 2. The Cession of Lothian 68
+
+ 3. Changes in English Institutions 69
+
+ 4. Growth of the King's Power 69
+
+ 5. Conversion of the Freemen into Serfs 69
+
+ 6. The Hundred-moot and the Lord's Court 72
+
+ 7. The Towns 72
+
+ 8. The Origin of the Shires 73
+
+ 9. The Shire-moot 73
+
+ 10. The Ealdormen and the Witenagemot 73
+
+ 11. The Land 75
+
+ 12. Domestic Life 75
+
+ 13. Food and Drink 75
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ENGLAND AND NORMANDY.
+
+ 1. Eadward the Martyr. 975--979 78
+
+ 2. AEthelred's Early Years. 979--988 79
+
+ 3. The Return of the Danes. 984 79
+
+ 4. The Norman Dukes. 912--1002 80
+
+ 5. Political Contrast between Normandy and England 81
+
+ 6. Svend's Conquest. 1002--1013 81
+
+ 7. AEthelred Restored. 1014--1016 82
+
+ 8. Eadmund Ironside. 1016 83
+
+ 9. Cnut and the Earldoms. 1016--1035 83
+
+ 10. Cnut's Empire 84
+
+ 11. Cnut's Government 84
+
+ 12. The Sons of Cnut. 1035--1042 85
+
+ 13. Eadward the Confessor and Earl Godwine.
+ 1042--1051 86
+
+ 14. The Banishment of Godwine. 1051 87
+
+ 15. Visit of Duke William. 1051 88
+
+ 16. William and the Norman Church 88
+
+ 17. The Return and Death of Godwine. 1052--1053 89
+
+ 18. Harold's Greatness. 1053--1066 89
+
+ 19. Harold and Eadward. 1057--1065 90
+
+ 20. Death of Eadward. 1066 90
+
+ 21. Harold and William. 1066 91
+
+ 22. Stamford Bridge. 1066 93
+
+ 23. The Landing of William. 1066 96
+
+ 24. The Battle of Senlac. 1066 96
+
+ 25. William's Coronation. 1066 98
+
+
+PART II.
+
+_THE NORMAN AND ANGEVIN KINGS._
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+WILLIAM I. 1066--1087.
+
+ 1. The First Months of the Conquest. 1066--1067 101
+
+ 2. The Conquest of the West and North. 1067--1069 102
+
+ 3. The Completion of the Conquest. 1070 103
+
+ 4. Hereward's Revolt and the Homage of Malcolm.
+ 1070--1072 103
+
+ 5. How William kept down the English 104
+
+ 6. How William kept down the Normans 105
+
+ 7. Ecclesiastical Organisation. 106
+
+ 8. Pope Gregory VII. 107
+
+ 9. William and Gregory VII. 108
+
+ 10. The Rising of the Earls. 1075 110
+
+ 11. The New Forest 110
+
+ 12. Domesday Book. 1085--1086 111
+
+ 13. William's Great Councils 112
+
+ 14. The Gemot at Salisbury. 1086 113
+
+ 15. William's Death. 1087 114
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+WILLIAM II. 1087--1100.
+
+ 1. The Accession of the Red King. 1087 114
+
+ 2. The Wickedness of the Red King 115
+
+ 3. Ranulf Flambard 116
+
+ 4. Feudal Dues 116
+
+ 5. Archbishop Anselm 117
+
+ 6. The Council of Rockingham. 1095 118
+
+ 7. William II. and his Brothers 118
+
+ 8. William and Scotland. 1093--1094 119
+
+ 9. Mowbray's Rebellion. 1095 120
+
+ 10. The First Crusade. 1095--1099 120
+
+ 11. Normandy in Pledge. 1096 121
+
+ 12. The Last Years of the Red King 121
+
+ 13. The Death of the Red King. 1100 122
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+HENRY I. AND STEPHEN.
+
+HENRY I., 1100--1135. STEPHEN, 1135--1154.
+
+ 1. The Accession of Henry I. 1100 122
+
+ 2. Invasion of Robert. 1101 124
+
+ 3. Revolt of Robert of Belleme. 1102 124
+
+ 4. The Battle of Tinchebrai. 1106 124
+
+ 5. Henry and Anselm. 1100--1107 125
+
+ 6. Roger of Salisbury 126
+
+ 7. Growth of Trade 127
+
+ 8. The Benedictines 128
+
+ 9. The Cistercians 129
+
+ 10. The White Ship 129
+
+ 11. The Last Years of Henry I. 131
+
+ 12. Stephen's Accession. 1135 131
+
+ 13. Civil War 133
+
+ 14. Stephen's Quarrel with the Clergy. 1139 134
+
+ 15. Anarchy. 1139 134
+
+ 16. The End of the War. 1141--1148 135
+
+ 17. Henry, Duke of the Normans. 1149 136
+
+ 18. The Last Days of Stephen. 1153--1154 137
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+HENRY II. 1154--1189.
+
+ 1. Henry's Accession. 1154 138
+
+ 2. Pacification of England 138
+
+ 3. Henry and Feudality 140
+
+ 4. The Great Council and the Curia Regis 141
+
+ 5. Scutage 141
+
+ 6. Archbishop Thomas. 1162 142
+
+ 7. Breach between Henry and Thomas 143
+
+ 8. The Constitutions of Clarendon. 1164 143
+
+ 9. The Persecution of Archbishop Thomas. 1164 145
+
+ 10. The Assize of Clarendon. 1166 146
+
+ 11. Recognitions 147
+
+ 12. The Germ of the Jury 147
+
+ 13. The Itinerant Justices Revived 148
+
+ 14. The Inquisition of the Sheriffs. 1170 148
+
+ 15. The Nobles and the Church 149
+
+ 16. The Coronation of Young Henry. 1170 149
+
+ 17. The Return of Archbishop Thomas. 1170 149
+
+ 18. Murder of Archbishop Thomas. 1170 149
+
+ 19. Popular Indignation. 1171 151
+
+ 20. State of Ireland 151
+
+ 21. Partial Conquest of Ireland. 1166--1172 152
+
+ 22. Young Henry's Coronation and the Revolt of
+ the Barons. 1172--1174 153
+
+ 23. The Assize of Arms. 1181 154
+
+ 24. Henry II. and his Sons 155
+
+ 25. The Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. 1187 156
+
+ 26. The Last Years of Henry II. 1188--1189 157
+
+ 27. The Work of Henry II. 157
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+RICHARD I. 1189--1199.
+
+ 1. Richard in England. 1189 159
+
+ 2. William of Longchamps. 1189--1191 159
+
+ 3. The Third Crusade. 1189--1192 161
+
+ 4. The Return of Richard. 1192--1194 161
+
+ 5. Heavy Taxation 162
+
+ 6. The Administration of Hubert Walter. 1194--1198 163
+
+ 7. Death of Richard. 1199 165
+
+ 8. Church and State under the Angevin Kings 165
+
+ 9. Growth of Learning 167
+
+ 10. The University of Oxford 167
+
+ 11. Country and Town 168
+
+ 12. Condition of London 169
+
+ 13. Architectural Changes 170
+
+
+PART III.
+
+_THE GROWTH OF THE PARLIAMENTARY CONSTITUTION._ 1199-1399.
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+JOHN. 1199-1216.
+
+ 1. The Accession of John. 1199 173
+
+ 2. John's First War with Philip II. 1199-1200 173
+
+ 3. John's Misconduct in Poitou 1200-1201 174
+
+ 4. The Loss of Normandy and Anjou. 1202-1204 174
+
+ 5. Causes of Philip's Success 176
+
+ 6. The Election of Stephen Langton to the
+ Archbishopric of Canterbury. 1205 176
+
+ 7. Innocent III. and Stephen Langton. 1206 177
+
+ 8. John's Quarrel with the Church. 1206-1208 178
+
+ 9. England under an Interdict. 1208 178
+
+ 10. John Excommunicated. 1209 178
+
+ 11. The Pope threatens John with Deposition.
+ 1212-1213 179
+
+ 12. John's Submission. 1213 180
+
+ 13. The Resistance of the Barons and Clergy. 1213 180
+
+ 14. The Battle of Bouvines. 1214 181
+
+ 15. The Struggle between John and the Barons.
+ 1214-1215 181
+
+ 16. Magna Carta. 1215 182
+
+ 17. War between John and the Barons. 1215-1216 184
+
+ 18. Conflict between Louis and John. 1216 184
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+HENRY III. 1216-1272.
+
+ 1. Henry III. and Louis. 1216-1217 185
+
+ 2. The Renewal of the Great Charter. 1216-1217 185
+
+ 3. Administration of Hubert de Burgh. 1219-1232 186
+
+ 4. Administration of Peter des Roches. 1232-1234 188
+
+ 5. Francis of Assisi 190
+
+ 6. St. Dominic 190
+
+ 7. The Coming of the Friars. 1220-1224 191
+
+ 8. Monks and Friars 191
+
+ 9. The King's Marriage. 1236 192
+
+ 10. The Early Career of Simon de Montfort.
+ 1231-1243 193
+
+ 11. Papal Exactions. 1237-1243 194
+
+ 12. A Weak Parliamentary Opposition. 1244 194
+
+ 13. Growing Discontent. 1244-1254 195
+
+ 14. The Knights of the Shire in Parliament. 1254 196
+
+ 15. Fresh Exactions. 1254-1257 196
+
+ 16. The Provisions of Oxford. 1258 198
+
+ 17. The Expulsion of the Foreigners. 1258 199
+
+ 18. Edward and the Barons. 1259 199
+
+ 19. The Breach amongst the Barons. 1259--1261 199
+
+ 20. Royalist Reaction and Civil War. 1261 200
+
+ 21. The Mise of Amiens. 1264 200
+
+ 22. The Battle of Lewes. 1264 201
+
+ 23. Earl Simon's Government. 1264--1265 201
+
+ 24. The Battle of Evesham. 1265 203
+
+ 25. The Last Years of Henry III. 1265--1272 204
+
+ 26. General Progress of the Country 206
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+EDWARD I. AND EDWARD II.
+
+EDWARD I., 1272--1307. EDWARD II., 1307--1327.
+
+ 1. The First Years of Edward I. 1272--1279 208
+
+ 2. Edward I. and Wales. 1276--1284 210
+
+ 3. Customs Duties. 1275 210
+
+ 4. Edward's Judicial Reforms. 1274--1290 212
+
+ 5. Edward's Legislation. 1279--1290 212
+
+ 6. Edward as a National and as a Feudal Ruler 212
+
+ 7. The Scottish Succession. 1285--1290 214
+
+ 8. Death of Eleanor of Castile. 1290 214
+
+ 9. The Award of Norham. 1291--1292 215
+
+ 10. Disputes with Scotland and France. 1293--1295 216
+
+ 11. The Model Parliament. 1295 218
+
+ 12. The First Conquest of Scotland. 1296 219
+
+ 13. The Resistance of Archbishop Winchelsey.
+ 1296--1297 220
+
+ 14. The 'Confirmatio Cartarum.' 1297 220
+
+ 15. Wallace's Rising. 1297--1304 221
+
+ 16. The Second Conquest of Scotland. 1298--1304 221
+
+ 17. The Incorporation of Scotland with England. 1305 222
+
+ 18. Character of Edward's Dealings with Scotland 222
+
+ 19. Robert Bruce. 1306 223
+
+ 20. Edward's Third Conquest of Scotland and Death.
+ 1306--1307 224
+
+ 21. Edward II. and Piers Gaveston. 1307--1312 224
+
+ 22. Success of Robert Bruce. 1307--1314 226
+
+ 23. Lancaster's Government. 1314--1322 228
+
+ 24. A Constitutional Settlement. 1322 228
+
+ 25. The Rule of the Despensers. 1322--1326 228
+
+ 26. The Deposition and Murder of Edward II. 1327 229
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD III. TO THE TREATY OF BRETIGNI.
+
+1327--1360.
+
+ 1. Mortimer's Government. 1327--1330 231
+
+ 2. The French Succession. 1328--1331 232
+
+ 3. Troubles in Scotland. 1331--1336 232
+
+ 4. Dispute with France. 1336--1337 234
+
+ 5. Edward's Allies. 1337--1338 235
+
+ 6. Chivalry and War 235
+
+ 7. Commerce and War 236
+
+ 8. Attacks on the North of France. 1338--1340 237
+
+ 9. Battle of Sluys. 1340 239
+
+ 10. Attacks on the West of France. 1341--1345 240
+
+ 11. The Campaign of Crecy. 1346 240
+
+ 12. The Tactics of Crecy. 1346 241
+
+ 13. The Battle of Crecy. August 26, 1346 242
+
+ 14. Battle of Nevill's Cross, and the Siege of
+ Calais. 1346--1347 242
+
+ 15. Constitutional Progress. 1337--1347 243
+
+ 16. Edward's Triumph. 1347 246
+
+ 17. The Black Death. 1348 248
+
+ 18. The Statute of Labourers. 1351 248
+
+ 19. The Statute of Treasons. 1352 250
+
+ 20. The Black Prince in the South of France. 1355 251
+
+ 21. The Battle of Poitiers. 1356 251
+
+ 22. The Courtesy of the Black Prince 252
+
+ 23. Misery of France. 1356--1359 252
+
+ 24. Edward's Last Invasion. 1359--1360 252
+
+ 25. The Treaty of Bretigni. 1360 253
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+REIGN OF EDWARD III. AFTER THE TREATY OF BRETIGNI.
+
+1360--1377.
+
+ 1. The First Years of Peace. 1360--1364 254
+
+ 2. The Spanish Troubles. 1364--1368 254
+
+ 3. The Taxation of Aquitaine. 1368--1369 256
+
+ 4. The Renewed War. 1369--1375 256
+
+ 5. Anti-Papal Legislation. 1351--1366 257
+
+ 6. Predominance of the English Language 258
+
+ 7. Piers the Plowman. 1362 258
+
+ 8. The Anti-Clerical Party. 1371 259
+
+ 9. The Duke of Lancaster. 1374--1376 260
+
+ 10. John Wycliffe. 1366--1376 261
+
+ 11. Lancaster and the Black Prince. 1376 261
+
+ 12. The Good Parliament. 1376 262
+
+ 13. The Last Year of Edward III. 1376--1377 262
+
+ 14. Ireland from the Reign of John to that of
+ Edward II. 264
+
+ 15. The Statute of Kilkenny. 1367 265
+
+ 16. Weakness of the English Colony. 1367--1377 265
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+RICHARD II. AND THE SOCIAL REVOLUTION.
+
+1377--1381.
+
+ 1. The First Years of Richard II. 1377--1378 266
+
+ 2. Wycliffe and the Great Schism. 1378--1381 266
+
+ 3. The Poll Taxes. 1379--1381 267
+
+ 4. The Peasants' Grievances 268
+
+ 5. The Peasants' Revolt. 1381 268
+
+ 6. The Suppression of the Revolt 269
+
+ 7. Results of the Peasants' Revolt 269
+
+ 8. Chaucer's 'Canterbury Tales' 270
+
+ 9. The Prologue of the 'Canterbury Tales' 270
+
+ 10. Chaucer and the Clergy 271
+
+ 11. Roads and Bridges 272
+
+ 12. Modes of Conveyance 273
+
+ 13. Hospitality and Inns 274
+
+ 14. Alehouses 274
+
+ 15. Wanderers 274
+
+ 16. Robbers and Criminals 275
+
+ 17. Justices of the Peace 277
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+RICHARD II. AND THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION.
+
+1382--1399.
+
+ 1. Progress of the War with France. 1382--1386 278
+
+ 2. Richard's Growing Unpopularity. 1385--1386 278
+
+ 3. The Impeachment of Suffolk and the Commission
+ of Regency. 1386 279
+
+ 4. The Lords Appellant and the Merciless Parliament.
+ 1387--1388 279
+
+ 5. Richard's Restoration to Power. 1389 280
+
+ 6. Richard's Constitutional Government. 1389--1396 280
+
+ 7. Livery and Maintenance. 1390 281
+
+ 8. Richard's Domestic Policy. 1390--1391 281
+
+ 9. Richard's Foreign Policy. 1389--1396 282
+
+ 10. Richard's Coup d'Etat. 1397 282
+
+ 11. The Parliament of Shrewsbury. 1398 283
+
+ 12. The Banishment of Hereford and Norfolk. 1398 283
+
+ 13. Richard's Despotism. 1398--1399 283
+
+ 14. Henry of Lancaster in England. 1399 284
+
+ 15. The Deposition of Richard and the Enthronement
+ of Henry IV. 1399 285
+
+ 16. Nature of the Claim of Henry IV. 286
+
+
+PART IV.
+
+_LANCASTER, YORK, AND TUDOR._ 1399--1509.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+HENRY IV. AND HENRY V.
+
+HENRY IV., 1399--1413. HENRY V., 1413--1422.
+
+ 1. Henry's First Difficulties. 1399--1400 289
+
+ 2. Death of Richard II. 1400 291
+
+ 3. Henry IV. and the Church 291
+
+ 4. The Statute for the Burning of Heretics. 1401 292
+
+ 5. Henry IV. and Owen Glendower. 1400--1402 292
+
+ 6. The Rebellion of the Percies. 1402--1404 293
+
+ 7. The Commons and the Church. 1404 294
+
+ 8. The Capture of the Scottish Prince. 1405 295
+
+ 9. The Execution of Archbishop Scrope. 1405 296
+
+ 10. France, Wales, and the North. 1405--1408 296
+
+ 11. Henry, Prince of Wales. 1409--1410 297
+
+ 12. The Last Years of Henry IV. 1411-1413 298
+
+ 13. Henry V. and the Lollards. 1413-1414 299
+
+ 14. Henry's Claim to the Throne of France. 1414 300
+
+ 15. The Invasion of France. 1415 301
+
+ 16. The March to Agincourt. 1415 302
+
+ 17. The Battle of Agincourt, October 25, 1415 302
+
+ 18. Henry's Diplomacy. 1416-1417 303
+
+ 19. Henry's Conquest of Normandy. 1417-1419 303
+
+ 20. The Murder of the Duke of Burgundy and the
+ Treaty of Troyes. 1419-1420 304
+
+ 21. The Close of the Reign of Henry V. 1420-1422 306
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+HENRY VI. AND THE LOSS OF FRANCE. 1422-1451.
+
+ 1. Bedford and Gloucester. 1422 307
+
+ 2. Bedford's Success in France. 1423-1424 307
+
+ 3. Gloucester's Invasion of Hainault. 1424 308
+
+ 4. Gloucester and Beaufort. 1425-1428 308
+
+ 5. The Siege of Orleans. 1428-1429 309
+
+ 6. Jeanne Darc and the Relief of Orleans. 1429 310
+
+ 7. The Coronation of Charles VII. and the Capture
+ of the Maid. 1429-1430 311
+
+ 8. The Martyrdom at Rouen. 1431 312
+
+ 9. The Last Years of the Duke of Bedford. 1431-1435 312
+
+ 10. The Defection of Burgundy. 1435 313
+
+ 11. The Duke of York in France. 1436-1437 313
+
+ 12. The English Lose Ground. 1437-1443 313
+
+ 13. Continued Rivalry of Beaufort and Gloucester.
+ 1439-1441 314
+
+ 14. Beaufort and Somerset. 1442-1443 317
+
+ 15. The Angevin Marriage Treaty. 1444-1445 317
+
+ 16. Deaths of Gloucester and Beaufort. 1447 318
+
+ 17. The Loss of the French Provinces. 1448-1449 318
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+THE LATER YEARS OF HENRY VI. 1450-1461.
+
+ 1. The Growth of Inclosures 320
+
+ 2. Increasing Power of the Nobility 321
+
+ 3. Case of Lord Molynes and John Paston 321
+
+ 4. Suffolk's Impeachment and Murder. 1450 322
+
+ 5. Jack Cade's Rebellion. 1450 322
+
+ 6. Rivalry of York and Somerset. 1450-1453 323
+
+ 7. The First Protectorate of the Duke of York.
+ 1453-1454 323
+
+ 8. The First Battle of St. Albans and the Duke
+ of York's Second Protectorate 324
+
+ 9. Discomfiture of the Yorkists. 1456-1459 325
+
+ 10. The Battle of Northampton and the Duke of
+ York's Claim to the Throne. 1460 326
+
+ 11. The Battle of Wakefield. 1460 327
+
+ 12. The Battle of Mortimer's Cross and the Second
+ Battle of St. Albans. 1461 328
+
+ 13. The Battle of Towton and the Coronation of
+ Edward IV. 1461 328
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+THE YORKIST KINGS.
+
+1461--1485.
+
+ 1. Edward IV. and the House of Commons. 1461 329
+
+ 2. Loss of the Mediaeval Ideals 330
+
+ 3. Fresh Efforts of the Lancastrians. 1462--1465 331
+
+ 4. Edward's Marriage. 1464 331
+
+ 5. Estrangement of Warwick. 1465--1468 332
+
+ 6. Warwick's Alliance with Clarence. 1469--1470 332
+
+ 7. The Restoration of Henry VI. 1470 333
+
+ 8. Edward IV. recovers the Throne. 1471 334
+
+ 9. Edward IV. prepares for War with France.
+ 1471--1474 334
+
+ 10. The Invasion of France. 1475 336
+
+ 11. Fall and Death of Clarence. 1476--1478 336
+
+ 12. The Last Years of Edward IV. 1478--1483 336
+
+ 13. Edward V. and the Duke of Gloucester. 1483 337
+
+ 14. Fall of the Queen's Relations. 1483 338
+
+ 15. Execution of Lord Hastings 338
+
+ 16. Deposition of Edward V. 1483 340
+
+ 17. Buckingham's Rebellion. 1483 341
+
+ 18. Murder of the Princes. 1483 342
+
+ 19. Richard's Government. 1484--1485 342
+
+ 20. Richard Defeated and Slain at Bosworth. 1485 343
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+HENRY VII. 1485--1509.
+
+ 1. The First Measures of Henry VII. 1485--1486 343
+
+ 2. Maintenance and Livery 345
+
+ 3. Lovel's Rising. 1486 346
+
+ 4. Lancaster and York in Ireland. 1399--1485 346
+
+ 5. Insurrection of Lambert Simnel. 1487 347
+
+ 6. The Court of Star Chamber. 1487 348
+
+ 7. Henry VII. and Brittany. 1488--1492 348
+
+ 8. Cardinal Morton's Fork. 1491 349
+
+ 9. The Invasion of France. 1492 349
+
+ 10. Perkin Warbeck. 1491--1494 350
+
+ 11. Poynings' Acts. 1494 350
+
+ 12. Perkin's First Attempt on England. 1495 351
+
+ 13. The Intercursus Magnus. 1496 351
+
+ 14. Kildare Restored to the Deputyship. 1496 352
+
+ 15. Perkin's Overthrow. 1496--1497 352
+
+ 16. European Changes. 1494--1499 352
+
+ 17. Execution of the Earl of Warwick. 1499 354
+
+ 18. Prince Arthur's Marriage and Death. 1501--1502 354
+
+ 19. The Scottish Marriage. 1503 356
+
+ 20. Maritime Enterprise 356
+
+ 21. Growth of the Royal Power 356
+
+ 22. Empson and Dudley 357
+
+ 23. Henry and his Daughter-in-law. 1502--1505 357
+
+ 24. The Last Years of Henry VII. 1505--1509 357
+
+ 25. Architectural Changes and the Printing Press 358
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+ FIG. PAGE
+
+ 1. Palaeolithic flint scraper from Icklingham, Suffolk 2
+
+ 2. Palaeolithic flint implement from Hoxne, Suffolk 2
+ (_From Evans's_ 'Ancient Stone Implements')
+
+ 3. Engraved bone from Cresswell Crags, Derbyshire 3
+ (_From the original in the British Museum_)
+
+ 4. Neolithic flint arrow-head from Rudstone, Yorks 3
+
+ 5. Neolithic celt or cutting instrument from Guernsey 3
+
+ 6. Neolithic axe from Winterbourn Steepleton, Dorset 4
+ (_From Evans's_ 'Ancient Stone Implements')
+
+ 7. Example of early British pottery 4
+
+ 8. 9. Examples of early British pottery 5
+ (_From Greenwell's_ 'British Barrows')
+
+ 10. Bronze celt from the Isle of Harty, Kent 6
+
+ 11. Bronze lance-head found in Ireland 6
+
+ 12. Bronze caldron found in Ireland 6
+ (_From Evans's_ 'Ancient Bronze Implements')
+
+ 13. View of Stonehenge 7
+ (_From a photograph_)
+
+ 14. Part of a British gold corselet found at Mold, now
+ in the British Museum 9
+ (_From the_ 'Archaeologia')
+
+ 15. Bust of Julius Caesar 10
+ (_From the original in the British Museum_)
+
+ 16. Commemorative tablet of the Second Legion found at
+ Halton Chesters on the Roman Wall 17
+
+ 17. View of part of the Roman Wall 18
+
+ 18. Ruins of a mile-castle on the Roman Wall 18
+ (_From Bruce's_ 'Handbook to the Roman Wall,' 2nd
+ edition)
+
+ 19. Part of the Roman Wall at Leicester 19
+ (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 6th edition,
+ by J. H. Parker)
+
+ 20. Pediment of a Roman temple found at Bath 20
+ (_Reduced from the_ 'Archaeologia')
+
+ 21. Roman altar from Rutchester 21
+ (_From Bruce's_ 'Handbook to the Roman Wall', 2nd
+ edition)
+
+ 22. Plan of the city of Old Sarum 34
+ (_From the Ordnance Survey Plan_)
+
+ 23. View of Old Sarum 35
+ (_Reduced from Sir R. C. Hoare's_ 'History of
+ Modern Wiltshire. Old and New Sarum')
+
+ 24. Saxon church at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts 51
+ (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 6th edition,
+ by J. H. Parker)
+
+ 25. Saxon horsemen 53
+
+ 26. Group of Saxon warriors 53
+ (_From_ Harl. MS. 603)
+
+ 27. Remains of a viking ship from Gokstad 56
+ (_From a photograph of the original at Christiania_)
+
+ 28. Gold ring of AEthelwulf 57
+
+ 29. Gold jewel of AElfred found at Athelney 59
+ (_From_ 'Archaeological Journal')
+
+ 30. An English vessel 60
+
+ 31. A Saxon house 61
+ (_From_ Harl. MS. 603)
+
+ 32. A monk driven out of the King's presence 66
+ (_From a drawing belonging to the Society of
+ Antiquaries_)
+
+ 33. Rural life in the eleventh century. January to June 70
+
+ 34. Rural life in the eleventh century. July to December 71
+ (_From_ Cott. MS. Julius A. vi.)
+
+ 35. Plan and section of a burh of the eleventh century
+ at Laughton-en-le-Morthen, Yorks 74
+ (_From G. T. Clark's_ 'Mediaeval Military Architecture')
+
+ 37. Glass tumbler 76
+
+ 38. Drinking-glass 76
+
+ 39. Comb and case of Scandinavian type found at York 77
+ (_From the originals in the British Museum_)
+
+ 40. Martyrdom of St. Edmund by the Danes 82
+ (_From a drawing belonging to the Society of
+ Antiquaries_)
+
+ 41. First Great Seal of Eadward the Confessor (obverse) 86
+ (_From an original impression_)
+
+ 42. Hunting. (From the Bayeux Tapestry) 87
+ (_Reduced from_ 'Vetusta Monumenta,' vol. vi.)
+
+ 43. Tower in the earlier style, church at Earl's Barton 91
+
+ 44. Tower in the earlier style, St. Benet's church,
+ Cambridge 91
+ (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 6th edition,
+ by J. H. Parker)
+
+ 45. Building a church in the later style 92
+ (_From a drawing belonging to the Society of
+ Antiquaries_)
+
+ 46. Normans feasting; with Odo, bishop of Bayeux,
+ saying grace. 93
+ (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+ 47. Harold swearing upon the Relics. 94
+ (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+ 48. A Norman ship. 95
+ (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+ 49. Norman soldiers mounted. 95
+ (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+ 50. Group of archers on foot. 96
+ (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+ 51. Men fighting with axes. 97
+ (From the Bayeux Tapestry)
+
+ 52. Death of Harold. (From the Bayeux Tapestry) 98
+ (_Reduced from_ 'Vetusta Monumenta,' vol. vi.)
+
+ 53. Coronation of a king, _temp._ William the Conqueror 99
+ (_From a drawing belonging to the Society of
+ Antiquaries_)
+
+ 54. Silver penny of William the Conqueror, struck at
+ Romney 101
+ (_From an original specimen_)
+
+ 54. Silver penny of William the Conqueror, struck at
+ Romney 101
+ (_From an original specimen_)
+
+ 55. East end of Darenth church, Kent 107
+ (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 6th edition,
+ by J. H. Parker)
+
+ 56. Part of the nave of St. Alban's abbey church 109
+ (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+ 57. Facsimile of a part of Domesday Book relating to
+ Berkshire 112
+ (_From the original MS. in the Public Record Office_)
+
+ 58. Henry I. and his queen Matilda 123
+ (_From Hollis's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 59. Seal of Milo of Gloucester, showing mounted armed
+ figure in the reign of Henry I. 125
+ (_From an original impression_)
+
+ 60. Monument of Roger, bishop of Salisbury, died 1139 127
+ (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 61. Porchester church, Hampshire, built about 1135 128
+ (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 7th edition,
+ by J. H. Parker)
+
+ 62. Part of the nave of Durham cathedral, built about
+ 1130 130
+ (_From Scott's_ 'Mediaeval Architecture,' London, J.
+ Murray)
+
+ 63. Keep of Rochester castle, built between 1126 and
+ 1139 132
+ (_From a photograph by Poulton & Sons, Lee_)
+
+ 64. Keep of Castle Rising, built about 1140-50 133
+ (_From a photograph_)
+
+ 65. Tower of Castor church, Northamptonshire, built about
+ 1145 136
+ (_From Britton's_ 'Architectural Antiquities')
+
+ 66. Effigies of Henry II. and queen Eleanor 139
+ (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 67. Ecclesiastical costume in the twelfth century 142
+ (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero C. iv. f. 37)
+
+ 68. A bishop ordaining a priest 144
+
+ 69. Small ship of the latter part of the twelfth century 146
+ (_From_ 'Harley Roll,' Y. 6)
+
+ 70. Part of the choir of Canterbury cathedral, in building
+ 1175-1184 150
+ (_From Scott's_ 'Mediaeval Architecture,' London, J.
+ Murray)
+
+ 71. Mitre of archbishop Thomas of Canterbury, preserved
+ at Sens 153
+ (_From Shaw's_ 'Dresses and Decorations')
+
+ 72. Military and civil costume of the latter part of the
+ twelfth century 154
+ (_From_ 'Harley Roll,' Y. 6)
+
+ 73. Royal Arms of England from Richard I. to Edward III. 159
+ (_From the wall arcade, south aisle of nave,
+ Westminster Abbey_)
+
+ 74. The Galilee or Lady chapel, Durham cathedral,
+ built by bishop Hugh of Puiset, between 1180 and
+ 1197 160
+ (_From Scott's_ 'Mediaeval Architecture,' London, J.
+ Murray)
+
+ 75. Effigy of a knight in the Temple church, London,
+ showing armour of the end of the twelfth century 162
+ (_From Hollis's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 76. Effigies of Richard I. and queen Berengaria 164
+ (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 77. Part of the choir of Ripon cathedral, built during
+ the last quarter of the twelfth century 166
+ (_From Scott's_ 'Mediaeval Architecture,' London, J.
+ Murray)
+
+ 78. Lay costumes in the twelfth century 168
+
+ 79. Costume of shepherds in the twelfth century 168
+ (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero C. iv. ff. 11 and 16)
+
+ 80. Hall of Oakham castle, Rutland, built about 1185 170
+ (_From Hudson Turner's_ 'Domestic Architecture')
+
+ 81. Norman house at Lincoln, called the Jews' House 171
+ (_From a photograph by Carl Norman, Tunbridge Wells_)
+
+ 82. Effigies of king John and queen Isabella 175
+ (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 83. Effigy of bishop Marshall of Exeter, died 1206 177
+ (_From Murray's_ 'Handbook to the Southern Cathedrals')
+
+ 84. Parsonage house of early thirteenth-century date at
+ West Dean, Sussex 179
+ (_From Hudson Turner's_ 'Domestic Architecture')
+
+ 85. Effigy of a knight in the Temple church, London,
+ showing armour worn between 1190 and 1225 182
+ (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 86. Silver penny of John, struck at Dublin 184
+ (_From an original example_)
+
+ 87. Effigy of Henry III. (From his tomb at Westminster) 186
+
+ 88. Effigy of William Longespee, earl of Salisbury,
+ died 1227, from his tomb at Salisbury, showing armour
+ worn from about 1225 to 1250 187
+ (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 89. Effigy of Simon, bishop of Exeter, died 1223 188
+ (_From Murray's_ 'Handbook to the Southern Cathedrals')
+
+ 90. Beverley Minster, Yorkshire, the south transept;
+ built about 1220--1230 189
+ (_From Britton's_ 'Architectural Antiquities')
+
+ 91. Longthorpe manor house, Northamptonshire, built
+ about 1235 192
+ (_From Hudson Turner's_ 'Domestic Architecture')
+
+ 92. A ship in the reign of Henry III. 193
+
+ 93. A bed in the reign of Henry III. 196
+ (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero D. i. ff. 21 and 22 _b_)
+
+ 94. Barn of thirteenth-century date at Raunds,
+ Northamptonshire 197
+ (_From Hudson Turner's_ 'Domestic Architecture')
+
+ 95. A fight between armed and mounted knights of the time
+ of Henry III. 201
+ (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero D. i. f. 4)
+
+ 96. Seal of Robert Fitzwalter, showing a mounted knight
+ in complete mail armour; date about 1265 202
+ (_From an original impression_)
+
+ 97. Effigy of a knight at Gosperton, showing armour worn
+ from about 1250 to 1300; date about 1270 203
+ (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 98. Building operations in the reign of Henry III., with
+ the king giving directions to the architect 204
+ (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero D. i. f. 23 _b_)
+
+ 99. East end of Westminster abbey church; begun by
+ Henry III. in 1245 205
+ (_From a photograph_)
+
+ 100. Nave of Salisbury cathedral church, looking west;
+ date, between 1240 and 1250 206
+ (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+ 101. A king and labourers in the reign of Henry III. 207
+ (_From_ Cott. MS. Nero D. i. f. 21 _b_)
+
+ 102. Great Seal of Edward I. (slightly reduced) 209
+ (_From an original impression_)
+
+ 103. Group of armed knights and a king in ordinary
+ dress; date, _temp._ Edward I. 211
+ (_From_ Arundel MS. 83, f. 132)
+
+ 104. Nave of Lichfield cathedral church, looking east;
+ built about 1280 213
+ (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+ 105. Effigy of Eleanor of Castile, queen of Edward I.,
+ in Westminster abbey 215
+ (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 106. Cross erected near Northampton by Edward I. in
+ memory of queen Eleanor 217
+ (_From a photograph_)
+
+ 107. Sir John d'Abernoun, died 1277, from his brass at
+ Stoke Dabernon; showing armour worn from about 1250
+ to 1300 219
+ (_From Waller's_ 'Monumental Brasses')
+
+ 108. Edward II. from his monument in Gloucester cathedral 225
+ (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 109. Lincoln cathedral, the central tower; built about
+ 1310 227
+ (_From Britton's_ 'Architectural Antiquities')
+
+ 110. Sir John de Creke, from his brass at Westley
+ Waterless, Cambridgeshire; showing armour worn
+ between 1300 and 1335 or 1340; date, about 1325 229
+ (_From Waller's_ 'Monumental Brasses')
+
+ 111. Howden church, Yorkshire, the west front 230
+ (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 7th
+ edition, by J. H. Parker)
+
+ 112. Effigies of Edward III. and queen Philippa, from
+ their tombs in Westminster abbey 233
+ (_From Blore's_ 'Monumental Remains')
+
+ 113. A knight--Sir Geoffrey Luttrell, who died
+ 1345--receiving his helm and pennon from his wife;
+ another lady holds his shield 236
+ (_From the Luttrell Psalter_, 'Vetusta Monumenta')
+
+ 114. William of Hatfield, second son of Edward III.,
+ from his tomb in York Minster 237
+ (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 115. York Minster, the nave, looking west 238
+ (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+ 116. Royal Arms of Edward III., from his tomb 239
+ (_From a photograph_)
+
+ 117. Shooting at the butts with the long bow 241
+
+ 118. Contemporary view of a fourteenth-century walled
+ town 243
+ (_From the Luttrell Psalter_, 'Vetusta Monumenta')
+
+ 119. Gloucester cathedral church, the choir, looking east 244
+ (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+ 120. The lord's upper chamber or solar at Sutton Courtenay
+ manor-house; date, about 1350 245
+
+ 121. Interior of the hall at Penshurst, Kent; built about
+ 1340 246
+
+ 122. A small house or cottage at Meare, Somerset; built
+ about 1350 247
+
+ 123. Norborough Hall, Northamptonshire; built about 1350 247
+ (_From Hudson Turner's_ 'Domestic Architecture')
+
+ 124. Ploughing 248
+
+ 125. Harrowing; and a boy slinging stones at the birds 248
+
+ 126. Breaking the clods with mallets 249
+
+ 127. Cutting weeds 249
+
+ 128. Reaping 249
+
+ 129. Stacking corn 250
+
+ 130. Threshing corn with a flail 250
+ (_From the Luttrell Psalter_, 'Vetusta Monumenta')
+
+ 131. West front of Edington church, Wilts; built about
+ 1360 253
+ (_From Rickman's_ 'Gothic Architecture,' 7th edition,
+ by J. H. Parker)
+
+ 132. Gold noble of Edward III. 255
+ (_From an original example_)
+
+ 133. Effigy of Edward the Black Prince; from his tomb at
+ Canterbury 256
+ (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 134. William of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester
+ 1367-1404; from his tomb at Winchester 260
+ (_From Murray's_ 'Handbook to the Southern Cathedrals')
+
+ 135. Tomb of Edward III. in Westminster abbey 263
+ (_From Blore's_ 'Monumental Remains')
+
+ 136. Figures of Edward the Black Prince and Lionel
+ duke of Clarence; from the tomb of Edward III. 264
+ (_From Hollis's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 137. Richard II. and his first queen, Anne of Bohemia;
+ from their tomb in Westminster abbey 267
+ (_From Hollis's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 138. Portrait of Geoffrey Chaucer 270
+ (_From Harl MS. 4866_)
+
+ 139. A gentleman riding out with his hawk 271
+
+ 140. Carrying corn, a cart going uphill 272
+
+ 141. State carriage of the fourteenth century 273
+
+ 142. Bear-baiting 275
+ (_From the Luttrell Psalter_, 'Vetusta Monumenta')
+
+ 143. West end of the nave of Winchester cathedral church 276
+ (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+ 144. Meeting of Henry of Lancaster and Richard II. at
+ Flint 284
+
+ 145. Henry of Lancaster claiming the throne 285
+ (_From Harl MS. 1319_)
+
+ 146. Effigy of a knight at Clehonger, showing development
+ of plate armour; date about 1400 287
+ (_From Hollis's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 147. Henry IV. and his queen Joan of Navarre; from their
+ tomb in Canterbury cathedral church 290
+ (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 148. Royal arms as borne from about 1408 to 1603 291
+ (_From a fifteenth-century seal_)
+
+ 149. Thomas Cranley, archbishop of Dublin; from his
+ brass at New College, Oxford, showing the
+ archiepiscopal costume 292
+ (_From Waller's_ 'Monumental Brasses')
+
+ 150. The Battle of Shrewsbury 294
+
+ 151. Fight in the lists with poleaxes 297
+ (_From_ Cott. MS. Julius E. iv. ff. 4 and 7)
+
+ 152. Costume of a judge about 1400; from a brass at
+ Deerhurst 298
+ (_From Waller's_ 'Monumental Brasses')
+
+ 153. Henry V. 300
+ (_From an original portrait belonging to the Society
+ of Antiquaries_)
+
+ 154. Effigy of William Phelip, lord Bardolph; from
+ his tomb at Dennington, Suffolk 304
+ (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 155. Marriage of Henry V. and Catherine of France 305
+ (_From_ Cott. MS. Julius E. iv. f. 22)
+
+ 156. Henry VI. 308
+ (_From an original picture in the National Portrait
+ Gallery_)
+
+ 157. Fotheringay church, Northamptonshire; begun in 1434 311
+ (_From a photograph by G. A. Nichols, Stamford_)
+
+ 158. and 159. Front and back views of the gilt-latten
+ effigy of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, died
+ 1439; from his tomb at Warwick 314, 315
+ (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 160. Tattershall castle, Lincolnshire; built between 1433
+ and 1455 316
+ (_From a photograph by G. A. Nichols, Stamford_)
+
+ 161. Part of Winfield manor-house, Derbyshire; built
+ about 1440 318
+ (_From a photograph by R. Keene, Derby_)
+
+ 162. The Divinity School, Oxford; built between 1445 and
+ 1454 319
+ (_From a photograph by W. H. Wheeler, Oxford_)
+
+ 163. A sea-fight 325
+ (_From_ Cott. MS. Julius E. iv. f. 18 _b_)
+
+ 164. Effigy of Sir Robert Harcourt, K.G., showing
+ armour worn from about 1445 to 1480 326
+ (_From Stothard's_ 'Monumental Effigies')
+
+ 165. Edward IV. 330
+ (_From an original portrait belonging to the Society
+ of Antiquaries_)
+
+ 166. A fifteenth-century ship 333
+ (_From_ Harl. MS. 2278, f. 16)
+
+ 167. Large ship and boat of the fifteenth century 339
+ (_From_ Cott. MS. Julius E. iv. f. 5)
+
+ 168. Richard III. 341
+ (_From an original portrait belonging to the Society
+ of Antiquaries_)
+
+ 169. Henry VII. 344
+
+ 170. Elizabeth of York, queen of Henry VII. 345
+ (_From original pictures in the National Portrait
+ Gallery_)
+
+ 171. Tudor Rose; from the chapel of Henry VII.,
+ Westminster 346
+
+ 172. Tower of St. Mary's church, Taunton; built about 1500 353
+ (_From Britton's_ 'Architectural Antiquities')
+
+ 173. King's College Chapel, Cambridge; interior, looking
+ east 355
+ (_From a photograph by Valentine & Sons, Dundee_)
+
+
+
+
+GENEALOGICAL TABLES
+
+
+I
+
+_ENGLISH KINGS FROM ECGBERHT TO HENRY I._
+
+
+ ECGBERHT
+ 802-839
+ |
+ |
+ AETHELWULF
+ 839-858
+ |
+ +---------------+--------+--------+-----------------+
+ | | | |
+ | | | |
+ AETHELBALD AETHELBERHT AETHELRED AELFRED
+ 858-86 860-866 866-871 871-901
+ |
+ |
+ +---------------------------------------------+
+ | |
+ | |
+ EADWARD AEthelflaed = AEthelred
+ the Elder (the Lady of Ealdorman
+ 899-924 the of the
+ | Mercians) Mercians
+ |
+ |
+ +--------------------+--------------------+
+ | | |
+ | | |
+ AETHELSTAN EADMUND EADRED
+ 924-940 940-946 946-955
+ |
+ |
+ +---------------------------+
+ | |
+ EADWIG AEthelflaed = EADGAR = AElfthryth
+ 955-959 | 959-975 |
+ | |
+ | | Richard I. Svend
+ | | Duke of |
+ | | Normandy |
+ | | | |
+ | | | |
+ +----------------+ | | |
+ | | | |
+ EADWARD AElfled = AETHELRED = EMMA = CNUT
+ the Martyr | the | 1016-1035
+ 975-979 | Unready | |
+ | 979-1016 | |
+ +---------------------------------+ | |
+ | | +------+-----+
+ | | | |
+ EADMUND | | |
+ Ironside | HAROLD HARTHACNUT
+ 1016 | 1036-1039 1039-1042
+ | |
+ | |
+ | | Godwine
+ | | |
+ | | |
+ | | +------------+
+ +----+-------+ +-------------+ | |
+ | | | | | |
+ Eadmund Eadward AElfred EADWARD = Eadgyth HAROLD
+ the AEtheling the the 1066
+ | AEtheling Confessor
+ | 1042-1066
+ +------+------+
+ | |
+ Eadgar Margaret = Malcolm Canmore
+ the AEtheling |
+ |
+ Eadgyth = HENRY I.
+ (Matilda) 1100-1135
+
+
+II
+
+_GENEALOGY OF THE NORMAN DUKES AND OF THE KINGS OF ENGLAND FROM THE
+CONQUEST TO HENRY VII._
+
+
+ Hrolf
+ 912-927 (?)
+ |
+ |
+ William Longsword
+ 927 (?)-943
+ |
+ |
+ Richard I., the Fearless
+ 943-996
+ |
+ |
+ +-------------+----------------+
+ | |
+ | |
+ Richard II., the Good Emma = (1) AEthelred
+ 996-1026 | the Unready
+ | |
+ | |
+ +-------+--------+ |
+ | | |
+ | | |
+ Richard III. Robert EADWARD
+ 1026-1028 1028-1035 the Confessor
+ )
+ (
+ )
+ WILLIAM I
+ 1035-1087
+ King of England
+ 1066-1087
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ +--------------+---+-------+-----------------+
+ | | | |
+ | | | |
+ Robert WILLIAM II HENRY I. Adela = Stephen
+ Duke of 1087-1100 1100-1135 | Count of
+ Normandy | | Blois
+ 1087-1106 | |
+ | |
+ Henry V. = Matilda = Geoffrey STEPHEN
+ Emperor | Count of 1135-1154
+ | Anjou
+ |
+ HENRY II.
+ 1154-1189
+ |
+ +--------------+
+ |
+ +-----------+------+------+------------+
+ | | | |
+ Henry Geoffrey RICHARD I. JOHN
+ 1189-1199 1199-1216
+ |
+ |
+ HENRY III.
+ 1216-1272
+ |
+ +---------------+
+ |
+ EDWARD I.
+ 1272-1307
+ |
+ |
+ EDWARD II.
+ 1307-1327
+ |
+ |
+ EDWARD III
+ 1327-1377
+ |
+ +---------------+----+------------------+----------------+
+ | | | |
+ | | | |
+ Edward the Lionel John of Gaunt Edmund
+ Black Prince Duke of Clarence Duke of Lancaster Duke of York
+ | | | |
+ RICHARD II. Philippa = Edmund HENRY IV. |
+ 1377-1399 | Mortimer 1399-1412 |
+ | Earl of | |
+ | March HENRY V. |
+ | 1413-1422 |
+ Roger, Earl of March | |
+ | HENRY VI. |
+ | 1422-1461 |
+ | |
+ +--------+--+ +-------------------------+
+ | | |
+ | | |
+ Edmund Anne = Richard
+ Earl of March | Earl of Cambridge
+ |
+ Richard, Duke of York
+ |
+ |
+ +-----------+----------+
+ | |
+ | |
+ EDWARD IV. RICHARD III.
+ 1461-1483 1483-1485
+ |
+ |
+ +------+------------+
+ | |
+ EDWARD V. Elizabeth = HENRY VII.
+ 1483 1485-1509
+ (Descended from
+ John of Gaunt by
+ Catherine Swynford)
+
+
+III
+
+_GENEALOGY OF THE KINGS OF SCOTLAND FROM DUNCAN I. TO JAMES IV._
+
+
+ DUNCAN I.
+ (died 1057)
+ |
+ +--------+-----------------+
+ | |
+ Margaret = MALCOLM III.~~~~~~~~~ DONALD BANE
+ sister of | Canmore ) 1093-1094,
+ Edgar | 1057-1093 ( restored
+ AEtheling | ) 1095-1098
+ | (
+ | DUNCAN II.
+ +--------+--+-----------+ 1094-1095
+ | | |
+ EDGAR ALEXANDER I. DAVID I.
+ 1098-1107 1107-1124 1124-1153
+ |
+ Henry
+ |
+ +-----------+-----------+--------+
+ | | |
+ MALCOLM IV. WILLIAM David
+ 1153-1165 the Lion Earl of Huntingdon
+ 1165-1214 |
+ | +--+---------------------+
+ | | |
+ ALEXANDER II. Margaret Isabella
+ 1214-1249 | |
+ Devorguilla = John Balliol Robert Bruce
+ ALEXANDER III. | |
+ 1249-1285 JOHN BALLIOL Robert Bruce
+ | 1292-1296 |
+ Margaret = Eric, ROBERT BRUCE
+ | King of 1306-1329
+ | Norway |
+ | +-------------+-+
+ | | |
+ Margaret DAVID II. Margaret = Walter
+ (the Maid of 1329-1370 | Stewart
+ Norway) |
+ +-------------------------+
+ |
+ ROBERT II., Stewart or Stuart
+ 1370-1390
+ |
+ ROBERT III.
+ 1390-1406
+ |
+ JAMES I.
+ 1406-1437
+ |
+ JAMES II.
+ 1437-1460
+ |
+ JAMES III.
+ 1460-1488
+ |
+ JAMES IV.
+ 1488-1513
+
+
+IV
+
+_GENEALOGY OF THE KINGS OF FRANCE FROM HUGH CAPET TO LOUIS XII._
+
+
+ Hugh the Great
+ (died 956)
+ |
+ HUGH CAPET
+ 987-996
+ |
+ ROBERT
+ 996-1031
+ |
+ HENRY I.
+ 1031-1060
+ |
+ PHILIP I.
+ 1060-1108
+ |
+ LOUIS VI.
+ 1108-1137
+ |
+ LOUIS VII.
+ 1137-1180
+ |
+ PHILIP II.
+ 1180-1223
+ |
+ LOUIS VIII.
+ 1223-1226
+ |
+ (St.) LOUIS IX
+ 1226-1270
+ |
+ PHILIP III.
+ 1270-1285
+ |
+ +---------------------------------+
+ | |
+ PHILIP IV. Charles
+ 1283-1314 of Valois
+ | |
+ +---------------+---+--------+------------+ |
+ | | | | PHILIP VI
+ LOUIS X. PHILIP V. CHARLES IV. Isabella 1328-1350
+ 1314-1316 1316-1322 1322-1328 m. Edward II. |
+ | | | |
+ +--+---+ | | |
+ | | Two Edward III. JOHN
+ Jeanne JOHN daughters 1350-1364
+ (died seven |
+ days old) |
+ +-----------------------------+---+
+ | |
+ CHARLES V. Dukes of Burgundy
+ 1364-1380 Philip
+ | |
+ +---------------------+ |
+ | | John
+ CHARLES VI. Louis |
+ 1380-1422 Duke of Orleans Philip
+ | | |
+ CHARLES VII. Charles Charles
+ 1422-1461 Duke of Orleans
+ | |
+ LOUIS XI. LOUIS XII.
+ 1461-1483 1498-1519
+ |
+ CHARLES VIII.
+ 1483-1498
+
+
+_SHORTER AND SOMETIMES MORE DETAILED GENEALOGIES will be found in the
+following pages._
+
+
+ PAGE
+
+ Genealogy of the principal Northumbrian kings 41
+
+ " " English kings from Ecgberht to Eadgar 56
+
+ " " English kings from Eadgar to Eadgar the AEtheling 78
+
+ " " Danish kings 83
+
+ Genealogical connection between the Houses of England and
+ Normandy 84
+
+ Genealogy of the Mercian Earls 85
+
+ " " family of Godwine 89
+
+ " " Conqueror's sons and children 131
+
+ " " sons and grandchildren of Henry II. 156
+
+ " " John's sons and grandsons 208
+
+ " " claimants of the Scottish throne 216
+
+ " " more important sons of Edward III. 265
+
+ " " claimants of the throne in 1399 286
+
+ " " kings of Scotland from Robert Bruce to James I. 295
+
+ " " Nevills 324
+
+ " " Houses of Lancaster and York 327
+
+ " " Beauforts and Tudors 335
+
+ " " House of York 337
+
+ " " Woodvilles and Greys 338
+
+ Abbreviated genealogy of Henry VII. and his competitors 344
+
+ Genealogy of the Houses of Spain and Burgundy 349
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
+
+
+PART I.
+
+_ENGLAND BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+PREHISTORIC AND ROMAN BRITAIN.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+ Caesar's first invasion B.C. 55
+ Invasion of Aulus Plautius A.D. 43
+ Recall of Agricola 84
+ Severus in Britain 208
+ End of the Roman Government 410
+
+
+1. =Palaeolithic Man of the River-Drift.=--Countless ages ago, there
+was a period of time to which geologists have given the name of the
+Pleistocene Age. The part of the earth's surface afterwards called
+Britain was then attached to the Continent, so that animals could pass
+over on dry land. The climate was much colder than it is now, and it
+is known from the bones which have been dug up that the country was
+inhabited by wolves, bears, mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses, and other
+creatures now extinct. No human remains have been found amongst these
+bones, but there is no doubt that men existed contemporaneously with
+their deposit, because, in the river drift, or gravel washed down by
+rivers, there have been discovered flints sharpened by chipping, which
+can only have been produced by the hand of man. The men who used them
+are known as Palaeolithic, or the men of ancient stone, because these
+stone implements are rougher and therefore older than others which
+have been discovered. These Palaeolithic men of the river drift were a
+race of stunted savages who did not cultivate the ground, but lived on
+the animals which they killed, and must have had great difficulty in
+procuring food, as they did not know how to make handles for their
+sharpened flints, and must therefore have had to hold them in their
+hands.
+
+[Illustration: Palaeolithic flint scraper from Icklingham, Suffolk.
+(Evans.)]
+
+[Illustration: Palaeolithic flint implement from Hoxne, Suffolk.]
+
+2. =Cave-dwelling Palaeolithic Man.=--This race was succeeded by
+another which dwelt in caves. They, as well as their predecessors, are
+known as Palaeolithic men, as their weapons were still very rude. As,
+however, they had learnt to make handles for them, they could
+construct arrows, harpoons, and javelins. They also made awls and
+needles of stone; and, what is more remarkable, they possessed a
+decided artistic power, which enabled them to indicate by a few
+vigorous scratches the forms of horses, mammoths, reindeer, and other
+animals. Vast heaps of rubbish still exist in various parts of Europe,
+which are found to consist of the bones, shells, and other refuse
+thrown out by these later Palaeolithic men, who had no reverence for
+the dead, casting out the bodies of their relations to decay with as
+little thought as they threw away oyster-shells or reindeer-bones.
+Traces of Palaeolithic men of this type have been found as far north as
+Derbyshire. Their descendants are no longer be met with in these
+islands. The Eskimos of the extreme north of America, however, have
+the same artistic faculty and the same disregard for the dead, and it
+has therefore been supposed that the cave-dwelling men were of the
+race to which the modern Eskimos belong.
+
+[Illustration: Engraved bone from Cresswell Crags, Derbyshire, now in
+the British Museum (full size).]
+
+[Illustration: Neolithic flint arrow-head from Rudstone, Yorks.
+(Evans.)]
+
+[Illustration: Neolithic celt or cutting instrument from Guernsey.
+(Evans.)]
+
+[Illustration: Neolithic axe from Winterbourn Steepleton, Dorset.
+(Evans.)]
+
+[Illustration: Early British Pottery.]
+
+3. =Neolithic Man.=--Ages passed away during which the climate became
+more temperate, and the earth's surface in these regions sank to a
+lower level. The seas afterwards known as the North Sea and the
+English Channel flowed over the depression; and an island was thus
+formed out of land which had once been part of the continent. After
+this process had taken place, a third race appeared, which must have
+crossed the sea in rafts or canoes, and which took the place of the
+Palaeolithic men. They are known as Neolithic, or men of the new stone
+age, because their stone implements were of a newer kind, being
+polished and more efficient than those of their predecessors. They
+had, therefore, the advantage of superior weapons, and perhaps of
+superior strength, and were able to overpower those whom they found in
+the island. With their stone axes they made clearings in the woods in
+which to place their settlements. They brought with them domestic
+animals, sheep and goats, dogs and pigs. They spun thread with spindle
+and distaff, and wove it into cloth upon a loom. They grew corn and
+manufactured a rude kind of pottery. Each tribe lived in a state of
+war with its neighbours. A tribe when attacked in force took shelter
+on the hills in places of refuge, which were surrounded by lofty
+mounds and ditches. Many of these places of refuge are still to be
+seen, as, for instance, the one which bears the name of Maiden Castle,
+near Dorchester. On the open hills, too, are still to be found the
+long barrows which the Neolithic men raised over the dead. There is
+little doubt that these men, whose way of life was so superior to that
+of their Eskimo-like predecessors, were of the race now known as
+Iberian, which at one time inhabited a great part of Western Europe,
+but which has since mingled with other races. The Basques of the
+Pyrenees are the only Iberians who still preserve anything like purity
+of descent, though even the Basques have in them blood the origin of
+which is not Iberian.
+
+[Illustration: Early British Pottery.]
+
+4. =Celts and Iberians.=--The Iberians were followed by a swarm of
+new-comers called Celts. The Celts belong to a group of races
+sometimes known as the Aryan group, to which also belong Teutons,
+Slavonians, Italians, Greeks, and the chief ancient races of Persia
+and India. The Celts were the first to arrive in the West, where they
+seized upon lands in Spain, in Gaul, and in Britain, which the
+Iberians had occupied before them. They did not, however, destroy the
+Iberians altogether. However careful a conquering tribe maybe to
+preserve the purity of its blood, it rarely succeeds in doing so. The
+conquerors are sure to preserve some of the men of the conquered race
+as slaves, and a still larger number of young and comely women who
+become the mothers of their children. In time the slaves and the
+children learn to speak the language of their masters or fathers. Thus
+every European population is derived from many races.
+
+[Illustration: Bronze celt from the Isle of Harty, Kent (1/2).]
+
+5. =The Celts in Britain.=--The Celts were fair-haired and taller than
+the Iberians, whom they conquered or displaced. They had the advantage
+of being possessed of weapons of bronze, for which even the polished
+stone weapons of the Iberians were no match. They burned instead of
+burying their dead, and raised over the ashes those round barrows
+which are still to be found intermingled with the long barrows of the
+Iberians.
+
+[Illustration: Bronze lance-head found in Ireland.]
+
+[Illustration: Bronze caldron found in Ireland.]
+
+6. =Goidels and Britons.=--The earliest known name given to this
+island was Albion. It is uncertain whether the word is of Celtic or of
+Iberian origin. The later name Britain is derived from a second swarm
+of Celts called Brythons or Britons, who after a long interval
+followed the first Celtic immigration. The descendants of these first
+immigrants are distinguished from the new-comers by the name of
+Goidels, and it is probable that they were at one time settled in
+Britain as well as in Ireland, and that they were pushed across the
+sea into Ireland by the stronger and more civilised Britons. At all
+events, when history begins Goidels were only to be found in Ireland,
+though at a later time they colonised a part of what is now known as
+Scotland, and sent some offshoots into Wales. At present the languages
+derived from that of the Goidels are the Gaelic of the Highlands, the
+Manx of the Isle of Man, and the Erse of Ireland. The only language
+now spoken in the British Isles which is derived from that of the
+Britons is the Welsh; but the old Cornish language, which was spoken
+nearly up to the close of the eighteenth century, came from the same
+stock. It is therefore likely that the Britons pushed the Goidels
+northward and westward, as the Goidels had formerly pushed the
+Iberians in the same directions. It was most likely that the Britons
+erected the huge stone circle of Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain, though
+it is not possible to speak with certainty. That of Avebury is of an
+earlier date and uncertain origin. Both were probably intended to
+serve as monuments of the dead, though it is sometimes supposed that
+they were also used as temples.
+
+[Illustration: View of Stonehenge. (From a photograph.)]
+
+7. =Phoenicians and Greeks.=--The most civilised nations of the
+ancient world were those which dwelt round the Mediterranean Sea. It
+was long supposed that the Phoenicians came to Britain from the coast
+of Syria, or from their colonies at Carthage and in the south of
+Spain, for the tin which they needed for the manufacture of bronze.
+The peninsula of Devon and Cornwall is the only part of the island
+which produces tin, and it has therefore been thought that the
+Cassiterides, or tin islands, which the Phoenicians visited, were to
+be found in that region. It has, however, been recently shown that the
+Cassiterides were most probably off the coast of Galicia, in Spain,
+and the belief that Phoenicians visited Britain for tin must therefore
+be considered to be very doubtful. The first educated visitor who
+reached Britain was Pytheas, a Greek, who was sent by the merchants of
+the Greek colony of Massalia (_Marseilles_) about =330= B.C. to make
+discoveries which might lead to the opening across Gaul of a
+trade-route between Britain and their city. It was probably in
+consequence of the information which he carried to Massalia on his
+return that there sprang up a trade in British tin. Another Greek,
+Posidonius, who came to Britain about two centuries after Pytheas,
+found this trade in full working order. The tin was brought by land
+from the present Devon or Cornwall to an island called Ictis, which
+was only accessible on foot after the tide had ebbed. This island was
+probably Thanet, which was in those days cut off from the mainland by
+an arm of the sea which could be crossed on foot at low water. From
+Thanet the tin was carried into Gaul across the straits, and was then
+conveyed in waggons to the Rhone to be floated down to the
+Mediterranean.
+
+8. =Gauls and Belgians in Britain.=--During the time when this trade
+was being carried on, tribes of Gauls and Belgians landed in Britain.
+The Gauls were certainly, and the Belgians probably, of the same
+Celtic race as that which already occupied the island. The Gauls
+settled on the east coast as far as the Fens and the Wash, whilst the
+Belgians occupied the south coast, and pushed northwards towards the
+Somerset Avon. Nothing is known of the relations between the
+new-comers and the older Celtic inhabitants. Most likely those who
+arrived last contented themselves with mastering those whom they
+defeated, without attempting to exterminate them. At all events,
+states of some extent were formed by the conquerors. Thus the Cantii
+occupied the open ground to the north of the great forest which then
+filled the valley between the chalk ranges of the North and South
+Downs; the Trinobantes dwelt between the Lea and the Essex Stour; the
+Iceni occupied the peninsula between the Fens and the sea which was
+afterwards known as East Anglia (_Norfolk_ and _Suffolk_); and the
+Catuvellauni dwelt to the west of the Trinobantes, spreading over the
+modern Hertfordshire and the neighbouring districts.
+
+[Illustration: Part of a British gold corselet found at Mold.]
+
+9. =Culture and War.=--Though there were other states in Britain, the
+tribes which have been named had the advantage of being situated on
+the south-eastern part of the island, and therefore of being in
+commercial communication with the continental Gauls of their own race
+and language. Trade increased, and brought with it the introduction of
+some things which the Britons would not have invented for themselves.
+For instance, the inhabitants of the south-east of Britain began to
+use gold coins and decorations in imitation of those which were then
+common in Gaul. Yet, in spite of these improvements, even the most
+civilised Britons were still in a rude and barbarous condition. They
+had no towns, but dwelt in scattered huts. When they were hard pressed
+by an enemy they took refuge in an open space cleared in the woods,
+and surrounded by a high earthwork crowned by a palisade and guarded
+by felled trees. When they went out to battle they dyed their faces in
+order to terrify their enemies. Their warriors made use of chariots,
+dashing in them along the front of the enemy's line till they espied
+an opening in his ranks. They then leapt down and charged on foot into
+the gap. Their charioteers in the meanwhile drove off the horses to a
+safe distance, so as to be ready to take up their comrades if the
+battle went against them.
+
+10. =Religion of the Britons.=--The Celtic races worshipped many gods.
+In Gaul, the Druids, who were the ministers of religion, taught the
+doctrine of the transmigration of souls, and even gave moral
+instruction to the young. In Ireland, and perhaps in Britain, they
+were conjurers and wizards. Both in Gaul and Britain they kept up the
+traditional belief which had once been prevalent in all parts of the
+world, that the gods could only be appeased by human sacrifices. It
+was supposed that they needed either to drink human blood or to be
+supplied with human slaves, and that the only way to give them what
+they wanted was to despatch as many human beings as possible into the
+other world. The favourite way of doing this was to construct a huge
+wicker basket in the shape of a man, to cram it with men and women,
+and to set it on fire. At other times a Druid would cut open a single
+human victim, and would imagine that he could foretell the future by
+inspecting the size and appearance of the entrails.
+
+[Illustration: Julius Caesar. (From a bust in the British Museum.)]
+
+11. =The Romans in Gaul.= B.C. =55=.--In the year =55= B.C. the Celts
+of south-eastern Britain first came in contact with a Roman army. The
+Romans were a civilised people, and had been engaged for some
+centuries in conquering the peoples living round the Mediterranean.
+They possessed disciplined armies, and a regular government. By the
+beginning of the year the Roman general, Gaius Julius Caesar, had made
+himself master of Gaul. Then, after driving back with enormous
+slaughter two German tribes which had invaded Gaul, he crossed the
+Rhine, not because he wished to conquer Germany, but because he wished
+to strike terror into the Germans in order to render them unwilling
+to renew their attack. This march into Germany seems to have suggested
+to Caesar the idea of invading Britain. It is most unlikely that he
+thought of conquering the island, as he had quite enough to do in
+Gaul. What he really wanted was to prevent the Britons from coming to
+the help of their kindred whom he had just subdued, and he would
+accomplish this object best by landing on their shores and showing
+them how formidable a Roman army was.
+
+12. =Caesar's First Invasion.= B.C. =55=.--Accordingly, towards the end
+of August, Caesar crossed the straits with about 10,000 men. There is
+some uncertainty about the place of his landing, but he probably first
+appeared off the spot at which Dover now stands, and then, being
+alarmed at the number of the Britons who had crowded to defend the
+coast, made his way by sea to the site of the modern Deal. There, too,
+his landing was opposed, but he managed to reach the shore with his
+army. He soon found, however, that the season was too advanced to
+enable him to accomplish anything. A storm having damaged his shipping
+and driven off the transports on which was embarked his cavalry, he
+returned to Gaul.
+
+13. =Caesar's Second Invasion.= B.C. =54=--Caesar had hitherto failed to
+strike terror into the Britons. In the following year he started in
+July, so as to have many weeks of fine weather before him, taking with
+him as many as 25,000 foot and 2,000 horse. After effecting a landing
+he pushed inland to the Kentish Stour, where he defeated the natives
+and captured one of their stockades. Good soldiers as the Romans were,
+they were never quite at home on the sea, and Caesar was recalled to
+the coast by the news that the waves had dashed to pieces a large
+number of his ships. As soon as he had repaired the damage he resumed
+his march. His principal opponent was Cassivelaunus, the chief of the
+tribe of the Catuvellauni, who had subdued many of the neighbouring
+tribes, and whose stronghold was a stockade near the modern St.
+Albans. This chief and his followers harassed the march of the Romans
+with the rush of their chariots. If Cassivelaunus could have counted
+upon the continued support of all his warriors, he might perhaps have
+succeeded in forcing Caesar to retreat, as the country was covered with
+wood and difficult to penetrate. Many of the tribes, however, which
+now served under him longed to free themselves from his rule. First,
+the Trinobantes and then four other tribes broke away from him and
+sought the protection of Caesar. Caesar, thus encouraged, dashed at his
+stockade and carried it by storm. Cassivelaunus abandoned the
+struggle, gave hostages to Caesar, and promised to pay a yearly
+tribute. On this Caesar returned to Gaul. Though the tribute was never
+paid, he had gained his object. He had sufficiently frightened the
+British tribes to make it unlikely that they would give him any
+annoyance in Gaul.
+
+14. =South-eastern Britain after Caesar's Departure.= B.C. =54=--A.D.
+=43=.--For nearly a century after Caesar's departure Britain was left
+to itself. The Catuvellauni recovered the predominance which they had
+lost. Their chieftain, Cunobelin, the original of Shakspere's
+Cymbeline, is thought to have been a grandson of Cassivelaunus. He
+established his power over the Trinobantes as well as over his own
+people, and made Camulodunum, the modern Colchester, his headquarters.
+Other tribes submitted to him as they had submitted to his
+grandfather. The prosperity of the inhabitants of south-eastern
+Britain increased more rapidly than the prosperity of their ancestors
+had increased before Caesar's invasion. Traders continued to flock over
+from Gaul, bringing with them a knowledge of the arts and refinements
+of civilised life, and those arts and refinements were far greater now
+that Gaul was under Roman rule than they had been when its Celtic
+tribes were still independent. Yet, in spite of the growth of trade,
+Britain was still a rude and barbarous country. Its exports were but
+cattle and hides, corn, slaves, and hunting dogs, together with a few
+dusky pearls.
+
+15. =The Roman Empire.=--The Roman state was now a monarchy. The
+Emperor was the head of the army, as well as the head of the state.
+Though he was often a cruel oppressor of the wealthy personages who
+lived in Rome itself, and whose rivalry he feared, he, for the most
+part, sought to establish his power by giving justice to the provinces
+which had once been conquered by Rome, but were now admitted to share
+in the advantages of good government which the Empire had to give. One
+consequence of the conquest of nations by Rome was that there was now
+an end to cruel wars between hostile tribes. An army was stationed on
+the frontier of the Empire to defend it against barbarian attacks. In
+the interior the Roman peace, as it was called, prevailed, and there
+was hardly any need of soldiers to keep order and to maintain
+obedience.
+
+16. =The Invasion of Aulus Plautius.= A.D. =43=.--One question which
+each Emperor had to ask himself was whether he would attempt to
+enlarge the limits of the Empire or not. For a time each Emperor had
+resolved to be content with the frontier which Caesar had left. There
+had consequently for many years been no thought of again invading
+Britain. At last the Emperor Claudius reversed this policy. There is
+reason to suppose that some of the British chiefs had made an attack
+upon the coasts of Gaul. However this may have been, Claudius in =43=
+sent Aulus Plautius against Togidumnus and Caratacus, the sons of
+Cunobelin, who were now ruling in their father's stead. Where one
+tribe has gained supremacy over others, it is always easy for a
+civilised power to gain allies amongst the tribes which have been
+subdued. Caesar had overpowered Cassivelaunus by enlisting on his side
+the revolted Trinobantes, and Aulus Plautius now enlisted on his side
+the Regni, who dwelt in the present Sussex, and the Iceni, who dwelt
+in the present Norfolk and Suffolk. With their aid, Aulus Plautius, at
+the head of 40,000 men, defeated the sons of Cunobelin. Togidumnus was
+slain, and Caratacus driven into exile. The Romans then took
+possession of their lands, and, stepping into their place, established
+over the tribes chieftains who were now dependent on the Emperor
+instead of on Togidumnus and Caratacus. Claudius himself came for a
+brief visit to receive the congratulations of the army on the victory
+which his lieutenant had won. Aulus Plautius remained in Britain till
+=47=. Before he left it the whole of the country to the south of a
+line drawn from the Wash to some point on the Severn had been
+subjugated. The mines of the Mendips and of the western peninsula were
+too tempting to be left unconquered, and it is probably their
+attraction which explains the extension of Roman power at so early a
+date over the hilly country in the west.
+
+17. =The Colony of Camulodunum.=--In =47= Aulus Plautius was succeeded
+by Ostorius Scapula. He disarmed the tribes dwelling to the west of
+the Trent, whilst he attempted to establish the Roman authority more
+firmly over those whose territory lay to the east of that river.
+Amongst these later were the Iceni, who had been hitherto allowed to
+preserve their native government in dependence on the Roman power. The
+consequence was that they rose in arms. Ostorius overpowered them, and
+then sought to strengthen his hold upon the south-east of Britain by
+founding (=51=) a Roman colony at Camulodunum, which had formerly been
+the headquarters of Cunobelin. Roman settlers--for the most part
+discharged soldiers--established themselves in the new city, bringing
+with them all that belonged to Roman life with all its conveniences
+and luxuries. Roman temples, theatres, and baths quickly rose, and
+Ostorius might fairly expect that in Britain, as in Gaul, the native
+chiefs would learn to copy the easy life of the new citizens, and
+would settle their quarrels in Roman courts of law instead of taking
+arms on their own behalf.
+
+18. =The Conquests of Ostorius Scapula.=--Ostorius, however, was soon
+involved in fresh troubles. Nothing is more difficult for a civilised
+power than to guard a frontier against barbarous tribes. Such tribes
+are accustomed to plunder one another, and they are quick to perceive
+that the order and peace which a civilised power establishes offers
+them a richer booty than is to be found elsewhere. The tribes beyond
+the line which Ostorius held were constantly breaking through to
+plunder the Roman territory, and he soon found that he must either
+allow the lands of Roman subjects to be plundered, or must carry war
+amongst the hostile tribes. He naturally chose the latter alternative,
+and the last years of his government were spent in wars with the
+Ordovices of Central Wales, and with the Silures of Southern Wales.
+The Silures were not only a most warlike people, but they were led by
+Caratacus, who had taken refuge with them after his defeat by Aulus
+Plautius in the east. The mountainous region which these two tribes
+defended made it difficult to subdue them, and though Caratacus was
+defeated (=50=), and ultimately captured and sent as a prisoner to
+Rome, Ostorius did not succeed in effectually mastering his hardy
+followers. The proof of his comparative failure lies in the fact that
+he established strong garrison towns along the frontier of the hilly
+region, which he would not have done unless he had considered it
+necessary to have a large number of soldiers ready to check any
+possible rising. At the northern end of the line was Deva (_Chester_),
+at the southern was Isca Silurum (_Caerleon upon Usk_) and in each of
+which was placed a whole legion, about 5,000 men. Between them was the
+smaller post of Uriconium, or more properly Viriconium (_Wroxeter_),
+the city of the Wrekin.
+
+19. =Government of Suetonius Paullinus.= =58.=--When Suetonius
+Paullinus arrived to take up the government, he resolved to complete
+the conquest of the west by an attack on Mona (_Anglesey_). In Mona
+was a sacred place of the Druids, who gave encouragement to the still
+independent Britons by their murderous sacrifices and their
+soothsayings. When Suetonius attempted to land (=61=), a rabble of
+women, waving torches and shrieking defiance, rushed to meet him on
+the shore. Behind them the Druids stood calling down on the intruders
+the vengeance of the gods. At first the soldiers were terrified and
+shrunk back. Then they recovered courage, and put to the sword or
+thrust into the flames the priests and their female rout. The Romans
+were tolerant of the religion of the peoples whom they subdued, but
+they could not put up with the continuance of a cruel superstition
+whose upholders preached resistance to the Roman government.
+
+20. =Boadicea's Insurrection.= =61.=--At the very moment of success
+Suetonius was recalled hurriedly to the east. Roman officers and
+traders had misused the power which had been given them by the valour
+of Roman soldiers. Might had been taken for right, and the natives
+were stripped of their lands and property at the caprice of the
+conquerors. Those of the natives to whom anything was left were called
+upon to pay a taxation far too heavy for their means. When money was
+not to be found to satisfy the tax-gatherer, a Roman usurer was always
+at hand to proffer the required sum at enormous interest, after which
+the unhappy borrower who accepted the proposal soon found himself
+unable to pay the debt, and was stripped of all that he possessed to
+satisfy the cravings of the lender. Those who resisted this oppression
+were treated as the meanest criminals. Boadicea, the widow of
+Prasutagus, who had been the chief of the Iceni, was publicly flogged,
+and her two daughters were subjected to the vilest outrage. She called
+upon the whole Celtic population of the east and south to rise against
+the foreign tyrants. Thousands answered to her call, and the angry
+host rushed to take vengeance upon the colonists of Camulodunum. The
+colonists had neglected to fortify their city, and the insurgents,
+bursting in, slew by the sword or by torture men and women alike. The
+massacre spread wherever Romans were to be found. A Roman legion
+hastening to the rescue was routed, and the small force of cavalry
+attached to it alone succeeded in making its escape. Every one of the
+foot soldiers was slaughtered on the spot. It is said that 70,000
+Romans perished in the course of a few days.
+
+21. =The Vengeance of Suetonius.=--Suetonius was no mean general, and
+he hastened back to the scene of destruction. He called on the
+commander of the legion at Isca Silurum to come to his help. Cowardice
+was rare in a Roman army, but this officer was so unnerved by terror
+that he refused to obey the orders of his general, and Suetonius had
+to march without him. He won a decisive victory at some unknown spot,
+probably not far from Camulodunum, and 80,000 Britons are reported to
+have been slain by the triumphant soldiery. Boadicea committed suicide
+by poison. The commander of the legion at Isca Silurum also put an end
+to his own life, in order to escape the punishment which he deserved.
+Suetonius had restored the Roman authority in Britain, but it was to
+his failure to control his subordinates that the insurrection had been
+due, and he was therefore promptly recalled by the Emperor Nero. From
+that time no more is heard of the injustice of the Roman government.
+
+22. =Agricola in Britain.= =78--84.=--Agricola, who arrived as
+governor in =78=, took care to deal fairly with all sorts of men, and
+to make the natives thoroughly satisfied with his rule. He completed
+the conquest of the country afterwards known as Wales, and thereby
+pushed the western frontier of Roman Britain to the sea. Yet from the
+fact that he found it necessary still to leave garrisons at Deva and
+Isca Silurum, it may be gathered that the tribes occupying the hill
+country were not so thoroughly subdued as to cease to be dangerous.
+Although the idea entertained by Ostorius of making a frontier on land
+towards the west had thus been abandoned, it was still necessary to
+provide a frontier towards the north. Even before Agricola arrived it
+had been shown to be impossible to stop at the line between the Mersey
+and the Humber. Beyond that line was the territory of the Brigantes,
+who had for some time occupied the position which in the first years
+of the Roman conquest had been occupied by the Iceni--that is to say,
+they were in friendly dependence upon Rome, without being actually
+controlled by Roman authority. Before Agricola's coming disputes had
+arisen with them, and Roman soldiers had occupied their territory.
+Agricola finished the work of conquest. He now governed the whole of
+the country as far north as to the Solway and the Tyne, and he made
+Eboracum, the name of which changed in course of time into York, the
+centre of Roman power in the northern districts. A garrison was
+established there to watch for any danger which might come from the
+extreme north, as the garrisons of Deva and Isca Silurum watched for
+dangers which might come from the west.
+
+23. =Agricola's Conquests in the North.=--Agricola thought that there
+would be no real peace unless the whole island was subdued. For seven
+years he carried on warfare with this object before him. He had
+comparatively little difficulty in reducing to obedience the country
+south of the narrow isthmus which separates the estuary of the Clyde
+from the estuary of the Forth. Before proceeding further he drew a
+line of forts across that isthmus to guard the conquered country from
+attack during his absence. He then made his way to the Tay, but he had
+not marched far up the valley of that river before he reached the edge
+of the Highlands. The Caledonians, as the Romans then called the
+inhabitants of those northern regions, were a savage race, and the
+mountains in the recesses of which they dwelt were rugged and
+inaccessible, offering but little means of support to a Roman army. In
+=84= the Caledonians, who, like all barbarians when they first come in
+contact with a civilised people, were ignorant of the strength of a
+disciplined army, came down from their fortresses in the mountains
+into the lower ground. A battle was fought near the Graupian Hill,
+which seems to have been situated at the junction of the Isla and the
+Tay. Agricola gained a complete victory, but he was unable to follow
+the fugitives into their narrow glens, and he contented himself with
+sending his fleet to circumnavigate the northern shores of the island,
+so as to mark out the limits of the land which he still hoped to
+conquer. Before the fleet returned, however, he was recalled by the
+Emperor Domitian. It has often been said that Domitian was jealous of
+his success; but it is possible that the Emperor really thought that
+the advantage to be gained by the conquest of rugged mountains would
+be more than counterbalanced by the losses which would certainly be
+incurred in consequence of the enormous difficulty of the task.
+
+[Illustration: Commemorative tablet of the Second Legion found at
+Halton Chesters on the Roman Wall.]
+
+24. =The Roman Walls.=--Agricola, in addition to his line of forts
+between the Forth and the Clyde, had erected detached forts at the
+mouth of the valleys which issue from the Highlands, in order to
+hinder the Caledonians from plundering the lower country. In =119= the
+Emperor Hadrian visited Britain. He was more disposed to defend the
+Empire than to extend it, and though he did not abandon Agricola's
+forts, he also built further south a continuous stone wall between the
+Solway and the Tyne. This wall, which, together with an earthwork of
+earlier date, formed a far stronger line of defence than the more
+northern forts, was intended to serve as a second barrier to keep out
+the wild Caledonians if they succeeded in breaking through the first.
+At a later time a lieutenant of the Emperor, Antoninus Pius, who
+afterwards became Emperor himself, connected Agricola's forts
+between the Forth and Clyde by a continuous earthwork. In =208= the
+Emperor Severus arrived in Britain, and after strengthening still
+further the earthwork between the Forth and Clyde, he attempted to
+carry out the plans of Agricola by conquering the land of the
+Caledonians. Severus, however, failed as completely as Agricola had
+failed before him, and he died soon after his return to Eboracum.
+
+[Illustration: View of part of the Roman Wall.]
+
+[Illustration: Ruins of a Turret on the Roman Wall.]
+
+[Illustration: Part of the Roman Wall at Leicester.]
+
+[Illustration: Pediment of a Roman temple found at Bath.]
+
+25. =The Roman Province of Britain.=--Very little is known of the
+history of the Roman province of Britain, except that it made
+considerable progress in civilisation. The Romans were great
+road-makers, and though their first object was to enable their
+soldiers to march easily from one part of the country to another, they
+thereby encouraged commercial intercourse. Forests were to some extent
+cleared away by the sides of the new roads, and fresh ground was
+thrown open to tillage. Mines were worked and country houses built,
+the remains of which are in some places still to be seen, and bear
+testimony to the increased well-being of a population which, excepting
+in the south-eastern part of the island, had at the arrival of the
+Romans been little removed from savagery. Cities sprang up in great
+numbers. Some of them were at first garrison towns, like Eboracum,
+Deva, and Isca Silurum. Others, like Verulamium, near the present St.
+Albans, occupied the sites of the old stockades once used as places of
+refuge by the Celts, or, like Lindum, on the top of the hill on which
+Lincoln Cathedral now stands, were placed in strongly defensible
+positions. Aquae Sulis, the modern Bath, owes its existence to its warm
+medicinal springs. The chief port of commerce was Londinium, the
+modern London. Attempts which have been made to explain its name by
+the Celtic language have failed, and it is therefore possible that an
+inhabited post existed there even before the Celts arrived. Its
+importance was, however, owing to its position, and that importance
+was not of a kind to tell before a settled system of commercial
+intercourse sprang up. London was situated on the hill on which St.
+Paul's now stands. There first, after the Thames narrowed into a
+river, the merchant found close to the stream hard ground on which he
+could land his goods. The valley for some distance above and below it
+was then filled with a wide marsh or an expanse of water. An old track
+raised above the marsh crossed the river by a ford at Lambeth, but, as
+London grew in importance, a ferry was established where London Bridge
+now stands, and the Romans, in course of time, superseded the ferry by
+a bridge. It is, therefore, no wonder that the Roman roads both from
+the north and from the south converged upon London. Just as Eboracum
+was a fitting centre for military operations directed to the defence
+of the northern frontier, London was the fitting centre of a trade
+carried on with the Continent, and the place would increase in
+importance in proportion to the increase of that trade.
+
+[Illustration: Roman altar from Rutchester.]
+
+26. =Extinction of Tribal Antagonism.=--The improvement of
+communications and the growth of trade and industry could not fail to
+influence the mind of the population. Wars between tribes, which
+before the coming of the Romans had been the main employment of the
+young and hardy, were now things of the past. The mutual hatred which
+had grown out of them had died away, and even the very names of
+Trinobantes and Brigantes were almost forgotten. Men who lived in the
+valley of the Severn came to look upon themselves as belonging to the
+same people as men who lived in the valleys of the Trent or the
+Thames. The active and enterprising young men were attracted to the
+cities, at first by the novelty of the luxurious habits in which they
+were taught to indulge, but afterwards because they were allowed to
+take part in the management of local business. In the time of the
+Emperor Caracalla, the son of Severus, every freeman born in the
+Empire was declared to be a Roman citizen, and long before that a
+large number of natives had been admitted to citizenship. In each
+district a council was formed of the wealthier and more prominent
+inhabitants, and this council had to provide for the building of
+temples, the holding of festivals, the erection of fortifications, and
+the laying out of streets. Justice was done between man and man
+according to the Roman law, which was the best law that the world had
+seen, and the higher Roman officials, who were appointed by the
+Emperor, took care that justice was done between city and city. No one
+therefore, wished to oppose the Roman government or to bring back the
+old times of barbarism.
+
+27. =Want of National Feeling.=--Great as was the progress made, there
+was something still wanting. A people is never at its best unless
+those who compose it have some object for which they can sacrifice
+themselves, and for which, if necessary, they will die. The Briton had
+ceased to be called upon to die for his tribe, and he was not expected
+to die for Britain. Britain had become a more comfortable country to
+live in, but it was not the business of its own inhabitants to guard
+it. It was a mere part of the vast Roman Empire, and it was the duty
+of the Emperors to see that the frontier was safely kept. They were so
+much afraid lest any particular province should wish to set up for
+itself and to break away from the Empire, that they took care not to
+employ soldiers born in that province for its protection. They sent
+British recruits to guard the Danube or the Euphrates, and Gauls,
+Spaniards, or Africans to guard the wall between the Solway and the
+Tyne, and the entrenchment between the Forth and the Clyde. Britons,
+therefore, looked on their own defence as something to be done for
+them by the Emperors, not as something to be done by themselves. They
+lived on friendly terms with one another, but they had nothing of what
+we now call patriotism.
+
+28. =Carausius and Allectus.= =288--296.=--In =288= Carausius, with
+the help of some pirates, seized on the government of Britain and
+threw off the authority of the Emperor. He was succeeded by Allectus,
+yet neither Carausius nor Allectus thought of making himself the head
+of a British nation. They called themselves Emperors and ruled over
+Britain alone, merely because they could not get more to rule over.
+
+29. =Constantius and Constantine.= =296--337.=--Allectus was
+overthrown and slain by Constantius, who, however, did not rule, as
+Carausius and Allectus had done, by mere right of military
+superiority. The Emperor Diocletian (=285--305=) discovered that the
+whole Empire, stretching from the Euphrates to the Atlantic, was too
+extensive for one man to govern, and he therefore decreed that there
+should in future be four governors, two principal ones named Emperors
+(_Augusti_), and two subordinate ones named Caesars. Constantius was
+first a Caesar and afterwards an Emperor. He was set to govern Spain,
+Gaul, and Britain, but he afterwards became Emperor himself, and for
+some time established himself at Eboracum (_York_). Upon his death
+(=306=), his son Constantine, after much fighting, made himself sole
+Emperor (=325=), overthrowing the system of Diocletian. Yet in one
+respect he kept up Diocletian's arrangements. He placed Spain, Gaul,
+and Britain together under a great officer called a Vicar, who
+received orders from himself and who gave orders to the officers who
+governed each of the three countries. Under the new system, as under
+the old, Britain was not treated as an independent country. It had
+still to look for protection to an officer who lived on the Continent,
+and was therefore apt to be more interested in Gaul and Spain than he
+was in Britain.
+
+30. =Christianity in Britain.=--When the Romans put down the Druids
+and their bloody sacrifices, they called the old Celtic gods by Roman
+names, but made no further alteration in religious usages. Gradually,
+however, Christianity spread amongst the Romans on the Continent, and
+merchants or soldiers who came from the Continent introduced it into
+Britain. Scarcely anything is known of its progress in the island.
+Alban is said to have been martyred at Verulamium, and Julius and
+Aaron at Isca Silurum. In =314= three British bishops attended a
+council held at Arles in Gaul. Little more than these few facts have
+been handed down, but there is no doubt that there was a settled
+Church established in the island. The Emperor Constantine acknowledged
+Christianity as the religion of the whole Empire. The remains of a
+church of this period have recently been discovered at Silchester.
+
+31. =Weakness of the Empire.=--The Roman Empire in the time of
+Constantine had the appearance rather than the reality of strength.
+Its taxation was very heavy, and there was no national enthusiasm to
+lead men to sacrifice themselves in its defence. Roman citizens became
+more and more unwilling to become soldiers at all, and the Roman
+armies were now mostly composed of barbarians. At the same time the
+barbarians outside the Empire were growing stronger, as the tribes
+often coalesced into wide confederacies for the purpose of attacking
+the Empire.
+
+32. =The Picts and Scots.=--The assailants of Britain on the north and
+the west were the Picts and Scots. The Picts were the same as the
+Caledonians of the time of Agricola. We do not know why they had
+ceased to be called Caledonians. The usual derivation of their name
+from the Latin _Pictus_, said to have been given them because they
+painted their bodies, is inaccurate. Opinions differ whether they were
+Goidels with a strong Iberian strain, or Iberians with a Goidelic
+admixture. They were probably Iberians, and at all events they were
+more savage than the Britons had been before they were influenced by
+Roman civilisation. The Scots, who afterwards settled in what is now
+known as Scotland, at that time dwelt in Ireland. Whilst the Picts,
+therefore, assailed the Roman province by land, and strove, not always
+unsuccessfully, to break through the walls which defended its northern
+frontier, the Scots crossed the Irish Sea in light boats to plunder
+and slay before armed assistance could arrive.
+
+33. =The Saxons.=--The Saxons, who were no less deadly enemies of the
+Roman government, were as fierce and restless as the Picts and Scots,
+and were better equipped and better armed. At a later time they
+established themselves in Britain as conquerors and settlers, and
+became the founders of the English nation; but at first they were only
+known as cruel and merciless pirates. In their long flat-bottomed
+vessels they swooped down upon some undefended part of the coast and
+carried off not only the property of wealthy Romans, but even men and
+women to be sold in the slave-market. The provincials who escaped
+related with peculiar horror how the Saxons were accustomed to torture
+to death one out of every ten of their captives as a sacrifice to
+their gods.
+
+34. =Origin of the Saxons.=--The Saxons were the more dangerous
+because it was impossible for the Romans to reach them in their homes.
+They were men of Teutonic race, speaking one of the languages,
+afterwards known as Low German, which were once spoken in the whole of
+North Germany. The Saxon pirates were probably drawn from the whole of
+the sea coast stretching from the north of the peninsula of Jutland to
+the mouth of the Ems, and if so, there were amongst them Jutes, whose
+homes were in Jutland itself; Angles, who inhabited Schleswig and
+Holstein; and Saxons, properly so called, who dwelt about the mouth of
+the Elbe and further to the west. All these peoples afterwards took
+part in the conquest of southern Britain, and it is not unlikely that
+they all shared in the original piratical attacks. Whether this was
+the case or not, the pirates came from creeks and inlets outside the
+Roman Empire, whose boundary was the Rhine, and they could therefore
+only be successfully repressed by a power with a good fleet, able to
+seek out the aggressors in their own homes and to stop the mischief at
+its source.
+
+35. =The Roman Defence.=--The Romans had always been weak at sea, and
+they were weaker now than they had been in earlier days. They were
+therefore obliged to content themselves with standing on the
+defensive. Since the time of Severus, Britain had been divided, for
+purposes of defence, into Upper and Lower Britain. Though there is no
+absolute certainty about the matter, it is probable that Upper
+Britain comprised the hill country of the west and north, and that
+Lower Britain was the south-eastern part of the island, marked off by
+a line drawn irregularly from the Humber to the Severn.[1] Lower
+Britain in the early days of the Roman conquest had been in no special
+need of military protection. In the fourth century it was exposed more
+than the rest of the island to the attacks of the Saxon pirates.
+Fortresses were erected between the Wash and Beachy Head at every
+point at which an inlet of the sea afforded an opening to an invader.
+The whole of this part of the coast became known as the Saxon Shore,
+because it was subjected to attacks from the Saxons, and a special
+officer known as the Count of the Saxon Shore was appointed to take
+charge of it. An officer known as the Duke of the Britains (_Dux
+Britanniarum_) commanded the armies of Upper Britain; whilst a third,
+who was a civilian, and superior in rank over the other two, was the
+Count of Britain, and had a general supervision of the whole country.
+
+ [Footnote 1: There were also four smaller divisions, ultimately
+ increased to five. All that is known about their position is that
+ they were not where they are placed in our atlases.]
+
+36. =End of the Roman Government.= =383--410.=--In =383= Maximus, who
+was probably the Duke of the Britains, was proclaimed Emperor by his
+soldiers. If he could have contented himself with defending Britain,
+it would have mattered little whether he chose to call himself an
+Emperor or a Duke. Unhappily for the inhabitants of the island, not
+only did every successful soldier want to be an Emperor, but every
+Emperor wanted to govern the whole Empire. Maximus, therefore, instead
+of remaining in Britain, carried a great part of his army across the
+sea to attempt a conquest of Gaul and Spain. Neither he nor his
+soldiers ever returned, and in consequence the Roman garrison in the
+island was deplorably weakened. Early in the fifth century an
+irruption of barbarians gave full employment to the army which
+defended Gaul, so that it was impossible to replace the forces which
+had followed Maximus by fresh troops from the Continent. The Roman
+Empire was in fact breaking up. The defence of Britain was left to the
+soldiers who remained in the island, and in =409= they proclaimed a
+certain Constantine Emperor. Constantine, like Maximus, carried his
+soldiers across the Channel in pursuit of a wider empire than he could
+find in Britain. He was himself murdered, and his soldiers, like those
+of Maximus, did not return. In =410= the Britons implored the Emperor
+Honorius to send them help. Honorius had enough to do to ward off the
+attacks of barbarians nearer Rome, and announced to the Britons that
+they must provide for their own defence. From this time Britain ceased
+to form part of the Roman Empire.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+ Landing of the Jutes in Thanet A.D. 449?
+ The West Saxons defeated at Mount Badon 520
+ The West Saxons take Sorbiodunum 552
+ Battle of Deorham 577
+ The West Saxons defeated at Faddiley 584
+
+
+1. =Britain after the Departure of the Romans.= =410--449=?--After the
+departure of the Romans, the Picts from the north and the Scots from
+Ireland continued their ravages, but though they caused terrible
+misery by slaughtering or dragging into slavery the inhabitants of
+many parts of the country, they did not succeed in making any
+permanent conquests. The Britons were not without a government and an
+armed force; and their later history shows that they were capable of
+carrying on war for a long time against enemies more formidable than
+the Picts and Scots. Their rulers were known by the British title
+Gwledig, and probably held power in different parts of the island as
+the successors of the Roman Duke of the Britains and of the Roman
+Count of the Saxon Shore. Their power of resistance to the Picts and
+the Scots was, however, weakened by the impossibility of turning their
+undivided attention to these marauders, as at the same time that they
+had, to defend the Roman Wall and the western coast against the Picts
+and Scots, they were exposed on the eastern coast to the attacks of
+the Saxon pirates.
+
+2. =The Groans of the Britons.=--In their misery the thoughts of the
+Britons turned to those Roman legions who had defended their fathers
+so well. In =446= they appealed to Aetius, the commander of the Roman
+armies, to deliver them from their destroyers. "The groans of the
+Britons" was the title which they gave to their appeal to him. "The
+barbarians," they wrote, "drive us to the sea; the sea drives us back
+to the barbarians; between them we are exposed to two sorts of death:
+we are either slain or drowned." Aetius had no men to spare, and he
+sent no help to the Britons. Before long the whole of Western Europe
+was overrun by barbarian tribes, the title of Emperor being retained
+only by the Roman Emperor who ruled from Constantinople over the East,
+his authority over the barbarians of the West being no more than
+nominal.
+
+3. =The Conquest of Kent.= =449=?--It had been the custom of the Roman
+Empire to employ barbarians as soldiers in their armies, and
+Vortigern, the British ruler, now followed that bad example. In or
+about =449= a band of Jutish sea-rovers landed at Ebbsfleet, in the
+Isle of Thanet. According to tradition their leaders were Hengist and
+Horsa, names signifying the horse and the mare, which were not very
+likely to have been borne by real warriors. Whatever may have been the
+names of the chiefs, Vortigern took them into his service against the
+Picts, giving them the Isle of Thanet as a dwelling-place for
+themselves. With their help he defeated the Picts, but afterwards
+found himself unable to defend himself against his fierce auxiliaries.
+Thanet was still cut off from the mainland by an arm of the sea, and
+the Jutes were strong enough to hold it against all assailants. Their
+numbers rapidly increased as shiploads of their fellows landed, and
+they crossed the strait to win fresh lands from the Britons on the
+mainland of Kent. In several battles Vortigern was overpowered. His
+rival and successor, Ambrosius Aurelianus, whose name makes it
+probable that he was an upholder of the old Roman discipline, drove
+back the Jutes in turn. He did not long keep the upper hand, and in
+=465= he was routed utterly. The defeat of the British army was
+followed by an attack upon the great fortresses which had been erected
+along the Saxon Shore in the Roman times. The Jutes had no means of
+carrying them by assault, but they starved them out one by one, and
+some twenty-three years after their first landing, the whole of the
+coast of Kent was in their hands.
+
+4. =The South Saxons.= =477.=--The conquests of the Jutes stopped at
+the inlet of the sea now filled by Romney Marsh. To the south and west
+was the impenetrable Andred's Wood, which covered what is now known as
+the Weald. At its eastern extremity stood by the sea the strong
+fortified town of Anderida, which gave its name to the wood, the most
+westerly of the fortresses of the Saxon Shore still unconquered by the
+Jutes. It was at last endangered by a fresh pirate band--not of Jutes
+but of Saxons--which landed near Selsey, and fought its way eastwards,
+conquering the South Downs and the flat land between the South Downs
+and the sea, till it reached Anderida. Anderida was starved out after
+a long blockade, and the Saxons, bursting in, 'slew all that dwelt
+therein, nor was there henceforth one Briton left.' To this day the
+Roman walls of Anderida stand round the site of the desolated city
+near the modern Pevensey. Its Saxon conquerors came to be known as the
+South Saxons, and their land as Sussex.
+
+5. =The West Saxons and the East Saxons.=--Another swarm also of
+Saxons, called Gewissas, landed on the shore of Southampton Water.
+After a time they were reinforced by a body of Jutes, and though the
+Jutes formed settlements of their own in the Isle of Wight and on the
+mainland, the difference of race and language between them and the
+Gewissas was not enough to prevent the two tribes from coalescing.
+Ultimately Gewissas and Jutes became known as West Saxons, and
+established themselves in a district roughly corresponding with the
+modern Hampshire. Then, having attempted to penetrate further west,
+they were defeated at Mount Badon, probably Badbury Rings in
+Dorsetshire. Their overthrow was so complete as to check their advance
+for more than thirty years. Whilst the coast line from the inlet of
+the sea now filled by Romney Marsh to the western edge of Hampshire
+had thus been mastered by Saxons, others of the same stock, known as
+East Saxons, seized upon the low coast to the north of the Thames.
+From them the land was called Essex. Neither Saxons nor Jutes,
+however, were as yet able to penetrate far up the valley of the
+Thames, as the Roman settlement of London, surrounded by marshes,
+still blocked the way.
+
+6. =The Anglian Settlements.=--The coast-line to the north of the East
+Saxons was seized at some unascertained dates by different groups of
+Angles. The land between the Stour and the great fen which in those
+days stretched far inland from the Wash was occupied by two of these
+groups, known as the North folk and the South folk. They gave their
+names to Norfolk and Suffolk, and at some later time combined under
+the name of East Anglians. North of the Wash were the Lindiswara--that
+is to say, the settlers about the Roman Lindum, the modern Lincoln,
+and beyond them, stretching to the Humber, were the Gainas, from whom
+is derived the name of the modern Gainsborough. To the north of the
+Humber the coast was fringed by Angle settlements which had not yet
+coalesced into one.
+
+7. =Nature of the Conquest.=--The three peoples who effected this
+conquest were afterwards known amongst themselves by the common name
+of English, a name which was originally equivalent to Angle, whilst
+amongst the whole of the remaining Celtic population they were only
+known as Saxons. The mode in which the English treated the Britons was
+very different from that of the Romans, who were a civilised people
+and aimed at governing a conquered race. The new-comers drove out the
+Britons in order to find homes for themselves, and they preferred to
+settle in the country rather than in a town. No Englishman had ever
+lived in a town in his German home, or was able to appreciate the
+advantages of the commerce and manufacture by which towns are
+supported. Nor were they inclined to allow the inhabitants of the
+Roman towns to remain unmolested in their midst. When Anderida was
+captured not a Briton escaped alive, and there is good reason to
+believe that many of the other towns fared no better, especially as
+the remains of some of them still show marks of the fire by which they
+were consumed. What took place in the country cannot be certainly
+known. Many of the British were no doubt killed. Many took refuge in
+fens or woods, or fled to those portions of the island in which their
+countrymen were still independent. It is difficult to decide to what
+extent the men who remained behind were spared, but it is impossible
+to doubt that a considerable number of women were preserved from
+slaughter. The conquerors, at their landing, must have been for the
+most part young men, and when they wanted wives, it would be far
+easier for them to seize the daughters of slain Britons than to fetch
+women from the banks of the Elbe.
+
+8. =The Cultivators of the Soil.=--When the new-comers planted
+themselves on British soil, each group of families united by kinship
+fixed its home in a separate village or township, to which was given
+the name of the kindred followed by 'ham' or 'tun,' the first word
+meaning the home or dwelling, the second the earthen mound which
+formed the defence of the community. Thus Wokingham is the home of the
+Wokings, and Wellington the 'tun' of the Wellings. Each man had a
+homestead of his own, with a strip or strips of arable land in an open
+field. Beyond the arable land was pasture and wood, common to the
+whole township, every villager being entitled to drive his cattle or
+pigs into them according to rules laid down by the whole township.
+
+9. =Eorls, Ceorls, Gesiths.=--The population was divided into Eorls
+and Ceorls. The Eorl was hereditarily distinguished by birth, and the
+Ceorl was a simple freeman without any such distinction. How the
+difference arose we do not know, but we do know that the Eorl had
+privileges which the Ceorl had not. Below the Ceorls were slaves
+taken in war or condemned to slavery as criminals. There were also men
+known as Gesiths, a word which means 'followers,' who were the
+followers of the chiefs or Ealdormen (_Eldermen_) who led the
+conquerors. The Gesiths formed the war-band of the chief. They were
+probably all of them Eorls, so that though every settler was either an
+Eorl or a Ceorl, some Eorls were also Gesiths. This war-band of
+Gesiths was composed of young men who attached themselves to the chief
+by a tie of personal devotion. It was the highest glory of the Gesith
+to die to save his chief's life. Of one Gesith it is told that, when
+he saw a murderer aiming a dagger at his chief, he, not having time to
+seize the assassin, threw his body between the blow and his chief, and
+perished rather than allow him to be killed. It was even held to be
+disgraceful for a Gesith to return from battle alive if his chief had
+been slain. The word by which the chief was known was Hlaford
+(_Lord_), which means a giver of bread, because the Gesiths ate his
+bread. They not only ate his bread, but they shared in the booty which
+he brought home. They slept in his hall, and were clothed in the
+garments woven by his wife and her maidens. A continental writer tells
+how a body of Gesiths once approached their lord with a petition that
+he should take a wife, because as long as he remained unmarried there
+was no one to make new clothes for them or to mend their old ones.
+
+10. =The Gesiths and the Villagers.=--At the time of the English
+settlement, therefore, there were two sorts of warriors amongst the
+invaders. The Ceorls, having been accustomed to till land at home,
+were quite ready to till the lands which they had newly acquired in
+Britain. They were, however, ready to defend themselves and their
+lands if they were attacked, and they were under the obligation of
+appearing in arms when needed for defence. This general army of the
+villagers was called the Fyrd. On the other hand, the Gesiths had not
+been accustomed to till land at home, but had made fighting their
+business. War, in short, which was an unwelcome accident to the Ceorl,
+was the business of life to the Gesith. The exact relationship between
+the Gesiths and the Ceorls cannot be ascertained with certainty. It is
+not improbable that the Gesiths, being the best warriors amongst their
+countrymen, sometimes obtained land granted them by their chiefs, and
+were expected in consequence to be specially ready to serve the chief
+whom they had followed from their home. It was from their relation to
+their chief that they were called Gesiths, a name gradually abandoned
+for that of Thegns, or servants, when they--as was soon the
+case--ceased to live with their chief and had houses and lands of
+their own, though they were still bound to military service. How these
+Thegns cultivated their lands is a question to which there is no
+certain answer. In later days they made use of a class of men known as
+bondmen or villeins. These bondmen were not, like slaves, the property
+of their masters. They had land of their own which they were allowed
+to cultivate for themselves on condition of spending part of their
+time in cultivating the land of their lords. It has been supposed by
+some writers that the Thegns employed bondmen from the earliest times
+of the conquest. If, however, this was the case, there arises a
+further question whether the bondmen were Englishmen or Britons. The
+whole subject is under investigation, and the evidence which exists is
+excessively scanty. It is at least certain that the further the
+conquest progressed westwards, the greater was the number of Britons
+preserved alive.
+
+11. =English and Welsh.=--The bulk of the population on the eastern
+and southern coasts was undoubtedly English. English institutions and
+English language took firm root. The conquerors looked on the Britons
+with the utmost contempt, naming them Welsh, a name which no Briton
+thought of giving to himself, but which Germans had been in the habit
+of applying somewhat contemptuously to the Celts on the Continent. So
+far as British words have entered into the English language at all,
+they have been words such as _gown_ or _curd_, which are likely to
+have been used by women, or words such as _cart_ or _pony_, which are
+likely to have been used by agricultural labourers, and the evidence
+of language may therefore be adduced in favour of the view that many
+women and many agricultural labourers were spared by the conquerors.
+
+12. =The Township and the Hundred.=--The smallest political community
+of the new settlers was the village, or, as it is commonly called, the
+township, which is still represented by the parish, the parish being
+merely a township in which ecclesiastical institutions have been
+maintained whilst political institutions have ceased to exist. The
+freemen of the township met to settle small questions between
+themselves, under the presidency of their reeve or headman. More
+important cases were brought before the hundred-moot, or meeting of
+the hundred, a district which had been inhabited, or was supposed to
+have been inhabited, either by a hundred kindred groups of the
+original settlers or by the families of a hundred warriors. This
+hundred-moot was held once a month, and was attended by four men and
+the reeve from every township, and also by the Eorls and Thegns living
+in the hundred. It not only settled disputes about property, but gave
+judgment in criminal cases as well.
+
+13. =Weregild.=--In early days, long before the English had left their
+lands beyond the sea, it was not considered to be the business of the
+community to punish crime. If any one was murdered, it was the duty of
+the kinsmen of the slain man to put to death the murderer. In course
+of time men got tired of the continual slaughter produced by this
+arrangement, and there sprang up a system according to which the
+murderer might offer to the kinsmen a sum of money known as weregild,
+or the value of a man, and if this money was accepted, then peace was
+made and all thought of vengeance was at an end. At a later time, at
+all events after the arrival of the English in this country, charges
+of murder were brought before the hundred-moot whenever the alleged
+murderer and his victim lived in the same hundred. If the accused
+person did not dispute the fact the moot sentenced him to pay a
+weregild, the amount of which differed in proportion to the rank of
+the slain man, not in proportion to the heinousness of the offence. As
+there was a weregild for murder, so there was also a graduated scale
+of payments for lesser offences. One who struck off a hand or a foot
+could buy off vengeance at a fixed rate.
+
+14. =Compurgation and Ordeal.=--A new difficulty was introduced when a
+person who was charged with crime denied his guilt. As there were no
+trained lawyers and there was no knowledge of the principles of
+evidence, the accused person was required to bring twelve men to be
+his compurgators--that is to say, to hear him swear to his own
+innocence, and then to swear in turn that his oath was true. If he
+could not find men willing to be his compurgators he could appeal to
+the judgment of the gods, which was known as the Ordeal. If he could
+walk blindfold over red-hot ploughshares, or plunge his arm into
+boiling water, and show at the end of a fixed number of days that he
+had received no harm, it was thought that the gods bore witness to his
+innocency and had as it were become his compurgators when men had
+failed him. It is quite possible that all or most of those who tried
+the ordeal failed, but as nobody would try the ordeal who could get
+compurgators, those who did not succeed must have been regarded as
+persons of bad character, so that no surprise would be expressed at
+their failure.
+
+15. =Punishments.=--When a man had failed in the ordeal there was a
+choice of punishments. If his offence was a slight one, a fine was
+deemed sufficient. If it was a very disgraceful one, such as secret
+murder, he was put to death or was degraded to slavery, in most cases
+he was declared to be a 'wolf's-head'--that is to say, he was outlawed
+and driven into the woods, where, as the protection of the community
+was withdrawn from him, anyone might kill him without fear of
+punishment.
+
+16. =The Folk-moot.=--As the hundred-moot did justice between those
+who lived in the hundred, so the folk-moot did justice between those
+who lived in different hundreds, or were too important to be judged in
+the hundred-moot. The folk-moot was the meeting of the whole folk or
+tribe, which consisted of several hundreds. It was attended, like the
+hundred-moot, by four men and the reeve from each township, and it met
+twice a year, and was presided over by the chief or Ealdorman. The
+folk-moot met in arms, because it was a muster as well as a council
+and a court. The vote as to war and peace was taken in it, and while
+the chief alone spoke, the warriors signified their assent by clashing
+their swords against their shields.
+
+17. =The Kingship.=--How many folks or tribes settled in the island it
+is impossible to say, but there is little doubt that many of them soon
+combined. The resistance of the Britons was desperate, and it was only
+by joining together that the settlers could hope to overcome it. The
+causes which produced this amalgamation of the folks produced the
+king. It was necessary to find a man always ready to take the command
+of the united folks, and this man was called King, a name which
+signifies the man of the kinship or race at the head of which he
+stood. His authority was greater than the Ealdorman's, and his
+warriors were more numerous than those which the Ealdorman had led. He
+must come of a royal family--that is, of one supposed to be descended
+from the god Woden. As it was necessary that he should be capable of
+leading an army, it was impossible that a child could be king, and
+therefore no law of hereditary succession prevailed. On the death of a
+king the folk-moot chose his successor out of the kingly family. If
+his eldest son was a grown man of repute, the choice would almost
+certainly fall upon him. If he was a child or an invalid, some other
+kinsman of the late king would be selected.
+
+18. =The Legend of Arthur.=--Thirty-two years passed away after the
+defeat of the West Saxons at Mount Badon in =520= (see p. 28) before
+they made any further conquests. Welsh legends represent this period
+as that of the reign of Arthur. Some modern inquirers have argued that
+Arthur's kingdom was in the north, whilst others have argued that it
+was in the south. It is quite possible that the name was given by
+legend to more than one champion; at all events, there was a time when
+an Ambrosius, probably a descendant of Ambrosius Aurelianus (see p.
+27), protected the southern Britons. This stronghold was at
+Sorbiodunum, the hill fort now a grassy space known as Old Sarum, and
+his great church and monastery, where Christian priests encouraged the
+Christian Britons in their struggle against the heathen Saxons, was at
+the neighbouring Ambresbyrig (_the fortress of Ambrosius_), now
+modernised into Amesbury. Thirty-two years after the battle of Mount
+Badon the kingdom of Ambrosius had been divided amongst his
+successors, who were plunged in vice and were quarrelling with one
+another.
+
+[Illustration: _Walker & Boutallse._
+
+Plan of the city of Old Sarum, the ancient _Sorbiodunum_. The
+Cathedral is of later date.]
+
+19. =The West Saxon Advance.=--In =552= Cynric, the West Saxon king,
+attacked the divided Britons, captured Sorbiodunum, and made himself
+master of Salisbury Plain. Step by step he fought his way to the
+valley of the Thames, and when he had reached it, he turned eastwards
+to descend the river to its mouth. Here, however, he found himself
+anticipated by the East Saxons, who had captured London, and had
+settled a branch of their people under the name of the Middle Saxons
+in Middlesex. The Jutes of Kent had pushed westwards through the
+Surrey hills, but in =568= the West Saxons defeated them and drove
+them back. After this battle, the first in which the conquerors strove
+with one another, the West Saxons turned northwards, defeated the
+Britons in =571= at Bedford, and occupied the valleys of the Thame and
+Cherwell and the upper valley of the Ouse. They are next heard of much
+further west, and it has been supposed that they turned in that
+direction because they found the lower Ouse already held by Angle
+tribes. However this may have been, they crossed the Cotswolds in
+=577= under two brothers, Ceawlin and Cutha, and at Deorham defeated
+and slew three kings who ruled over the cities of Glevum
+(_Gloucester_), Corinium (_Cirencester_), and Aquae Sulis (_Bath_).
+They seized on the fertile valley of the Severn, and during the next
+few years they pressed gradually northwards. In =584= they destroyed
+and sacked the old Roman station of Viriconium. This was their last
+victory for many a year. They attempted to reach Chester, but were
+defeated at Faddiley by the Britons, who slew Cutha in the battle.
+
+[Illustration: Old Sarum from an engraving published in 1843, showing
+mound. (It is now obscured by trees from this point of view.)]
+
+20. =Repulse of the West Saxons.=--After the defeat at Faddiley the
+West Saxons split up into two peoples. Those of them who settled in
+the lower Severn valley took the name of Hwiccan, and joined the
+Britons against their own kindred. This alliance could hardly have
+taken place if the Hwiccan, in settling in the Severn valley, had
+destroyed the whole, or even a considerable part, of the Celtic
+population, though there can be little doubt that there was still
+slaughter when a battle was fought or a town taken by storm; as it is
+known that the magnificent Roman buildings at Bath were standing in
+ruins and the city untenanted many years after the capture of the
+city. At all events, the Britons, now allied with the Hwiccan,
+defeated Ceawlin at Wanborough. After this disaster, though the West
+Saxon kingdom retained its independence, it was independent within
+smaller limits than those which Ceawlin had wished to give to it. If
+he had seized Chester he would have been on the way to gain the
+mastery over all England, but he had tried to do too much in a short
+time. His people can hardly have been numerous enough to occupy in
+force a territory reaching from Southampton Water to Bedford on one
+side and to Chester on another.
+
+21. =The Advance of the Angles.=--Whilst the West Saxons were
+enlarging their boundaries in the south, the Angles were gradually
+spreading in the centre and the north. The East Anglians were stopped
+on their way to the west by the great fen, but either a branch of the
+Lindiswara or some new-comers made their way up the Trent, and
+established themselves first at Nottingham and then at Leicester, and
+called themselves the Middle English. Another body, known as the
+Mercians, or men of the mark or border-land, seized on the upper
+valley of the Trent. North of the Humber the advance was still slower.
+In =547=, five years before the West Saxons attacked Sorbiodunum, Ida,
+a chieftain of one of the scattered settlements on the coast, was
+accepted as king by all those which lay between the Tees and the
+Forth. His new kingdom was called Bernicia, and his principal fortress
+was on a rock by the sea at Bamborough. During the next fifty years he
+and his successors enlarged their borders till they reached that
+central ridge of moorland hill which is sometimes known as the Pennine
+range. The Angles between the Tees and the Humber called their country
+Deira, but though they also united under a king, their progress was as
+slow as that of the Bernicians. Bernicia and Deira together were known
+as North-humberland, the land north of the Humber, a much larger
+territory than that of the modern county of Northumberland.
+
+22. =The Kymry.=--It is probable that the cause of the slow advance of
+the northern Angles lay in the existence of a strong Celtic state in
+front. Welsh tradition speaks of a ruler named Cunedda, who after the
+departure of the Roman legions governed the territory from the Clyde
+to the south of Wales, which formed the greater part of what had once
+been known as Upper Britain. (See p. 25.) This territory was inhabited
+by a mixed population of Britons and Goidels, with an isolated body of
+Picts in Galloway. A common danger from the English fused them
+together, and as a sign of the wearing out of old distinctions, they
+took the name of Kymry, or Comrades, the name by which the Welsh are
+known amongst one another to this day, and which is also preserved in
+the name of Cumberland, though the Celtic language is no longer spoken
+there.
+
+23. =Britain at the End of the Sixth Century.=--During the sixth
+century the Kymry ceased to be governed by one ruler, but the
+chieftains of the various territories all acknowledged the supremacy
+of a descendant of Cunedda. For purposes of war they combined
+together, and as the country which they occupied was hilly and easily
+defended, the northern English discovered that they too must unite
+amongst themselves if they were to overpower the united resistance of
+the Kymry.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE STRIFE OF THE ENGLISH KINGDOMS.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+ Augustine's mission 597
+ AEthelfrith's victory at Chester 613
+ Penda defeats Eadwine at Heathfield 633
+ Penda's defeat at Winwaed 655
+ Theodore Archbishop of Canterbury 668
+ Offa defeats the West Saxons at Bensington 779
+ Ecgberht returns to England 800
+ Death of Ecgberht 839
+
+
+1. =England and the Continent.=--Whatever may be the exact truth about
+the numbers of Britons saved alive by the English conquerors, there
+can be no doubt that English speech and English customs prevailed
+wherever the English settled. In Gaul, where the German Franks made
+themselves masters of the country, a different state of things
+prevailed. Roman officials continued to govern the country under
+Frankish kings, Roman bishops converted the conquerors to
+Christianity, and Roman cities maintained, as far as they could, the
+old standard of civilisation. All commercial intercourse between Gaul,
+still comparatively rich and prosperous, and Britain was for some time
+cut off by the irruption of the English, who were at first too rude
+and too much engaged in fighting to need the products of a more
+advanced race. Gradually, however, as the English settled down into
+peaceful industry along the south-eastern shores of the island, trade
+again sprang up, as it had sprung up in the wild times preceding the
+landing of Caesar. The Gaulish merchants who crossed the straits found
+themselves in Kent, and during the years in which the West Saxon
+Ceawlin was struggling with the Britons the communications between
+Kent and the Continent had become so friendly that in =584=, or a
+little later, AEthelberht, king of Kent, took to wife Bertha, the
+daughter of a Frankish king, Charibert. Bertha was a Christian, and
+brought with her a Christian bishop. She begged of her husband a
+forsaken Roman church for her own use. This church, now known as St.
+Martin's, stood outside the walls of the deserted city of Durovernum,
+the buildings of which were in ruins, except where a group of rude
+dwellings rose in a corner of the old fortifications. In these
+dwellings AEthelberht and his followers lived, and to them had been
+given the new name of Cantwarabyrig or Canterbury (_the dwelling of
+the men of Kent_). The English were heathen, but their heathenism was
+not intolerant.
+
+2. =AEthelberht's Supremacy.=--AEthelberht's authority reached far
+beyond his native Kent. Within a few years after his marriage he had
+gained a supremacy over most of the other kings to the south of the
+Humber. There is no tradition of any war between AEthelberht and these
+kings, and he certainly did not thrust them out from the leadership of
+their own peoples. The exact nature of his supremacy is, however,
+unknown to us, though it is possible that they were bound to follow
+him if he went to war with peoples not acknowledging his supremacy, in
+which case his position towards them was something of the same kind as
+that of a lord to his gesiths.
+
+3. =Gregory and the English.=--AEthelberht's position as the over-lord
+of so many kings and as the husband of a Christian wife drew upon him
+the attention of Gregory, the Bishop of Rome, or Pope. Many years
+before, as a deacon, he had been attracted by the fair faces of some
+boys from Deira exposed for sale in the Roman slave-market. He was
+told that the children were Angles. "Not Angles, but angels," he
+replied. "Who," he asked, "is their king?" Hearing that his name was
+AElla, he continued to play upon the words. "Alleluia," he said, "shall
+be sung in the land of AElla." Busy years kept him from seeking to
+fulfil his hopes, but at last the time came when he could do something
+to carry out his intentions, not in the land of AElla, but in the land
+of AEthelberht. He became Pope. In those days the Pope had far less
+authority over the Churches of Western Europe than he afterwards
+acquired, but he offered the only centre round which they could rally,
+now that the Empire had broken up into many states ruled over by
+different barbarian kings. The general habit of looking to Rome for
+authority, which had been diffused over the whole Empire whilst Rome
+was still the seat of the Emperors, made men look to the Roman Bishop
+for advice and help as they had once looked to the Roman Emperor.
+Gregory, who united to the tenderheartedness of the Christian the
+strength of will and firmness of purpose which had marked out the best
+of the Emperors, now sent Augustine to England as the leader of a band
+of missionaries.
+
+4. =Augustine's Mission. 597.=--Augustine with his companions landed
+at Ebbsfleet, in Thanet, where AEthelberht's forefathers had landed
+nearly a century and a half before. After a while AEthelberht arrived.
+Singing a litany, and bearing aloft a painting of the Saviour, the
+missionaries appeared before him. He had already learned from his
+Christian wife to respect Christians, but he was not prepared to
+forsake his own religion. He welcomed the new-comers, and told them
+that they were free to convert those who would willingly accept their
+doctrine. A place was assigned to them in Canterbury, and they were
+allowed to use Bertha's church. In the end AEthelberht himself,
+together with thousands of the Kentish men, received baptism. It was
+more by their example than by their teaching that Augustine's band won
+converts. The missionaries lived 'after the model of the primitive
+Church, giving themselves to frequent prayers, watchings, and
+fastings; preaching to all who were within their reach, disregarding
+all worldly things as matters with which they had nothing to do,
+accepting from those whom they taught just what seemed necessary for
+livelihood, living themselves altogether in accordance with what they
+taught, and with hearts prepared to suffer every adversity, or even to
+die, for that truth which they preached.'
+
+5. =Monastic Christianity.=--These missionaries were monks as well as
+preachers. The Christians of those days considered the monastic life
+to be the highest. In the early days of the Church, when the world was
+full of vice and cruelty, it seemed hardly possible to live in the
+world without being dragged down to its wickedness. Men and women,
+therefore, who wished to keep themselves pure, withdrew to hermitages
+or monasteries, where they might be removed from temptation, and might
+fit themselves for heaven by prayer and fasting. In the fifth century
+Benedict of Nursia had organised in Italy a system of life for the
+monastery which he governed, and the Benedictine rule, as it was
+called, was soon accepted in almost all the monasteries of Western
+Europe. The special feature of this rule was that it encouraged labour
+as well as prayer. It was a saying of Benedict himself that 'to labour
+is to pray.' He did not mean that labour was good in itself, but that
+monks who worked during some hours of the day would guard their minds
+against evil thoughts better than if they tried to pray all day long.
+Augustine and his companions were Benedictine monks, and their
+quietness and contentedness attracted the population amidst which they
+had settled. The religion of the heathen English was a religion which
+favoured bravery and endurance, counting the warrior who slaughtered
+most enemies as most highly favoured by the gods. The religion of
+Augustine was one of peace and self-denial. Its symbol was the cross,
+to be borne in the heart of the believer. The message brought by
+Augustine was very hard to learn. If Augustine had expected the whole
+English population to forsake entirely its evil ways and to walk in
+paths of peace, he would probably have been rejected at once. It was
+perhaps because he was a monk that he did not expect so much. A monk
+was accustomed to judge laymen by a lower standard of self-denial than
+that by which he judged himself. He would, therefore, not ask too much
+of the new converts. They must forsake the heathen temples and
+sacrifices, and must give up some particularly evil habits. The rest
+must be left to time and the example of the monks.
+
+6. =The Archbishopric of Canterbury.=--After a short stay Augustine
+revisited Gaul and came back as Archbishop of the English. AEthelberht
+gave to him a ruined church at Canterbury, and that poor church was
+named Christ Church, and became the mother church of England. From
+that day the Archbishop's See has been fixed at Canterbury. If
+Augustine in his character of monk led men by example, in his
+character of Archbishop he had to organise the Church. With
+AEthelberht's help he set up a bishopric at Rochester and another in
+London. London was now again an important trading city, which, though
+not in AEthelberht's own kingdom of Kent, formed part of the kingdom of
+Essex, which was dependent on Kent. More than these three Sees
+Augustine was unable to establish. An attempt to obtain the friendly
+co-operation of the Welsh bishops broke down because Augustine
+insisted on their adoption of Roman customs; and Lawrence, who
+succeeded to the archbishopric after Augustine's death, could do no
+more than his predecessor had done.
+
+7. =Death of AEthelberht. 616.=--In =616= AEthelberht died. The
+over-lordship of the kings of Kent ended with him, and Augustine's
+church, which had largely depended upon his influence, very nearly
+ended as well. Essex relapsed into heathenism, and it was only by
+terrifying AEthelberht's son with the vengeance of St. Peter that
+Lawrence kept him from relapsing also. On the other hand, Raedwald,
+king of the East Anglians, who succeeded to much of AEthelberht's
+authority, so far accepted Christianity as to worship Christ amongst
+his other gods.
+
+8. =The Three Kingdoms opposed to the Welsh.=--Augustine's Church
+was weak, because it depended on the kings, and had not had time to
+root itself in the affections of the people. AEthelberht's supremacy
+was also weak. The greater part of the small states which still
+existed--Sussex, Kent, Essex, East Anglia, and most of the small
+kingdoms of central England--were no longer bordered by a Celtic
+population. For them the war of conquest and defence was at an end.
+If any one of the kingdoms was to rise to permanent supremacy it
+must be one of those engaged in strenuous warfare, and as yet
+strenuous warfare was only carried on with the Welsh. The kingdoms
+which had the Welsh on their borders were three--Wessex, Mercia, and
+North-humberland, and neither Wessex nor Mercia was as yet very
+strong. Wessex was too distracted by conflicts amongst members of
+the kingly family, and Mercia was as yet too small to be of much
+account. North-humberland was therefore the first of the three to
+rise to the foremost place. Till the death of AElla, the king of
+Deira, from whose land had been carried off the slave-boys whose
+faces had charmed Gregory at Rome, Deira and Bernicia had been as
+separate as Kent and Essex. Then in =588= AEthelric of Bernicia drove
+out AElla's son and seized his kingdom of Deira, thus joining the two
+kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia (see p. 36) into one, under the new
+name of North-humberland.[2]
+
+ [Footnote 2: Genealogy of the principal Northumbrian
+ kings:--[_Note._--The names of kings are in capitals. The figures
+ denote the order of succession of those who ruled over the whole of
+ North-humberland. Those whose names are followed by a B. or D. ruled
+ only over Bernicia or Deira respectively.]
+
+ _House of Bernicia_ _House of Deira_
+
+ IDA B. Iffa D.
+ | |
+ | ---------------
+ | | |
+ 1. AETHELRIC AELLA D. AElfric
+ | | |
+ | --------------------------- |
+ | | | |
+ 2. AETHELFRITH = Acha 3. EADWINE OSRIC D.
+ | |
+ -------------- |
+ | | |
+ 4. OSWALD 5. OSWIU OSWINI D.]
+
+9. =AEthelfrith and the Kymry.=--In =593=, four years before the
+landing of Augustine, AEthelric was succeeded by his son AEthelfrith.
+AEthelfrith began a fresh struggle with the Welsh. We know little of
+the internal history of the Welsh population, but what we do know
+shows that towards the end of the sixth century there was an
+improvement in their religious and political existence. The
+monasteries were thronged, especially the great monastery of
+Bangor-iscoed, in the modern Flintshire, which contained 2,000 monks.
+St. David and other bishops gave examples of piety. In fighting
+against AEthelfrith the warriors of the Britons were fighting for their
+last chance of independence. They still held the west from the Clyde
+to the Channel. Unhappily for them, the Severn, the Dee, and the
+Solway Firth divided their land into four portions, and if an enemy
+coming from the east could seize upon the heads of the inlets into
+which those rivers flowed he could prevent the defenders of the west
+from aiding one another. Already in =577=, by the victory of Deorham
+(see p. 35), the West Saxons had seized on the mouth of the Severn,
+and had split off the West Welsh of the south-western peninsula.
+AEthelfrith had to do with the Kymry, whose territories stretched from
+the Bristol Channel to the Clyde, and who held an outlying wedge of
+land then known as Loidis and Elmet, which now together form the West
+Riding of Yorkshire.
+
+10. =AEthelfrith's Victories.=--The long range of barren hills which
+separated AEthelfrith's kingdom from the Kymry made it difficult for
+either side to strike a serious blow at the other. In the extreme
+north, where a low valley joins the Firths of Clyde and Forth, it was
+easier for them to meet. Here the Kymry found an ally outside their
+own borders. Towards the end of the fifth century a colony of Irish
+Scots had driven out the Picts from the modern Argyle. In =603= their
+king, Aedan, bringing with him a vast army, in which Picts and the
+Kymry appear to have taken part, invaded the northern part of
+AEthelfrith's country. AEthelfrith defeated him at Degsastan, which was
+probably Dawstone, near Jedburgh. 'From that time no king of the
+Scots durst come into Britain to make war upon the English.' Having
+freed himself from the Scots in the north, AEthelfrith turned upon the
+Kymry. After a succession of struggles of which no record remains, he
+forced his way in =613= to the western sea near Chester. The Kymry had
+brought with them the 2,000 monks of their great monastery
+Bangor-iscoed, to pray for victory whilst their warriors were engaged
+in battle. AEthelfrith bade his men to slay them all. 'Whether they
+bear arms or no,' he said, 'they fight against us when they cry
+against us to their God.' The monks were slain to a man. Their
+countrymen were routed, and Chester fell into the hands of the
+English. The capture of Chester split the Kymric kingdom in two, as
+the battle of Deorham thirty-five years before had split that kingdom
+off from the West Welsh of the south-western peninsula. The Southern
+Kymry, in what is now called Wales, could no longer give help to the
+Northern Kymry between the Clyde and the Ribble, who grouped
+themselves into the kingdom of Strathclyde, the capital of which was
+Alcluyd, the modern Dumbarton. Three weak Celtic states, unable to
+assist one another, would not long be able to resist their invaders.
+
+11. =The Greatness of Eadwine.=--Powerful as AEthelfrith was, he was
+jealous of young Eadwine, a son of his father's rival, AElla of Deira.
+For some years Eadwine had been in hiding, at one time with Welsh
+princes, at another time with English kings. In =617= he took refuge
+with Raedwald, the king of the East Angles. AEthelfrith demanded the
+surrender of the fugitive. Raedwald hesitated, but at last refused.
+AEthelfrith attacked him, but was defeated and slain near the river
+Idle, at some point near Retford. Eadwine the Deiran then became king
+over the united North-humberland in the place of AEthelfrith the
+Bernician, whose sons fled for safety to the Picts beyond the Forth.
+Eadwine completed and consolidated the conquests of his predecessors.
+He placed a fortress, named after himself Eadwinesburh, or Edinburgh,
+on a rocky height near the Forth, to guard his land against a fresh
+irruption of Scots and Picts, such as that which had been turned back
+at Degsastan. He conquered from the Kymry Loidis and Elmet, and he
+launched a fleet at Chester which added to his dominions the Isle of
+Man and the greater island which was henceforth known as Anglesea, the
+island of the Angles. Eadwine assumed unwonted state. Wherever he went
+a standard was borne before him, as well as a spear decorated with a
+tuft of feathers, the ancient sign of Roman authority. It has been
+thought by some that his meaning was that he, rather than any
+Welshman, was the true Gwledig, the successor of the Duke of the
+Britains (_Dux Britanniarum_), and that the name of Bretwalda, or
+ruler of the Britons, which he is said to have borne, was only a
+translation of the Welsh Gwledig. It is true that the title of
+Bretwalda is given to other powerful kings before and after Eadwine,
+some of whom were in no sense rulers over Britons; but it is possible
+that it was taken to signify a ruler over a large part of Britain,
+though the men over whom he ruled were English, and not Britons.
+
+12. =Eadwine's Supremacy.=--Eadwine's immediate kingship did not reach
+further south than the Humber and the Dee. But before =625= he had
+brought the East Angles and the kingdoms of central England to submit
+to his over-lordship, and he hoped to make himself over-lord of the
+south as well, and thus to reduce all England to dependence on
+himself. In =625= he planned an attack upon the West Saxons, and with
+the object of winning Kent to his side, he married AEthelburh, a sister
+of the Kentish king. Kent was still the only Christian kingdom, and
+Eadwine was obliged to promise to his wife protection for her
+Christian worship. He was now free to attack the West Saxons. In
+=626=, before he set out, ambassadors arrived from their king. As
+Eadwine was listening to them, one of their number rushed forward to
+stab him. His life was saved by the devotion of Lilla, one of his
+thegns, who threw his body in the way of the assassin, and was slain
+by the stroke intended for his lord. After this Eadwine marched
+against the West Saxons. He defeated them in battle and forced them to
+acknowledge him as their over-lord. He was now over-lord of all the
+English states except Kent, and Kent had become his ally in
+consequence of his marriage.
+
+13. =Character of the later Conquests.=--Eadwine's over-lordship had
+been gained with as little difficulty as AEthelberht's had been. The
+ease with which each of them carried out their purpose can only be
+explained by the change which had taken place in the condition of the
+English. The small bodies of conquerors which had landed at different
+parts of the coast had been interested to a man in the defence of the
+lands which they had seized. Every freeman had been ready to come
+forward to defend the soil which his tribe had gained. After tribe had
+been joined to tribe, and still more after kingdom had been joined to
+kingdom, there were large numbers who ceased to have any interest in
+resisting the Welsh on what was, as far as they were concerned, a
+distant frontier. Thus, when Ceawlin was fighting to extend the West
+Saxon frontiers in the valley of the Severn, it mattered little to a
+man whose own allotted land lay on the banks of the Southampton Water
+whether or not his English kinsmen won lands from the Welsh near Bath
+or Gloucester. The first result of this change was that the king's
+war-band formed a far greater proportion of his military force than it
+had formed originally. There was still the obligation upon the whole
+body of the freemen to take arms, but it was an obligation which had
+become more difficult to fulfil, and it must often have happened that
+very few freemen took part in a battle except the local levies
+concerned in defending their own immediate neighbourhood. A military
+change of this kind would account for the undoubted fact that the
+further the English conquest penetrated to the west the less
+destructive it was of British life. The thegns, or warriors personally
+attached to the king, did not want to plough and reap with their own
+hands. They would be far better pleased to spare the lives of the
+conquered and to compel them to labour. Every step in advance was
+marked by a proportionately larger Welsh element in the population.
+
+14. =Political Changes.=--The character of the kingship was as much
+affected by the change as the character of the population. The old
+folk-moots still remained as the local courts of the smaller kingdoms,
+or of the districts out of which the larger kingdoms were composed,
+and continued to meet under the presidency of ealdormen appointed or
+approved by the king. Four men and a reeve, all of them humble
+cultivators, could not, however, be expected to walk up to York from
+the shores of the Forth, or even from the banks of the Tyne, whenever
+Eadwine needed their counsel. Their place in the larger kingdoms was
+therefore taken by the Witenagemot (_The moot of the wise men_),
+composed of the ealdormen and the chief thegns, together with the
+priests attached to the king's service in the time of heathendom, and,
+in the time of Christianity, the bishop or bishops of his kingdom. In
+one way the king was the stronger for the change. His counsellors,
+like his fighting force, were more dependent on himself than before.
+He was able to plan greater designs, and to carry out military
+enterprises at a greater distance. In another way he was the weaker
+for the change. He had less support from the bulk of his people, and
+was more likely to undertake enterprises in which they had no
+interest. The over-lordships of AEthelberht and Eadwine appear very
+imposing, but no real tie united the men of the centre of England to
+those of Kent at one time, or to those of North-humberland at another.
+Eadwine was supreme over the other kings because he had a better
+war-band than they had. If another king appeared whose war-band was
+better than his, his supremacy would disappear.
+
+15. =Eadwine's Conversion and Fall.=--In =627= Eadwine, moved by his
+wife's entreaties and the urgency of her chaplain, Paulinus, called
+upon his Witan to accept Christianity. Coifi, the priest, declared
+that he had long served his gods for naught, and would try a change of
+masters. 'The present life of man, O king,' said a thegn, 'seems to me
+in comparison of that time which is unknown to us like to the swift
+flight of a sparrow through the room wherein you sit at supper in
+winter, with your ealdormen and thegns, and a good fire in the midst,
+and storms of rain and snow without.... So this life of man appears
+for a short space, but of what went before or what is to follow we are
+utterly ignorant. If therefore this new doctrine contains something
+more certain, it seems justly to deserve to be followed.' On this
+recommendation Christianity was accepted. Paulinus was acknowledged as
+Bishop of York. The new See, which had been originally intended by
+Pope Gregory to be an archbishopric, was ultimately acknowledged as
+such, but as yet it was but a missionary station. Paulinus converted
+thousands in Deira, but the men of Bernicia were unaffected by his
+pleadings. Christianity, like the extension of all better teaching,
+brought at first not peace but the sword. The new religion was
+contemptible in the eyes of warriors. The supremacy of Eadwine was
+shaken. The men of East Anglia slew their king, who had followed his
+over-lord's example by accepting Christianity. The worst blow came
+from Mercia. Hitherto it had been only a little state on the Welsh
+border. Its king, Penda, the stoutest warrior of his day, now gathered
+under him all the central states, and founded a new Mercia which
+stretched from the Severn to the Fens. He first turned on the West
+Saxons, defeated them at Cirencester, and in =628= brought the
+territory of the Hwiccas under Mercian sway. On the other hand, East
+Anglia accepted Eadwine's supremacy and Christianity. Penda called to
+his aid Caedwalla, the king of Gwynnedd, the Snowdonian region of
+Wales. That he should have done so shows how completely AEthelfrith's
+victory at Chester, by cutting the Kymric realm in two, had put an end
+to all fears that the Kymry could ever make head against England as a
+whole. The alliance was too strong for Eadwine, and in =633=, at the
+battle of Heathfield--the modern Hatfield, in Yorkshire--the great
+king was slain and his army routed.
+
+16. =Oswald's Victory at Heavenfield.=--Penda was content to split up
+Bernicia and Deira into separate kingdoms, and to join East Anglia to
+his subject states. Caedwalla had all the wrongs of his race to avenge.
+He remained in North-humberland burning and destroying till =635=,
+when Oswald, who was a son of AEthelfrith and of Eadwine's sister, and
+therefore united the claims of the rival families, gathered the men of
+Bernicia round him, overthrew Caedwalla at Heavenfield, near the Roman
+Wall, and was gratefully accepted as king by the whole of
+North-humberland.
+
+17. =Oswald and Aidan.=--In the days of Eadwine, Oswald, as the heir
+of the rival house of Bernicia, had passed his youth in exile, and had
+been converted to Christianity in the monastery of Hii, the island now
+known as Iona. The monastery had been founded by Columba, an Irish
+Scot. Christianity had been introduced into Ireland by Patrick early
+in the fifth century. Ireland was a land of constant and cruel war
+between its tribes, and all who wished to be Christians in more than
+name withdrew themselves into monasteries, where they lived an even
+stricter and more ascetic life than the monks did in other parts of
+Western Europe. Bishops were retained in the monasteries to ordain
+priests, but they were entirely powerless. Columba's monastery at Hii
+sent its missionaries abroad, and brought Picts as well as Scots under
+the influence of Christianity. Oswald now requested its abbot, the
+successor of Columba, to send a missionary to preach the faith to the
+men of North-humberland in the place of Paulinus, who had fled when
+Eadwine was slain. The first who was sent came back reporting that the
+people were too stubborn to be converted. "Was it their stubbornness
+or your harshness?" asked the monk Aidan. "Did you forget to give them
+the milk first and then the meat?" Aidan was chosen to take the place
+of the brother who had failed. He established himself, not in an
+inland town, but in Holy Island. His life was spent in wandering
+amongst the men of the valleys opposite, winning them over by his
+gentleness and his self-denying energy. Oswald, warrior as he was, had
+almost all the gentleness and piety of Aidan. 'By reason of his
+constant habit of praying or giving thanks to the Lord he was wont
+whenever he sat to hold his hands upturned on his knees.' On one
+occasion when he sat down to a feast with Aidan by his side, he sent
+both the dainties before him and the silver dish on which they had
+been served to be divided amongst the poor. "May this hand," exclaimed
+the delighted Aidan, "never grow old!"
+
+18. =Oswald's Greatness and Overthrow.=--As a king Oswald based his
+power on the acknowledgment of his over-lordship by all the kingdoms
+which were hostile to Penda. In =635= Wessex accepted Christianity,
+and the acceptance of Christianity brought with it the acceptance of
+Oswald's supremacy. Penda was thus surrounded by enemies, but his
+courage did not fail him, and in =642= at the battle of Maserfield he
+defeated Oswald. Oswald fell in the battle, begging with his last
+words for God's mercy on the souls of his enemies.
+
+19. =Penda's Overthrow.=--After Oswald's fall Bernicia was ruled by
+his brother Oswiu. Deira, again divided from it, was governed first
+by Eadwine's cousin Osric, and then by Osric's son, Oswini, who
+acknowledged Penda as his over-lord. Oswini was a man after Aidan's
+own heart. Once he gave a horse to Aidan to carry him on his mission
+journeys. Aidan gave it away to the first beggar he met. "Is that
+son of a mare," answered Aidan to the reproaches of the king, "worth
+more in your eyes than that son of God?" Oswini fell at the bishop's
+feet and entreated his pardon. Aidan wept. "I am sure," he cried,
+"the king will not live long. I never till now saw a king humble."
+Aidan was right. In =651= Oswini was slain by the order of King
+Oswiu of Bernicia, who had long engaged in a struggle with Penda.
+Penda had for some years been burning and slaughtering in Bernicia,
+till he had turned a quarrel between himself and Oswiu into a
+national strife. Oswiu rescued Bernicia from destruction, and after
+Oswini's murder joined once more the two kingdoms together. Oswini
+was the last heir of AElla's house, and from that time there was but
+one North-humberland. In =655= Oswiu and Penda met to fight, as it
+seemed for supremacy over the whole of England, by the river Winwaed,
+near the present Leeds. The heathen Penda was defeated and slain.
+
+20. =The Three Kingdoms and the Welsh.=--For a moment it seemed as if
+England would be brought together under the rule of Oswiu. After
+Penda's death Mercia accepted Christianity, and the newly united
+Mercia was split up into its original parts ruled by several kings.
+The supremacy of Oswiu was, however, as little to be borne by the
+Mercians as the supremacy of Penda had been borne by the men of
+North-humberland. Under Wulfhere the Mercians rose in =659= against
+Oswiu. All hope of uniting England was for the present at an end. For
+about a century and a half longer there remained three larger
+kingdoms--North-humberland, Mercia, and Wessex, whilst four smaller
+ones--East Anglia, Essex, Kent, and Sussex--were usually attached
+either to Mercia or to Wessex. The failure of North-humberland to
+maintain the power was no doubt, in the first place owing to the
+absence of any common danger, the fear of which would bind together
+its populations in self-defence. The northern Kymry of Strathclyde
+were no longer formidable, and they grew less formidable as years
+passed on. The southern Kymry of Wales were too weak to threaten
+Mercia, and the Welsh of the south-western peninsula were too weak to
+threaten Wessex. It was most unlikely that any permanent union of the
+English states would be brought about till some enemy arose who was
+more terrible to them than the Welsh could any longer be.
+
+21. =The English Missionaries.=--Some preparation might, however, be
+made for the day of union by the steady growth of the Church. The
+South Saxons, secluded between the forest and the sea, were the last
+to be converted, but with them English heathenism came to an end as an
+avowed religion, though it still continued to influence the multitude
+in the form of a belief in fairies and witchcraft. Monasteries and
+nunneries sprang up on all sides. Missionaries spread over the
+country. In their mouths, and still more in their lives, Christianity
+taught what the fierce English warrior most wanted to learn, the duty
+of restraining his evil passions, and above all his cruelty. Nowhere
+in all Europe did the missionaries appeal so exclusively as they did
+in England to higher and purer motives. Nowhere but in England were to
+be found kings like Oswald and Oswini, who bowed their souls to the
+lesson of the Cross, and learned that they were not their own, but
+were placed in power that they might use their strength in helping the
+poor and needy.
+
+22. =Dispute between Wilfrid and Colman. 664.=--The lesson was all the
+better taught because those who taught it were monks. Monasticism
+brought with it an extravagant view of the life of self-denial, but
+those who had to be instructed needed to have the lesson written
+plainly so that a child might read it. The rough warrior or the rough
+peasant was more likely to abstain from drunkenness, if he had learned
+to look up to men who ate and drank barely enough to enable them to
+live; and he was more likely to treat women with gentleness and
+honour, if he had learned to look up to some women who separated
+themselves from the joys of married life that they might give
+themselves to fasting and prayer. Yet, great as the influence of the
+clergy was, it was in danger of being lessened through internal
+disputes amongst themselves. A very large part of England had been
+converted by the Celtic missionaries, and the Celtic missionaries,
+though their life and teaching was in the main the same as that of the
+Church of Canterbury and of the Churches of the Continent, differed
+from them in the shape of the tonsure and in the time at which they
+kept their Easter. These things were themselves unimportant, but it
+was of great importance that the young English Church should not be
+separated from the Churches of more civilised countries which had
+preserved much of the learning and art of the old Roman Empire. One of
+those who felt strongly the evil which would follow on such a
+separation was Wilfrid. He was scornful and self-satisfied, but he had
+travelled to Rome, and had been impressed with the ecclesiastical
+memories of the great city, and with the fervour and learning of its
+clergy. He came back resolved to bring the customs of England into
+conformity with those of the churches of the Continent. On his
+arrival, Oswiu, in =664=, gathered an assembly of the clergy of the
+north headed by Colman, Aidan's successor, to discuss the point.
+Learned arguments were poured forth on either side. Oswiu listened in
+a puzzled way. Wilfrid boasted that his mode of keeping Easter was
+derived from Peter, and that Christ had given to Peter the keys of the
+kingdom of heaven. Oswiu at once decided to follow Peter, lest when he
+came to the gate of that kingdom Peter, who held the keys, should lock
+him out. Wilfrid triumphed, and the English Church was in all outward
+matters regulated in conformity with that of Rome.
+
+23. =Archbishop Theodore and the Penitential System.=--In =668=, four
+years after Oswiu's decision was taken, Theodore of Tarsus was
+consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury at Rome by the Pope himself. When
+he arrived in England the time had come for the purely missionary
+stage of the English Church to come to an end. Hitherto the bishops
+had been few, only seven in all England. Their number was now
+increased, and they were set to work no longer merely to convert the
+heathen, but to see that the clergy did their duty amongst those who
+had been already converted. Gradually, under these bishops, a
+parochial clergy came into existence. Sometimes the freemen of a
+hamlet, or of two or three hamlets together, would demand the constant
+residence of a priest. Sometimes a lord would settle a priest to teach
+his serfs. The parish clergy attacked violence and looseness of life
+in a way different from that of the monks. The monks had given
+examples of extreme self-denial. Theodore introduced the penitential
+system of the Roman Church, and ordered that those who had committed
+sin should be excluded from sharing in the rites of the Church until
+they had done penance. They were to fast, or to repeat prayers,
+sometimes for many years, before they were readmitted to communion.
+Many centuries afterwards good men objected that these penances were
+only bodily actions, and did not necessarily bring with them any real
+repentance. In the seventh century the greater part of the population
+could only be reached by such bodily actions. They had never had any
+thought that a murder, for instance, was anything more than a
+dangerous action which might bring down on the murderer the vengeance
+of the relations of the murdered man, which might be bought off with
+the payment of a weregild of a few shillings. The murderer who was
+required by the Church to do penance was being taught that a murder
+was a sin against God and against himself, as well as an offence
+against his fellow-men. Gradually--very gradually--men would learn
+from the example of the monks and from the discipline of penance that
+they were to live for something higher than the gratification of their
+own passions.
+
+[Illustration: Saxon church at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts.]
+
+24. =Ealdhelm and Caedmon.=--When a change is good in itself, it
+usually bears fruit in unexpected ways. Theodore was a scholar as well
+as a bishop. Under his care a school grew up at Canterbury, full of
+all the learning of the Roman world. That which distinguished this
+school and others founded in imitation of it was that the scholars did
+not keep their learning to themselves, but strove to make it helpful
+to the ignorant and the poor. They learnt architecture on the
+Continent in order to raise churches of stone in the place of churches
+of wood. One of these churches is still standing at Bradford-on-Avon.
+Its builder was Ealdhelm, the abbot of Malmesbury, a teacher of all
+the knowledge of the time. Ealdhelm, learned as he was, let his heart
+go forth to the unlearned. Finding that his neighbours would not
+listen to his sermons, he sang to them on a bridge to win them to
+higher things. Like all people who cannot read, the English of those
+days loved a song. In the north, Caedmon, a rude herdsman on the lands
+of the abbey which in later days was known as Whitby, was vexed with
+himself because he could not sing. When at ale-drinkings his comrades
+pressed him to sing a song, he would leave his supper unfinished and
+return home ashamed. One night in a dream he heard a voice bidding him
+sing of the Creation. In his sleep the words came to him, and they
+remained with him when he woke. He had become a poet--a rude poet, it
+is true, but still a poet. The gift which Caedmon had acquired never
+left him. He sang of the Creation and of the whole course of God's
+providence. To the end he was unable to compose any songs which were
+not religious.
+
+25. =Bede. 673--735.=--Of all the English scholars of the time Baeda,
+usually known as 'the venerable Bede,' was the most remarkable. He was
+a monk of Jarrow on the Tyne. From his youth up he was a writer on all
+subjects embraced by the knowledge of his day. One subject he made his
+own. He was the first English historian. The title of his greatest
+work was the Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. He told how
+that nation had been converted, and of the fortunes of its Church; but
+for him the Church included the whole nation, and he told of the
+doings of kings and people, as well as of priests and monks. In this
+he was a true interpreter of the spirit of the English Church. Its
+clergy did not stand aloof from the rulers of the state, but worked
+with them as well as for them. The bishops stepped into the place of
+the heathen priests in the Witenagemots of the kings, and counselled
+them in matters of state as well as in matters of religion.
+
+26. =Church Councils.=--Bede recognised in the title of his book that
+there was such a thing as an English nation long before there was any
+political unity. Whilst kingdom was fighting against kingdom, Theodore
+in =673= assembled the first English Church council at Hertford. From
+that time such councils of the bishops and principal clergy of all
+England met whenever any ecclesiastical question required them to
+deliberate in common. The clergy at least did not meet as West Saxons
+or as Mercians. They met on behalf of the whole English Church, and
+their united consultations must have done much to spread the idea
+that, in spite of the strife between the kings, the English nation was
+really one.
+
+[Illustration: Saxon horsemen (Harl. MS. 603.)]
+
+[Illustration: Group of Saxon warriors. (Harl. MS. 603.)]
+
+27. =Struggle between Mercia and Wessex.=--Many years passed away
+before the kingdoms could be brought under one king. North-humberland
+stood apart from southern England, and during the latter half of the
+seventh century Wessex grew in power. Wessex had been weak because it
+was seldom thoroughly united. Each district was presided over by an
+AEtheling, or chief of royal blood, and it was only occasionally that
+these AEthelings submitted to the king. From time to time a strong king
+compelled the obedience of the AEthelings and carried on the old
+struggle with the western Welsh. It was not till =710= that Ine
+succeeded in driving the Welsh out of Somerset, and about the same
+time a body of the West Saxons advancing through Dorset reached
+Exeter. They took possession of half the city for themselves, and left
+the remainder to the Welsh. Ine was, however, checked by fresh
+outbreaks of the subordinate AEthelings, and in =726= he gave up the
+struggle and went on a pilgrimage to Rome. AEthelbald, king of the
+Mercians, took the opportunity to invade Wessex, and made himself
+master of the country and over-lord of all the other kingdoms south of
+the Humber. In =754= the West Saxons rose against him and defeated him
+at Burford. After a few years his successor, Offa, once more took up
+the task of making the Mercian king over-lord of southern England. In
+=775=, after a long struggle, he brought Kent as well as Essex under
+his sway. In =779= he defeated the West Saxons at Bensington, and
+pushed the Mercian frontier to the Thames. Further than that Offa did
+not venture to go, and, great as he was, the West Saxons within their
+shrunken limits continued to be independent of him. He turned his
+arms upon the Welsh, and drove them back from the Severn to the
+embankment which is known from his name as Offa's Dyke. The West
+Saxons, being freed from attack on the side of Mercia, overran Devon.
+Then there was a contest for the West Saxon crown between Beorhtric
+and Ecgberht. Beorhtric gained the upper hand, and entered into
+alliance with Offa by taking his daughter to wife. Ecgberht fled to
+the Continent.
+
+28. =Mohammedanism and the Carolingian Empire.=--A great change had
+passed over Europe since the days when a Frankish princess, by her
+marriage with the Kentish Ethelberht, had smoothed the way for the
+introduction of Christianity into England. In the first part of the
+seventh century Mohammed had preached a new religion in Arabia. He
+taught that there was one God, and that Mohammed was his prophet.
+After his death his Arab followers spread as conquerors over the
+neighbouring countries. Before the end of the century they had subdued
+Persia, Syria, and Egypt, and were pushing westwards along the north
+coast of Africa. In =711= they crossed the Straits of Gibraltar. All
+Spain, with the exception of a hilly district in the north, soon fell
+into their hands, and in =717= they crossed the Pyrenees. There can be
+little doubt that, if they had subdued Gaul, Mohammedanism and not
+Christianity would for a long time have been the prevailing religion
+in Europe. From this Europe was saved by a great Frankish warrior,
+Charles Martel (_the Hammer_), who in =732= drove the invaders back at
+a great battle between Tours and Poitiers. Charles's son, Pippin,
+dethroned the reigning family and became king of the Franks. Pippin's
+son was Charles the Great, who before he died ruled over the whole of
+Gaul and Germany, over the north and centre of Italy, and the
+north-east of Spain. His rule was favoured both by the Frankish
+warriors and by the clergy, who were glad to see so strong a bulwark
+erected against the attacks of the Mohammedans. At that time the Roman
+Empire, which had never ceased to exist at Constantinople, fell into
+the hands of Irene, the murderess of her son. In =800= the Pope,
+refusing to acknowledge that the Empire could have so unworthy a head,
+placed the Imperial crown on the head of Charles as the successor of
+the old Roman Emperors.
+
+29. =Ecgberht's Rule. 802--839.=--Though Charles did not directly
+govern England, he made his influence felt there. Offa had claimed his
+protection, and Ecgberht took refuge at his court. Ecgberht doubtless
+learned something of the art of ruling from him, and in =802= he
+returned to England. Beorhtric was by this time dead, and Ecgberht
+was accepted as king by the West Saxons. Before he died, in =839=, he
+had made himself the over-lord of all the other kingdoms. He was
+never, indeed, directly king of all England. Kent, Sussex, and Essex
+were governed by rulers of his own family appointed by himself.
+Mercia, East Anglia, and North-humberland retained their own kings,
+ruling under Ecgberht as their over-lord. Towards the west Ecgberht's
+direct government did not reach beyond the Tamar, though the Cornish
+Celts acknowledged his authority, as did the Celts of Wales. The Celts
+of Strathclyde and the Picts and Scots remained entirely independent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE ENGLISH KINGSHIP AND THE STRUGGLE WITH THE DANES.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+ First landing of the Danes 787
+ Treaty of Wedmore 878
+ Dependent alliance of the Scots with Eadward the Elder 925
+ Accession of Eadgar 959
+
+
+1. =The West Saxon Supremacy.=--It was quite possible that the power
+founded by Ecgberht might pass away as completely as did the power
+which had been founded by AEthelfrith of North-humberland or by Penda
+of Mercia. To some extent the danger was averted by the unusual
+strength of character which for six generations showed itself in the
+family of Ecgberht. For nearly a century and a half after Ecgberht's
+death no ruler arose from his line who had not great qualities as a
+warrior or as a ruler. It was no less important that these successive
+kings, with scarcely an exception, kept up a good understanding with
+the clergy, and especially with the Archbishops of Canterbury, so that
+the whole of the influence of the Church was thrown in favour of the
+political unity of England under the West Saxon line. The clergy
+wished to see the establishment of a strong national government for
+the protection of the national Church. Yet it was difficult to
+establish such a government unless other causes than the goodwill of
+the clergy had contributed to its maintenance. Peoples who have had
+little intercourse except by fighting with one another rarely unite
+heartily unless they have some common enemy to ward off, and some
+common leader to look up to in the conduct of their defence.[3]
+
+ [Footnote 3: Genealogy of the English kings from Ecgberht to
+ Eadgar:--
+
+ ECGBERHT
+ 802-839
+ |
+ AETHELWULF
+ 839-858
+ |
+ -----------------------------------------
+ | | | |
+ AETHELBALD AETHELBERHT AETHELRED AELFRED
+ 858-860 860-866 866-871 871-901
+ |
+ -------------------------------------------
+ | |
+ Eadward AEthelflaed = AEthelred
+ 899-925 (the _Lady of the
+ | Mercians_)
+ --------------------------
+ | | |
+ AETHELSTAN EADMUND EADRED
+ 925-940 940-946 946-955
+ |
+ ------------
+ | |
+ EADWIG EADGAR
+ 955-959 959-975]
+
+[Illustration: Remains of a Viking ship, from a cairn at Gokstad. (Now
+in the University at Christiania.)]
+
+2. =The Coming of the Northmen.=--The common enemy came from the
+north. At the end of the eighth century the inhabitants of Norway and
+Denmark resembled the Angles and Saxons three or four centuries
+before. They swarmed over the sea as pirates to plunder wherever they
+could find stored-up wealth along the coasts of Western Europe. The
+Northmen were heathen still and their religion was the old religion of
+force. They loved battle even more than they loved plunder. They held
+that the warrior who was slain in fight was received by the god Odin
+in Valhalla, where immortal heroes spent their days in cutting one
+another to pieces, and were healed of their wounds in the evening that
+they might join in the nightly feast, and be able to fight again on
+the morrow. He that died in bed was condemned to a chilly and dreary
+existence in the abode of the goddess Hela, whose name is the Norse
+equivalent of Hell.
+
+[Illustration: Gold ring of AEthelwulf.]
+
+3. =The English Coast Plundered.=--Since Englishmen had settled in
+England they had lost the art of seamanship. The Northmen therefore
+were often able to plunder and sail away. They could only be attacked
+on land, and some time would pass before the Ealdorman who ruled the
+district could gather together not only his own war-band, but the
+fyrd, or levy of all men of fighting age. When at last he arrived at
+the spot on the coast where the pirates had been plundering, he often
+found that they were already gone. Yet, as time went on, the Northmen
+took courage, and pushed far enough into the interior to be attacked
+before they could regain the coast. Their first landing had been in
+=787=, before the time of Ecgberht. In Ecgberht's reign their attacks
+upon Wessex were so persistent that Ecgberht had to bring his own
+war-band to the succour of his Ealdormen. His son and successor,
+AEthelwulf, had a still harder struggle. The pirates spread their
+attacks over the whole of the southern and the eastern coast, and
+ventured to remain long enough on shore to fight a succession of
+battles. In =851= they were strong enough to remain during the whole
+winter in Thanet. The crews of no less than 350 ships landed in the
+mouth of the Thames sacked Canterbury and London. They were finally
+defeated by AEthelwulf at Aclea (_Ockley_), in Surrey. In =858=
+AEthelwulf died. Four of his sons wore the crown in succession; the two
+eldest, AEthelbald and AEthelberht, ruling only a short time.
+
+4. =The Danes in the North.=--The task of the third brother,
+AEthelred, who succeeded in =866=, was harder than his father's.
+Hitherto the Northmen had come for plunder, and had departed sooner or
+later. A fresh swarm of Danes now arrived from Denmark to settle on
+the land as conquerors. Though they did not themselves fight on
+horseback, they seized horses to betake themselves rapidly from one
+part of England to the other. Their first attack was made on the
+north, where there was no great affection for the West Saxon kings.
+They overcame the greater part of North-humberland. They beat down the
+resistance of East Anglia, and, fastening its king, Eadmund, to a
+tree, shot him to death with arrows. His countrymen counted him a
+saint, and a great monastery arose at Bury St. Edmunds in his honour.
+Everywhere the Danes plundered and burnt the monasteries, because the
+monks were weak, and their houses were rich with jewelled service
+books and golden plate. They next turned upon Mercia, and forced the
+Mercian under-king to pay tribute to them. Only Wessex, to which the
+smaller eastern states of Kent and Sussex had by this time been
+completely annexed, retained its independence.
+
+5. =AElfred's Struggle in Wessex. 871--878.=--In Wessex AEthelred strove
+hard against the invaders. He won a great victory at AEscesdun
+(_Ashdown_, near Reading), on the northern slope of the Berkshire
+Downs. After a succession of battles he was slain in =871=. Though he
+left sons of his own, he was succeeded by AElfred, his youngest
+brother. It was not the English custom to give the crown to the child
+of a king if there was any one of the kingly family more fitted to
+wear it. AElfred was no common man. In his childhood he had visited
+Rome, and had been hallowed as king by Pope Leo IV., though the
+ceremony could have had no weight in England. He had early shown a
+love of letters, and the story goes that when his mother offered a
+book with bright illuminations to the one of her children who could
+first learn to read it, the prize was won by AElfred. During AEthelred's
+reign he had little time to give to learning. He fought nobly by his
+brother's side in the battles of the day, and after he succeeded him
+he fought nobly as king at the head of his people. In =878= the Danish
+host, under its king, Guthrum, beat down all resistance. AElfred was no
+longer able to keep in the open country, and took refuge with a few
+chosen warriors in the little island of Athelney, in Somerset, then
+surrounded by the waters of the fen country through which the Parret
+flowed. After a few weeks he came forth, and with the levies of
+Somerset and Wilts and of part of Hants he utterly defeated Guthrum at
+Ethandun (? _Edington_, in Wiltshire), and stormed his camp.
+
+[Illustration: Gold jewel of AElfred found at Athelney. (Now in the
+Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.)]
+
+6. =The Treaty of Chippenham, and its Results. 878.=--After this
+defeat Guthrum and the Danes swore to a peace with AElfred at
+Chippenham. They were afterwards baptised in a body at Aller, not far
+from Athelney. Guthrum with a few of his companions then visited
+AElfred at Wedmore, a village near the southern foot of the Mendips,
+from which is taken the name by which the treaty is usually but
+wrongly known. By this treaty AElfred retained no more than Wessex,
+with its dependencies, Sussex and Kent, and the western half of
+Mercia. The remainder of England as far north as the Tees was
+surrendered to the Danes, and became known as the Danelaw, because
+Danish and not Saxon law prevailed in it. Beyond the Tees Bernicia
+maintained its independence under an English king. Though the English
+people never again had to struggle for its very existence as a
+political body, yet, in =886=, after a successful war, AElfred wrung
+from Guthrum a fresh treaty by which the Danes surrendered London and
+the surrounding district. Yet, even after this second treaty, it might
+seem as if AElfred, who only ruled over a part of England, was worse
+off than his grandfather, Ecgberht, who had ruled over the whole. In
+reality he was better off. In the larger kingdom it would have been
+almost impossible to produce the national spirit which alone could
+have permanently kept the whole together. In the smaller kingdom it
+was possible, especially as there was a strong West Saxon element in
+the south-west of Mercia in consequence of its original settlement by
+a West Saxon king after the battle of Deorham (see p. 35). Moreover,
+AElfred, taking care not to offend the old feeling of local
+independence which still existed in Mercia, appointed his son-in-law,
+AEthelred, who was a Mercian, to govern it as an ealdorman under
+himself.
+
+[Illustration: An English vessel. (Harl. MS. 603.)]
+
+7. =AElfred's Military Work.=--AElfred would hardly have been able to do
+so much unless his own character had been singularly attractive. Other
+men have been greater warriors or legislators or scholars than AElfred
+was, but no man has ever combined in his own person so much excellence
+in war, in legislation, and in scholarship. As to war, he was not only
+a daring and resolute commander, but he was an organiser of the
+military forces of his people. One chief cause of the defeats of the
+English had been the difficulty of bringing together in a short time
+the 'fyrd,' or general levy of the male population, or of keeping it
+long together when men were needed at home to till the fields. AElfred
+did his best to overcome this difficulty by ordering that half the men
+of each shire should be always ready to fight, whilst half remained at
+home. This new half-army, like his new half-kingdom, was stronger than
+the whole one had been before. To an improved army AElfred added a
+navy, and he was the first English king who defeated the Danes at sea.
+
+[Illustration: A Saxon house. (Harl. MS. 603.)]
+
+8. =His Laws and Scholarship.=--AElfred was too great a man to want to
+make every one conform to some ideal of his own choosing. It was
+enough for him to take men as they were, and to help them to become
+better. He took the old laws and customs, and then, suggesting a few
+improvements, submitted them to the approval of his Witenagemot, the
+assembly of his bishops and warriors. He knew also that men's conduct
+is influenced more by what they think than by what they are commanded
+to do. His whole land was steeped in ignorance. The monasteries had
+been the schools of learning; and many of them had been sacked by the
+Danes, their books burnt, and their inmates scattered, whilst others
+were deserted, ceasing to receive new inmates because the first duty
+of Englishmen had been to defend their homes rather than to devote
+themselves to a life of piety. Latin was the language in which the
+services of the Church were read, and in which books like Bede's
+Ecclesiastical History were written. Without a knowledge of Latin
+there could be no intercourse with the learned men of the Continent,
+who used that language still amongst themselves. Yet when the Danes
+departed from AElfred's kingdom, there were but very few priests who
+could read a page of Latin. AElfred did his best to remedy the evil. He
+called learned men to him wherever they could be found. Some of these
+were English; others, like Asser, who wrote AElfred's life, were Welsh;
+others again were Germans from beyond the sea. Yet AElfred was not
+content. It was a great thing that there should be again schools in
+England for those who could write and speak Latin, the language of the
+learned, but his heart yearned for those who could not speak anything
+but their own native tongue. He set himself to be the teacher of
+these. He himself translated Latin books for them, with the object of
+imparting knowledge, not of giving, as a modern translator would do,
+the exact sense of the author. When, therefore, he knew anything which
+was not in the books, but which he thought it good for Englishmen to
+read, he added it to his translation. Even with this he was not
+content. The books of Latin writers which he translated taught men
+about the history and geography of the Continent. They taught nothing
+about the history of England itself, of the deeds and words of the men
+who had ruled the English nation. That these things might not be
+forgotten, he bade his learned men bring together all that was known
+of the history of his people since the day when they first landed as
+pirates on the coast of Kent. The Chronicle, as it is called, is the
+earliest history which any European nation possesses in its own
+tongue. Yet, after all, such a man as AElfred is greater for what he
+was than for what he did. No other king ever showed forth so well in
+his own person the truth of the saying, 'He that would be first among
+you, let him be the servant of all.'
+
+9. =Eadward the Elder. 899--925.=--In =899= AElfred died. He had
+already fortified London as an outpost against the Danes, and he left
+to his son, Eadward, a small but strong and consolidated kingdom. The
+Danes on the other side of the frontier were not united. Guthrum's
+kingdom stretched over the old Essex and East Anglia, as well as over
+the south-eastern part of the old Mercia. The land from the Humber to
+the Nen was under the rule of Danes settled in the towns known to the
+English as the Five boroughs of Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Stamford,
+and Nottingham. In the old Deira or modern Yorkshire was a separate
+Danish kingdom. Danes, in short, settled wherever we now find the
+place-names, such as Derby and Whitby, ending in the Danish
+termination 'by' instead of in the English terminations 'ton' or
+'ham,' as in Luton and Chippenham. Yet even in these parts the bulk of
+the population was usually English, and the English population would
+everywhere welcome an English conqueror. A century earlier a Mercian
+or a North-humbrian had preferred independence to submission to a West
+Saxon king. They now preferred a West Saxon king to a Danish master,
+especially as the old royal houses were extinct, and there was no one
+but the West Saxon king to lead them against the Danes.
+
+10. =Eadward's Conquests.=--Eadward was not, like his father, a
+legislator or a scholar, but he was a great warrior. In a series of
+campaigns he subdued the Danish parts of England as far north as the
+Humber. He was aided by his brother-in-law, AEthelred, and after
+AEthelred's death by his own sister, AEthelred's widow, AEthelflaed, the
+Lady of the Mercians, one of the few warrior-women of the world. Step
+by step the brother and sister won their way, not contenting
+themselves with victories in the open country, but securing each
+district as they advanced by the erection of 'burhs' or
+fortifications. Some of these 'burhs' were placed in desolate Roman
+strongholds, such as Chester. Others were raised, like that of
+Warwick, on the mounds piled up in past times by a still earlier race.
+Others again, like that of Stafford, were placed where no fortress had
+been before. Towns, small at first, grew up in and around the 'burhs,'
+and were guarded by the courage of the townsmen themselves. Eadward,
+after his sister's death, took into his own hands the government of
+Mercia, and from that time all southern and central England was
+united under him. In =922= the Welsh kings acknowledged his supremacy.
+
+11. =Eadward and the Scots.=--Tradition assigns to Eadward a wider
+rule shortly before his death. In the middle of the ninth century the
+Picts and the intruding Scots (see p. 42) had been amalgamated under
+Keneth MacAlpin, the king of the Scots, and the new kingdom had since
+been welded together, just as Mercia and Wessex were being welded
+together by the attacks of the Danes. It is said that in =925= the
+king of the Scots, together with other northern rulers, chose Eadward
+'to father and lord.' Probably this statement only covers some act of
+alliance formed by the English king with the king of Scots and other
+lesser rulers. Nothing was more natural than that the Scottish king,
+Constantine, should wish to obtain the support of Eadward against his
+enemies; and it was also natural that if Eadward agreed to support
+him, he would require some acknowledgment of the superiority of the
+English king; but what was the precise form of the acknowledgment must
+remain uncertain. In =925= Eadward died.
+
+12. =AEthelstan. 925--940.=--Three sons of Eadward reigned in
+succession. The eldest, of illegitimate birth, was AEthelstan. Sihtric,
+the Danish king at York, owned him as over-lord, and on Sihtric's
+death in =926=, AEthelstan took Danish North-humberland under his
+direct rule. The Welsh kings were reduced to make a fuller
+acknowledgment of his supremacy than they had made to his father. He
+drove the Welsh out of the half of Exeter which had been left to them,
+and confined them to the modern Cornwall beyond the Tamar. Great
+rulers on the Continent sought his alliance. The empire of Charles the
+Great had broken up. One of AEthelstan's sisters was given to Charles
+the Simple, the king of the Western Franks; another to Hugh the Great,
+Duke of the French and lord of Paris, who, though nominally the vassal
+of the king, was equal in power to his lord, and whose son was
+afterwards the first king of modern France. A third sister was given
+to Otto, the son of Henry, the king of the Eastern Franks, from whom,
+in due time, sprang a new line of Emperors. AEthelstan's greatness drew
+upon him the jealousy of the king of the Scots and of all the northern
+kings. In =937= he defeated them all in a great battle at Brunanburh,
+of which the site is unknown. His victory was celebrated in a splendid
+war-song.
+
+13. =Eadmund (940-946) and Eadred (946-955).=--AEthelstan died in
+=940=. He was succeeded by his young brother, Eadmund, who had fought
+bravely at Brunanburh. Eadmund had to meet a general rising of the
+Danes of Mercia as well as of those of the north. After he had
+suppressed the rising he showed himself to be a great statesman as
+well as a great warrior. The relations between the king of the English
+and the king of the Scots had for some time been very uncertain.
+Little is definitely known about them but it looks as if they joined
+the English whenever they were afraid of the Danes, and joined the
+Danes whenever they were afraid of the English. Eadmund took an
+opportunity of making it to be the interest of the Scottish king
+permanently to join the English. The southern part of the kingdom of
+Strathclyde had for some time been under the English kings. In =945=
+Eadmund overran the remainder, but gave it to Malcolm on condition
+that he should be his fellow-worker by sea and land. The king of Scots
+thus entered into a position of dependent alliance towards Eadmund. A
+great step was thus taken in the direction in which the inhabitants of
+Britain afterwards walked. The dominant powers in the island were to
+be English and Scots, not English and Danes. Eadmund thought it worth
+while to conciliate the Scottish Celts rather than to endeavour to
+conquer them. The result of Eadmund's statesmanship was soon made
+manifest. He himself did not live to gather its fruits. In =946= an
+outlaw who had taken his seat at a feast in his hall slew him as he
+was attempting to drag him out by the hair. The next king, Eadred, the
+last of Eadward's sons, though sickly, had all the spirit of his race.
+He had another sharp struggle with the Danes, but in =954= he made
+himself their master. North-humberland was now thoroughly amalgamated
+with the English kingdom, and was to be governed by an Englishman,
+Oswulf, with the title of Earl, an old Danish title equivalent to the
+English Ealdorman, having nothing to do, except philologically, with
+the old English word Eorl.
+
+14. =Danes and English.=--In =955= Eadred died, having completed the
+work which AElfred had begun, and which had been carried on by his son
+and his three grandsons. England, from the Forth to the Channel, was
+under one ruler. Even the contrast between Englishmen and Danes was
+soon, for the most part, wiped out. They were both of the same
+Teutonic stock, and therefore their languages were akin to one another
+and their institutions very similar. The Danes of the north were for
+some time fiercer and less easily controlled than the English of the
+south, but there was little national distinction between them, and
+what little there was gradually passed away.
+
+15. =Eadwig. 955--959.=--Eadred was succeeded by Eadwig, the eldest
+son of his brother Eadmund. Eadwig was hardly more than fifteen years
+old, and it would be difficult for a boy to keep order amongst the
+great ealdormen and earls. At his coronation feast he gave deep
+offence by leaving his place to amuse himself with a young kinswoman,
+AElfgifu, in her mother's room, whence he was followed and dragged back
+by two ecclesiastics, one of whom was Dunstan, Abbot of Glastonbury.
+
+16. =Dunstan.=--Dunstan in his boyhood had been attached to Eadmund's
+court, but he had been driven off by the rivalry of other youths. He
+was in no way fitted to be a warrior. He loved art and song, and
+preferred a book to a sword. For such youths there was no place
+amongst the fighting laymen, and Dunstan early found the peace which
+he sought as a monk at Glastonbury. Eadmund made him abbot, but
+Dunstan had almost to create his monastery before he could rule it.
+Monasteries had nearly vanished from England in the time of the Danish
+plunderings, and the few monks who remained had very little that was
+monastic about them. Dunstan brought the old monks into order, and
+attracted new ones, but to the end of his days he was conspicuous
+rather as a scholar than as an ascetic. From Glastonbury he carried on
+the work of teaching an ignorant generation, just as AElfred had done
+in an earlier time. AElfred, however, was a warrior and a ruler first,
+and then a teacher. Dunstan was a teacher first, and then a ruler.
+Eadred took counsel with him, and Dunstan became thus the first
+example of a class of men which afterwards rose to power--that,
+namely, of ecclesiastical statesmen. Up to that time all who had
+governed had been warriors.
+
+17. =Archbishop Oda.=--Another side of the Church's work, the
+maintenance of a high standard of morality, was, in the time of
+Eadred, represented by Oda, Archbishop of Canterbury. The accepted
+standard of morality differs in different ages, and, for many reasons,
+it was held by the purer minds in the tenth century that celibacy was
+nobler than marriage. If our opinion is changed now, it is because
+many things have changed. No one then thought of teaching a girl
+anything, except to sew and to look after the house, and an ignorant
+and untrained wife could only be a burden to a man who was intent upon
+the growth of the spiritual or intellectual life in himself and in
+others. At all times the monks, who were often called the regular
+clergy, because they lived according to a certain rule, had been
+unmarried, and attempts had frequently been made by councils of the
+Church to compel the parish priests, or secular clergy, to follow
+their example. In England, however, and on the Continent as well,
+these orders were seldom heeded, and a married clergy was everywhere
+to be found. Of late, however, there had sprung up in the monastery of
+Cluny, in Burgundy, a zeal for the establishment of universal clerical
+celibacy, and this zeal was shared by Archbishop Oda, though he found
+it impossible to overcome the stubborn resistance of the secular
+clergy.
+
+[Illustration: A monk driven out of the King's presence. (From a
+drawing belonging to the Society of Antiquaries.)]
+
+18. =Eadwig's Marriage.=--In its eagerness to set up a pure standard
+of morality, the Church had made rules against the marriage of even
+distant relations. Eadwig offended against these rules by marrying his
+kinswoman, AElfgifu. A quarrel arose on this account between Dunstan
+and the young king, and Dunstan was driven into banishment. Such a
+quarrel was sure to weaken the king, because the support of the
+bishops was usually given to him, for the sake of the maintenance of
+peace and order. The dispute came at a bad time, because there was
+also a quarrel among the ealdormen and other great men. At last the
+ealdormen of the north and centre of England revolted and set up the
+king's brother, Eadgar, to be king of all England north of the Thames.
+Upon this, Oda, taking courage, declared Eadwig and his young wife to
+be separated as too near of kin, and even seized her and had her
+carried beyond sea. In =959= Eadwig died, and Eadgar succeeded to the
+whole kingdom.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+EADGAR'S ENGLAND.
+
+
+1. =Eadgar and Dunstan. 959--975.=--Eadgar was known as the Peaceful
+King. He had the advantage, which Eadwig had not, of having the Church
+on his side. He maintained order, with the help of Dunstan as his
+principal adviser. Not long after his accession Dunstan became
+Archbishop of Canterbury. His policy was that of a man who knows that
+he cannot do everything and is content to do what he can. The Danes
+were to keep their own laws, and not to have English laws forced upon
+them. The great ealdormen were to be conciliated, not to be repressed.
+Everything was to be done to raise the standard of morality and
+knowledge. Foreign teachers were brought in to set up schools. More
+than this Dunstan did not attempt. It is true that in his time an
+effort was made to found monasteries, which should be filled with
+monks living after the stricter rule of which the example had been set
+at Cluny, but the man who did most to establish monasteries again in
+England was not Dunstan, but AEthelwold, Bishop of Winchester.
+AEthelwold, however, was not content with founding monasteries. He also
+drove out the secular canons from his own cathedral of Winchester and
+filled their places with monks. His example was followed by Oswald,
+Bishop of Worcester. Dunstan did not introduce monks even into his own
+cathedrals at Worcester and Canterbury. As far as it is now possible
+to understand the matter, the change, though it provoked great
+hostility, was for the better. The secular canons were often married,
+connected with the laity of the neighbourhood, and living an easy
+life. The monks were celibate, living according to a strict rule, and
+conforming themselves to what, according to the standard of the age,
+was the highest ideal of religion. By a life of complete self-denial
+they were able to act as examples to a generation which needed
+teaching by example more than by word. How completely monasticism was
+associated with learning is shown by the fact that the monks now
+established at Worcester took up the work of continuing the Chronicle
+which had been begun under AElfred (see p. 61).
+
+2. =The Cession of Lothian.=--It is said that Eadgar was once rowed by
+six kings on the river Dee. The story, though probably untrue, sets
+forth his power not only over his own immediate subjects but over the
+whole island. His title of Peaceful shows that at least he lived on
+good terms with his neighbours. There is reason to believe that he was
+able to do this because he followed out the policy of Eadmund in
+singling out the king of Scots as the ruler whom it was most worth his
+while to conciliate. Eadmund had given over Strathclyde to one king of
+Scots. Eadgar, it is said--and probably with truth--gave over Lothian
+to another. Lothian was then the name of the whole of the northern
+part of Bernicia stretching from the Cheviots to the Forth. In
+Eadred's time the Scots had occupied Eadwinesburh (_Edinburgh_), the
+northern border fortress of Bernicia (see p. 43), and after this the
+land to the south of that fortress must have been difficult to defend
+against them. It is therefore likely that the story is true that
+Eadgar ceded Lothian to Kenneth, who was then king of the Scots,
+especially as it would account for the peaceful character of his
+reign. Kenneth in accepting the gift no doubt engaged to be faithful
+to Eadgar, though it is impossible to say what was the exact nature of
+his obligation. It is of more importance that a Celtic king ruled
+thenceforward over an English people as well as over his own Celtic
+Scots, and that ultimately his descendants became more English than
+Celtic in character, through the attraction exercised upon them by
+their English subjects.
+
+3. =Changes in English Institutions.=--The long struggle with the
+Danes could not fail to leave its mark upon English society. The
+history of the changes which took place is difficult to trace; in the
+first place because our information is scanty, in the second because
+things happened in one part of the country which did not happen in
+another. Yet there were two changes which were widely felt: the growth
+of the king's authority, and the acceleration of the process which was
+reducing to bondage the ceorl, or simple freeman.
+
+4. =Growth of the King's Power.=--In the early days of the English
+conquest the kings and other great men had around them their
+war-bands, composed of gesiths or thegns, personally attached to
+themselves, and ready, if need were, to die on their lord's behalf.
+Very early these thegns were rewarded by grants of land on condition
+of continuing military service. Every extension of the king's power
+over fresh territory made their services more important. It had always
+been difficult to bring together the fyrd, or general army of the
+freemen, even of a small district, and it was quite impossible to
+bring together the fyrd of a kingdom reaching from the Channel to the
+Firth of Forth. AElfred's division of the fyrd into two parts, one to
+fight and the other to stay at home, may have served when all the
+fighting had to be done in the western part of Wessex. AEthelstan or
+Eadmund could not possibly make even half of the men of Devonshire or
+Essex fight in his battles north of the Humber. The kings therefore
+had to rely more and more upon their thegns, who in turn had thegns of
+their own whom they could bring with them; and thus was formed an army
+ready for military service in any part of the kingdom. A king who
+could command such an army was even more powerful than one who could
+command the whole of the forces of a smaller territory.
+
+[Illustration: January--Ploughing and sowing.]
+
+[Illustration: February--Pruning.]
+
+[Illustration: March--Sowing and digging.]
+
+[Illustration: April--Feasting.]
+
+[Illustration: May--Sheep-tending.]
+
+[Illustration: June--Cutting wood.]
+
+[Illustration: Rural life in the eleventh century. January to June.
+(Cott. MS. _Julius A._ vi.)]
+
+[Illustration: July--Mowing.]
+
+[Illustration: August--Harvesting.]
+
+[Illustration: September--Feeding swine.]
+
+[Illustration: October--Hawking.]
+
+[Illustration: November--Making a bonfire.]
+
+[Illustration: December--Threshing and Winnowing.]
+
+[Illustration: Rural life in the eleventh century. July to December.
+(Cott. MS. _Julius A._ vi.)]
+
+5. =Conversion of the Freemen into Serfs.=--It is impossible to give a
+certain account of the changes which passed over the English freemen,
+but there can be little doubt that a process had been for some time
+going on which converted them into bondmen, and that this process was
+greatly accelerated by the Danish wars. When a district was being
+plundered the peasant holders of the strips of village land suffered
+most, and needed the protection of the neighbouring thegn, who was
+better skilled in war than themselves, and this protection they
+could only obtain on condition of becoming bondmen themselves--that is
+to say, of giving certain days in the week to work on the special
+estate of the lord. A bondman differed both from a slave and from a
+modern farmer. Though he was bound to the soil and could not go away
+if he wished to do so, yet he could not be sold as though he were a
+slave; nor, on the other hand, could he, like a farmer, be turned out
+of his holding so long as he fulfilled his obligation of cultivating
+his lord's demesne. The lord was almost invariably a thegn, either of
+the king or of some superior thegn, and there thus arose in England,
+as there arose about the same time on the Continent, a chain of
+personal relationships. The king was no longer merely the head of the
+whole people. He was the personal lord of his own thegns, and they
+again were the lords of other thegns. The serfs cultivated their
+lands, and thereby set them free to fight for the king on behalf of
+the whole nation. It seems at first sight as if the English people had
+fallen into a worse condition. An organisation, partly military and
+partly servile, was substituted for an organisation of free men. Yet
+only in this way could the whole of England be amalgamated. The nation
+gained in unity what it lost in freedom.
+
+6. =The Hundred-moot and the Lord's Court.=--In another way the
+condition of the peasants was altered for the worse by the growth of
+the king's power. In former days land was held as 'folkland,' granted
+by the people at the original conquest, passing to the kinsmen of the
+holder if he died without children. Afterwards the clergy introduced a
+system by which the owner could grant the 'bookland,' held by book or
+charter, setting at nought the claim of his kinsmen, and in order to
+give validity to the arrangement, obtained the consent of the king and
+his Witenagemot (see p. 45). In time, the king and the Witenagemot
+granted charters in other cases, and the new 'bookland' to a great
+extent superseded the old 'folkland,' accompanied by a grant of the
+right of holding special courts. In this manner the old hundred-moots
+became neglected, people seeking for justice in the courts of the
+lords. Yet those who lived on the lord's land attended his court,
+appeared as compurgators, and directed the ordeal just as they had
+once done in the hundred-moot.
+
+7. =The Towns.=--The towns had grown up in various ways. Some were of
+old Roman foundation, such as Lincoln and Gloucester. Others, like
+Nottingham and Bristol, had come into existence since the English
+settlement. Others again gathered round monasteries, like Bury St.
+Edmunds and Peterborough. The inhabitants met to consult about their
+own affairs, sometimes in dependence on a lord. Where there was no
+lord they held a court which was composed in the same way as the
+hundred-moots outside. The townsmen had the right of holding a market.
+Every sale had to take place in the presence of witnesses who could
+prove, if called upon to do so, that the sale had really taken place,
+and markets were therefore usually to be found in towns, because it
+was there that witnesses could most easily be found.
+
+8. =The Origin of the Shires.=--Shires, which were divisions larger
+than the hundreds, and smaller than the larger kingdoms, originated in
+various ways. In the south, and on the east coast as far north as the
+Wash, they were either old kingdoms like Kent and Essex, or
+settlements forming part of old kingdoms, as Norfolk (the north folk)
+formed part of East Anglia, and Dorset or Somerset, the lands of the
+Dorsaetan or the Somersaetan, formed part of the kingdom of Wessex. In
+the centre and north they were of more recent origin, and were
+probably formed as those parts of England were gradually reconquered
+from the Danes. The fact that most of these shires are named from
+towns--as Derbyshire from Derby, and Warwickshire from Warwick--shows
+that they came into existence after towns had become of importance.
+
+9. =The Shire-moot.=--Whilst the hundred-moot decayed, the folk-moot
+continued to flourish under a new name, as the shire-moot. This moot
+was still attended by the freemen of the shire though the thegns were
+more numerous and the simple freemen less numerous than they had once
+been. Still the continued existence of the shire-moot kept up the
+custom of self-government more than anything else in England. The
+ordeals were witnessed, the weregild inflicted, and rights to land
+adjudged, not by an officer of the king, but by the landowners of the
+shire assembled for the purpose. These meetings were ordinarily
+presided over by the ealdorman, who appeared as the military commander
+and the official head of the shire, and by the bishop, who represented
+the Church. Another most important personage was the sheriff, or
+shire-reeve, whose business it was to see that the king had all his
+rights, to preside over the shire-moot when it sat as a judicial
+court, and to take care that its sentences were put in execution.
+
+[Illustration: _Walker & Boutallse._
+
+Plan and section of a burh of the eleventh century at
+Laughton-en-Le-Morthen, Yorks.]
+
+10. =The Ealdormen and the Witenagemot.=--During the long fight with
+the Danes commanders were needed who could lead the forces of more
+than a single shire. Before the end of Eadred's reign there were
+ealdormen who ruled over many shires. One of them for instance,
+AEthelstan, Ealdorman of East Anglia, and of the shires immediately to
+the west of East Anglia, was so powerful that he was popularly known
+as the Half-King. Such ealdormen had great influence in their own
+districts, and they also were very powerful about the king. The king
+could not perform any important act without the consent of the
+Witenagemot, which was made up of three classes--the Ealdormen, the
+Bishops, and the greater Thegns. When a king died the Witenagemot
+chose his successor out of the kingly family; its members appeared as
+witnesses whenever the king 'booked' land to any one; and it even, on
+rare occasions, deposed a king who was unfit for his post. In the
+days of a great warrior king like Eadward or Eadmund, members of the
+Witenagemot were but instruments in his hands, but if a weak king came
+upon the throne, each member usually took his own way and pursued his
+own interest rather than that of the king and kingdom.
+
+11. =The Land.=--The cultivated land was surrounded either by wood or
+by pasture and open commons. Every cottager kept his hive of bees, to
+produce the honey which was then used as we now use sugar, and drove
+his swine into the woods to fatten on the acorns and beech nuts which
+strewed the ground in the autumn. Sheep and cattle were fed on the
+pastures, and horses were so abundant that when the Danish pirates
+landed they found it easy to set every man on horseback. Yet neither
+the Danes nor the English ever learnt to fight on horseback. They rode
+to battle, but as soon as they approached the enemy they dismounted to
+fight on foot.
+
+12. =Domestic Life.=--The huts of the villagers clustered round the
+house of the lord. His abode was built in a yard surrounded for
+protection by a mound and fence, whilst very great men often
+established themselves in burhs, surrounded by earthworks, either of
+their own raising or the work of earlier times. Its principal feature
+was the hall, in which the whole family with the guests and the thegns
+of the lord met for their meals. The walls were covered with curtains
+worked in patterns of bright colours. The fire was lighted on the
+hearth, a broad stone in the middle, over which was a hole in the roof
+through which the smoke of the hall escaped. The windows were narrow,
+and were either unclosed holes in the wall, or covered with oiled
+linen which would admit a certain amount of light.
+
+[Illustration: Glass tumbler. (British Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: Drinking glass. (British Museum.)]
+
+13. =Food and Drink.=--In a great house at meal-time boards were
+brought forward and placed on tressels. Bread was to be had in plenty,
+and salt butter. Meat too, in winter, was always salted, as turnips
+and other roots upon which cattle are now fed in winter were wholly
+unknown, and it was therefore necessary to kill large numbers of sheep
+and oxen when the cold weather set in. There were dishes, but neither
+plates nor forks. Each man took the meat in his fingers and either bit
+off a piece or cut it off with a knife. The master of the house sat at
+the head of the table, and the lady handed round the drink, and
+afterwards sat down by her husband's side. She, however, with any
+other ladies who might be present, soon departed to the chamber which
+was their own apartment. The men continued drinking long. The cups or
+glasses which they used were often made with the bottoms rounded so
+as to force the guests to keep them in their hands till they were
+empty. The usual drink was mead, that is to say, fermented honey, or
+ale brewed from malt alone, as hops were not introduced till many
+centuries later. In wealthy houses imported wine was to be had.
+English wine was not unknown, but it was so sour that it had to be
+sweetened with honey. It was held to be disgraceful to leave the
+company as long as the drinking lasted, and drunkenness and quarrels
+were not unfrequent. Wandering minstrels who could play and sing or
+tell stories were always welcome, especially if they were jugglers as
+well, and could amuse the company by throwing knives in the air and
+catching them as they fell, or could dance on their hands with their
+legs in the air. When the feast was over, the guests and dependents
+slept on the floor on rugs or straw, each man taking care to hang his
+weapons close to his head on the wall, to defend himself in case of an
+attack by robbers in the night. The lord retired to his chamber,
+whilst the unmarried ladies occupied bowers, or small rooms, each with
+a separate door opening on to the yard. Their only beds were bags of
+straw. Neither men nor women wore night-dresses of any kind, but if
+they took off their clothes at all, wrapped themselves in rugs.
+
+[Illustration: Comb and case of Scandinavian type, found at York. (Now
+in the British Museum.)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ENGLAND AND NORMANDY.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+ Death of Eadgar 975
+ Accession of AEthelred 979
+ Accession of Cnut 1016
+ Accession of Eadward the Confessor 1035
+ Banishment of Godwine 1051
+ Accession of Harold and Battle of Senlac 1066
+
+
+1. =Eadward the Martyr. 975--979.=--Eadgar died in =975=, leaving two
+boys, Eadward and AEthelred.[4] On his death a quarrel broke out
+amongst the ealdormen, some declaring for the succession of Eadward
+and others for the succession of AEthelred. The political quarrel was
+complicated by an ecclesiastical quarrel. The supporters of Eadward
+were the friends of the secular clergy; the supporters of AEthelred
+were the friends of the monks. Dunstan, with his usual moderation,
+gave his voice for the eldest son, and Eadward was chosen king and
+crowned. Not only had he a strong party opposed to him, but he had a
+dissatisfied step-mother in AElfthryth, the mother of AEthelred, whilst
+his own mother, who had probably been married to Eadgar without full
+marriage rites, had been long since dead. After reigning for four
+years Eadward was murdered near Corfe by some of the opposite party,
+and, as was commonly supposed, by his step-mother's directions.
+
+ [Footnote 4: Genealogy of the English kings from Eadgar to Eadgar
+ the AEtheling:--
+
+ EADGAR
+ 959-975
+ |
+ -----------------------
+ | |
+ EADWARD AETHELRED
+ the Martyr the Unready
+ 975-979 979-1016
+ |
+ -----------------------
+ | |
+ EADMUND EADWARD
+ Ironside the Confessor
+ 1016 1042-1066
+ |
+ Eadward
+ the AEtheling
+ |
+ Eadgar
+ the AEtheling]
+
+2. =AEthelred's Early Years. 979--988.=--AEthelred, now a boy of ten,
+became king in =979=. The epithet the Unready, which is usually
+assigned to him, is a mistranslation of a word which properly means
+the Rede-less, or the man without counsel. He was entirely without the
+qualities which befit a king. Eadmund had kept the great chieftains in
+subordination to himself because he was a successful leader. Eadgar
+had kept them in subordination because he treated them with respect.
+AEthelred could neither lead nor show respect. He was always picking
+quarrels when he ought to have been making peace, and always making
+peace when he ought to have been fighting. What he tried to do was to
+lessen the power of the great ealdormen, and bring the whole country
+more directly under his own authority. In =985= he drove out AElfric,
+the Ealdorman of the Mercians. In =988= Dunstan died, and AEthelred had
+no longer a wise adviser by his side.
+
+3. =The Return of the Danes. 984.=--It would have been difficult for
+AEthelred to overpower the ealdormen even if he had had no other
+enemies to deal with. Unluckily for him, new swarms of Danes and
+Norwegians had already appeared in England. They began by plundering
+the country, without attempting to settle in it. In =991= Brihtnoth,
+Ealdorman of the East Saxons, was defeated and slain by them at
+Maldon. AEthelred could think of no better counsel than to pay them
+10,000_l._, a sum of money which was then of much greater value than
+it is now, to abstain from plundering. It was not necessarily a bad
+thing to do. One of the greatest of the kings of the Germans, Henry
+the Fowler, had paid money for a truce to barbarians whom he was not
+strong enough to fight. But when the truce had been bought Henry took
+care to make himself strong enough to destroy them when they came
+again. AEthelred was never ready to fight the Danes and Norwegians at
+any time. In =994= Olaf Trygvasson, who had been driven from the
+kingship of Norway, and Svend, who had been driven from the kingship
+of Denmark, joined forces to attack London. The London citizens fought
+better than the English king, and the two chieftains failed to take
+the town. 'They went thence, and wrought the greatest evil that ever
+any army could do, in burning, and harrying, and in man-slaying, as in
+Essex, and in Kent, and in Sussex, and in Hampshire. And at last they
+took their horses and rode as far as they could, and did unspeakable
+evil.' The plunderers were now known as 'the army,' moving about where
+they would. AEthelred this time gave them 16,000_l._ He got rid of
+Olaf, who sailed away and was slain by his enemies, but he could not
+permanently get rid of Svend. Svend, about the year =1000=, recovered
+his kingship in Denmark, and was more formidable than he had been
+before. Plunderings went on as usual, and AEthelred had no resource but
+to pay money to the plunderers to buy a short respite. He then looked
+across the sea for an ally, and hoped to find one by connecting
+himself with the Duke of the Normans.
+
+4. =The Norman Dukes. 912--1002.=--The country which lies on both
+sides of the lower course of the Seine formed, at the beginning of the
+tenth century, part of the dominions of Charles the Simple, king of
+the West Franks, who had inherited so much of the dominions of Charles
+the Great as lay west of a line roughly drawn from the Scheldt to the
+Mediterranean through the lower course of the Rhone. Danes and
+Norwegians, known on the Continent as Normans, plundered Charles's
+dominions as they had plundered England, and at last settled in them
+as they had settled in parts of England. In =912= Charles the Simple
+ceded to their leader, Hrolf, a territory of which the capital was
+Rouen, and which became known as Normandy--the land of the Normans.
+Hrolf became the first Duke of the Normans, but his men were fierce
+and rugged, and for some time their southern neighbours scornfully
+called him and his descendants Dukes of the Pirates. In process of
+time a change took place which affected both Normandy and other
+countries as well. The West Frankish kings were descended from Charles
+the Great; but they had failed to defend their subjects from the
+Normans, and they thereby lost hold upon their people. One of their
+dependent nobles, the Duke of the French, whose chief city, Paris,
+formed a bulwark against the Normans advancing up the Seine, grew more
+powerful than themselves. At the same time the Normans were becoming
+more and more French in their speech and customs. At last an alliance
+was made between Hugh Capet, the son of Hugh the Great, Duke of the
+French (see p. 63), and Richard the Fearless, Duke of the Normans. The
+race of Charles the Great was dethroned, and Hugh became king of the
+French. In name he was king over all the territory which had been
+governed by Charles the Simple. In reality that happened in France
+which AEthelred had been trying to prevent in England. Hugh ruled
+directly over his own duchy of France, a patch of land of which Paris
+was the capital. The great vassals of the crown, who answered to the
+English ealdormen, only obeyed him when it was their interest to do
+so. The most powerful of these vassals was the Duke of the Normans.
+In =1002= the duke was Richard II.--the Good--the son of Richard the
+Fearless. In that year AEthelred, who was a widower, married Richard's
+sister, Emma. It was the beginning of a connection with Normandy which
+never ceased till a Norman duke made himself by conquest king of the
+English.
+
+5. =Political Contrast between Normandy and England.=--The causes
+which were making the English thegnhood a military aristocracy acted
+with still greater force in Normandy. The tillers of the soil, sprung
+from the old inhabitants of the land, were kept by their Norman lords
+in even harsher bondage than the English serfs. The Norman warriors
+held their land by military service, each one being bound to fight for
+his lord, and the lord in turn being bound, together with his
+dependents, to fight for a higher lord, and all at last for the Duke
+himself. In England, though, in theory, the relations between the king
+and his ealdormen were not very different from those existing between
+the Norman duke and his immediate vassals, the connection between them
+was far looser. The kingdom as a whole had no general unity. The king
+could not control the ealdormen, and the ealdormen could not control
+the king. Even when ealdormen, bishops, and thegns met in the
+Witenagemot they could not speak in the name of the nation. A nation
+in any true sense hardly existed at all, and they were not chosen as
+representatives of any part of it. Each one stood for himself, and it
+was only natural that men who during the greater part of the year were
+ruling in their own districts like little kings should think more of
+keeping up their own almost independent power at home than of the
+common interests of all England, which they had to consider when they
+met--and that for a few days only at a time--in the Witenagemot.
+AEthelred at least was not the man to keep them united.
+
+6. =Svend's Conquest. 1002--1013.=--AEthelred, having failed to buy off
+the Danes, tried to murder them. In =1002=, on St. Brice's Day, there
+was a general massacre of all the Danes--not of the old inhabitants of
+Danish blood who had settled in AElfred's time--but of the new-comers.
+Svend returned to avenge his countrymen. AEthelred had in an earlier
+part of his reign levied a land-tax known as the Danegeld to pay off
+the Danes--the first instance of a general tax in England. He now
+called on all the shires to furnish ships for a fleet; but he could
+not trust his ealdormen. Some of the stories told of these times may
+be exaggerated, and some may be merely idle tales, but we know enough
+to be sure that England was a kingdom divided against itself. Svend,
+ravaging as he went, beat down resistance everywhere. In =1012= the
+Danes seized AElfheah, Archbishop of Canterbury, and offered to set him
+free if he would pay a ransom for his life. He refused to do so, lest
+he should have to wring money from the poor in order to pay it. The
+drunken Danes pelted him with bones till one of the number clave his
+skull with an axe. He was soon counted as a martyr. Long afterwards
+one of the most famous of his successors, the Norman Lanfranc, doubted
+whether he was really a martyr, as he had not died for the faith. 'He
+that dies for righteousness,' answered the gentle Anselm, 'dies for
+the faith,' and to this day the name of AElfheah is retained as St.
+Alphege in the list of English saints. In =1013= Svend appeared no
+longer as a plunderer but as a conqueror. First the old Danish
+districts of the north and east, and then the Anglo-Saxon realm of
+AElfred--Mercia and Wessex--submitted to him to avoid destruction. In
+=1013= AEthelred fled to Normandy.
+
+[Illustration: Martyrdom of St. Edmund by the Danes. (From a drawing
+belonging to the Society of Antiquaries.)]
+
+7. =AEthelred Restored. 1014--1016.=--In =1014= Svend died suddenly as
+he was riding at the head of his troops to the attack of the monastery
+of Bury St. Edmunds. A legend soon arose as to the manner of his
+death. St. Edmund himself, the East Anglian king Eadmund who had once
+been martyred by Danes (see p. 58), now appeared, it was said, to
+protect the monastery founded in his honour. 'Help, fellow soldiers!'
+cried Svend, as he caught sight of the saint. 'St. Edmund is coming to
+slay me.' St. Edmund, we are told, ran his spear through the body of
+the aggressor, and Svend died that night in torments. His Danish
+warriors chose his son Cnut king of England.[5] The English
+Witenagemot sent for AEthelred to return. At last, in =1016=, AEthelred
+died before he had conquered Cnut or Cnut conquered him.
+
+ [Footnote 5: Genealogy of the Danish kings:--
+
+ Svend
+ |
+ (1) AElfgifu = CNUT = (2) Emma
+ | 1016-1035 |
+ | |
+ HAROLD HARTHACNUT
+ Harefoot 1040-1042
+ 1035-1040]
+
+8. =Eadmund Ironside. 1016.=--AEthelred's eldest son--not the son of
+Emma--Eadmund Ironside, succeeded him. He did all that could be done
+to restore the English kingship by his vigour. In a single year he
+fought six battles; but the treachery of the ealdormen was not at an
+end, and at Assandun (? _Ashington_), in Essex, he was completely
+overthrown. He and Cnut agreed to divide the kingdom, but before the
+end of the year the heroic Eadmund died, and Cnut the Dane became king
+of England without a rival.
+
+9. =Cnut and the Earldoms. 1016--1035.=--Cnut was one of those rulers
+who, like the Emperor Augustus, shrink from no barbarity in gaining
+power, but when once they have acquired it exercise their authority
+with moderation and gentleness. He began by outlawing or putting to
+death men whom he considered dangerous, but when this had once been
+done he ruled as a thoroughly English king of the best type. The Danes
+who had hitherto fought for him had come not as settlers, but as an
+army, and soon after Eadmund's death he sent most of them home,
+retaining a force, variously stated as 3,000 or 6,000, warriors known
+as his House-carls (_House-men_), who formed a small standing army
+depending entirely on himself. They were not enough to keep down a
+general rising of the whole of England, but they were quite enough to
+prevent any single great man from rebelling against him. Cnut
+therefore was, what AEthelred had wished to be, really master of his
+kingdom. Under him ruled the ealdormen, who from this time were known
+as Earls, from the Danish title of Jarl (see p. 64), and of these
+Earls the principal were the three who governed Mercia,
+North-humberland, and Wessex, the last named now including the old
+kingdoms of Kent and Sussex. There was a fourth in East Anglia, but
+the limits of this earldom varied from time to time, and there were
+sometimes other earldoms set up in the neighbouring shires, whereas
+the first-named three remained as they were for some time after Cnut's
+death. It is characteristic of Cnut that the one of the Earls to whom
+he gave his greatest confidence was Godwine, an Englishman, who was
+Earl of the West Saxons. Another Englishman, Leofwine, became Earl of
+the Mercians. A Dane obtained the earldom of the North-humbrians, but
+the land was barbarous, and its Earls were frequently murdered.
+Sometimes there was one Earl of the whole territory, sometimes two. It
+was not till after the end of Cnut's reign that Siward became Earl of
+Deira, and at a later time of all North-humberland as far as the
+Tweed. The descendants of two of these Earls, Godwine and Leofwine,
+leave their mark on the history for some time to come.
+
+10. =Cnut's Empire.=--Beyond the Tweed Malcolm, king of the Scots,
+ruled. He defeated the North-humbrians at Carham, and Cnut ceded
+Lothian to him, either doing so for the first time or repeating the
+act of Eadgar, if the story of Eadgar's cession is true. At all events
+the king of the Scots from this time ruled as far south as the Tweed,
+and acknowledged Cnut's superiority. Cnut also became king of Denmark
+by his brother's death, and king of Norway by conquest. He entered
+into friendly relations with Richard II., Duke of the Normans, by
+marrying his sister Emma, the widow of AEthelred.[6]
+
+ [Footnote 6: Genealogical connection between the Houses of England
+ and Normandy:--
+
+ _Dukes of Normandy_
+ Richard I.
+ the Fearless
+ |
+ -----------------------------
+ | |
+ Richard II. (1) AETHELRED=Emma = (2) CNUT, 1016-1035
+ the Good the Unready | Godwine
+ | 979-1016 | |
+ --------------- -------- ----------
+ | | | | | |
+ Richard III. Robert AElfred EADWARD=Eadgyth HAROLD
+ | the Confessor 1066
+ WILLIAM 1042-1066
+ the Conqueror
+ 1066-1087]
+
+11. =Cnut's Government.=--Cnut had thus made himself master of a great
+empire, and yet, Dane as he was, though he treated Englishmen and
+Danes as equals, he gave his special favour to Englishmen. He
+restored, as men said, the laws of Eadgar--that is to say, he kept
+peace and restored order as in the days of Eadgar. He reverenced
+monks, and once as he was rowing on the waters of the fens, he heard
+the monks of Ely singing. He bade the boatmen row him to the shore
+that he might listen to the song of praise and prayer. He even went on
+a pilgrimage to Rome, to humble himself in that city which contained
+the burial places of the Apostles Peter and Paul. From Rome he sent a
+letter to his subjects. 'I have vowed to God,' he wrote, 'to live a
+right life in all things; to rule justly and piously my realms and
+subjects, and to administer just judgment to all. If heretofore I have
+done aught beyond what is just, through headiness or negligence of
+youth, I am ready, with God's help, to amend it utterly.' With Cnut
+these were not mere words. It is not likely that there is any truth in
+the story how his flattering courtiers told him to sit by the
+sea-shore and bade the inflowing tide refrain from wetting his feet,
+and how when the waves rose over the spot on which his chair was
+placed he refused to wear his crown again, because that honour
+belonged to God alone, the true Ruler of the world. Yet the story
+would not have been invented except of one who was believed to have
+been clothed with real humility.
+
+12. =The Sons of Cnut. 1035--1042.=--Cnut died in =1035=. Godwine and
+the West Saxons chose Harthacnut, the son of Cnut and Emma to take his
+father's place, whilst the north and centre, headed by Leofwine's son,
+Leofric,[7] Earl of the Mercians, chose Harold, the son of Cnut by an
+earlier wife or concubine. Godwine perhaps hoped that Harthacnut would
+make the West Saxon earldom the centre of the empire which had been
+his father's. Cnut's empire was, however, breaking up. The Norwegians
+chose Magnus, a king of their own race, and Harthacnut remained in
+Denmark to defend it against the attacks of Magnus. In Normandy there
+were two English Ethelings, AElfred and Eadward, the sons of AEthelred
+by Emma, who seem to have thought that the absence of Harthacnut gave
+them a chance of returning to England. AElfred landed, but was seized
+by Harold. He was blinded with such cruelty that he died. His death
+was, truly or falsely, attributed to Godwine. As Harthacnut still
+remained in Denmark, the West Saxons deposed him and gave themselves
+to Harold, since which time England has never been divided. In =1040=
+Harold died, and Harthacnut came at last to England to claim the
+crown. He brought with him a Danish fleet, and with his sailors and
+his house-carls he ruled England as a conquered land. He raised a
+Danegeld to satisfy his men, and sent his house-carls to force the
+people to pay the heavy tax. Two of them were killed at Worcester, and
+he burnt Worcester to the ground. In =1042= he died 'as he stood at
+his drink' at a bridal.
+
+ [Footnote 7: Genealogy of the Mercian earls:--
+
+ Leofwine
+ |
+ Leofric
+ |
+ AElfgar
+ |
+ ---------------------------
+ | |
+ Eadwine, Morkere,
+ Earl of Mercia Earl of North-humberland]
+
+[Illustration: First Great Seal of Eadward the Confessor (obverse).]
+
+13. =Eadward the Confessor and Earl Godwine. 1042--1051.=--The English
+were tired of foreign rulers. 'All folk chose Eadward king.' Eadward,
+the son of AEthelred and the brother of the murdered AElfred, though an
+Englishman on his father's side, was also the son of the Norman Emma,
+and had been brought up in Normandy from his childhood. The Normans
+were now men of French speech, and they were more polite and
+cultivated than Englishmen. Eadward filled his court with Normans. He
+disliked the roughness of the English, but instead of attempting to
+improve them as the great AElfred had formerly done, he stood entirely
+aloof from them. The name of the Confessor by which he was afterwards
+known was given him on account of his piety, but his piety was not of
+that sort which is associated with active usefulness. He was fond of
+hunting, but was not active in any other way, and he left others to
+govern rather than himself. For some years the real governor of
+England was Earl Godwine, who kept his own earldom of Wessex, and
+managed to procure other smaller earldoms for his sons. As the Mercia
+over which Leofric ruled was only the north-western part of the old
+kingdom, and as Siward (see p. 84) had enough to do to keep the fierce
+men of North-humberland in order, Godwine had as yet no competitor to
+fear. In =1045= he became the king's father-in-law by the marriage of
+Eadward with his daughter, Eadgyth. Eadward, however, did his best for
+his Norman favourites, and appointed one of them, Robert of Jumieges,
+to the bishopric of London, and afterwards raised him to the
+Archbishopric of Canterbury. Between Godwine and the Normans there was
+no goodwill, and though Godwine was himself of fair repute, his eldest
+son, Swegen, a young man of brutal nature, alienated the goodwill of
+his countrymen by seducing the Abbess of Leominster, and by murdering
+his cousin Beorn. Godwine, in his blind family affection, clung to his
+wicked son and insisted on his being allowed to retain his earldom.
+
+[Illustration: Hunting. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+14. =The Banishment of Godwine. 1051.=--At last, in =1051=, the strife
+between the king and the Earl broke out openly. Eadward's
+brother-in-law, Eustace, Count of Boulogne, visited England. On his
+return his men made a disturbance at Dover, and in the riot which
+ensued some of the townsmen as well as some of his own men were slain.
+Eadward called on Godwine, in whose earldom Dover was, to punish the
+townsmen. Godwine refused, and Eadward summoned him to Gloucester to
+account for his refusal. He came attended by an armed host, but
+Leofric and Siward, who were jealous of Godwine's power, came with
+their armed followers to support the king. Leofric mediated, and it
+was arranged that the question should be settled at a Witenagemot to
+be held in London. In the end Godwine was outlawed and banished with
+all his family. Swegen went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and died on
+the way back.
+
+15. =Visit of Duke William. 1051.=--In Godwine's absence Eadward
+received a visit from the Duke of the Normans, William, the bastard
+son of Duke Robert and the daughter of a tanner of Falaise. Robert was
+a son of Richard II., and William was thus the grandson of the brother
+of Eadward's mother, Emma. Such a relationship gave him no title
+whatever to the English throne, as Emma was not descended from the
+English kings, and as, even if she had been, no one could be lawfully
+king in England who was not chosen by the Witenagemot. Eadward,
+however, had no children or brothers, and though he had no right to
+give away the crown, he now promised William that he should succeed
+him. William, indeed, was just the man to attract one whose character
+was as weak as Eadward's. Since he received the dukedom he had beaten
+down the opposition of a fierce and discontented nobility at
+Val-es-dunes (=1047=). From that day peace and order prevailed in
+Normandy. Law in Normandy did not come as in England from the
+traditions of the shire-moot or the Witenagemot, where men met to
+consult together. It was the Duke's law, and if the Duke was a strong
+man he kept peace in the land. If he was a weak man, the lords fought
+against one another and plundered and oppressed the poor. William was
+strong and wily, and it was this combination of strength and wiliness
+which enabled him to bear down all opposition.
+
+16. =William and the Norman Church.=--An Englishman, who saw much of
+William in after-life, declared that, severe as he was, he was mild to
+good men who loved God. The Church was in his days assuming a new
+place in Europe. The monastic revival which had originated at Cluny
+(see p. 67) had led to a revival of the Papacy. In =1049=, for the
+first time, a Pope, Leo IX., travelled through Western Europe, holding
+councils and inflicting punishments upon the married clergy and upon
+priests who took arms and shed blood. With this improvement in
+discipline came a voluntary turning of the better clergy to an ascetic
+life, and increased devotion was accompanied, as it always was in the
+middle ages, with an increase of learning. William, who by the
+strength of his will brought peace into the state, also brought men of
+devotion and learning into the high places of the Church. His chief
+confidant was Lanfranc, an Italian who had taken refuge in the abbey
+of Bec, and, having become its prior, had made it the central school
+of Normandy and the parts around. With the improvement of learning
+came the improvement of art, and churches arose in Normandy, as in
+other parts of Western Europe, which still preserved the old round
+arch derived from the Romans, though both the arches themselves and
+the columns on which they were borne were lighter and more graceful
+than the heavy work which had hitherto been employed. Of all this
+Englishmen as yet knew nothing. They went on in their old ways, cut
+off from the European influences of the time. It was no wonder that
+Eadward yearned after the splendour and the culture of the land in
+which he had been brought up, or even that, in defiance of English
+law, he now promised to Duke William the succession to the English
+crown.
+
+17. =The Return and Death of Godwine. 1052--1053.=--After William had
+departed Englishmen became discontented at Eadward's increasing favour
+to the Norman strangers. In =1052= Godwine and his sons--Swegen only
+excepted--returned from exile. They sailed up the Thames and landed at
+Southwark. The foreigners hastily fled, and Eadward was unable to
+resist the popular feeling. Godwine was restored to his earldom, and
+an Englishman, Stigand, was made Archbishop of Canterbury in the place
+of Robert of Jumieges, who escaped to the Continent. As it was the law
+of the Church that a bishop once appointed could not be deposed except
+by the ecclesiastical authorities, offence was in this way given to
+the Pope. Godwine did not long outlive his restoration. He was struck
+down by apoplexy at the king's table in =1053=. Harold, who, after
+Swegen's death, was his eldest son, succeeded to his earldom of
+Wessex, and practically managed the affairs of the kingdom in
+Eadward's name.[8]
+
+ [Footnote 8: Genealogy of the family of Godwine:--
+
+ Godwine
+ |
+ +------+-------+--------+---+----+-------+---------+
+ | | | | | | |
+ Swegen HAROLD Tostig Leofwine Gyrth Wulfnoth Eadgyth = Eadward
+ 1066 the
+ Confessor]
+
+18. =Harold's Greatness. 1053--1066.=--Harold was a brave and
+energetic man, but Eadward preferred his brother Tostig, and on the
+death of Siward appointed him Earl of North-humberland. A little later
+Gyrth, another brother of Harold, became Earl of East Anglia, together
+with Bedfordshire and Oxfordshire, and a fourth brother, Leofwine,
+Earl of a district formed of the eastern shires on either side of the
+Thames. All the richest and most thickly populated part of England was
+governed by Harold and his brothers. Mercia was the only large earldom
+not under their rule. It was now under AElfgar, the son of Leofric, who
+had lately died.
+
+19. =Harold and Eadward. 1057--1065.=--It became necessary to arrange
+for the succession to the throne, as Eadward was childless, and as
+Englishmen were not likely to acquiesce in his bequest to William. In
+=1057= the AEtheling Eadward, a son of Eadmund Ironside, was fetched
+back from Hungary, where he had long lived in exile, and was accepted
+as the heir. Eadward, however, died almost immediately after his
+arrival. He left but one son, Eadgar the AEtheling (see genealogy at p.
+78), who was far too young to be accepted as a king for many years to
+come. Naturally the thought arose of looking on Harold as Eadward's
+successor. It was contrary to all custom to give the throne to any one
+not of the royal line, but the custom had been necessarily broken in
+favour of Cnut, the Danish conqueror, and it might be better to break
+it in favour of an English earl rather than to place a child on the
+throne, when danger threatened from Normandy. During the remainder of
+Eadward's reign Harold showed himself a warrior worthy of the crown.
+In =1063= he invaded Wales and reduced it to submission. About the
+same time AElfgar died, and was succeeded by his son, Eadwine, in the
+earldom of the Mercians. In =1065= the men of North-humberland
+revolted against Tostig, who had governed them harshly, and who was
+probably unpopular as a West Saxon amongst a population of Danes and
+Angles. The North-humbrians chose Eadwine's brother, Morkere, as his
+successor, and Harold advised Eadward to acquiesce in what they had
+done. Northamptonshire and Huntingdonshire were committed to Waltheof,
+a son of Siward (see p. 84), and the modern Northumberland was
+committed to a native ruler, Oswulf.
+
+20. =Death of Eadward. 1066.=--England was therefore ruled by two
+great families. Eadwine and Morkere, the grandsons of Leofric,
+governed the Midlands and almost the whole of North-humberland. Harold
+and his brothers, the sons of Godwine, governed the south and the
+east. The two houses had long been rivals, and after Eadward's death
+there would be no one in the country to whom they could even nominally
+submit. Eadward, whose life was almost at an end, was filled with
+gloomy forebodings. His thoughts, however, turned aside from the
+contemplation of earthly things, and he was only anxious that the
+great abbey church of Westminster, which he had been building hard by
+his own new palace on what was then a lonely place outside London,
+should be consecrated before his death. The church, afterwards
+superseded by the structure which now stands there, was built in the
+new and lighter form of round-arched architecture which Eadward had
+learned to admire from his Norman friends. It was consecrated on
+December 28, =1065=, but the king was too ill to be present, and on
+January 5, =1066=, he died, and was buried in the church which he had
+founded. Harold was at once chosen king, and crowned at Westminster.
+
+[Illustration: Tower in the earlier style. Church at Earl's Barton.
+(The battlements are much later.)]
+
+[Illustration: Tower in the earlier style. St Benet's Church,
+Cambridge.]
+
+[Illustration: Building a church in the later style. (From a drawing
+belonging to the Society of Antiquaries.)]
+
+21. =Harold and William. 1066.=--William, as soon as he heard of his
+rival's coronation, claimed the crown. He was now even mightier than
+he had been when he visited Eadward. In =1063= he had conquered Maine,
+and, secure on his southern frontier, he was able to turn his
+undivided attention to England. According to the principles accepted
+in England, he had no right to it whatever; but he contrived to put
+together a good many reasons which seemed, in the eyes of those who
+were not Englishmen, to give him a good case. In the first place he
+had been selected by Eadward as his heir. In the second place the
+deprivation of Robert of Jumieges was an offence against the Church
+law of the Continent, and William was therefore able to obtain from
+the Pope a consecrated banner, and to speak of an attack upon England
+as an attempt to uphold the righteous laws of the Church. In the third
+place, Harold had at some former time been wrecked upon the French
+coast, and had been delivered up to William, who had refused to let
+him go till he had sworn solemnly, placing his hand on a chest which
+contained the relics of the most holy Norman saints, to do some act,
+the nature of which is diversely related, but which Harold never did.
+Consequently William could speak of himself as going to take vengeance
+on a perjurer. With some difficulty William persuaded the Norman
+barons to follow him, and he attracted a mixed multitude of
+adventurers from all the neighbouring nations by promising them the
+plunder of England, an argument which every one could understand.
+During the whole of the spring and the summer ships for the invasion
+of England were being built in the Norman harbours.
+
+[Illustration: Normans feasting; with Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, saying
+grace. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+[Illustration: Harold swearing upon the Relics. (From the Bayeux
+Tapestry.)]
+
+22. =Stamford Bridge. 1066.=--All through the summer Harold was
+watching for his rival's coming. The military organisation of England,
+however, was inferior to that of Normandy. The Norman barons and their
+vassals were always ready for war, and they could support on their
+estates the foreign adventurers who were placed under their orders
+till the time of battle came. Harold had his house-carls, the constant
+guard of picked troops which had been instituted by Cnut, and his
+thegns, who, like the Norman barons, were bound to serve their lord
+in war. The greater part of his force, however, was composed of the
+peasants of the fyrd, and when September came they must needs be sent
+home to attend to their harvest, which seems to have been late this
+year. Scarcely were they gone when Harold received news that his
+brother Tostig, angry with him for having consented to his deposition
+from the North-humbrian earldom, had allied himself to Harold
+Hardrada, the fierce sea-rover, who was king of Norway, and that the
+two, with a mighty host, after wasting the Yorkshire coast, had sailed
+up the Humber. The two Northern Earls, Eadwine and Morkere, were hard
+pressed. Harold had not long before married their sister, and,
+whatever might be the risk, he was bound as the king of all England to
+aid them. Marching swiftly northwards with his house-carls and the
+thegns who joined him on the way, he hastened to their succour. On
+the way worse tidings reached him. The Earls had been defeated, and
+York had agreed to submit to the Norsemen. Harold hurried on the
+faster, and came upon the invaders unawares as they lay heedlessly on
+both sides of the Derwent at Stamford Bridge. Those on the western
+side, unprepared as they were, were soon overpowered. One brave
+Norseman, like Horatius and his comrades in the Roman legend, kept the
+narrow bridge against the army, till an Englishman crept under it and
+stabbed him from below through a gap in the woodwork. The battle
+rolled across the Derwent, and when evening came Harold Hardrada, and
+Tostig himself, with the bulk of the invaders, had been slain. For the
+last time an English king overthrew a foreign host in battle on
+English soil.
+
+[Illustration: A Norman ship. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+[Illustration: Norman soldiers mounted. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+23. =The Landing of William. 1066.=--Harold had shown what an English
+king could do, who fought not for this or that part of the country,
+but for all England. It was the lack of this national spirit in
+Englishmen which caused his ruin. As Harold was feasting at York in
+celebration of his victory, a messenger told him of the landing of the
+Norman host at Pevensey. He had saved Eadwine and Morkere from
+destruction, but Eadwine and Morkere gave him no help in return. He
+had to hurry back to defend Sussex without a single man from the north
+or the Midlands, except those whom he collected on his line of march.
+The House of Leofric bore no goodwill to the House of Godwine. England
+was a kingdom divided against itself.
+
+[Illustration: Group of archers on foot. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+[Illustration: Men fighting with axes. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+24. =The Battle of Senlac. 1066.--=Harold, as soon as he reached the
+point of danger, drew up his army on the long hill of Senlac on which
+Battle Abbey now stands. On October 14 William marched forth to attack
+him. The military equipment of the Normans was better than that of the
+English. Where the weapons on either side are unlike, battles are
+decided by the momentum--that is to say, by the combined weight and
+speed of the weapons employed. The English fought on foot mostly with
+two-handed axes; the Normans fought not only on horseback with lances,
+but also with infantry, some of them being archers. A horse, the
+principal weapon of a horseman, has more momentum than an armed
+footman, whilst an arrow can reach the object at which it is aimed
+long before a horse. Harold, however, had in his favour the slope of
+the hill up which the Normans would have to ride, and he took
+advantage of the lie of the ground by posting his men with their
+shields before them on the edge of the hill. The position was a strong
+one for purposes of defence, but it was not one that made it easy for
+Harold to change his arrangements as the fortunes of the day might
+need. William, on the other hand, had not only a better armed force,
+but a more flexible one. He had to attack, and, versed as he was in
+all the operations of war, he could move his men from place to place
+and make use of each opportunity as it arrived. The English were brave
+enough, but William was a more intelligent leader than Harold, and his
+men were better under control. Twice after the battle had begun the
+Norman horsemen charged up the hill only to be driven back. The wily
+William, finding that the hill was not to be stormed by a direct
+attack, met the difficulty by galling the English with a shower of
+arrows and ordering his left wing to turn and fly. The stratagem was
+successful. Some of the English rushed down the hill in pursuit. The
+fugitives faced round and charged the pursuers, following them up the
+slope. The English on the height were thus thrown into confusion; but
+they held out stoutly, and as the Norman horsemen now in occupation of
+one end of the hill charged fiercely along its crest, they locked
+their shields together and fought desperately for life, if no longer
+for victory. Slowly and steadily the Normans pressed on, till they
+reached the spot where Harold, surrounded by his house-carls, fought
+beneath his standard. There all their attacks were in vain, till
+William, calling for his bowmen, bade them shoot their arrows into the
+air. Down came the arrows in showers upon the heads of the English
+warriors, and one of them pierced Harold's eye, stretching him
+lifeless on the ground. In a series of representations in worsted
+work, known as the Bayeux Tapestry, which was wrought by the needle of
+some unknown woman and is now exhibited in the museum of that city,
+the scenes of the battle and the events preceding it are pictorially
+recorded.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Harold, who is attempting to pull the arrow
+from his eye. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)]
+
+25. =William's Coronation. 1066.=--William had destroyed both the
+English king and the English army. It is possible that England, if
+united, might still have resisted. The great men at London chose for
+their king Eadgar the AEtheling, the grandson of Eadmund Ironside.
+Eadwine and Morkere were present at the election, but left London as
+soon as it was over. They would look after their own earldoms; they
+would not join others, as Harold had done, in defending England as a
+whole. Divided England would sooner or later be a prey to William. He
+wanted, however, not merely to reign as a conqueror, but to be
+lawfully elected as king, that he might have on his side law as well
+as force. He first struck terror into Kent and Sussex by ravaging the
+lands of all who held out against him. Then he marched to the Thames
+and burnt Southwark. He did not, however, try to force his way into
+London, as he wanted to induce the citizens to submit voluntarily to
+him, or at least in a way which might seem voluntary. He therefore
+marched westwards, crossed the Thames at Wallingford, and wheeled
+round to Berkhampstead. His presence there made the Londoners feel
+utterly isolated. Even if Eadwine and Morkere wished to do anything
+for them, they could not come from the north or north-west without
+meeting William's victorious army. The great men and citizens alike
+gave up all thought of resistance, abandoned Eadgar, and promised to
+take William for their king. On Christmas Day, =1066=, William was
+chosen with acclamation in Eadward's abbey at Westminster, where
+Harold had been chosen less than a year before. The Normans outside
+mistook the shouts of applause for a tumult against their Duke, and
+set fire to the houses around. The English rushed out to save their
+property, and William, frightened for the only time in his life, was
+left alone with the priests. Not knowing what was next to follow, he
+was crowned king of the English by Ealdred, Archbishop of York, in an
+empty church, amidst the crackling of flames and the shouts of men
+striving for the mastery.
+
+[Illustration: Coronation of a king, _temp._ William the Conqueror.
+(From a drawing in the possession of the Society of Antiquaries.)]
+
+
+_Books recommended for further study of Part I._
+
+DAWKINS, W. Boyd. Early Man in Britain.
+
+RHYS, J. Early Britain.
+
+ELTON, C. J. Origins of English History.
+
+GUEST, E. Origines Celticae. Vol. ii. pp. 121-408.
+
+FREEMAN. History of the Norman Conquest. Vols. i.-iii.
+
+GREEN, J. R. The Making of England.
+
+---- The Conquest of England.
+
+---- History of the English People. Vol. i. pp. 1-114.
+
+BRIGHT, W. Chapters of English Church History.
+
+STUBBS, W. The Constitutional History of England. Chaps. I.-IX.
+
+CUNNINGHAM, W. The Growth of English Industry and Commerce during the
+Early and Middle Ages. pp. 1-128.
+
+HODGKIN, T. The Political History of England. Vol i. From the Earliest
+Times to 1066.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+_THE NORMAN AND ANGEVIN KINGS._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+WILLIAM I. =1066--1087.=
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+ William's coronation 1066
+ Completion of the Conquest 1070
+ The rising of the Earls 1075
+ The Gemot at Salisbury 1086
+ Death of William I. 1087
+
+
+[Illustration: A silver penny of William the Conqueror, struck at
+Romney.]
+
+1. =The First Months of the Conquest. 1066--1067.=--Though at the time
+when William was crowned he had gained actual possession of no more
+than the south-eastern part of England, he claimed a right to rule the
+whole as lawful king of the English, not merely by Eadward's bequest,
+but by election and coronation. In reality, he came as a conqueror,
+whilst the Normans by whose aid he gained the victory at Senlac left
+their homes not merely to turn their Duke into a king, but also to
+acquire lands and wealth for themselves. William could not act justly
+and kindly to his new subjects even if he wished. What he did was to
+clothe real violence with the appearance of law. He gave out that as
+he had been the lawful king of the English ever since Eadward's death,
+Harold and all who fought under him at Senlac had forfeited their
+lands by their treason to himself as their lawful king. These lands he
+distributed amongst his Normans. The English indeed were not entirely
+dispossessed. Sometimes the son of a warrior who had been slain was
+allowed to retain a small portion of his father's land. Sometimes the
+daughter or the widow of one of Harold's comrades was compelled to
+marry a Norman whom William wished to favour. Yet, for all that, a
+vast number of estates in the southern and eastern counties passed
+from English into Norman hands. The bulk of the population, the
+serfs--or, as they were now called by a Norman name, the
+villeins--were not affected by the change, except so far as they found
+a foreign lord less willing than a native one to hearken to their
+complaints. The changes which took place were limited as yet to a
+small part of England. In three months after his coronation William
+was still without authority beyond an irregular line running from the
+Wash to the western border of Hampshire, except that he held some
+outlying posts in Herefordshire. It is true that Eadwine and Morkere
+had acknowledged him as king, but they were still practically
+independent. Even where William actually ruled he allowed all
+Englishmen who had not fought on Harold's side to keep their lands,
+though he made them redeem them by the payment of a fine, on the
+principle that all lands in the country, except those of the Church,
+were the king's lands, and that it was right to fine those who had not
+come to Senlac to help him as their proper lord.
+
+2. =The Conquest of the West and North. 1067--1069.=--In March =1067=
+William returned to Normandy. In his absence the Normans left behind
+in England oppressed the English, and were supported in their
+oppression by the two regents appointed to govern in William's name,
+his half-brother, Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, whom he had made Earl of
+Kent, and William Fitz-Osbern, Earl of Hereford. In some parts the
+English rose in rebellion. In December William returned, and after
+putting down resistance in the south-eastern counties, set himself to
+conquer the rest of England. It took him more than two years to
+complete his task. Perhaps he would have failed even then if the whole
+of the unconquered part of the country had risen against him at the
+same time. Each district, however, resisted separately, and he was
+strong enough to beat them down one by one. In the spring of =1068= he
+besieged and took Exeter, and subdued the West to the Land's End. When
+this had been accomplished he turned northwards against Eadwine and
+Morkere, who had declared against him. William soon frightened them
+into submission, and seized on York and all the country to the south
+of York on the eastern side of England. In =1069= the English of the
+North rose once more and summoned to their aid Svend, king of
+Denmark, a nephew of the great Cnut. Svend sent a Danish fleet, and
+the Danes were joined by Eadgar the AEtheling and by other English
+chiefs. They burnt and plundered York, but could do no more. Their
+great host melted away. The Danes went off with their booty to their
+ships, and the English returned to their homes. William found no army
+to oppose him, and he not only regained the lands which he had
+occupied the year before, but added to them the whole country up to
+the Tweed.
+
+3. =The Completion of the Conquest. 1070.=--William was never cruel
+without an object, but there was no cruelty which he would not commit
+if it would serve his purpose. He resolved to make all further
+resistance impossible. The Vale of York, a long and wide stretch of
+fertile ground running northwards from the city to the Tees, was laid
+waste by William's orders. The men who had joined in the revolt were
+slain. The stored-up crops, the ploughs, the carts, the oxen and sheep
+were destroyed by fire. Men, women, and children dropped dead of
+starvation, and their corpses lay unburied in the wasted fields. Some
+prolonged life by feeding on the flesh of horses, or even of men.
+Others sold themselves into slavery, bowing their heads, as was said,
+in the evil days for meat. "Waste! waste! waste!" was the account
+given long afterwards of field after field in what had once been one
+of the most fertile districts in England. William's work of conquest
+was almost over. Early in =1070= he crossed the hills amidst frost and
+snow, and descended upon Chester. Chester submitted, and with it the
+shires on the Welsh border. The whole of England was at last subdued.
+
+4. =Hereward's Revolt and the Homage of Malcolm. 1070--1072.=--Only
+one serious attempt to revolt was afterwards made, but this was no
+more than a local rising. The Isle of Ely was in those days a real
+island in the midst of the waters of the fens. Hereward, with a band
+of followers, threw himself into the island, and it was only after a
+year's attack that he was driven out. When the revolt was at its
+height, Eadwine and Morkere fled from William's court to join the
+insurgents. Eadwine was murdered by his own attendants. Morkere
+reached Ely, and when resistance was at an end was banished to
+Normandy. No man ever deserved less pity than these two brothers. They
+had never sought any one's advantage but their own, and they had been
+faithless to every cause which they had pretended to adopt. Before
+Hereward was overpowered, Malcolm, king of the Scots, ravaged northern
+England, carrying off with him droves of English slaves. In =1072=
+William, who had by that time subdued Hereward, marched into Scotland
+as far as the Tay. Malcolm submitted to him at Abernethy, and
+acknowledged him to be his lord. Malcolm's acknowledgment was only a
+repetition of the acknowledgment made by his predecessors the Scottish
+kings, to Eadward and Cnut (see pp. 63, 84); but William was more
+powerful than Eadward or Cnut had been, and was likely to construe the
+obligation more strictly.
+
+5. =How William kept down the English.=--William, having conquered
+England, had now to govern it. His first object was to keep the
+English in subjection.
+
+_(a) The Confiscation of Land._--In the first place he continued to
+treat all who had resisted him as rebels, confiscating their land and
+giving it to some Norman follower. In almost every district there was
+at least one Norman landowner, who was on the watch against any
+attempt of his English neighbours to revolt, and who knew that he
+would lose his land if William lost his crown.
+
+_(b) Building Castles._--In the second place William built a castle in
+every town of importance, which he garrisoned with his own men. The
+most notable example of these castles is the Tower of London.
+
+_(c) The Feudal Army._--In the third place, though the diffusion of
+Norman landowners and of William's castles made a general revolt of
+the English difficult, it did not make it impossible, and William took
+care to have an army always ready to put down a revolt if it occurred.
+No king in those days could have a constantly paid army, such as
+exists in all European countries at the present day, because there was
+not much money anywhere. Some men had land and some men had bodily
+strength, and they bartered one for the other. The villein gave his
+strength to plough and reap for his lord, in return for the land which
+he held from him. The fighting man gave his strength to his lord, to
+serve him with his horse and his spear, in return for the land which
+he held from him. This system, which is known as feudal, had been
+growing up in England before the Conquest, but it was perfected on the
+Continent, and William brought it with him in its perfected shape. The
+warrior who served on horseback was called a knight, and when a knight
+received land from a lord on military tenure--that is to say, on
+condition of military service--he was called the vassal of his lord.
+When he became a vassal he knelt, and, placing his hands between those
+of his lord, swore to be his man. This act was called doing homage.
+The land which he received as sufficient to maintain him was called a
+knight's fee. After this homage the vassal was bound to serve his
+lord in arms, this service being the rent payable for his land. If the
+vassal broke his oath and fought against his lord, he was regarded as
+a traitor, or a betrayer of his trust, and could be turned out of his
+land. The whole land of England being regarded as the king's, all land
+was held from the king. Sometimes the knights held their fees directly
+from the king and did homage to him. These knights were known as
+tenants in chief (_in capite_), however small their estates might be.
+Usually, however, the tenants in chief were large landowners, to whom
+the king had granted vast estates; and these when they did homage
+engaged not merely to fight for him in person, but to bring some
+hundreds of knights with them. To enable them to do this they had to
+give out portions of their land to sub-tenants, each engaging to bring
+himself and a specified number of knights. There might thus be a
+regular chain of sub-tenants, A engaging to serve under B, B under C,
+C under D, and so on till the tenant-in-chief was reached, who engaged
+to bring them all to serve the king. Almost all the larger
+tenants-in-chief were Normans, though Englishmen were still to be
+found amongst the sub-tenants, and even amongst the smaller
+tenants-in-chief. The whole body, however, was preponderantly Norman,
+and William could therefore depend upon it to serve him as an army in
+the field in case of an English rising.
+
+6. =How William kept down the Normans.=--William was not afraid only
+of the English. He had cause to fear lest the feudal army, which was
+to keep down the English, might be strong enough to be turned against
+himself, and that the barons--as the greater tenants-in-chief were
+usually called--might set him at naught as Eadwine and Morkere had set
+Harold at naught, and as the Dukes of Normandy had set at naught the
+kings of France. To prevent this he adopted various contrivances.
+
+_(a) Abolition of the great Earldoms._--In the first place he
+abolished the great earldoms. In most counties there were to be no
+earls at all, and no one was to be earl of more than one county. There
+was never again to be an Earl of the West Saxons like Godwine, or an
+Earl of the Mercians like Leofric.
+
+_(b) The Estates of the Barons scattered._--- Not only did William
+diminish the official authority of the earls, he also weakened the
+territorial authority of the barons. Even when he granted to one man
+estates so numerous that if they had been close together they would
+have extended at least over a whole county, he took care to scatter
+them over England, allowing only a few to be held by a single owner in
+any one county. If, therefore, a great baron took it into his head to
+levy war against the king, he would have to collect his vassals from
+the most distant counties, and his intentions would thus be known
+before they could be put in practice.
+
+_(c) The Fyrd kept in readiness._--Still more important was William's
+resolution to be the real head of the English nation. He had weakened
+it enough to fear it no longer, but he kept it strong enough to use
+it, if need came, against the Norman barons. He won Englishmen to his
+side by the knowledge that he was ready to do them justice whenever
+they were wronged, and he could therefore venture to summon the fyrd
+whenever he needed support, without having cause to fear that it would
+turn against him.
+
+7. =Ecclesiastical Organisation.=--Before the Conquest the English
+Church had been altogether national. Its bishops had sat side by side
+with the ealdormen or earls in the shire-moots, and in the Witenagemot
+itself. They had been named, like the ealdormen or earls, by the king
+with the consent of the Witenagemot. Ecclesiastical questions had been
+decided and ecclesiastical offences punished not by any special
+ecclesiastical court, but by the shire-moot or Witenagemot, in which
+the laity and the clergy were both to be found. William resolved to
+change all this. The bishops and abbots whom he found were Englishmen,
+and he replaced most of them by Normans. The new Norman bishops and
+abbots were dependent on the king. They looked on the English as
+barbarians, and would certainly not support them in any revolt, as
+their English predecessors might have done. Thurstan, indeed, the
+Norman Abbot of Glastonbury, was so angry with his English monks
+because they refused to change their style of music that he called in
+Norman archers to shoot them down on the steps of the altar. Such
+brutality, however, was exceptional, and, as a rule, even Norman
+bishops and abbots were well disposed towards their English
+neighbours, all the more because they were not very friendly with the
+Norman nobles, who often attempted to encroach on the lands of the
+Church. Many a king in William's position would have been content to
+fill the sees with creatures of his own, who would have done what they
+were bidden and have thought of no one's interest but his. William
+knew, as he had already shown in Normandy, that he would be far better
+served if the clergy were not only dependent on himself but deserving
+the respect of others. He made his old friend Lanfranc (see p. 88)
+Archbishop of Canterbury. Lanfranc had, like William, the mind of a
+ruler, and under him bishops and abbots were appointed who enforced
+discipline. The monks were compelled to keep the rules of their
+order, the canons of cathedrals were forced to send away their wives,
+and though the married clergy in the country were allowed to keep
+theirs, orders were given that in future no priest should marry.
+Everywhere the Church gave signs of new vigour. The monasteries became
+again the seats of study and learning. The sees of bishops were
+transferred from villages to populous towns, as when the Bishop of
+Dorchester, in Oxfordshire, migrated to Lincoln, and the Bishop of
+Thetford to Norwich. New churches were built and old ones restored
+after the new Continental style, which is known in England as Norman,
+and which Eadward had introduced in his abbey of Westminster. The
+Church, though made dependent on William, was independent, so far as
+its spiritual rights were concerned, of the civil courts.
+Ecclesiastical matters were discussed, not in the Witenagemot, but in
+a Church synod, and, in course of time, punishments were inflicted by
+Church courts on ecclesiastical offenders. The power of William was
+strengthened by the change. That power rested on three supports--the
+Norman conquerors, the English nation, and the Church, and each one of
+these three had reason to distrust the other two.
+
+[Illustration: East end of Darenth Church, Kent. Built about 1080.]
+
+8. =Pope Gregory VII.=--The strength which William had acquired showed
+itself in his bearing towards the Pope. In =1073= Archdeacon
+Hildebrand, who for some years had been more powerful at Rome than the
+Popes themselves, himself became Pope under the name of Gregory VII.
+Gregory was as stern a ruler of the Church as William was of the
+State. He was an uncompromising champion of the Cluniac reforms (see
+p. 67). His object was to moderate the cruelty and sinfulness of the
+feudal warriors of Europe by making the Church a light to guide the
+world to piety and self-denial. As matters stood on the Continent, it
+had been impossible for the Church to attain to so high a standard.
+The clergy bought their places and fought and killed like the laymen
+around them. The Cluniac monks, therefore, thought it best to separate
+the clergy entirely from the world. In the first place they were to be
+celibate, that they might not be entangled in the cares of life. In
+the second place they were to refrain from simony, or the purchase of
+ecclesiastical preferment, that they might not be dependent on the
+great men of the world. A third demand was added later, that bishops
+and abbots should not receive from laymen the ring and staff which
+were the signs of their authority--the ring as the symbol of marriage
+to their churches; the staff or crozier, in the shape of a shepherd's
+crook, as the symbol of their pastoral authority. The Church, in fact,
+was to be governed by its own laws in perfect independence, that it
+might become more pure itself, and thus capable of setting a better
+example to the laity. As might have been expected, though the internal
+condition of the Church was greatly improved, yet when Gregory
+attempted entirely to free ecclesiastics from the influence and
+authority of the State, he found himself involved in endless quarrels.
+Clergy and laity alike resisted him, and they were supported by the
+Emperor Henry IV., whose rule extended over Germany and the greater
+part of Italy. Gregory next claimed the right of excommunicating kings
+and emperors, and of deposing them if they did not repent after
+excommunication. The State, he declared, was as the moon, receiving
+light from the Church, which shone like the sun in heaven. The whole
+of the remainder of Gregory's life was spent in a struggle with the
+Emperor, and the struggle was carried on by the successors of both.
+
+[Illustration: Part of the nave of St. Alban's Abbey Church. Built by
+Abbot Paul between 1077 and 1093.]
+
+9. =William and Gregory VII.=--It is remarkable that such a Pope as
+Gregory never came into conflict with William. William appointed
+bishops and abbots by giving them investiture, as the presenting of
+the ring and staff was called. He declared that no Pope should be
+obeyed in England who was not acknowledged by himself, that no papal
+bulls or letters should have any force till he had allowed them, and
+that the decrees of an ecclesiastical synod should bind no one till he
+had confirmed them. When, at a later time, Gregory required William to
+do homage to the see of Rome, William refused, on the ground that
+homage had never been rendered by his predecessors. To all this
+Gregory submitted. No doubt Gregory was prudent in not provoking
+William's anger; but that he should have refrained from even finding
+fault with William may perhaps be set down to the credit of his
+honesty. He claimed to make himself the master of kings because as a
+rule they did not care to advance the purity of the Church. William
+did care to advance it. He chose virtuous and learned bishops, and
+defended the clergy against aggression from without and corruption
+within. Gregory may well have been content to leave power over the
+Church in the hands of a king who ruled it in such a fashion.
+
+10. =The Rising of the Earls. 1075.=--Of the three classes of men over
+which William ruled, the great Norman barons imagined themselves to be
+the strongest, and were most inclined to throw off his yoke. The chief
+feature of the reigns of William and of his successors for three
+generations was the struggle which scarcely ever ceased between the
+Norman barons on the one side, and the king supported by the English
+and the clergy on the other. It was to the advantage of the king that
+he had not to contend against the whole of the Normans. Normans with
+small estates clung for support, like their English neighbours, to the
+crown. The first of many risings of the barons took place in =1075=.
+Roger, Earl of Hereford, in spite of William's prohibition, gave his
+sister in marriage to Ralph of Wader, Earl of Norfolk, who, though of
+English birth on his father's side, had fought for William at Senlac,
+and may practically be counted as a Norman. As the chronicler
+expressed it:
+
+ There was that bride-ale
+ To many men's bale.
+
+The two earls plotted a rising against William and the revivals of the
+old independent earldoms. They took arms and were beaten. Ralph fled
+the country, and Roger was condemned to perpetual imprisonment. His
+followers were blinded or had their feet cut off. It was the Norman
+custom not to put criminals to death. To this rule, however, William
+made one exception. Waltheof, the last earl of purely English race,
+had been present at the fatal bride-ale, but though he had listened to
+the plottings of the conspirators, he had revealed all that he knew to
+William. His wife, Judith, a niece of the Conqueror, accused him of
+actual treason, and he was beheaded at Winchester. By the English he
+was regarded as a martyr, and it was probably his popularity amongst
+them which made William resolve upon his death.
+
+11. =The New Forest.=--Only once did William cause misery amongst his
+subjects for the sake of his own enjoyment. Many kings before him had
+taken pleasure in hunting, but William was the first who claimed the
+right of hunting over large tracts of country exclusively for himself.
+He made, as the chronicler says, 'mickle deer-frith'--a tract, that is
+to say, in which the deer might have peace--'and laid laws therewith
+that he who slew hart or hind that man should blind him.... In sooth
+he loved the high deer as though he were their father.' He forbade, in
+short, all men, except those to whom he gave permission, to hunt
+within the limits of the royal forests. In the south-west of
+Hampshire, near his favourite abode at Winchester, he enlarged the New
+Forest. The soil is poor, and it can never have been covered by
+cultivated fields, but here and there, by the sides of streams, there
+were scattered hamlets, and these were destroyed and the dwellers in
+them driven off by William's orders, that there might be a 'mickle
+deer-frith.' We may be sure that there was not nearly as much misery
+caused by the making of the New Forest as was caused by the harrying
+of the Vale of York, but popular tradition rightly held in more
+abhorrence the lesser cruelty for the sake of pleasure than the
+greater cruelty for the sake of policy. It told how the New Forest was
+accursed for William's family. In his own lifetime a son and a
+grandson of his were cut off within it by unknown hands, probably
+falling before the vengeance of some who had lost home and substance
+through the creation of the Forest, and in due time another son, who
+succeeded him on the throne, was to meet with a similar fate.
+
+12. =Domesday Book. 1085--1086.=--It was to William's credit that his
+government was a strong one. In William's days life and property and
+female honour were under the protection of a king who knew how to make
+himself obeyed. Strong government, however, is always expensive, and
+William and his officers were always ready with an excuse for getting
+money. "The king and the headmen loved much and overmuch covetousness
+on gold and on silver, and they recked not how sinfully it was gotten,
+if only it came to them.... They reared up unright tolls, and many
+other unright things they did that are hard to reckon." Other men, in
+short, must observe the law; William's government was a law to itself.
+It was, however, a law, and not a mere scramble for money. Though
+there were no Danish invaders now, William continued to levy the
+Danegeld, and he had rents and payments due to him in many quarters
+which had been due to his predecessors. In order to make his exactions
+more complete and more regular, he resolved to have set down the
+amount of taxable property in the realm that his full rights might be
+known, and in =1085=, "He sent over all England into ilk shire his
+men, and let them find out how many hundred hides were in the shire,
+or what the king himself had of land or cattle in the land, or whilk
+rights he ought to have.... Eke he let write how mickle of land his
+archbishops had, and his bishops, and his abbots and his earls, and
+what or how mickle ilk man had that landholder was in England in land
+and in cattle, and how mickle fee it was worth. So very narrowly he
+let speer it out that there was not a single hide nor a yard of land,
+nor so much as--it is a shame to tell, though he thought it no shame
+to do--an ox nor a cow nor a swine was left that was not set in his
+writ." The chronicler who wrote these words was an English monk of
+Peterborough. Englishmen were shocked by the new regularity of
+taxation. They could hardly be expected to understand the advantages
+of a government strong enough through regular taxation to put down the
+resistance of rebellious earls at home and to defy invasion from
+abroad. The result of the inquiries of the king's commissioners was
+embodied in Domesday Book, so called because it was no more possible
+to appeal from it than from the Last Judgment.
+
+[Illustration: Reduced facsimile of part of Domesday Book.]
+
+13. =William's Great Councils.=--Though William was himself the true
+ruler of England, he kept up the practice of his predecessors in
+summoning the Witenagemot from time to time. In his days, however, the
+name of the Witenagemot was changed into that of the Great Council,
+and, to a slight extent, it changed its nature with its name. The
+members of the Witenagemot had attended because they were officially
+connected with the king, being ealdormen or bishops or thegns serving
+in some way under him. Members of the Great Council attended because
+they held land in chief from the king. The difference, however, was
+greater in appearance than in reality. No doubt men who held very
+small estates in chief might, if they pleased, come to the Great
+Council, and if they had done so the Great Council would have been
+much more numerously attended than the Witenagemot had been. The
+poorer tenants-in-chief, however, found that it was not only too
+troublesome and expensive to make the journey at a time when all long
+journeys had to be made on horseback, but that when they arrived their
+wishes were disregarded. They therefore stayed at home, so that the
+Great Council was regularly attended only by the bishops, the abbots
+of the larger abbeys, and certain great landowners who were known as
+barons. In this way the Great Council became a council of the wealthy
+landowners, as the Witenagemot had been, though the two assemblies
+were formed on different principles.
+
+14. =The Gemot at Salisbury. 1086.=--In =1086=, after Domesday Book
+had been finished, William summoned an unusually numerous assembly,
+known as the Great Gemot, to meet at Salisbury. At this not only the
+tenants-in-chief appeared, but also all those who held lands from them
+as sub-tenants. "There came to him," wrote the chronicler, "... all
+the landowning men there were over all England, whose soever men they
+were, and all bowed down before him and became his men, and swore
+oaths of fealty to him, that they would be faithful to him against all
+other men." It was this oath which marked the difference between
+English and Continental feudalism, though they were now in other
+respects alike. On the Continent each tenant swore to be faithful to
+his lord, but only the lords who held directly from the crown swore to
+be faithful to the king. The consequence was that when a lord rebelled
+against the king, his tenants followed their lord and not the king. In
+England the tenants swore to forsake their lord and to serve the king
+against him if he forsook his duty to the king. Nor was this all. Many
+men break their oaths. William, however, was strong enough in England
+to punish those who broke their oaths to him, whilst the king of
+France was seldom strong enough to punish those who broke their oaths
+to him.
+
+15. =William's Death. 1087.=--The oath taken at Salisbury was the
+completion of William's work in England. To contemporaries he appeared
+as a foreign conqueror, and often as a harsh and despotic ruler. Later
+generations could recognise that his supreme merit was that he made
+England one. He did not die in England. In =1087= he fought with his
+lord, the king of France, Philip I. In anger at a jest of Philip's he
+set fire to Mantes. As he rode amidst the burning houses his horse
+shied and threw him forward on the pommel of his saddle. He was now
+corpulent and the injury proved fatal. On September 9 he died. When
+the body was carried to Caen for burial in the abbey of St. Stephen,
+which William himself had reared, a knight stepped forward and claimed
+as his own the ground in which the grave had been dug. It had been
+taken, he said, by William from his father. "In the name of God," he
+cried, "I forbid that the body of the robber be covered with my mould,
+or that he be buried within the bounds of my inheritance." The
+bystanders acknowledged the truth of his accusation, and paid the
+price demanded.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+WILLIAM II. =1087--1100.=
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+ Accession of William II 1087
+ Norman rebellion against William II. 1088
+ Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury 1093
+ The Council of Rockingham, and the First Crusade 1095
+ Conquest of Jerusalem by the Crusaders 1099
+ Death of William II. 1100
+
+
+1. =The Accession of the Red King. 1087.=--In Normandy the Conqueror
+was succeeded by his eldest son, Robert. Robert was sluggish and
+incapable, and his father had expressed a wish that England, newly
+conquered and hard to control, should be ruled by his more energetic
+second son, William. To the third son, Henry, he gave a sum of money.
+There was as yet no settled rule of succession to the English crown,
+and William at once crossed the sea and was crowned king of the
+English at Westminster, by Lanfranc. William Rufus, or the Red King,
+as men called him, feared not God nor regarded man. Yet the English
+rallied round him, because they knew that he was strong-willed, and
+because they needed a king who would keep the Norman barons from
+oppressing them. For that very reason the more turbulent of the Norman
+barons declared for Robert, who would be too lazy to keep them in
+order. In the spring of =1088= they broke into rebellion in his name.
+William called the English people to his help. He would not, he said,
+wring money from his subjects or exercise cruelty in defence of his
+hunting grounds. On this the English rallied round him. At the head of
+a great army he marched to attack the rebels, and finally laid siege
+to Rochester, which was held against him by his uncle Odo, Bishop of
+Bayeux, whom he had released from the imprisonment in which the
+Conqueror had kept him. William called upon yet greater numbers of the
+English to come to his help. Every one, he declared, who failed him
+now should be known for ever by the shameful name of _Nithing_, or
+worthless. The English came in crowds. When at last Odo surrendered,
+the English pleaded that no mercy should be shown him. "Halters, bring
+halters!" they cried; "hang up the traitor bishop and his accomplices
+on the gibbet." William, however, spared him, but banished him for
+ever from England.
+
+2. =The Wickedness of the Red King.=--William had crushed the Norman
+rebels with English aid. When the victory was won he turned against
+those who had helped him. It was not that he oppressed the English
+because they were English, but that he oppressed English and Normans
+alike, though the English, being the weaker, felt his cruelty most. He
+broke all his promises. He gathered round him mercenary soldiers from
+all lands to enforce his will. He hanged murderers and robbers, but he
+himself was the worst of robbers. When he moved about the country with
+the ruffians who attended him, the inhabitants fled to the woods,
+leaving their houses to be pillaged. William allowed no law to be
+pleaded against his own will. His life, and the life of his courtiers,
+was passed in the foulest vice. He was as irreligious as he was
+vicious. It was in especial defiance of the Christian sentiment of the
+time that he encouraged the Jews, who had begun to come into England
+in his father's days, to come in greater numbers. They grew rich as
+money-lenders, and William protected them against their debtors,
+exacting a high price for his protection. Once, it is said, he invited
+the Jewish rabbis to argue in his presence with the bishops on the
+merits of their respective creeds, and promised to become a Jew if
+the rabbis had the better of the argument. His own mouth was filled
+with outrageous blasphemies. "God," he said, "shall never see me a
+good man. I have suffered too much at His hands."
+
+3. =Ranulf Flambard.=--The chief minister of the Red King was Ranulf
+Flambard, whom he ultimately made Bishop of Durham. He was one of the
+clerks of the king's chapel. The word 'clerk' properly signified a
+member of the clergy. The only way in which men could work with their
+brains instead of with their hands was by becoming clerks, the
+majority of whom, however, only entered the lower orders, without any
+intention of becoming priests or even deacons. Few, except clerks,
+could read or write, and whatever work demanded intelligence naturally
+fell into their hands. They acted as physicians or lawyers, kept
+accounts, and wrote letters. The clerks of the king's chapel were the
+king's secretaries and men of business. These ready writers had taken
+a leading part in the compilation of Domesday Book, and they were
+always active in bringing in money. Under the Conqueror they were
+expected to observe at least something of the rules of justice. Under
+the Red King they were expected to disregard them entirely. Of all the
+clerks Ranulf Flambard was the most unscrupulous; therefore he rose
+into the greatest favour. The first William had appointed high
+officers, known as Justiciars, to act in his name from time to time
+when he was absent from England, or was from any cause unable to be
+present when important business was transacted. Flambard was appointed
+Justiciar by the second William, and in his hands the office became
+permanent. The Justiciar was now the king's chief minister, acting in
+his name whether he was present or absent. Flambard used his power to
+gather wealth for the king on every side. "He drave the king's
+gemots," we are told, "over all England;" that is to say, he forced
+the reluctant courts to exact the money which he claimed for the king.
+
+4. =Feudal Dues.=--It was Flambard who systematised, if he did not
+invent, the doctrine that the king was to profit by his position as
+supreme landlord. In practice this meant that he exacted to the full
+the consequences of feudal tenure. If a man died who held land by
+knight service from the crown, leaving a son who was a minor, the boy
+became the ward of the king, who took the profits of his lands till he
+was twenty-one, and forced him to pay a relief or fine for taking them
+into his own hands when he attained his majority. If the land fell to
+an heiress the king claimed the right of marrying her to whom he
+would, or of requiring of her a sum of money for permission to take a
+husband at her own choice, or, as was usually the case, at the choice
+of her relations. Under special circumstances the king exacted aids
+from his tenants-in-chief. If he were taken prisoner they had to pay
+to ransom him from captivity. When he knighted his eldest son or
+married his eldest daughter they had to contribute to the expense. It
+is true that this was in accordance with the principle of feudality.
+Neither a boy nor a woman could render service in the field, and it
+was therefore only fair that the king should hold the lands at times
+when no service was rendered to him for them; and it was also fair
+that the dependents should come to their lord's help in times of
+special need, especially as all that the king took from them they in
+turn took from their own sub-tenants. Flambard, however, did not
+content himself with a moderately harsh exaction of these feudal dues.
+The grievance against him was that he made the king 'to be every man's
+heir, whether he were in orders or a layman,' that is to say, that
+Flambard so stripped and exhausted the land belonging to the king's
+wards as to make it almost worthless, and then demanded reliefs so
+enormous that when the estate had at last been restored, all its value
+had passed into the hands of the king. When a bishop or an abbot died,
+the king appointed no successor, and appropriated the revenues of the
+vacant see or monastery till some one chose to buy the office from
+him. The king alone grew rich, whilst his vassals were impoverished.
+
+5. =Archbishop Anselm.=--In =1089= Lanfranc died, and the
+archbishopric of Canterbury was then left vacant for nearly four
+years. The Archbishop of Canterbury was more than the first of English
+bishops. He was not only the maintainer of ecclesiastical discipline,
+but also the mouthpiece of the English people when they had complaints
+to make to the king. Men turned their thoughts to Anselm, the Abbot of
+Bec. Anselm was a stranger from Aosta, on the Italian side of the
+Alps. He was the most learned man of the age, and had striven to
+justify the theology of the day by rational arguments. He was as
+righteous as he was learned, and as gentle as he was righteous. Tender
+to man and woman, he had what was in those days a rare tenderness to
+animals, and had caused astonishment by saving a hunted hare from its
+pursuers. In =1092= the king's vassals assembled in the Great Council
+urged William to choose a successor to Lanfranc, and asked him to
+allow prayers to be offered in the churches that God might move his
+heart to select a worthy chief pastor. "Pray as you will," said the
+king, scornfully. "I shall do as I think good; no man's prayers will
+do anything to shake my will!" In the spring of =1093= William fell
+sick. Believing himself to be a dying man, he promised to amend his
+life, and named Anselm archbishop. On his refusal to accept the
+nomination, Anselm was dragged to the king's bedside, and the pastoral
+staff, the symbol of the pastoral office of a bishop, was forced into
+his hands by the bystanders.
+
+6. =The Council of Rockingham. 1095.=--To this well-meant violence
+Anselm submitted unwillingly. He was, he said, a weak old sheep to be
+yoked with an untamed bull to draw the plough of the English Church.
+Yet, gentle as he was, he was possessed of indomitable courage in
+resistance to evil. William recovered, and returned to his blasphemy
+and his tyranny. In vain Anselm warned him against his sins. A fresh
+object of dispute soon arose between the king and the new archbishop.
+Two Popes claimed the obedience of Christendom. Urban II. was the Pope
+acknowledged by the greater part of the Church. Clement III. was the
+Pope supported by the Emperor. Anselm declared that Urban was the true
+Pope, and that he would obey none other. William asserted that his
+father had laid down a rule that no Pope should be acknowledged in
+England without the king's assent, and he proposed to act upon it by
+acknowledging neither Clement nor Urban. His object was, perhaps, to
+prevent the enforcement of ecclesiastical discipline by temporarily
+getting rid of the papal authority. Anselm wanted the authority of the
+Pope to check vice and disorder. The question was set aside for a
+time, but in =1095= Anselm, tired of witnessing William's wicked
+actions, asked leave to go to Rome to fetch from Urban the pallium, a
+kind of scarf given by the Pope to archbishops in recognition of their
+office. William replied that he did not acknowledge Urban as Pope. A
+Great Council was summoned to Rockingham to discuss the question. The
+lay barons, who liked to see the king resisted, were on Anselm's side.
+The bishops, many of whom were creatures of William, appointed from
+amongst his clerks, took the side of the king. Anselm stated his case
+firmly and moderately, and then, caring nothing for the angry king,
+retired into the chapel and went quietly to sleep. The king, finding
+that the barons would give him no support, was unable to punish
+Anselm. Two years later, in =1097=, Anselm betook himself to Rome, and
+William at once seized on his estates.
+
+7. =William II. and his Brothers.=--Normandy under Robert was even
+worse off than England under William. William was himself a tyrant,
+but in Normandy there were at least a hundred tyrants because Robert
+was too easy-tempered to bring any one to justice. The land was full
+of violence. Each baron made war on his neighbour, and, as usual, the
+peasant suffered most. Robert's own life was vicious and wasteful, and
+he was soon in debt. He sold the Cotentin and the territory of
+Avranches to his youngest brother, Henry. Henry was cool-headed and
+prudent, and he kept order in his new possession better than either of
+his elder brothers would have done. The brothers coveted the
+well-ordered land, and in =1091=, two years before Anselm became
+archbishop, they marched together against Henry. Henry was besieged on
+St. Michael's Mount, a rocky island surrounded by the sea at high
+water. After a time water ran short. The easy-tempered Robert sent in
+a supply. "Shall we let our brother die of thirst?" he said to
+William. Henry was in the end forced to surrender, and the land which
+he had purchased was lost to him for a time. In =1095= Henry was again
+in Normandy. Robert of Belleme, the lord of Domfront, was the most
+cruel of the cruel barons. Once he had torn out with his own hands the
+eyes of his godson, merely because the child's father had displeased
+him. The people of Domfront called on Henry to deliver them from such
+a monster. Henry seized Domfront, ruled its people with justice, and
+soon recovered the possessions from which his brothers had driven him.
+
+8. =William and Scotland. 1093--1094.=--William's attention was at
+this time drawn to the North. Early in his reign he annexed
+Cumberland, and had secured it against the Scots by fortifying
+Carlisle, which had been desolate since the Danish invasion in the
+reign of AElfred. Malcolm, king of the Scots, was a rude warrior who
+had been tamed into an outward show of piety by his saintly wife,
+Margaret, the sister of Eadgar the AEtheling. Though he could not read
+her books of devotion, he liked to look at the pictures in them and to
+kiss the relics which she honoured. Margaret gathered Englishmen round
+her, and spread abroad something of southern piety and civilisation
+amongst the fierce Celtic warriors of her husband. She could not teach
+them to change their natures. In =1093= Malcolm burst into
+Northumberland, plundering and burning, till an Englishman slew him at
+Alnwick. Queen Margaret died broken-hearted at the news, and was
+before long counted as a saint. For the moment the Scottish Celts were
+weary of the English queen and her English ways. They set up Malcolm's
+brother, Donald Bane, as their king, refusing to be governed by any
+of Margaret's sons. Donald at once 'drave out all the English that
+before were with King Malcolm.' In =1094= Duncan, Margaret's step-son,
+gained the crown from Donald with the aid of a troop of English and
+Norman followers. The Celts soon drove out his followers, and after a
+while they slew him and restored Donald.
+
+9. =Mowbray's Rebellion. 1095.=--William had as yet too much to do at
+home to interfere further in Scotland. The Norman barons hated him,
+and in =1095= Robert of Mowbray, Earl of Northumberland--the name was
+now confined to the land between the Tweed and the Tyne--refused
+obedience. William at once marched against him, and took from him the
+new castle which he had built in =1080=, and which has ever since been
+known as Newcastle-on-Tyne. Robert held out long in his stronger
+fortress of Bamborough, which was only taken at last by fraud. He was
+condemned to a lifelong imprisonment, and it is even said that the
+Pope, seeing his case hopeless, allowed his wife to marry again as
+though her husband had been dead. Mowbray's rebellion, like the
+conspiracy of the Earls against the Conqueror, shows how eagerly the
+Norman barons longed to shake off the yoke of the king, and how
+readily Englishmen and the less powerful Normans supported even a
+tyrannical king rather than allow the barons to have their way.
+
+10. =The First Crusade. 1095--1099.=--These petty wars were
+interrupted by a call to arms from the Pope. For centuries Christians
+had made pilgrimages to Bethlehem and Jerusalem, the holy places where
+their Lord had been born and had been crucified. When the Arabs
+conquered the Holy Land, Mohammedans as they were, they gave
+protection to the pilgrims from the West. The Turks, who were also
+Mohammedans, had lately obtained the mastery over the Arabs, and had
+secured dominion over the Holy Land. They were fierce warriors,
+ignorant and cruel, who either put the pilgrims to death or subjected
+them to torture and ill-usage. In =1095= Pope Urban II. came to
+Clermont to appeal to the Christians of the West to set out on a
+Crusade--a war of the Cross--to deliver the Holy City from the
+infidel. After he had spoken the multitude burst out with the cry, "It
+is the will of God!" Men of every rank placed on their garments a
+cross, as the sign of their devotion to the service of Christ. In
+=1096= a huge multitude set forth under Peter the Hermit, who had been
+active in urging men to take part in the Crusade. They believed it to
+be unnecessary to take money or food, trusting that God would supply
+His warriors. All these perished on the way. A better-equipped body
+of knights and nobles set out later under Godfrey of Bouillon. They
+fought their way through Asia Minor and Syria to Jerusalem, and in
+=1099= the Holy City was taken by storm. Godfrey, though he became its
+first Christian king, refused to be crowned. "I will not," he said,
+"wear a crown of gold where my Saviour wore a crown of thorns." The
+piety of the Christian warriors was not accompanied by mercy to the
+vanquished. Holding Mohammedans to be the special enemies of God, they
+treated them as no better than savage beasts. There was a terrible
+butchery when Jerusalem was taken, and Christian men fancied that they
+did God service by dashing out the brains of Mohammedan babes against
+the walls.
+
+11. =Normandy in Pledge. 1096.=--Robert was amongst the Crusaders. To
+raise money for his expedition he pledged Normandy to his brother
+William. William had no wish to take part in a holy war, but he was
+ready to make profit out of those who did. Normandy was the better for
+the change. It is true that William oppressed it himself, but he saved
+the people from the worse oppression of the barons.
+
+12. =The Last Years of the Red King.=--The remaining years of
+William's reign were years of varying success. An English force set up
+Eadgar, the son of Malcolm and Margaret, as king of the Scots, and
+Eadgar consented to hold his crown as William's vassal. William's
+attempts to reduce the Welsh to submission ended in failure, and he
+was obliged to content himself with hemming them in with castles. In
+=1098= the wicked Robert of Belleme succeeded his brother as earl of
+Shrewsbury. Robert robbed and tortured Englishmen as he had robbed and
+tortured Normans. He was a great builder of castles, and at
+Bridgenorth he raised a fortress as the centre of a group of strong
+places which could defy the Welsh and form the basis of his operations
+against them. In the same year William captured Le Mans, the capital
+of Maine, which had recovered its independence from Robert, which was
+held against him by Helie de la Fleche, one of the few unselfish men
+of the day. Unlike his father, the Red King often began enterprises
+which he did not finish. In =1099= he had all his work to do over
+again. He was hunting in the New Forest when he heard that Helie had
+regained Le Mans. He rode hard to Southampton, and, leaping on board a
+vessel, bade the sailors put to sea. A storm was raging, and the
+sailors prayed him to wait till the wind fell. "I never heard," he
+answered, "of a king being drowned." The next morning he was in
+Normandy. He recovered Le Mans, but returned to England without
+conquering Maine.
+
+13. =The Death of the Red King. 1100.=--On August 2, =1100=, the Red
+King went out to hunt in the New Forest. In the evening his body was
+found pierced by an arrow. Who his slayer was is unknown. The blow may
+have been accidental. It is more likely to have been intentional. In
+every part of England were men who had good cause to hate William, and
+nowhere were his enemies in greater numbers than round the New Forest.
+Whoever was his slayer, the body of the tyrant was borne to the
+cathedral of Winchester and buried as the corpse of a wild beast,
+without funeral rites or weeping eyes. When, after a few years had
+passed, the tower above the unhallowed tomb fell in, men said that it
+had fallen because so foul a body lay beneath it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+HENRY I. AND STEPHEN.
+
+HENRY I., =1100--1135=. STEPHEN, =1135--1154=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+ The Accession of Henry I. 1100
+ Battle of Tinchebrai 1106
+ Death of Henry I. and Accession of Stephen 1135
+ The Civil War 1139
+ Treaty of Wallingford 1153
+ Death of Stephen 1154
+
+
+[Illustration: Henry I. and his queen Matilda. (From the west front of
+Rochester Cathedral.)]
+
+1. =The Accession of Henry I. 1100.=--When the news spread that the
+Red King had been slain in the New Forest, his younger brother, Henry,
+hastened to Winchester, where he was chosen king by the barons who
+happened to be there. At his coronation at Westminster he swore to
+undo all the evil of his brother's reign. The name by which he came to
+be known--the Lion of Justice--shows how well he kept his promise. He
+maintained order as his father had done, and his brother had not done.
+Flambard, the wicked minister of the Red King, was imprisoned in the
+Tower, and Anselm, the good archbishop, recalled to England. Henry's
+chief strength lay in the support of the English. To please them he
+married Eadgyth, the daughter of Malcolm and Margaret, the descendant
+through her mother of the old English kings. Through Eadgyth the
+blood of Alfred and Ecgberht was transmitted to the later kings. It
+was, however, necessary that she should take another name. Every one
+at Henry's court talked French, and 'Eadgyth' was unpronounceable in
+French. The new queen was therefore known as Matilda, or Maud. The
+English called her the good queen. The Normans mocked her husband and
+herself by giving them the English nicknames of Godric and Godgifu.
+
+2. =Invasion of Robert. 1101.=--One danger at least Henry had to face.
+The Norman barons yearned after the weak rule of Robert, who was again
+in possession of Normandy. Once, we are told, he had to stay in bed
+till noon, because his favourites had carried off his clothes, and he
+had no others to put on. A duke who could not keep his own clothes was
+not likely to be able to rule his duchy, and Normandy was again the
+scene of fightings and plunderings which he made no effort to
+suppress. Flambard, having escaped from prison, fled to Normandy, and
+urged Robert to claim England as the heritage of the eldest son of the
+Conqueror. Robert listened to the tempter and sailed for England. When
+he landed at Porchester he found that the Church and the English had
+rallied to Henry. Robert's position was hopeless, and he made a treaty
+with his brother, abandoning all claim to the crown.
+
+3. =Revolt of Robert of Belleme. 1102.=--Henry knew that the great
+barons wished well to Robert, and on one pretext or another he
+stripped most of them of power. Robert of Belleme, the strongest and
+wickedest of them all, rose in revolt. After capturing many of his
+castles, Henry laid siege to his great fortress at Bridgenorth. The
+barons who served under Henry urged him to spare a rebel who was one
+of their own class. The Englishmen and the inferior Norman knights
+thought otherwise. "Lord King Henry," they cried, "trust not those
+traitors. They do but strive to deceive you, and to take away from you
+the strength of kingly justice.... Behold, we all stand by you
+faithfully; we are ready to serve and help you in all things. Attack
+the castle vigorously; shut in the traitor on all sides, and make no
+peace with him till you have him alive or dead in your hands."
+Bridgenorth was taken, and Robert of Belleme, having been stripped of
+his English land, was sent off to Normandy. Henry was now, in very
+truth, king of the English. "Rejoice, King Henry," ran a popular song,
+"and give thanks to the Lord God, because thou art a free king since
+thou hast overthrown Robert of Belleme, and hast driven him from the
+borders of thy kingdom." Never again during Henry's reign did the
+great Norman lords dare to lift hand against him.
+
+4. =The Battle of Tinchebrai. 1106.=--It was impossible for Henry to
+avoid interference in Normandy. Many of his vassals in England
+possessed lands in Normandy as well, where they were exposed to the
+violence of Robert of Belleme and of others who had been expelled from
+England. The Duke of the Normans would do nothing to keep the peace,
+and Henry crossed the sea to protect his own injured subjects. Duke
+Robert naturally resisted him, and at last, in =1106=, a great battle
+was fought at Tinchebrai, in which Robert was utterly defeated. Duke
+Robert was kept for the remainder of his life a prisoner in Cardiff
+Castle, where he died after an imprisonment of twenty-eight years.
+Henry became Duke of the Normans as well as king of the English, and
+all Normandy was the better for the change. Robert of Belleme was
+thrown into prison, and the cruel oppressor thus shared the fate of
+the weak ruler whose remissness had made his oppressions possible.
+
+[Illustration: Seal of Milo of Gloucester, showing mounted armed
+figure in the reign of Henry I.]
+
+5. =Henry and Anselm. 1100--1107.=--Though Anselm had done everything
+in his power to support Henry against Robert of Belleme, he was
+himself engaged in a dispute with the king which lasted for some
+years. A bishop in Anselm's time was not only a great Church officer,
+whose duty it was to maintain a high standard of religion and morality
+amongst the clergy. He was also one of the king's barons, because he
+was possessed of large estates, and was therefore bound like any other
+baron to send knights to the king when they were needed. Consequently,
+when Anselm became archbishop he had not only received investiture
+from William II. by accepting from him the ring and the staff which
+were the signs of ecclesiastical authority, but also did homage, thus
+acknowledging himself to be the king's man, and obliging himself, not
+indeed to fight for him in person, but to send knights to fight under
+his orders. When, however, Henry came to the throne, and asked Anselm
+to repeat the homage which he had done to William, Anselm not only
+refused himself to comply with the king's request, but also refused to
+consecrate newly-chosen bishops who had received investiture from
+Henry. During the time of his exile Anselm had taken part in a council
+of the Church, in which bishops and abbots had been forbidden by the
+Pope and the council either to receive investiture from laymen or to
+do homage to them. These decrees had not been issued merely to serve
+the purpose of papal ambition. At that time all zealous ecclesiastics
+thought that the only way to stop the violence of kings in their
+dealings with the Church was to make the Church entirely independent.
+Anselm's experience of the Red King's wickedness must have made him
+ready to concur with this new view, and there can be no doubt that it
+was from the most conscientious motives that he refused to do homage
+to Henry. On the other hand, Henry, wishing to rule justly, thought it
+very hard that the archbishop should insist upon the independence of
+the bishops, especially as in consequence of their large estates they
+had so many knights to send into the field. Though the dispute was a
+hot one, it was carried on without any of the violence which had
+characterised the dispute between Anselm and the Red King, and it
+ended in a compromise. Henry abandoned all claim to give the ring and
+the pastoral staff which were the signs of a bishop's or an abbot's
+spiritual jurisdiction, whilst Anselm consented to allow the new
+bishop or abbot to render the homage which was the sign of his
+readiness to employ all his temporal wealth and power on the king's
+behalf. The bishop was to be chosen by the chapter of his cathedral,
+the abbot by the monks of his abbey, but the election was to take
+place in the king's presence, thus giving him influence over their
+choice. Whether this settlement would work in favour of the king or
+the clergy depended on the character of the kings and the clergy. If
+the kings were as riotous as the Red King and the clergy as
+self-denying as Anselm, the clergy would grow strong in spite of these
+arrangements. If the kings were as just and wise as Henry, and the
+clergy as wicked as Ralph Flambard, all advantage would be on the side
+of the king.
+
+6. =Roger of Salisbury.=--After the defeat of the Norman barons the
+Great Council ceased for a time to have any important influence on the
+government. Henry was practically an absolute king, and it was well
+that he should be so, as the country wanted order more than
+discussion. Henry, however, loved to exercise absolute power in an
+orderly way, and he chose for his chief minister Roger, whom he made
+Bishop of Salisbury. Roger had first attracted his notice when he was
+going out hunting, by saying mass in a shorter time than any other
+priest, but he retained his favour by the order and system which he
+introduced into the government. A special body of officials and
+councillors was selected by the king--perhaps a similar body had been
+selected by his predecessor--to sit in judgment over cases in which
+tenants-in-chief were concerned, as well as over other cases which
+were, for one reason or another, transferred to it from the Baronial
+Courts. This council or committee was called the _Curia Regis_ (the
+King's Court). The members of this _Curia Regis_ met also in the
+Exchequer, so called from the chequered cloth which covered the table
+at which they sat. They were then known as Barons of the Exchequer,
+and controlled the receipts and outgoings of the treasury. The
+Justiciar presided in both the _Curia Regis_ and the Exchequer.
+Amongst those who took part in these proceedings was the Chancellor,
+who was then a secretary and not a judge, as well as other superior
+officers of the king. A regular system of finance was introduced, and
+a regular system of justice accompanied it. At last the king
+determined to send some of the judges of his court to go on circuit
+into distant parts of the kingdom. These itinerant Justices
+(_Justitiarii errantes_) brought the royal power into connection with
+the local courts. Their business was of a very miscellaneous
+character. They not only heard the cases in which the king was
+concerned--the pleas of the crown, as they were called--but they made
+assessments for purposes of taxation, listened to complaints, and
+conveyed the king's wishes to his people.
+
+[Illustration: Monument of Roger, Bishop of Salisbury (died 1139), in
+his cathedral church.]
+
+7. =Growth of Trade.=--Though Henry's severe discipline was not liked,
+yet the law and order which he maintained told on the prosperity of
+the country, and the trade of London flourished so much as to attract
+citizens from Normandy to settle in it. Flemings too, trained in
+habits of industry, came in crowds, and with the view of providing a
+bulwark against the Welsh, Henry settled a colony of them in South
+Pembrokeshire, which has since been known as Little England beyond
+Wales. The foreigners were not popular, but the Jews, to whom Henry
+continued the protection which William had given them, were more
+unpopular still.
+
+[Illustration: Porchester Church, Hampshire. Built about 1135.]
+
+8. =The Benedictines.=--In the midst of this busy life the Benedictine
+monasteries were still harbours of refuge for all who did not care to
+fight or trade. They were now indeed wealthier than they had once
+been, as gifts, usually of land, had been made to the monks by those
+who reverenced their piety. Sometimes these gifts took a shape which
+afterwards caused no little evil. Landowners who had churches on their
+lands often gave to a monastery the tithes which had hitherto been
+paid for the support of the parish priest, and the monastery stepped
+into the place of the parish priest, sending a vicar to act for it in
+the performance of its new duties. As the monks themselves grew richer
+they grew less ascetic. Their life, however, was not spent in
+idleness. They cared for the poor, kept a school for the children, and
+managed their own property. Some of their number studied and wrote,
+and our knowledge of the history of these times is mainly owing to
+monastic writers. When Henry I. came to the throne the Chronicle was
+still being written in the English tongue by the monks of Worcester,
+and for some years after his death was still carried on at
+Peterborough. The best historical compositions were, however, in
+Latin, the language understood by the clergy over all Western Europe.
+Amongst the authors of these Latin works, the foremost was William of
+Malmesbury.
+
+9. =The Cistercians.=--Useful as the Benedictines were, there were
+some monks who complained that the extreme self-denial of their
+founder, St. Benedict, was no longer to be met with, and the
+complainants had lately originated a new order, called the Cistercian,
+from Citeaux, in Burgundy, the site of their first abbey. The
+Cistercians made their appearance in England in =1128=. Their
+buildings and churches were simpler than those of the Benedictines,
+and their life more austere. They refused to receive gifts of tithes
+lest they should impoverish the parish clergy. They loved to make
+their homes in solitary places far from the haunts of men, and some of
+the most beautiful of the abbeys which remain in ruins--those, for
+instance, of Fountains and Tintern--were Cistercian abbeys. They are
+beautiful, not because the Cistercians loved pleasant places, but
+because they loved solitude, whilst the Benedictines had either
+planted themselves in towns or had allowed towns to grow up round
+their monasteries.
+
+[Illustration: Part of the nave of Durham Cathedral. Built about
+1130.]
+
+10. =The White Ship.=--Henry, in consequence of the possession of
+Normandy, had been frequently involved in war with France. Robert's
+son, William Clito, claimed Normandy, and his claim was supported by
+Louis VI. the Fat, who was styled king of France, though the territory
+which he actually ruled was no larger than Normandy. In these wars
+Henry was usually successful, and at last, in =1127=, William was
+killed, and Henry freed from danger. His own son, also named William,
+had already been drowned on the voyage between Normandy and England in
+=1120=. The ship in which he sailed ran upon a rock, and the young man
+was placed in a boat, and might have escaped if he had not returned to
+save his half-sister, the Countess of Perche, who was still on board.
+As soon as he approached the sailors and passengers crowded into the
+boat and swamped it. Only one man, a butcher, was saved, by clinging
+to the mast of the ship when it sank. The captain, who was with him
+on the mast, threw himself off as soon as he learned that the king's
+son had been drowned, and perished in the water. It is said that no
+man dared to tell Henry that his son was drowned, and that at last a
+little child was sent to inform him of his misfortune.
+
+11. =The Last Years of Henry I.=--Henry had many illegitimate
+children, but after William's death the only lawful child left to him
+was Matilda. She had been married as a child to the Emperor Henry V.,
+but her husband had died before she was grown up, and she then
+returned to her father, as the Empress Matilda. There had never been a
+queen in England, and it would have been very hard for a woman to rule
+in those times of constant war and bloodshed. Yet Henry persuaded the
+barons to swear to accept her as their future sovereign. He then
+married her to Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, who came of a brave and
+active race, and whose lands, which lay to the south of Normandy,
+would enlarge the French possessions of Henry's descendants. In =1135=
+Henry died. The great merit of his English government was that he
+forsook his brother's evil ways of violence, and maintained peace by
+erecting a regular administrative system, which kept down the outrages
+of the barons. One of the English chroniclers in recording his death
+prayed that God might give him the peace that he loved.[9]
+
+ [Footnote 9: Genealogy of the Conqueror's sons and grandchildren:--
+
+ WILLIAM I. = Matilda of Flanders
+ 1066-1087 |
+ +------------+--------+---+---------+
+ | | | |
+ Robert, Duke of WILLIAM II. HENRY I. Adela = Stephen of Blois
+ Normandy 1087-1100 1100-1135 |
+ | | |
+ | | | STEPHEN
+ William Clito William | 1135-1154
+ |
+ (1) The Emperor Henry V. = Matilda = (2) Geoffrey Plantagenet
+ |
+ HENRY II.
+ 1154-1189]
+
+[Illustration: Keep of Rochester Castle. Built between 1126 and 1139.]
+
+12. =Stephen's Accession. 1135.=--Among the barons who had sworn to
+obey Matilda was Stephen of Blois, a son of the Conqueror's daughter
+Adela, and a nephew of Henry I. As soon as Henry's death was known
+Stephen made his way to London, where he was joyfully received as
+king. The London citizens felt that their chief interest lay in the
+maintenance of peace, and they thought that a man would be more likely
+than a woman to secure order. The barons chose Stephen king at
+Winchester, where his brother, Henry of Blois, was the bishop. Shortly
+afterwards some of these very barons rose against him, but their
+insurrection was soon repressed. More formidable was the hostility of
+David, king of the Scots. David was closely connected with the family
+of Henry I., his sister having been Henry's wife, the Empress Matilda
+being consequently his niece. He also held in right of his own wife
+the earldom of Huntingdon. Under the pretext of taking up Matilda's
+cause he broke into the north of England. Though he himself carried on
+the work of introducing English civilisation into Scotland, his Celtic
+followers were still savage, and massacred women and infants. In
+=1137= Stephen drove David back. In =1138= David reappeared, and this
+time the aged Thurstan, Archbishop of York, sent the levies of the
+North against him. In the midst of the English army was a cart bearing
+a standard, at the top of which the banners of the three great
+churches of St. Peter's of York, St. John of Beverley, and St. Wilfrid
+of Ripon, waved round the consecrated Host. The battle which ensued,
+near Northallerton, has consequently been known as the battle of the
+Standard. The Scots were completely defeated, but Stephen, in spite of
+the victory gained for him, found himself obliged to buy peace at a
+heavy price. He agreed that David's son, Henry, should hold
+Northumberland, with the exception of the fortresses of Bamborough and
+of Newcastle, as a fief of the English Crown. David himself was also
+allowed to keep Cumberland without doing homage.
+
+[Illustration: Keep of Castle Rising. Built about 1140-50.]
+
+13. =Civil War.=--It would have been well for Stephen if he had learnt
+from the men of the North that his strength lay in rallying the
+English people round him against the great barons, as the Red King and
+Henry I. had done when their right to the crown had been challenged by
+Robert. Instead of this, he brought over mercenaries from Flanders,
+and squandered treasure and lands upon his favourites so as to have
+little left for the hour of need. He made friends easily, but he made
+enemies no less easily. One of the most powerful of the barons was
+Robert, Earl of Gloucester, an illegitimate son of Henry I., who held
+the strong fortress of Bristol, and whose power extended over both
+sides of the lower course of the Severn. In =1138= Stephen, who
+distrusted him, ordered his castles to be seized. Robert at once
+declared his half-sister Matilda to be the lawful queen, and a
+terrible civil war began. Robert's garrison at Bristol was a terror to
+all the country round. He, too, gathered foreign mercenaries, who knew
+not what pity was. Other barons imitated Robert's example, fighting
+only for themselves whether they nominally took the part of Stephen or
+of Matilda, and the southern and midland counties of England were
+preyed upon by the garrisons of their castles.
+
+14. =Stephen's Quarrel with the Clergy. 1139.=--Evil as were the men
+who fought on either side, it was to Stephen and not to Matilda and
+Robert that men as yet looked to restore order. The port towns,
+London, Yarmouth, and Lynn, clung to him to the last. Unfortunately
+Stephen did not know how to make good use of his advantages. The
+clergy, like the traders, had always been in favour of order. Some of
+them, with the Justiciar, Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, at their head,
+had organised the Exchequer of Henry I., had gathered in the payments
+due to the Crown, or had acted as judges. Yet with all their zeal in
+the service of the Crown, they had not omitted to provide for their
+own interests. Roger in particular had been insatiable in the pursuit
+of wealth for himself and of promotion for his family. One of his
+nephews, Nigel, Bishop of Ely, was Treasurer, whilst another,
+Alexander, was Bishop of Lincoln, and his own illegitimate son, Roger,
+was Chancellor. In =1139= Stephen, rightly or wrongly, threw him into
+prison with his son and Alexander of Lincoln. The other nephew, Nigel,
+escaped to his uncle's castle at Devizes, in which was the younger
+Roger's mother, Matilda of Ramsbury. Stephen brought her son before
+the castle, and put a rope round his neck to hang him unless the
+castle was surrendered. The unhappy mother could not bear the sight,
+and opened the gates to Stephen. It might have been wise to deprive a
+too ambitious bishop of his castle, but it was not wise personally to
+maltreat the clergy. Every priest in England turned against Stephen.
+His own brother, Henry, Bishop of Winchester, declared against him,
+and Stephen was obliged to do penance for his offence. The
+administration of the Exchequer was shattered, and though it was not
+altogether destroyed, and money was brought to it for the king's use
+even in the worst times, Stephen's financial resources were from
+henceforth sadly diminished.
+
+15. =Anarchy. 1139.=--The war now lapsed into sheer anarchy. The
+barons on either side broke loose from all restraint. "They fought
+amongst themselves with deadly hatred; they spoiled the fairest lands
+with fire and rapine; in what had been the most fertile of counties
+they destroyed almost all the provision of bread." All goods and money
+they carried off, and if they suspected any man to have concealed
+treasure they tortured him to oblige him to confess where it was.
+"They hanged up men by the feet and smoked them with foul smoke; some
+were hanged up by their thumbs, others by their head, and coats of
+mail were hung on to their feet. They put knotted strings about men's
+heads, and twisted them till they went to the brain. They put men into
+prisons where adders and snakes and toads were crawling; and so they
+tormented them. Some they put into a chest, short and narrow and not
+deep, and that had sharp stones within; and forced men therein, so
+that they broke all their limbs. In many of the castles were hateful
+and grim things called neckties, which two or three men had enough to
+do to carry. This instrument of torture was thus made: it was fastened
+to a beam, and had a sharp iron to go about a man's neck and throat,
+so that he might no way sit or lie or sleep, but he bore all the iron.
+Many thousands they starved with hunger.... Men said openly that
+Christ and His saints were asleep."
+
+16. =The End of the War. 1141--1148.=--In the autumn of =1139=,
+Matilda appeared in England, and in =1141= there was a battle at
+Lincoln, in which Stephen was taken prisoner. Henry of Winchester (see
+p. 131) acknowledged Matilda as queen, and all England submitted to
+her, London giving way most reluctantly. Her rule did not last long.
+She was as much too harsh as Stephen was too good-natured. She seized
+the lands of the Church, and ordered the Londoners to pay a heavy fine
+for having supported Stephen. On this the Londoners rang their bells,
+and the citizens in arms swarmed out of their houses 'like bees out of
+a hive.' Matilda fled to Winchester before them. Bishop Henry then
+turned against her. Robert of Gloucester was taken prisoner, and after
+a while Matilda was obliged to set free King Stephen in exchange for
+her brother. Fighting continued for some time. On all sides men were
+longing for peace. The fields were untilled because no man could tell
+who would reap the harvest. Thousands perished of starvation. If peace
+there was to be, it could only come by Stephen's victory. It was now
+known that Matilda was even less fit to govern than Stephen. Stephen
+took one castle after another. In =1147= Earl Robert died, and in
+=1148= Matilda gave up the struggle and left England.
+
+[Illustration: Tower of Castor Church, Northamptonshire. Built about
+1145. (The parapet and spire are later.)]
+
+17. =Henry, Duke of the Normans. 1149.=--Whilst Matilda had been
+losing England her husband had been conquering Normandy, and for a
+little while it seemed possible that England and Normandy would be
+separated; England remaining under Stephen and his heirs, and
+Normandy united with Anjou under the Angevin Geoffrey and his
+descendants. That the separation did not yet take place was partly
+owing to the different character of the two heirs. Stephen's son,
+Eustace, was rough and overbearing. Geoffrey's son, Henry, was shrewd
+and prudent. Henry had already been in England when he was still quite
+young, and had learnt something of English affairs from his uncle,
+Robert of Gloucester. He returned to his father in =1147=, and in
+=1149= Geoffrey gave up to him the duchy of Normandy. He was then sent
+to try his fortune in England in his mother's stead, but he was only a
+boy of sixteen, and too young to cope with Stephen. In =1150= he
+abandoned the struggle for a time. In his absence Stephen had still
+rebels to put down and castles to besiege, but he had the greater part
+of the kingdom at his back, and if Henry had continued to leave him
+alone he would probably have reduced all his enemies to submission.
+
+18. =The Last Days of Stephen. 1153--1154.=--In =1150= Geoffrey died,
+and Henry became Count of Anjou as well as Duke of Normandy. Before
+long he acquired a much wider territory than either Anjou or Normandy.
+Louis VII. of France had to wife Eleanor, the Duchess of Aquitaine,
+and through her had added to his own scanty dominions the whole of the
+lands between the Loire and the Pyrenees. Louis, believing that she
+was unfaithful to him, had divorced her on the pretext that she was
+too near of kin. Henry was not squeamish about the character of so
+great an heiress, and in =1152= married the Duchess of Aquitaine for
+the sake of her lands. Thus strengthened, he again returned to
+England. He was now a young man of nineteen; his vigour was as great
+as that of Stephen, and his skill greater. He won fortress after
+fortress. Before the end of =1153= Eustace died, and Stephen had no
+motive for prolonging the strife if his personal interests could be
+saved. It was arranged by the treaty of Wallingford that Stephen
+should retain the crown for life, and that Henry should be his heir.
+The castles which had sprung up during the civil war without the
+licence of the king--the 'adulterine castles,' as they were
+called--and there were no less than 365[10] of them--were to be
+destroyed, and order and good government were to return. For five
+months Henry remained in England. The robber barons could not hold out
+against the two rivals now united. Many of the castles were
+demolished, and 'such good peace as never was here' was established.
+In =1154= Stephen died, and young Henry ruled England in his own name.
+
+ [Footnote 10: The number usually given, '1,115,' is probably an
+ error.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+HENRY II. =1154--1189=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+ Accession of Henry II. 1154
+ Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury 1162
+ The Constitutions of Clarendon 1164
+ Murder of Archbishop Thomas 1172
+ The Assize of Arms 1181
+ Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem 1187
+ Death of Henry II. 1189
+
+
+1. =Henry's Accession. 1154.=--Henry II. was but twenty-one when he
+returned, after Stephen's death, to govern England. He had before him
+the difficult task of establishing order where anarchy had prevailed,
+but it was a task for which he was specially suited. His frame was
+strong and thick-set, and he was as active as he was strong. His
+restlessness was the dismay of his courtiers. Eager to see everything
+for himself, and having to rule a territory extending from the
+Pyrenees to the Scottish border, he was always on the move. His
+followers were not allowed to know till he started in the morning
+where he intended to sleep at night, and he frequently changed his
+mind even after he had set out. He was as busy with his mind as he was
+with his body, as fond of a book as of a horse, and ready to chat with
+any one of whatever rank. Even when he was at mass he either drew
+pictures to amuse himself or conversed in whispers with his
+neighbours. His ceaseless energy was combined with a strong will, a
+clear perception of the limits beyond which action would be unwise, a
+good eye for ability in others, and a power of utilising their ability
+in his own service. On the Continent his sagacity appeared in his
+resolution to be content with the dominions which he had acquired
+without making further conquests. In England his main object was the
+same as that of his predecessors, to establish the king's authority
+over the great barons. What especially distinguished him was his clear
+perception of the truth that he could only succeed by securing, not
+merely the passive goodwill, but the active co-operation of those who,
+whether they were of Norman or of English descent, were inferior in
+wealth and position to the great barons.
+
+[Illustration: Effigies of Henry II. and Queen Eleanor at
+Fontevrault.]
+
+2. =Pacification of England.=--Henry's first year was spent in
+completing the work which he had begun after the treaty of
+Wallingford. He sent Stephen's mercenaries over the sea and
+completed the destruction of the 'adulterine castles.' One great rebel
+after another was forced to submit and have his strong walls pulled
+down. There were to be no more dens of robbers in England, but all men
+were to obey the king and the law. What castles remained were the
+king's, and as long as they were his rebellions would not be likely to
+be successful. Henry even regained from Malcolm IV., king of the
+Scots, Northumberland and Cumberland, which had been surrendered by
+Stephen (see p. 133). In his government Henry did his best to carry
+out the plans of his grandfather, Henry I. It was perhaps because he
+was afraid that one Justiciar would be too powerful, that he appointed
+two, Richard de Lucy and the Earl of Leicester, to see that justice
+was executed and the government maintained whether the king were
+absent or present. The old Bishop Nigel of Ely was reappointed
+Treasurer, and presided over the Exchequer at Westminster. Thomas of
+London, known in later times by the name of Becket,[11] an active and
+vigorous man, fifteen years older than the king, who had been ordained
+a deacon, but had nothing clerical about him except the name, was made
+Chancellor. Thomas was the king's chosen friend, and the two together
+delighted in the work of restoring order. Thomas liked sumptuous
+living, and the magnificence of his housekeeping and of his feasts was
+the talk of the whole country. Yet though he laughed and jested in the
+midst of his grandeur, he kept himself from every kind of vice. Henry
+was fond of horseplay, and once on a bitter winter's day, when he was
+riding with Thomas, he snatched at a fine new scarlet mantle from the
+Chancellor's neck to throw to a beggar. Thomas struggled hard, and the
+two men nearly pulled one another off their horses, but in the end the
+beggar got the mantle.
+
+ [Footnote 11: His father's name was Becket, but at that time
+ hereditary surnames had not come into use. He was once called Thomas
+ Becket in his lifetime by one of his murderers as an insult.]
+
+3. =Henry and Feudality.=--It was principally with Thomas the
+Chancellor that Henry consulted as to the best means of establishing
+his authority. He resolved not only to renew but to extend the
+administrative system of Henry I. The danger which threatened him came
+from the great barons, and as the great barons were as dangerous to
+the lesser ones and to the bulk of the people as they were to the
+king, Henry was able to strengthen himself by winning the affections
+of the people. Feudality in itself was only a method of owning land;
+but it was always threatening to pass into a method of government. In
+France the great feudal lords ruled their own territories with very
+little regard for the wishes of the king, and the smaller feudal lords
+had their own courts in which they hanged and imprisoned their
+villeins. In Stephen's time an attempt had been made to introduce this
+system into England, with evil consequences both to king and people.
+Before the Conquest great landowners had often received permission
+from the king to exercise criminal jurisdiction in the Manor Courts on
+their own estates, whilst the vast extent of their landed property
+gave them a preponderant voice in the proceedings of the shire-moots,
+now known by the Normans as County Courts. Henry resolved to attack
+the evil at both ends: in the first place to make the barons support
+the king's government instead of setting up their own; in the second
+place, to weaken the Manor and County Courts and to strengthen courts
+directly proceeding from himself.
+
+4. =The Great Council and the Curia Regis.=--Henry in the early years
+of his reign revived the importance of the Great Council, taking care
+that it should be attended not only by the great barons, but by
+vassals holding smaller estates, and therefore more dependent on
+himself. He summoned the Great Council oftener than his predecessors
+had done. In this way even the greater barons got the habit of sharing
+in the government of England as a whole, instead of seeking to split
+up the country, as France was split up, into different districts, each
+of which might be governed by one of themselves. It was in consequence
+of the increasing habit of consulting with the king that the Great
+Council, after many changes, ultimately grew into the modern
+Parliament. It was of no less importance that Henry II. strengthened
+the _Curia Regis_, which had been established in the reign of Henry I.
+(see p. 127) to collect the king's revenue, to give him political
+advice, and to judge as many questions as it could possibly get hold
+of. It was especially by doing justice that the _Curia Regis_ was
+likely to acquire strength, and the strength of the _Curia Regis_ was
+in reality the strength of the king.
+
+5. =Scutage.=--If Henry was to carry out justice everywhere it would
+be necessary for him to weaken still further the power of the barons.
+He reintroduced a plan which had been first adopted by his
+grandfather, which had the double merit of strengthening the king upon
+the Continent and of weakening the barons in England. Henry needed an
+army to defend his Continental possessions against the king of France.
+The fyrd, or general levy of Englishmen, was not bound to fight except
+at home, and though the feudal vassals were liable to serve abroad,
+they could only be made to serve for forty days in the year, which
+was too short a time for Henry's purposes. He accordingly came to an
+agreement with his vassals. The owner of every knight's fee was to pay
+a sum of money known as scutage (_shield-money_) in lieu of service.
+Both parties gained by the arrangement. The king got money with which
+he paid mercenaries abroad, who would fight for him all the year
+round, and the vassal escaped the onerous duty of fighting in quarrels
+in which he took no interest. Indirectly the change weakened the
+feudal vassals, because they had now less opportunity than before of
+acquiring a military training in actual war.
+
+[Illustration: Ecclesiastical costume in the twelfth century.]
+
+6. =Archbishop Thomas. 1162.=--Henry, who meditated great judicial
+reforms, foresaw that the clergy would be an obstacle in his way. He
+was eager to establish one law for his whole kingdom, and the clergy,
+having been exempted by the Conqueror from the jurisdiction of the
+ordinary law courts in all ecclesiastical matters, had, during the
+anarchy of Stephen's reign, encroached on the royal authority, and
+claimed to be responsible, even in criminal cases, only to the
+ecclesiastical courts, which were unable to inflict the penalty of
+death, so that a clerk who committed a murder could not be hanged like
+other murderers. As large numbers of clerks were only in the lower
+orders, and as many of them had only taken those orders to escape from
+the hardships of lay life, their morals were often no better than
+those of their lay neighbours. A vacancy occurring in the
+Archbishopric of Canterbury, Henry, who wished to make these clerks
+punishable by his own courts, thought that the arrangement would
+easily be effected if Thomas, who had hitherto been active as a
+reformer in his service, were Archbishop as well as Chancellor. It was
+in vain that Thomas remonstrated. "I warn you," he said to Henry,
+"that, if such a thing should be, our friendship would soon turn to
+bitter hate." Henry persisted in spite of the warning, and Thomas
+became Archbishop.
+
+7. =Breach between Henry and Thomas.=--The first act of the new
+Archbishop was to surrender his Chancellorship. He was unable, he
+said, to serve two masters. It is not difficult to understand his
+motives. The Church, as the best men of the twelfth century believed,
+was divinely instituted for the guidance of the world. It was but a
+short step for the nobler spirits amongst the clergy to hold it
+necessary that, in order to secure the due performance of such exalted
+duties, the clergy should be exempted from the so-called justice of
+laymen, which was often only another name for tyranny, even if the
+exemption led to the infliction upon wicked clerks of lesser
+punishments than were meet. In this way the clergy would unconsciously
+fall into the frame of mind which might lead them to imagine it more
+to the honour of God that a wicked clerk should be insufficiently
+punished than that he should be punished by a layman. Of all men
+Archbishop Thomas was the most likely to fall into this mistake. He
+was, as Chancellor, prone to magnify his office, and to think more of
+being the originator of great reforms than of the great reforms
+themselves. As Archbishop he would also be sure to magnify his office,
+and to think less, as Anselm would have thought, of reconciling the
+true interests of the kingdom with the true interests of the Church,
+than of making the Archbishop's authority the centre of stirring
+movement, and of raising the Church, of which he was the highest
+embodiment in England, to a position above the power of the king. All
+this he would do with a great, if not a complete, sincerity. He would
+feel that he was himself the greater man because he believed that he
+was fighting in the cause of God.
+
+[Illustration: A bishop ordaining a priest. (From a MS. of the latter
+part of the twelfth century.)]
+
+8. =The Constitutions of Clarendon. 1164.=--Between a king eager to
+assert the rights of the crown and an archbishop eager to assert the
+rights of the clergy a quarrel could not be long deferred. Thomas's
+first stand, however, was on behalf of the whole country. At a Great
+Council at Woodstock he resisted the king's resolution to levy the old
+tax of Danegeld, and in consequence Danegeld was never levied again.
+Henry had for some time been displeased because, without consulting
+him, the Archbishop had seized on lands which he claimed as the
+property of the see of Canterbury, and had excommunicated one of the
+king's tenants. Then a clerk who had committed a rape and a murder had
+been acquitted in an ecclesiastical court. On this, Henry called on
+the bishops to promise to obey the customs of the realm. Thomas, being
+told that the king merely wanted a verbal promise to save his dignity,
+with some reluctance consented. He soon found that he had been
+tricked. In =1164= Henry summoned a Great Council to meet at
+Clarendon, and directed some of the oldest of his barons to set down
+in writing the customs observed by his grandfather. Their report was
+intended to settle all disputed points between the king and the
+clergy, and was drawn up under sixteen heads known as the
+Constitutions of Clarendon. The most important of them declared that
+beneficed clergy should not leave the realm without the king's leave;
+that no tenant-in-chief of the king should be excommunicated without
+the king's knowledge; that no villein should be ordained without his
+lord's consent; that a criminous clerk should be sent to the
+ecclesiastical court for trial, and that after he had been there
+convicted or had pleaded guilty the Church should deprive him and
+leave him to the lay court for further punishment. It was for the
+_Curia Regis_ to determine what matters were properly to be decided by
+the ecclesiastical courts; and no appeal to Rome was to be allowed
+without its permission. To all this Thomas was violently opposed,
+maintaining that the sentence of deprivation, which was all that an
+ecclesiastical court was empowered to inflict, was so terrible, that
+one who had incurred it ought not to be sentenced to any further
+penalty by a lay court. After six days' struggle he left the Council,
+refusing to assent to the Constitutions.
+
+9. =The Persecution of Archbishop Thomas. 1164.=--Unluckily for
+himself, Henry could not be content firmly and quietly to enforce the
+law as it had been declared at Clarendon. He had in his character much
+of the orderly spirit of his grandfather, Henry I., but he had also
+something of the violence of his great-uncle, William II. A certain
+John the Marshal had a suit against the archbishop, and when the
+archbishop refused to plead in a lay court, the king's council
+sentenced him to a fine of 500_l._ Then Henry summoned the archbishop
+to his castle at Northampton to give an account of all the money
+which, when he was Chancellor, he had received from the king--a claim
+which is said to have amounted to 30,000_l._, a sum equal in the money
+of these days to not much less than 400,000_l._ now. Thomas, with the
+crucifix in his hand, awaited in the hall the decision of Henry, who
+with the council was discussing his fate in an upper chamber. When the
+Justiciar came out to tell him that he had been declared a traitor he
+refused to listen, and placed himself under the Pope's protection. Hot
+words were bandied on either side as he walked out of the hall. "This
+is a fearful day," said one of his attendants. "The Day of Judgment,"
+replied Thomas, "will be more fearful." Thomas made his way to the
+coast and fled to France. Henry in his wrath banished no less than
+four hundred of the archbishop's kinsmen and friends. Thomas found
+less help in France than he had expected. There were once more two
+rival Popes--Alexander III., who was acknowledged by the greater part
+of the clergy and by the kings of England and France, and Calixtus
+III., who had been set up by the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa.
+Alexander was too much afraid lest Henry should take the part of
+Calixtus to be very eager in supporting Thomas. He therefore did his
+best to effect a reconciliation between Henry and Thomas, but for some
+years his efforts were of no avail.
+
+[Illustration: Small ship of the latter part of the twelfth century.]
+
+10. =The Assize of Clarendon. 1166.=--Henry, being temporarily
+disembarrassed of Thomas's rivalry, was able to devote his time to
+carrying out still further the judicial organisation of the country.
+In =1166= he held a Great Council at Clarendon, and with its approval
+issued a set of decrees known as the Assize of Clarendon. By this
+assize full force was given to a change which had for some time been
+growing in the judicial system. The old English way of dealing with
+criminals had been by calling on an accused person to swear to his own
+innocence and to bring compurgators to swear that his oath was true.
+If the accused failed to find compurgators he was sent to the ordeal.
+According to the new way there was to be in each county juries
+consisting of twelve men of the hundred and of four from each township
+in it to present offences--felonies, murders, and robberies--and to
+accuse persons on common report. They were sworn to speak the truth,
+so that their charges were known as verdicts (_vere dicta_). No
+compurgators were allowed, but the accused, after his offence had been
+presented, had to go to the ordeal, and even if he succeeded in this
+he was, if his character was notoriously bad, to abjure the
+realm--that is to say, to be banished, swearing never to return. If he
+came back he was held to be an outlaw, and might be put to death
+without mercy by any one.
+
+11. =Recognitions.=--A very similar system to that which was thus
+adopted in criminal cases had already in the early part of Henry's
+reign been widely extended in civil cases. When, before the Conquest,
+disputes occurred amongst the English as to the possession of
+property, each party swore to the justice of his own case, brought
+compurgators, and summoned witnesses to declare in his favour. There
+was, however, no method of cross-examination, and if the hundred or
+shire court was still unsatisfied, it had recourse to the ordeal. The
+Normans introduced the system of trial by battle, under the belief
+that God would intervene to give victory to the litigant whose cause
+was just. This latter system, however, had never been popular with the
+English, and Henry favoured another which had been in existence in
+Normandy before the Conquest, and was fairly suited to English habits.
+This was the system of recognitions. Any freeholder who had been
+dispossessed of his land might apply to the _Curia Regis_, and the
+_Curia Regis_ ordered the sheriff of the county in which was the land
+in dispute to select four knights of that county, by whom twelve
+knights were chosen to serve as Recognitors. It was the business of
+these Recognitors to find out either by their own knowledge or by
+private inquiry the truth of the matter. If they were unanimous their
+verdict was accepted as final. If not, other knights were added to
+them, and when at last twelve were found agreeing, their agreement was
+held to settle the question.
+
+12. =The Germ of the Jury.=--Thus, whilst in criminal cases the local
+knowledge of sworn accusers was treated as satisfactory evidence of
+guilt, in civil cases a system was growing up in which is to be traced
+the germ of the modern jury. The Recognitors did not indeed hear
+evidence in public or become judges of the fact, like the modern jury;
+they were rather sworn witnesses, allowed to form an opinion not
+merely, like modern witnesses, on what they had actually seen or
+heard, but also on what they could gather by private inquiry.
+
+13. =The Itinerant Justices Revived.=--To carry out this system Henry
+renewed his grandfather's experiment of sending members of the _Curia
+Regis_ as itinerant justices visiting the counties. They held what
+were called the pleas of the crown--that is to say, trials which were
+brought before the king's judges instead of being tried either in the
+county courts or the manorial courts. Both these judges and the king
+had every interest in getting as much business before their courts as
+possible. Offenders were fined and suitors had to pay fees, and the
+best chance of increasing these profits was to attract suitors by
+administering justice better than the local courts. The more thronged
+were the king's courts, the more rich and powerful he became. The
+consequent growth of the influence of the itinerant justices was no
+doubt offensive to the lords of the manor, and especially to the
+greater landowners, as diminishing their importance, and calling them
+to account whenever they attempted to encroach on their less powerful
+neighbours.
+
+14. =The Inquisition of the Sheriffs. 1170.=--It was not long before
+Henry discovered another way of diminishing the power of the barons.
+In the early part of his reign the sheriffs of the counties were still
+selected from the great landowners, and the sheriff was not merely the
+collector of the king's revenue in his county, but had, since the
+Conquest, assumed a new importance in the county court, over which in
+the older times the ealdorman or earl and the bishop had presided.
+Since the Conquest the bishop, having a court of his own for
+ecclesiastical matters, had ceased to take part in its proceedings,
+and the earl's authority, which had been much lessened after the
+Conquest, had now disappeared. The sheriff, therefore, was left alone
+at the head of the county court, and when the new system of trial grew
+up he as well as the itinerant justices was allowed to receive the
+presentments of juries. When, in the spring of =1170=, the king
+returned to England after an absence of four years, he held a strict
+inquiry into the conduct of them all, and deposed twenty of them. In
+many cases, no doubt, the sheriffs had done things to displease Henry,
+but there can be no doubt that the blow thus struck at the sheriffs
+was, in the main, aimed at the great nobility. The successors of those
+turned out were of lower rank, and therefore more submissive. From
+this time it was accepted by the kings of England as a principle of
+government that no great noble should serve as sheriff.
+
+15. =The Nobles and the Church.=--Henry knew well that the great
+nobles were indignant, and that it was possible that they might rise
+against him, as at one time or another they had risen against every
+king since the Conquest. He knew too that his predecessors had found
+their strongest support against the nobles in the Church, and that the
+Church was no longer unanimously on his side. He could indeed count
+upon all the bishops save one. Bishops who were or had been his
+officials, bishops envious of Thomas or afraid of himself, were all at
+his disposal, but they brought him no popular strength. Thomas alone
+amongst them had a hold on the imagination of the people through his
+austerities and his daring. Moreover, as the champion of the clergy,
+he was regarded as being also the champion of the people, from whose
+ranks the clergy were recruited.
+
+16. =The Coronation of Young Henry. 1170.=--At the moment of Henry's
+return to England he had special need of the Church. He wished the
+kingdom of England to pass at his death to his eldest son, Henry, and
+since the Conquest no eldest son had ever succeeded his father on the
+throne. He therefore determined to adopt a plan which had succeeded
+with the kings of France, of having the young Henry chosen and crowned
+in his own lifetime, so that when he died he might be ready to step
+into his father's place. Young Henry was chosen, and on June 14,
+=1170=, he was crowned by Roger, Archbishop of York; but on the day
+before the coronation Roger received from Thomas a notice of his
+excommunication of all bishops taking part in the ceremony, on the
+ground that it belonged only to an Archbishop of Canterbury to crown a
+king, and this excommunication had been ratified by the Pope. It was
+therefore possible that the whole ceremony might go for nothing.
+
+17. =The Return of Archbishop Thomas. 1170.=--To obviate this danger
+Henry again sought to make peace with Thomas. An agreement was come to
+on the vague terms that the past should be forgotten on both sides.
+Henry perhaps hoped that when Thomas was once again in England he
+would be too wise to rake up the question of his claim to crown the
+king. If it was so he was soon disappointed. On December 1, =1170=,
+Thomas landed at Sandwich and rode to Canterbury amidst the shouts of
+the people. He refused to release from excommunication the bishops who
+had taken part in young Henry's coronation unless they would first
+give him satisfaction for the wrong done to the see of Canterbury,
+thus showing that he had forgotten nothing.
+
+[Illustration: Part of the choir of Canterbury Cathedral (in building
+from 1175-1184).]
+
+18. =Murder of Archbishop Thomas. 1170.=--The aggrieved bishops at
+once crossed the sea to lay their complaint before Henry. "What a
+parcel of fools and dastards," cried Henry impatiently, "have I
+nourished in my house, that none of them can be found to avenge me on
+one upstart clerk!" Four of his knights took him at his word, and
+started in all haste for Canterbury. The Archbishop before their
+arrival had given fresh offence in a cause more righteous than that of
+his quarrel with the bishops. Ranulf de Broc and others who had had
+the custody of his lands in his absence refused to surrender them,
+robbed him of his goods, and maltreated his followers. On Christmas
+Day he excommunicated them and repeated the excommunication of the
+bishops. On December 29 the four knights sought him out. They do not
+seem at first to have intended to do him bodily harm. The
+excommunication of the king's servants before the king had been
+consulted was a breach of the Constitutions of Clarendon, and they
+bade him, in the king's name, to leave the kingdom. After a hot
+altercation the knights retired to arm themselves. The archbishop was
+persuaded by his followers to take refuge in the church. In rushed the
+knights crying, "Where is the traitor? Where is the archbishop?"
+"Behold me," replied Thomas, "no traitor, but a priest of God." The
+assailants strove to lay hands upon him. He struggled and cast forth
+angry words upon them. In the madness of their wrath they struck him
+to the ground and slew him as he lay.
+
+19. =Popular Indignation. 1171.=--Archbishop Thomas did not die as a
+martyr for any high or sacred cause. He was not a martyr for the
+faith, like those who had been thrown to the lions by the Roman
+emperors. He was not a martyr for righteousness, like Archbishop
+AElfheah. He was a martyr for the privileges of his order and of his
+see. Yet if he sank below the level of the great martyrs, he did not
+sink to that lowest stage at which men cry out for the preservation of
+their own privileges, after those privileges have ceased to benefit
+any but themselves. The sympathy of the mass of the population shows
+the persistence of a widespread belief that in maintaining the
+privileges of the clergy Thomas was maintaining the rights of the
+protectors of the poor. This sentiment was only strengthened by his
+murder. All through Europe the news was received with a burst of
+indignation. Of that indignation the Pope made himself the mouthpiece.
+In the summer of =1171= two Papal legates appeared in Normandy to
+excommunicate Henry unless he was able to convince them that he was
+guiltless of the murder. Henry was too cautious to abide their coming.
+He crossed first to England and then to Ireland, resolved to have
+something to offer the Pope which might put him in a better humour.
+
+20. =State of Ireland.=--In the domain of art, Ireland was inferior to
+no European nation. In metal-work, in sculpture, and in the skilful
+illumination of manuscripts it surpassed them all. It had no mean
+school of music and song. In political development it lagged far
+behind. Ireland was still in the tribal stage, and had never been
+welded into unity by foreign conquerors, as Gaul had been welded into
+unity by the Romans, and as England had been welded into unity by the
+Normans. Tribe warred with tribe and chief with chief. The efforts of
+chiefs to attain supremacy over the whole island had always ended in
+partial or complete failure. The Danes had made settlements in Dublin,
+Wexford, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick, but though the native Celtic
+population was not strong enough to expel them, neither were they
+strong enough to conquer the Celts. The Church was as disorganised as
+the State, and there was little discipline exercised outside the
+monasteries. For some time the Popes and the Archbishops of Canterbury
+had been anxious to establish a better regulated Church system, and in
+=1154= Adrian IV.--the only Englishman who was ever Pope--hoping that
+Henry would bring the Irish Church under Papal order, had made him a
+present of Ireland, on the ground that all islands belonged to the
+Pope.
+
+21. =Partial Conquest of Ireland. 1166--1172.=--Henry, however, had
+too much to do during the earlier years of his reign to think of
+conquering Ireland. In =1166= Dermot, king or chief of Leinster,
+having been driven out of his dominions, appealed to Henry for aid.
+Henry gave him leave to carry over to Ireland any English knights whom
+he could persuade to help him. On this a number of knights from South
+Wales, of whom the most important was Richard de Clare, afterwards
+known as Strongbow, flocked across the Irish Sea (=1169--1170=). They
+fought and conquered, and Strongbow, who married Dermot's daughter,
+gave himself the title of Earl of Leinster. The rule of these knights
+was a rule of cruelty and violence, and, what was more, it might well
+become dangerous to Henry himself. If feudal nobles established
+themselves in Ireland, they might soon be holding out a hand to help
+the feudal nobles who were Henry's worst enemies in England. When
+Henry landed in Ireland in =1171= he set himself to restore order. The
+Irish welcomed him because he alone could bridle the invaders, and the
+invaders submitted to him because they dared not resist him. He
+gathered a synod of the clergy at Cashel, and arranged for the future
+discipline of the Church. Unhappily he could not remain long in
+Ireland, and when he left it the old anarchy and violence blazed up
+again. Though Henry had not served Ireland, he had gained his own
+personal ends. He had frightened Strongbow and his followers, and had
+shown the Pope, by his proceedings at Cashel, that his friendship was
+worth having.
+
+[Illustration: Mitre of Archbishop Thomas of Canterbury preserved at
+Sens.]
+
+22. =Young Henry's Coronation and the Revolt of the Barons.
+1172--1174.=--In the spring of =1172= Henry was back in Normandy. The
+English barons were longing to take advantage of his quarrel with the
+Church, and his only chance of resisting them was to propitiate the
+Church. He met the Papal legates at Avranches, swore that he was
+innocent of the death of Thomas, and renounced the Constitutions of
+Clarendon. He then proceeded to pacify Louis VII., whose daughter was
+married to the younger Henry, by having the boy recrowned in due form.
+Young Henry was a foolish lad, and took it into his head that because
+he had been crowned his father's reign was at an end. In =1173= he
+fled for support to his father-in-law and persuaded him to take up his
+cause. "Your master," said Louis to the ambassadors of the father, "is
+king no longer. Here stands the king of the English." These words were
+the signal for a general attack on the elder king. Headed by Louis,
+his neighbours and discontented subjects took arms against him, and it
+was not till September that he prevailed over them. In July the great
+English barons of the north and centre rose in insurrection, and
+William the Lion, king of the Scots, joined them. De Lucy, the
+Justiciar, stood up for Henry; but, though he gained ground, the war
+was still raging in the following year, =1174=. In the spring of that
+year the rebels were gaining the upper hand, and the younger Henry was
+preparing to come to their help. In July the elder Henry landed in
+England. For the first and only time in his life he brought to England
+the mercenaries who were paid with the scutage money. At Canterbury he
+visited the tomb of Thomas, now acknowledged as a martyr, spent the
+whole night in prayer and tears, and on the next morning was, at his
+own request, scourged by the monks as a token of his penitence. That
+night he was awakened by a messenger with good news. Ranulf de
+Glanvile had won for him a great victory at Alnwick, had dispersed the
+barons' host, and had taken prisoner the Scottish king. About the same
+time the fleet which was to bring his son over was dispersed by a
+storm. Within a few weeks the whole rebellion was at an end. It was
+the last time that the barons ventured to strive with the king till
+the time came when they had the people and the Church on their side.
+William the Lion was carried to Normandy, where, by the treaty of
+Falaise, he acknowledged himself the vassal of the king of England for
+the whole of Scotland.
+
+[Illustration: Military and civil costume of the latter part of the
+twelfth century.]
+
+23. =The Assize of Arms. 1181.=--In September =1174= there was a
+general peace. In =1181= Henry issued the Assize of Arms, organising
+the old fyrd in a more serviceable way. Every English freeman was
+bound by it to find arms of a kind suitable to his property, that he
+might be ready to defend the realm against rebels or invaders. The
+Assize of Arms is the strongest possible evidence as to the real
+nature of Henry's government. He had long ago sent back to the
+Continent the mercenaries whom he had brought with him in the peril of
+=1174=, and he now entrusted himself not to a paid standing army, but
+to the whole body of English freemen. He was, in truth, king of the
+English not merely because he ruled over them, but because they were
+ready to rally round him in arms against those barons whose ancestors
+had worked such evil in the days of Stephen. England was not to be
+given over either to baronial anarchy or to military despotism.
+
+24. =Henry II. and his Sons.=--In England Henry ruled as a national
+king over a nation which, at least, preferred his government to that
+of the barons. The old division between English and Norman was dying
+out, and though the upper classes, for the most part, still spoke
+French, intermarriages had been so frequent that there were few
+amongst them who had not some English ancestress and who did not
+understand the English language. Henry was even strong enough to
+regain much that he had surrendered when he abandoned the
+Constitutions of Clarendon. In his Continental possessions there was
+no such unity. The inhabitants of each province were tenacious of
+their own laws and customs, and this was especially the case with the
+men of Aquitaine, the country south of the Loire, who differed in
+habits, and even in language, from the Frenchmen of Normandy and
+Anjou. They therefore found it difficult to give a share of the
+allegiance which they owed to their own duchess, Eleanor, to her
+Angevin husband, the king of England. Henry in =1172= having appointed
+his eldest son, Henry, as the future ruler of Normandy and Anjou as
+well as of England, thought it wise to recognise this feeling by
+giving to his second son, Richard, the immediate possession of
+Eleanor's duchy of Aquitaine. In =1181= he provided for his third son,
+Geoffrey, by a marriage with Constance, the heiress of Brittany, over
+which country he claimed a feudal superiority as Duke of the Normans.
+Yet, though he gave away so much to his sons, he wished to keep the
+actual control over them all. The arrangement did not turn out well.
+He had set no good example of domestic peace. His sons knew that he
+had married their mother for the sake of her lands, that he had
+subsequently thrown her into prison and had been faithless to her with
+a succession of mistresses. Besides this, they were torn away from
+him by the influence of the men whom they were set to rule. Richard
+was dragged away from his father by the interests and feelings of the
+men of Aquitaine, Geoffrey by the interests and feelings of the men of
+Brittany. John, the fourth son, who was named Lackland from having no
+territory assigned to him, was, as yet, too young to be
+troublesome.[12] Both Richard and Geoffrey had taken part with their
+brother Henry in the great revolt of =1173=. In =1177= they were again
+quarrelling with their father and with each other. "Dost thou not
+know," was the message which Geoffrey sent to his father, "that it is
+our proper nature, planted in us by inheritance from our ancestors,
+that none of us should love the other, but that ever brother should
+strive with brother and son against father? I would not that thou
+shouldst deprive us of our hereditary right nor vainly seek to rob us
+of our nature." Henry loved his children, and could never bring
+himself to make war very seriously against them. Henry died young in
+=1183=, and Geoffrey in =1185=. Richard was now the heir of all his
+father's lands, from the Tweed to the Pyrenees. Henry made an effort
+to provide for John in Ireland, and in =1185= he sent the youth--now
+eighteen years old--to Dublin to rule as king of Ireland. John soon
+showed his incompetence. He was rude to the English barons, and still
+ruder to the Irish chiefs, amusing himself by laughing at their dress
+and pulling the hairs out of their beards. Before the end of the year
+his father was obliged to recall him.
+
+ [Footnote 12: Genealogy of the sons and grandchildren of Henry
+ II.:--
+
+ HENRY II.
+ 1154-1189
+ |
+ ---------------------------------------------------
+ | | | |
+ Henry RICHARD Geoffrey JOHN = (1) Avice of
+ _m._ Margaret 1189-1199 _m._ Constance 1199-1216| Gloucester
+ of France _m._ Berengaria of Brittany | (2) Isabella of
+ of Navarre | | Angouleme
+ | |
+ Arthur HENRY III.
+ 1216-1272]
+
+25. =The Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. 1187.=--The divisions in
+Henry's family were stirred up afresh by the new king of France,
+Philip II., who had succeeded his father, Louis VII., in =1179=.
+Philip was resolved to enlarge his narrow dominions at the expense of
+Henry. He was Henry's feudal lord, and he was crafty enough to know
+that by assisting Henry's sons he might be able to convert his nominal
+lordship into a real power. News, however, arrived in the midst of the
+strife which for a little time put an end to the discords of men and
+peoples. The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, which had been established
+after the first crusade, had only maintained itself because the
+Mahommedan rulers of Egypt were the rivals and enemies of the
+Mahommedan rulers of Syria. Yet even with the advantage of divisions
+amongst their enemies, the Christians had only defended themselves
+with difficulty. A second crusade which had gone out to relieve them
+in Stephen's reign, under the Emperor Conrad III. and Louis VII. of
+France, had accomplished nothing. Their real defenders were two bodies
+of soldiers, known as the Knights Templars and the Knights of St.
+John, who were bound, like monks, to vows of celibacy, so that they
+might always be free to defend Jerusalem. At last a great Mahommedan
+warrior, Saladin, arose, who ruled both Egypt and Syria, and was
+therefore able to bring the united forces of the two countries against
+the Christian colony. In =1187= he destroyed the Christian army at
+Tiberias, and in the same year took Jerusalem and almost every city
+still held by the Christians in the East. Tyre alone held out, and
+that, too, would be lost unless help came speedily.
+
+26. =The Last Years of Henry II. 1188--1189.=--For a moment the rulers
+of the West were shocked at the tidings from the East. In =1188=
+Philip, Henry, and Richard had taken the cross as the sign of their
+resolution to recover the Holy City from the infidel. To enable him to
+meet the expenses of a war in the East, Henry imposed upon England a
+new tax of a tenth part of all movable property, which is known as the
+Saladin tithe, but in a few months those who were pledged to go on the
+crusade were fighting with one another--first Henry and Richard
+against Philip, and then Philip and Richard against Henry. At last, in
+=1189=, Henry, beaten in war, was forced to submit to Philip's terms,
+receiving in return a list of those of his own barons who had engaged
+to support Richard against his father. The list reached him when he
+was at Chinon, ill and worn out. The first name on it was that of his
+favourite son John. The old man turned his face to the wall. "Let
+things go now as they will," he cried bitterly. "I care no more for
+myself or for the world." After a few days of suffering he died. The
+last words which passed his lips were, "Shame, shame upon a conquered
+king."
+
+27. =The Work of Henry II.=--The wisest and most powerful ruler can
+only assist the forces of nature; he cannot work against them. Those
+who merely glance at a map in which the political divisions of France
+are marked as they existed in Henry's reign, cannot but wonder that
+Henry did not make himself master of the small territory which was
+directly governed, in turn, by Louis VII. and Philip II. A careful
+study of the political conditions of his reign shows, however, that he
+was not really strong enough to do anything of the kind. His own power
+on the Continent was purely feudal, and he held authority over his
+vassals there because they had personally done homage to him. Henry,
+however, had also done homage to the king of France, and did not
+venture, even if he made war upon his lord, the king of France, to
+push matters to extremities against him, lest his sons as his own
+vassals might push matters to extremities against himself. He could
+not, in short, expel the king of France from Paris, lest he should
+provoke his own vassals to follow his example of insubordination and
+expel him from Bordeaux or Rouen. Moreover, Henry had too much to do
+in England to give himself heart and soul to Continental affairs,
+whilst the king of France, on the contrary, who had no foreign
+possessions, and was always at his post, would be the first to profit
+by a national French feeling whenever such a feeling arose. England
+under Henry II. was already growing more united and more national. The
+crown which Henry derived from the Conqueror was national as well as
+feudal. Henry, like his predecessors, had two strings to his bow. On
+the one hand he could call upon his vassals to be faithful to him
+because they had sworn homage to him, whilst he himself, as far as
+England was concerned, had sworn homage to no one. On the other hand,
+he could rally round him the national forces. To do this he must do
+justice and gain the goodwill of the people at large. It was this that
+he had attempted to do, by sending judges round the country and by
+improving the law, by establishing scutage to weaken the power of the
+barons, and by strengthening the national forces by the Assize of
+Arms. No doubt he had little thanks for his pains. Men could feel the
+weight of his arm and could complain of the heavy fines exacted in his
+courts of justice. It was only a later generation, which enjoyed the
+benefits of his hard discipline, which understood how much England
+owed to him.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+RICHARD I. =1189--1199=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+ Accession of Richard I. 1189
+ Richard's Return to England from the Crusade 1194
+ Death of Richard I. 1199
+
+
+1. =Richard in England. 1189.=--Richard was accepted without dispute
+as the master of the whole of the Angevin dominions. He was a warrior,
+not a statesman. Impulsive in his generosity, he was also impulsive in
+his passions. Having determined to embark on the crusade, he came to
+England eager to raise money for its expenses. With this object he not
+only sold offices to those who wished to buy them, and the right of
+leaving office to those who wished to retire, but also, with the
+Pope's consent, sold leave to remain at home to those who had taken
+the cross. Regardless of the distant future, he abandoned for money to
+William the Lion the treaty of Falaise, in which William had engaged
+to do homage to the English king.
+
+[Illustration: Royal arms of England from Richard I. to Edward III.
+(From the wall arcade, south aisle of nave, Westminster Abbey.)]
+
+[Illustration: The Galilee or Lady Chapel, Durham Cathedral. Built by
+Bishop Hugh of Puiset between 1180 and 1197.]
+
+2. =William of Longchamps. 1189--1191.=--To secure order during his
+absence Richard appointed two Justiciars--Hugh of Puiset, Bishop of
+Durham, and William of Longchamps, Bishop of Ely. At the same time he
+attempted to conciliate all who were likely to be dangerous by making
+them lavish grants of land, especially giving what was practically
+royal authority over five shires to his brother John. Such an
+arrangement was not likely to last. Before the end of =1189= Richard
+crossed to the Continent. Scarcely was he gone when the populace in
+many towns turned savagely on the Jews and massacred them in crowds.
+The Jews lived by money-lending, and money-lenders are never popular.
+In York they took refuge in the castle, and when all hope of defending
+themselves failed, slew their wives and children, set fire to the
+castle, and perished in the flames. The Justiciars were too much
+occupied with their own quarrels to heed such matters. Hugh was a
+stately and magnificent prelate. William was lame and misshapen,
+quick of wit and unscrupulous. In a few weeks he had deprived his
+rival of all authority. His own power did not last long. He had a
+sharp tongue, and did not hesitate to let all men, great and small,
+know how meanly he thought of them. Those whom he despised found a
+leader in John, who was anxious to succeed his brother, and thought
+that it might some day be useful to have made himself popular in
+England. In the autumn of =1191= William of Longchamps was driven out
+of the country.
+
+3. =The Third Crusade. 1189--1192.=--Richard threw his whole
+heart--his lion's heart, as men called it--into the crusade. Alike by
+sea and by land, he knew better than any other leader of his age how
+to direct the operations of war. He was too impetuous to guard himself
+against the intrigues and personal rancour of his fellow-Crusaders. At
+Messina he quarrelled with the wily Philip II. of France, while he
+gave offence to all Germans by upholding the claims of Tancred to the
+crown of Sicily, which was also claimed by the German king, who
+afterwards became the Emperor Henry VI. In the spring of =1191=
+Richard sailed from Sicily for the Holy Land, conquering Cyprus on the
+way, where he married Berengaria of Navarre. Passing on to the coast
+of Syria, he found the Crusaders besieging Acre, and his own vigour
+greatly contributed to its fall. When Acre was taken Philip slipped
+home to plot against Richard, and Richard found every French Crusader
+and every German Crusader banded together against him. When he
+advocated the right of Guy of Lusignan to the crown of Jerusalem, they
+advocated the claim of Conrad of Montferrat. Jerusalem was not to be
+had for either of them. Twice Richard brought the Crusading host
+within a few miles of the Holy City. Each time he was driven to
+retreat by the failure of the Crusaders to support him. The last time
+his comrades invited him at least to reach a spot from which a view of
+the city could be gained. Richard refused. If he was not worthy, he
+said, to regain the city, he was not worthy to look on it.
+
+4. =The Return of Richard. 1192--1194.=--In =1192= there was nothing
+for it but to return home. Enemies were watching for him on every
+shore. Landing at the head of the Adriatic, he attempted to make his
+way in disguise through Germany. With characteristic want of
+reflection, he roasted his meat at a village inn near Vienna with a
+jewelled ring on his finger. Attention was aroused, and he was
+arrested and delivered up to Leopold, Duke of Austria, who had been
+his bitter antagonist in the Holy Land, and Leopold delivered him up
+to his own feudal superior, the Emperor, Henry VI.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of a knight in the Temple Church, London,
+showing armour of the end of the twelfth century.]
+
+The imprisonment of Richard was joyful news to Philip and John. John
+did his best to get into his hands all the English and Continental
+dominions of his brother. His meanness was, however, by this time well
+known, and he was repelled on all sides. At last in =1193= the Emperor
+consented to let Richard go on payment of what was then the enormous
+ransom of 150,000 marks, or 100,000_l._ "Beware," wrote Philip to John
+when he heard that the Emperor's consent had been given; "the devil is
+loose again," Philip and John tried to bribe the Emperor to keep his
+prisoner, but in February =1194= Richard was liberated, and set out
+for England.
+
+5. =Heavy taxation.=--Before Richard reappeared in England each
+tenant-in-chief had to pay the aid which was due to deliver his lord
+from prison (see p. 117), but this was far from being enough. Besides
+all kinds of irregular expedients the Danegeld had been practically
+revived, and to it was now given the name of carucage, a tax of two
+shillings on every plough-land. Another tax of a fourth part of all
+movable goods had also been imposed, for which a precedent had been
+set by Henry II. when he levied the Saladin tithe (see p. 157).
+Richard had now to gather in what was left unpaid of these charges.
+Yet so hated was John that Richard was welcomed with every appearance
+of joy, and John thought it prudent to submit to his brother. Philip,
+however, was still an open enemy, and as soon as Richard had gathered
+in all the money that he could raise in England he left the country
+never to return. On the Continent he could best defend himself against
+Philip, and, besides this, Richard was at home in sunny Aquitaine, and
+had no liking for his English realm.
+
+6. =The Administration of Hubert Walter. 1194--1198.=--For four years
+the administration of England was in the hands of a new Justiciar, the
+Archbishop of Canterbury, Hubert Walter. He was a statesman of the
+school of Henry II., and he carried the jury system yet farther than
+Henry had done. The immense increase of taxation rendered it the more
+necessary to guard against unfairness, and Hubert Walter placed the
+selection of the juries of presentment (see p. 147) in the hands of
+four knights in every shire, who, as is probable, were chosen by the
+freeholders in the County Court, instead of being named by the
+sheriff. This was a further step in the direction of allowing the
+counties to manage their own affairs, and a still greater one was
+taken by the frequent employment of juries in the assessment of the
+taxes paid within the county, so as to enable them to take a prominent
+part in its financial as well as in its judicial business. In =1198=
+there was taken a new survey of England for taxable purposes, and
+again elected juries were employed to make the returns. In this year
+Archbishop Hubert retired from the Justiciarship, and was succeeded by
+Geoffrey Fitz-Peter. Archbishop Hubert's administration marks a great
+advance in constitutional progress, though it is probable that his
+motive was only to raise money more readily. The main constitutional
+problem of the Norman and Angevin reigns was how to bring the national
+organisation of the king's officials into close and constant
+intercourse with the local organisation of the counties. Henry I. and
+Henry II. had attacked the problem on one side by sending the judges
+round the country to carry the king's wishes and commands to each
+separate county. It still remained to devise a scheme by which the
+wishes and complaints of the counties could be brought to the king.
+Hubert Walter did not contrive that this should be done, but he made
+it easy to be done in the next generation, because before he left
+office he had increased the powers of the juries in each county and
+had accustomed them to deal independently with all the local matters
+in which the king and the county were both interested. It only
+remained to bring these juries together in one place where they might
+join in making the king aware of the wishes and complaints of all
+counties alike. When this had been accomplished there would, for the
+first time, be a representative assembly in England.
+
+[Illustration: Richard I. From his tomb at Fontevrault.]
+
+[Illustration: Berengaria. From her tomb at Espan.]
+
+7. =Death of Richard. 1199.=--It was not only Richard's love for his
+old home which fixed him on the Continent. He knew that the weakest
+part of his dominions was there. His lands beyond sea had no natural
+unity. Normans did not love Angevins, neither did Angevins love the
+men of Poitou or Guienne. Philip was willingly obeyed in his own
+dominions, and he had all the advantage which his title of king of the
+French could give him. Richard fought desperately, and for the most
+part successfully, against the French king, and formed alliances with
+all who were opposed to him. He built on a rock overhanging the Seine
+above Les Andelys a mighty fortress--the Chateau Gaillard, or Saucy
+Castle, as he called it in jest. With characteristic haste he
+completed the building in a few months. "How fair a child is mine!" he
+called to his followers, "this child but a twelvemonth old." Other
+child he had none, and he had but the miserable John to look to to
+hold his dominions after he was gone. He did not live long enough to
+see whether his new castle could stand a siege. A peasant dug up a
+treasure on the land of the lord of Chalus in the Limousin. Richard
+claimed it as his right because he was the over-lord. On the refusal
+of the lord to surrender it he laid siege to Chalus. An arrow from the
+castle struck him on the shoulder. The wound rankled, and
+mortification followed. As Richard lay dying the castle surrendered,
+and the man who had aimed the fatal shot was brought before him. "What
+have I done to thee," asked Richard, "that thou shouldest slay me?"
+"Thou hast slain my father and two of my brothers with thy own hand,"
+said the prisoner, "and thou wouldest fain have killed me too. Avenge
+thyself upon me as thou wilt. I will gladly endure the greatest
+torments thou canst devise, since I have seen thee on thy deathbed."
+Richard, generous to the last, bade his attendants set the prisoner
+free. They kept him till Richard was dead, and then tortured him to
+death.
+
+[Illustration: Part of the choir of Ripon Cathedral: built during the
+last quarter of the twelfth century.]
+
+8. =Church and State under the Angevin Kings.=--During the forty-five
+years of the reigns of Richard and his father the chief feature of
+English history is the growth of the power of the state. There was
+more justice and order, and also more taxation, at the end of the
+period than at the beginning. During the same period the influence of
+the Church grew less. The character of Thomas's resistance to the king
+was lower than that of Anselm, and not long after Thomas's murder
+Henry indirectly regained the power which he had lost, and filled the
+sees with officials and dependents who cared little for the higher
+aims of religion. The evil consequences of making the Church
+dependent on the king were at least as great as those of freeing the
+political and social life of the clergy from the control of the State.
+Even monasticism ceased to afford a strong example of self-denial. The
+very Cistercians, who had begun so well, had fallen from their
+original purity. They were now owners of immense tracts of
+pasture-land, and their keenness in money-making had become notorious.
+They exercised great influence, but it was the influence of great
+landlords, not the influence of ascetics.
+
+9. =Growth of Learning.=--The decay of asceticism was to some extent
+brought about by the opening of new careers into which energetic men
+might throw themselves. They were needed as judges, as administrators,
+as councillors. A vigorous literature sprung up in the reign of Henry
+II., but at the end of the reign most of it was connected with the
+court rather than with the monasteries. Henry's Justiciar, Ranulf de
+Glanvile, wrote the first English law-book. His Treasurer, Richard
+Fitz-Nigel, set forth in the _Dialogus de Scaccario_ the methods of
+his financial administration, and also produced 'The Deeds of King
+Henry and King Richard.' William of Newburgh, indeed, the best
+historian of these reigns, wrote in a small Yorkshire monastery, but
+Roger of Hoveden and Ralph de Diceto pursued their historical work
+under the influence of the court. Still more striking is the
+universality of the intellectual inquisitiveness of Walter Map. On the
+one hand, in his _De Nugis Curialium_ he chattered over the manners of
+his contemporaries, and in his satirical poems scourged the greed and
+vices of the clergy, whilst on the other hand he took a principal part
+in spreading a knowledge of the legend of the high-souled King Arthur
+and of the quest of the Holy Grail. Giraldus Cambrensis again, or
+Gerald of Wales, wrote on all sorts of subjects with shrewd humour and
+extensive knowledge.
+
+10. =The University of Oxford.=--There was already in England a place
+where learning was cherished for its own sake. For some time there had
+been growing up on the Continent gatherings for the increase of
+learning, which ultimately were known as universities, or corporations
+of teachers and scholars. One at Bologna had devoted itself to the
+study of the civil or Roman law. Another at Paris gave itself to the
+spread of all the knowledge of the time. In these early universities
+there were no colleges. Lads, very poor for the most part, flocked to
+the teachers and lodged themselves as best they could. Such a
+university, though the name was not used till later, had been
+gradually forming at Oxford. Its origin and early history is obscure,
+but in =1186= Giraldus, wishing to find a cultivated audience for his
+new book on the topography of Ireland, read it aloud at Oxford, where,
+as he tells us, 'the clergy in England chiefly flourished and excelled
+in clerkly lore.' It appears that there were already separate
+faculties or branches of study, and persons recognised as doctors or
+teachers in all of them.
+
+[Illustration: Lay costumes in the twelfth century.]
+
+[Illustration: Costume of shepherds in the twelfth century.]
+
+11. =Country and Town.=--Intellectual progress was accompanied by
+material progress. In the country the old system of cultivation by the
+labour service of villein-tenants still prevailed, but in many parts
+the service had been commuted, either for a money payment or for
+payments in kind, such as payments of a fixed number of eggs or fowls,
+or of a fixed quantity of honey or straw. Greater progress was made in
+the towns. At the time of the Conquest there were about eighty towns
+in England, most of them no larger than villages. The largest towns
+after London were Winchester, Bristol, Norwich, York, and Lincoln, but
+even these had not a population much above 7,000 apiece. In the
+smaller towns trade was sufficiently provided for by the establishment
+of a market to which country people brought their grain or their
+cattle, and where they provided themselves in turn with such rude
+household necessaries as they required. Even before the Conquest port
+towns had grown up on the coast, but foreign trade was slight,
+imports being almost entirely confined to luxuries for the rich. The
+order introduced by the Normans and the connection between England and
+the king's Continental possessions was followed by an increase of
+trade, and there arose in each of the larger towns a corporation which
+was known as the Merchant Gild, and which was, in some instances at
+least, only a development of an older association existing in the
+times before the Conquest. No one except the brothers of the Merchant
+Gild was allowed to trade in any article except food, but any one
+living in the town might become a brother on payment of a settled fee.
+The first Merchant Gild known was constituted in =1093=. A little
+later, Henry I. granted charters to some of the towns, conferring on
+them the right of managing their own affairs; and his example was
+followed, in far greater profusion, by Henry II. and Richard I. Though
+the organisation of the Merchant Gild was originally distinct from the
+organisation of the town, and the two were in theory kept apart, the
+Merchant Gild, to which most of the townsmen belonged, usually
+encroached upon the authorities of the town, regulated trade to its
+own advantage, and practically controlled the choice of officers, the
+principal officer being usually styled an Alderman, with power to keep
+order and generally to provide for the well-being of the place. In
+this way the tradesmen and merchants of the towns prepared themselves
+unconsciously for the time when they would be called on to take part
+in managing the affairs of the country. Even in these early times,
+however, the artisans in some of the trades attempted to combine
+together.
+
+12. =Condition of London.=--Of all the towns London had been growing
+most rapidly in wealth and population, and during the troubles in
+which John had been pitted against William of Longchamps it had
+secured the right of being governed by a Mayor and Aldermen of its
+own, instead of being placed under the jurisdiction of the King's
+sheriff. The Mayor and Aldermen, however, did not represent all the
+townsmen. In London, though there is no evidence of the existence of a
+Merchant Gild, there was a corporation composed of the wealthier
+traders, by which the city was governed. The Mayor and Aldermen were
+chosen out of this corporation, as were the juries elected to assess
+the taxes. Artisans soon came to believe that these juries dealt
+unfairly with the poor. One of the Aldermen, William Longbeard, made
+himself the mouthpiece of their complaints and stirred them up against
+the rest. Hubert Walter sent a messenger to seize him, but William
+Longbeard slew the messenger and fled into the church of Mary-at-Bow.
+Here, according to the ideas of his age, he should have been safe, as
+every church was considered to be a sanctuary in which no criminal
+could be arrested. Hubert Walter, however, came in person to seize
+him, set the church on fire, and had him dragged out. William
+Longbeard was first stabbed, and then tried and hanged, and for the
+time the rich tradesmen had their way against the poorer artisans.
+
+[Illustration: Hall of Oakham Castle, Rutland: built about 1185.]
+
+13. =Architectural Changes.=--Even in the most flourishing towns the
+houses were still mostly of wood or rubble covered with thatch, and
+only here and there was to be found a house of stone. So slight,
+indeed, were the ordinary buildings, that it was provided by the
+Assize of Clarendon that the houses of certain offenders should be
+carried outside the town and burnt. Here and there, however, as in the
+case of the so-called Jews' house at Lincoln, stone houses were
+erected. In the larger houses the arrangements were much as they had
+been before the Conquest, the large hall being still the most
+conspicuous part, though another apartment, known as the solar, to
+which an ascent was made by steps from the outside, and which served
+as a sitting-room for the master of the house, had usually been
+added. The castles reared by the king or the barons were built for
+defence alone, and it was in the great cathedrals and churches that
+the skill of the architect was shown. An enormous number of parish
+churches of stone were raised by Norman builders to supersede earlier
+buildings of wood. For some time the round-arched Norman architecture
+which had been introduced by Eadward the Confessor was alone followed,
+such as may be studied in the Galilee of Durham (see p. 160) the nave
+of St. Albans (see p. 109) and the tower of Castor (see p. 136).
+Gradually the pointed arch of Gothic architecture took its place, and
+after a period of transition, of which the nave of Durham, and the
+choirs of Canterbury and of Ripon afford examples (see pp. 130, 150,
+166), the graceful style now known as Early English was first used on
+a large scale in =1192= in the choir of the cathedral of Lincoln.
+
+[Illustration: Norman House at Lincoln, called the Jews' House. Built
+about 1140. The square windows are of later date.]
+
+
+_Books recommended for further study of Part II._
+
+STUBBS, W. (Bishop of Oxford). Constitutional History of England. Vol
+i. chaps. ix.-xiii.
+
+FREEMAN, E. A. History of the Norman Conquest. Vols. iv. and v.
+History of William Rufus.
+
+GREEN, J. R. History of the English People. Vol. i. pp. 115-189.
+
+NORGATE, Miss K. England under the Angevin Kings. Vols. i. and ii. pp.
+1-388.
+
+CUNNINGHAM, W. Growth of English Industry and Commerce during the
+Early and Middle Ages, pp. 129-173.
+
+WAKEMAN, H. O., and HASSALL, A. Constitutional Essays.
+
+ADAMS, G. B. The Political History of England. Vol. ii. From the
+Norman Conquest to the Death of John (1066-1216).
+
+
+
+
+PART III.
+
+_THE GROWTH OF THE PARLIAMENTARY CONSTITUTION._ =1199-1399=.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+JOHN. =1199-1216=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+ Accession of John 1199
+ Loss of Normandy 1204
+ England under an Interdict 1208
+ Magna Carta 1215
+ Death of John 1216
+
+
+1. =The Accession of John. 1199.=--After Richard's death there were
+living but two descendants of Henry II. in the male line--John,
+Richard's only surviving brother, and Arthur, the young son of John's
+elder brother, Geoffrey. The English barons had to make their choice
+between uncle and nephew, and, as had been done in the days of AElfred,
+they preferred the grown man to the child. It was the last time when
+that principle of election was confessedly acted on. Archbishop Hubert
+in announcing the result used words which seem strange now:
+"Forasmuch," he declared to the people assembled to witness John's
+coronation, "as we see him to be prudent and vigorous, we all, after
+invoking the Holy Spirit's grace, for his merits no less than his
+royal blood, have with one consent chosen him for our king." In
+reality, John was of all men most unworthy. He was without dispute the
+worst of the English kings. Like William II. he feared not God nor
+regarded man. Though William indeed was more vicious in his private
+life, John's violence and tyranny in public life was as great as
+William's, and he added a meanness and frivolity which sank him far
+below him.
+
+2. =John's First War with Philip II. 1199--1200.=--On the Continent
+John had a difficult game to play. Normandy and Aquitaine submitted
+to him, but Anjou and its dependent territories declared for Arthur,
+who was Duke of Brittany in right of his mother. Philip II., who had
+long been the rival of Richard, now took the field in =1199= as the
+rival of John in support of Arthur; but for the moment he ruined his
+chance of success by keeping in his own hands the castles which he
+took from John instead of making them over to Arthur. Arthur's
+supporters took offence, and in =1200= Philip made peace with John.
+Philip acknowledged John as Richard's heir, but forced him in return
+to pay a heavy sum of money, and to make other concessions.
+
+3. =John's Misconduct in Poitou. 1200--1201.=--John did not know how
+to make use of the time of rest which he had gained. Being tired of
+his wife, Avice of Gloucester, he persuaded some Aquitanian bishops to
+divorce him from her, though he took care to keep the lands which he
+had received from her at her marriage. He then married Isabella of
+Angouleme, though she was betrothed to a Poitevin noble, Hugh of
+Lusignan. Hugh was enraged, and, together with many of his neighbours,
+took arms against John. In =1201= John charged all the barons of
+Poitou with treason, and bade them clear their character by selecting
+champions to fight with an equal number of English and Norman knights.
+
+4. =The Loss of Normandy and Anjou. 1202--1204.=--The Poitevin barons,
+instead of accepting the wager of battle, appealed to Philip as John's
+over-lord, and in =1202= Philip summoned John to answer their
+complaints before his peers. John not only did not appear, but made no
+excuse for his absence; and Philip afterwards pretended that the peers
+had condemned him to forfeit his lands. After this Philip, in alliance
+with Arthur, invaded Normandy. John's aged mother, Eleanor, who was
+far more able and energetic than her son, took up his cause against
+her grandson Arthur. She was besieged by Arthur at Mirebeau when John
+came to her help, and not only raised the siege, but carried off
+Arthur as a prisoner. Many of his vassals rose against him, and
+finding himself unable to meet them in the field he wreaked his
+vengeance on his helpless prisoner. A little before Easter =1203=
+Arthur ceased to live. How the boy died has never been known, but it
+was generally believed that he was drowned in the Seine near
+Rouen--some said by his uncle's own hands. The murderer was the first
+to suffer from the crime. Philip at once invaded Normandy. The Norman
+barons had long ceased to respect John, and very few of them would do
+anything to help him. Philip took castle after castle. John was indeed
+capable of a sudden outbreak of violence, but he was incapable of
+sustained effort. He now looked sluggishly on, feasting and amusing
+himself whilst Philip was conquering Normandy. "Let him alone," he
+lazily said; "I shall some day win back all that he is taking from me
+now." His best friends dropped off from him. The only fortress which
+made a long resistance was that Chateau Gaillard which Richard had
+built to guard the Seine. In =1204= it was at last taken, and before
+the end of that year Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Touraine, together
+with part of Poitou, had submitted to Philip.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of King John on his monument in Worcester
+Cathedral.]
+
+[Illustration: Isabella, wife of King John. From her monument at
+Fontevrault.]
+
+5. =Causes of Philip's Success.=--It was not owing to John's vigour
+that Aquitaine was not lost as well as Normandy and Anjou. Philip had
+justified his attack on John as being John's feudal lord, and as being
+therefore bound to take the part of John's vassals whom he had
+injured. Hitherto the power of the king over his great vassals, which
+had been strong in England, had been weak in France. Philip made it
+strong in Normandy and Anjou because he had the support there of the
+vassals of John. That these vassals favoured him was owing partly to
+John's contemptible character, but also to the growth of national
+unity between the inhabitants of Normandy and Anjou on the one hand
+and those of Philip's French dominions on the other. Normans and
+Angevins both spoke the same language as the Frenchmen of Paris and
+its neighbourhood. Their manners and characters were very much the
+same, and the two peoples very soon blended with one another. They had
+been separated merely because their feudal organisation had been
+distinct, because the lord over one was John and over the other was
+Philip. In Aquitaine it was otherwise. The language and manners there,
+though much nearer to those of the French than they were to those of
+the English, differed considerably from the language and manners of
+the Frenchmen, Normans, and Angevins. What the men of Aquitaine really
+wanted was independence. They therefore now clung to John against
+Philip as they had clung to Richard against Henry II. They resisted
+Henry II. because Henry II. ruled in Anjou and Normandy, and they
+wished to be free from any connection with Anjou and Normandy. They
+resisted Philip because Philip now ruled in Anjou and Normandy. They
+were not afraid of John any longer, because they thought that now that
+England alone was left to him, he would be too far off to interfere
+with them.
+
+6. =The Election of Stephen Langton to the Archbishopric of
+Canterbury. 1205.=--In England John had caused much discontent by the
+heavy taxation which he imposed, not with the regularity of Henry II.
+and Hubert Walter, but with unfair inequality. In =1205= Archbishop
+Hubert Walter died. The right of choosing a new archbishop lay with
+the monks of the monastery of Christchurch at Canterbury, of which
+every archbishop, as the successor of St. Augustine, was the abbot.
+This right, however, had long been exercised only according to the
+wish of the king, who practically named the archbishop. This time the
+monks, without asking John's leave, hurriedly chose their sub-prior
+Reginald, and sent him off with a party of monks to Rome, to obtain
+the sanction of the Pope. Reginald was directed to say nothing of his
+election till he reached Rome; but he was a vain man, and had no
+sooner reached the Continent than he babbled about his own dignity as
+an archbishop. When John heard this he bade the monks choose the
+Bishop of Norwich, John de Grey, the king's treasurer; and the monks,
+thoroughly frightened, chose him as if they had not already made their
+election. John had, however, forgotten to consult the bishops of the
+province of Canterbury, who had always been consulted by his father
+and brother, and they too sent messengers to the Pope to complain of
+the king.
+
+[Illustration: Bishop Marshall of Exeter, died 1206; from his tomb at
+Exeter, showing a bishop vested for mass.]
+
+7. =Innocent III. and Stephen Langton. 1206.=--The Pope was Innocent
+III., who at once determined that John must not name bishops whose
+only merit was that they were good state officials. Being an able man,
+he soon discovered that Reginald was a fool. He therefore in =1206=
+sent for a fresh deputation of monks, and, as soon as they arrived in
+Rome, bade them make a new choice in the name of their monastery. At
+Innocent's suggestion they chose Stephen Langton, one of the most
+pious and learned men of the day, whose greatness of character was
+hardly suspected by anyone at the time.
+
+8. =John's Quarrel with the Church. 1206--1208.=--The choice of an
+archbishop in opposition to the king was undoubtedly something new.
+The archbishopric of Canterbury was a great national office, and a
+king as skilful as Henry II. would probably have succeeded in refusing
+to allow it to be disposed of by the Pope and a small party of monks.
+John was unworthy to be the champion of any cause whatever. In =1207=,
+after an angry correspondence with Innocent, he drove the monks of
+Christchurch out of the kingdom. Innocent in reply threatened England
+with an interdict, and in the spring of =1208= the interdict was
+published.
+
+9. =England under an Interdict. 1208.=--An interdict carried with it
+the suppression of all the sacraments of the Church except those of
+baptism and extreme unction. Even these were only to be received in
+private. No words of solemn import were pronounced at the burial of
+the dead. The churches were all closed, and to the men of that time
+the closing of the church-doors was like the closing of the very gate
+of heaven. In the choice of the punishment inflicted there was some
+sign that the Papacy was hardly as strong in the thirteenth as it had
+been in the eleventh century. Gregory VII. had smitten down kings by
+personal excommunication; Innocent III. found it necessary to stir up
+resistance against the king by inflicting sufferings on the people.
+Yet there is no evidence of any indignation against the Pope. The
+clergy rallied almost as one man round Innocent, and songs proceeded
+from the monasteries which mocked the few official bishops who took
+John's side as money-makers who cared more for marks than for Mark,
+and more for lucre than for Luke, whilst John de Grey was branded with
+the title of 'that beast of Norwich.' John taking no heed of the
+popular feeling, seized the property of the clergy who obeyed the
+interdict. Yet he was not without fear lest the barons should join the
+clergy against him, and to keep them in obedience he compelled them to
+entrust to him their eldest sons as hostages. One lady to whom this
+order came replied that she would never give her son to a king who had
+murdered his nephew.
+
+10. =John Excommunicated. 1209.=--In =1209= Innocent excommunicated
+John himself. John cared nothing for being excluded from the services
+of the Church, but he knew that if the excommunication were published
+in England few would venture to sit at table with him, or even to
+speak with him. For some time he kept it out of the country, but it
+became known that it had been pronounced at Rome, and even his own
+dependents began to avoid his company. He feared lest the barons whom
+he had wearied with heavy fines and taxes might turn against him, and
+he needed large sums of money to defend himself against them. First he
+turned on the Jews, threw them into prison, and after torturing those
+who refused to pay, wrung from them 40,000_l._ The abbots were next
+summoned before him and forced by threats to pay 100,000_l._ Besides
+this the wealthy Cistercians had to pay an additional fine, the amount
+of which is uncertain, but of which the lowest estimate is 27,000_l._
+In =1211= some of the barons declared against John, but they were
+driven from the country, and those who remained were harshly treated.
+Some of their sons who had been taken as hostages were hanged or
+starved to death.
+
+[Illustration: Parsonage house of early thirteenth-century date at
+West Dean, Sussex.]
+
+11. =The Pope threatens John with Deposition. 1212--1213.=--In =1212=
+Innocent's patience came to an end, and he announced that he would
+depose John if he still refused to give way, and would transfer his
+crown to his old enemy, Philip II. The English clergy and barons were
+not likely to oppose the change. Philip gathered a great army in
+France to make good the claim which he expected Innocent to give him.
+John, indeed, was not entirely without resource. The Emperor Otto IV.
+was John's sister's son, and as he too had been excommunicated by
+Innocent he made common cause with John against Philip. Early in
+=1213= John gathered an army of 60,000 men to resist Philip's landing,
+and if Otto with his Germans were to attack France from the east, a
+French army would hardly venture to cross into England, unless indeed
+it had no serious resistance to fear. John, however, knew well that he
+could not depend on his own army. Many men in the host hated him
+bitterly, and he feared deposition, and perhaps death, at the hands of
+those whom he had summoned to his help.
+
+12. =John's Submission. 1213.=--Under these circumstances John
+preferred submission to the Pope to submission to Philip or his own
+barons. He invited Pandulf, the Pope's representative, to Dover. He
+swore to admit Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury, to restore
+to their rights all those of the clergy or laity whom he had banished,
+and to give back the money which he had wrongfully exacted. Two days
+later he knelt before Pandulf and did homage to the Pope for England
+and Ireland. He was no longer to be an independent king but the Pope's
+vassal. In token of his vassalage he agreed that he and his successors
+should pay to Innocent and his successors 1,000 marks a year, each
+mark being equal to 13_s._ 4_d._, or two-thirds of a pound. Innocent
+had reached his aim as far as John was concerned. In his eyes the
+Papacy was not merely the guide of the Church, it was an institution
+for controlling kings and forcing them to act in accordance with the
+orders of the Popes. It remained to be seen whether the Pope's orders
+would be always unselfish, and whether the English barons and clergy
+would submit to them as readily as did this most miserable of English
+kings.
+
+13. =The Resistance of the Barons and Clergy. 1213.=--At first John
+seemed to have gained all that he wanted by submission. Pandulf bade
+Philip abandon all thought of invading England, and when Philip
+refused to obey, John's fleet fell upon the French fleet off the coast
+of Flanders and destroyed it. John even proposed to land with an army
+in Poitou and to reconquer Normandy and Anjou. His subjects thought
+that he ought to begin by fulfilling his engagements to them. John
+having received absolution, summoned four men from each county to meet
+at St. Albans to assess the damages of the clergy which he had bound
+himself to make good. The meeting thus summoned was the germ of the
+future House of Commons. It was not a national political assembly, but
+it was a national jury gathered together into one place. The exiled
+barons were recalled, and John now hoped that his vassals would follow
+him to Poitou. They refused to do so, alleging their poverty and the
+fact that they had already fulfilled their feudal obligation of forty
+days' service by attending him at Dover. They had, in fact, no
+interest in regaining Normandy and Anjou for John. Though the English
+barons still spoke French, and were proud of their Norman descent,
+they now thought of themselves as Englishmen and cared for England
+alone. John turned furiously on the barons, and was only hindered from
+attacking them by the new Archbishop, who threatened to excommunicate
+everyone who took arms against them. It was time for all Englishmen
+who loved order and law to resist John. Stephen Langton put himself at
+the head of the movement, and at a great assembly at St. Paul's
+produced a charter of Henry I., by which that king had promised to put
+an end to the tyranny of the Red King, and declared amidst general
+applause that it must be renewed by John. It was a memorable scene. Up
+to this time it had been necessary for the clergy and the people to
+support the king against the tyranny of the barons. Now the clergy and
+people offered their support to the barons against the tyranny of the
+king. John had merely the Pope on his side. Innocent's view of the
+situation was very simple. John was to obey the Pope, and all John's
+subjects were to obey John. A Papal legate arrived in England, fixed
+the sum which John was to pay to the clergy, and refused to listen to
+the complaints of those who thought themselves defrauded.
+
+14. =The Battle of Bouvines. 1214.=--In =1214= John succeeded in
+carrying his barons and their vassals across the sea. With one army he
+landed at Rochelle, and recovered what had been lost to him on the
+south of the Loire, but failed to make any permanent conquests to the
+north of that river. Another army, under John's illegitimate brother,
+the Earl of Salisbury, joined the Emperor Otto in an attack on Philip
+from the north. The united force of Germans and English was, however,
+routed by Philip at Bouvines, in Flanders. "Since I have been
+reconciled to God," cried John, when he heard the news, "and submitted
+to the Roman Church, nothing has gone well with me." He made a truce
+with Philip, and temporarily renounced all claims to the lands to the
+north of the Loire.
+
+15. =The Struggle between John and the Barons. 1214--1215.= When John
+returned he called upon all his vassals who had remained at home to
+pay an exorbitant scutage. In reply they met at Bury St. Edmunds. The
+charter of Henry I., which had been produced at St. Paul's the year
+before, was again read, and all present swore to force John to accept
+it as the rule of his own government. John asked for delay, and
+attempted to divide his antagonists by offering to the clergy the
+right of free election to bishoprics and abbacies. Then he turned
+against the barons. Early in =1215= he brought over a large force of
+foreign mercenaries, and persuaded the Pope to threaten the barons
+with excommunication. His attempt was defeated by the constancy of
+Stephen Langton. The demands of the barons were placed in writing by
+the archbishop, and, on John's refusal to accept them, an army was
+formed to force them on the king. The army of God and the Holy Church,
+as it was called, grew rapidly. London admitted it within its walls,
+and the accession of London to the cause of the barons was a sign that
+the traders of England were of one mind with the barons and the
+clergy. John found that their force was superior to his own, and at
+Runnimede on June 15, =1215=, confirmed with his hand and seal the
+articles of the barons, with the full intention of breaking his
+engagement as soon as he should be strong enough to do so.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of a knight in the Temple Church, London,
+showing armour worn between 1190 and 1225.]
+
+16. =Magna Carta. 1215.=--_Magna Carta_, or the Great Charter, as the
+articles were called after John confirmed them, was won by a
+combination between all classes of freemen, and it gave rights to them
+all.
+
+(_a_) _Its Concessions._--The Church was to be free, its privileges
+were to be respected, and its right to free elections which John had
+granted earlier in the year was not to be infringed on. As for the
+laity, the tenants-in-chief were to pay only fixed reliefs when they
+entered on their estates. Heirs under age were to be the king's wards,
+but the king was to treat them fairly, and do nothing to injure their
+land whilst it was in his hands. The king might continue to find
+husbands for heiresses and wives for heirs, but only amongst those of
+their own class. The tenants-in-chief again were bound to pay aids to
+the king when he needed ransom from imprisonment, or money to enable
+him to bear the expenses of knighting his eldest son or of marrying
+his eldest daughter. For all other purposes the king could only demand
+supplies from his tenants-in-chief with the consent of the Common
+Council of the realm. As only the tenants-in-chief were concerned,
+this Common Council was the Great Council of tenants-in-chief, such as
+had met under the Norman and Angevin kings. A fresh attempt, however,
+was made to induce the smaller tenants-in-chief to attend, in addition
+to the bishops, abbots, and barons, by a direction that whilst these
+were to be summoned personally, the sheriffs should in each county
+issue a general summons to the smaller tenants-in-chief. Though the
+sub-tenants had no part in the Common Council of the realm, they were
+relieved by a direction that they should pay no more aids to their
+lords than their lords paid to the king, and by a general declaration
+that all that had been granted to their lords by the king should be
+allowed by their lords to them. The Londoners and other townsmen had
+their privileges assured to them; and all freemen were secured against
+heavy and irregular penalties if they committed an offence.
+
+(_b_) _Its Securities._--Such were the provisions of this truly
+national act, which Englishmen were for ages engaged in maintaining
+and developing. The immediate question was how to secure what had been
+gained. The first thing necessary for this purpose was to make the
+courts of law the arbitrators between the king and his subjects. In a
+series of articles it was declared that the sworn testimony of a man's
+peers should be used whenever fines or penalties were imposed, and
+this insistence on the employment of the jury system as it then
+existed was emphasised by the strong words to which John placed his
+seal: "No freeman may be taken, or imprisoned, or disseised, or
+outlawed, or banished, or in any way destroyed, nor will we go against
+him, or send against him, except by the lawful judgment of his peers,
+or by the law of the land. To none will we sell or deny or delay right
+or justice." It was a good security if it could be maintained, but it
+would avail nothing against a king who was willing and able to use
+force to set up the old tyranny once more. In the first place John
+must dismiss all his foreign mercenaries. So little, however, was John
+trusted that it was thought necessary in the second place to establish
+a body of twenty-five--twenty-four barons and the Mayor of
+London--which was to guard against any attempt of the king to break
+his word. If John infringed upon any of the articles of the Charter
+the twenty-five, with the assistance of the whole community of the
+kingdom, had the right of distraining upon the king's lands till
+enough was obtained to make up the loss to the person who had suffered
+wrong. In other words, there was to be a permanent organisation for
+making war upon the king.
+
+17. =War between John and the Barons. 1215--1216.=--John waited for
+the moment of vengeance. Not only did he refuse to send his
+mercenaries away, but he sent to the Continent for large
+reinforcements. Pope Innocent declared the barons to be wicked rebels,
+and released John from his oath to the Great Charter. War soon broke
+out. John's mercenaries were too strong for the barons, and in the
+beginning of =1216= almost all England with the exception of London
+had been overrun by them. Though the Pope laid London under an
+interdict, neither the citizens nor the barons paid any attention to
+it. They sent to Louis, the eldest son of Philip of France, to invite
+him to come and be their king in John's stead. Louis was married to
+John's niece, and might thus be counted as a member of the English
+royal family. The time had not yet come when a man who spoke French
+was regarded as quite a foreigner amongst the English barons. On May
+21, =1216=, Louis landed with an army in the Isle of Thanet.
+
+[Illustration: A silver penny of John, struck at Dublin.]
+
+18. =Conflict between Louis and John. 1216.=--John, in spite of his
+success, found himself without sufficient money to pay his
+mercenaries, and he therefore retreated to Winchester. Louis entered
+London in triumph, and afterwards drove John out of Winchester.
+Innocent indeed excommunicated Louis, but no one took heed of the
+excommunication. Yet John was not without support. The trading towns
+of the East, who probably regarded Louis as a foreigner, took his
+part, and many of his old officials, to whom the victory of the barons
+seemed likely to bring back the anarchy of Stephen's time, clung to
+him. One of these, a high-spirited and strong-willed man, Hubert de
+Burgh, held out for John in Dover Castle. John kept the field and even
+won some successes. As he was crossing the Wash the tide rose rapidly
+and swept away his baggage. He himself escaped with difficulty. Worn
+out in mind and body, he was carried on a litter to Newark, where on
+October 19, =1216=, he died.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+HENRY III. =1216-1272=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+ Accession of Henry III. 1216
+ The Fall of Hubert de Burgh 1232
+ The Provisions of Oxford 1258
+ Battle of Lewes 1264
+ Battle of Evesham 1265
+ Death of Henry III. 1272
+
+
+1. =Henry III. and Louis. 1216--1217.=--Henry III., the eldest son of
+John, was but nine years old at his father's death. Never before had
+it been useful for England that the king should be a child. As Henry
+had oppressed no one and had broken no oaths, those who dared not
+trust the father could rally to the son. The boy had two guardians,
+one of whom was Gualo, the legate of Pope Honorius III., a man gentler
+and less ambitious than Innocent III., whom he had just succeeded; the
+other was William the Marshal, Earl of Pembroke, who had been constant
+to John, not because he loved his evil deeds, but because, like many
+of the older officials, he feared that the victory of the barons would
+be followed by anarchy. These two had on their side the growing
+feeling on behalf of English nationality; whereas, as long as John
+lived, his opponents had argued that it was better to have a foreign
+king like Louis than to have a king like John, who tyrannised over the
+land by the help of foreign mercenaries. Henry's followers daily
+increased, and in =1217= Louis was defeated by the Marshal at Lincoln.
+Later in the year Hubert de Burgh, the Justiciar, sent out a fleet
+which defeated a French fleet off Dover. Louis then submitted and left
+the kingdom.
+
+2. =The Renewal of the Great Charter. 1216--1217.=--The principles on
+which William the Marshal intended to govern were signified by the
+changes made in the Great Charter when it was renewed on the king's
+accession in =1216=, and again on Louis's expulsion in =1217=. Most of
+the clauses binding the king to avoid oppression were allowed to
+stand; but those which prohibited the raising of new taxation without
+the authority of the Great Council, and the stipulation which
+established a body of twenty-five to distrain on John's property in
+case of the breach of the Charter, were omitted. Probably it was
+thought that there was less danger from Henry than there had been from
+John; but the acceptance of the compromise was mainly due to the
+feeling that, whilst it was desirable that the king should govern with
+moderation, it would be a dangerous experiment to put the power to
+control him in the hands of the barons, who might use it for their own
+advantage rather than for the advantage of the nation. The whole
+history of England for many years was to turn on the difficulty of
+weakening the power of a bad king without producing anarchy.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of Henry III. from his tomb in Westminster
+Abbey.]
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of William Longespee, Earl of Salisbury (died
+1227); from his tomb in Salisbury Cathedral: showing armour worn from
+about 1225 to 1250.]
+
+3. =Administration of Hubert de Burgh. 1219-1232.=--In =1219= William
+the Marshal died. For some years the government was mainly in the
+hands of Hubert de Burgh, who strenuously maintained the authority of
+the king over the barons, whilst at the same time he set himself
+distinctly at the head of the growing national feeling against the
+admission of foreigners to wealth and high position in England. As a
+result of the disturbances of John's reign many of the barons and of
+the leaders of the mercenaries had either fortified their own castles
+or had taken possession of those which belonged to the king. In =1220=
+Hubert demanded the surrender of these castles as Henry II. had done
+in the beginning of his reign. In =1221= the Earl of Aumale was forced
+to surrender his castles, and in =1224= Faukes de Breaute, one of the
+leaders of John's mercenaries who had received broad lands in England,
+was reduced to submission and was banished on his refusal to give up
+his great castle at Bedford. As long as Hubert ruled, England was to
+belong to the English. His power was endangered from the very quarter
+from which it ought to have received most support. In =1227= Henry
+declared himself of age. He was weak and untrustworthy, always ready
+to give his confidence to unworthy favourites. His present favourite
+was Peter des Roches, Bishop of Winchester. The bishop was a greedy
+and unscrupulous Poitevin, who regarded the king's favour as a means
+of enriching himself and his Poitevin relatives and friends. Henry was
+always short of money, and was persuaded by Peter that it was
+Hubert's fault. In =1232= Hubert was charged with a whole string of
+crimes and dismissed from office.
+
+[Illustration: Simon, Bishop of Exeter (died 1223); from his tomb at
+Exeter, showing rich mass-vestments.]
+
+[Illustration: Beverley Minster, Yorkshire--the south transept; built
+about 1220-1230.]
+
+4. =Administration of Peter des Roches. 1232-1234.=--Henry was now
+entirely under the power of Peter des Roches. In =1233= he ordered
+Hubert to be seized. Though Hubert took sanctuary in a chapel, he was
+dragged out, and a smith was ordered to put him in fetters. The man
+refused to obey. "Is not this," he said, "that most faithful and
+high-souled Hubert who has so often saved England from the ravages of
+foreigners, and has given England back to the English?" Hubert was
+thrown into the Tower, and was never again employed in any office of
+state. As long as Peter des Roches ruled the king it would be hard to
+keep England for the English. Poitevins and Bretons flocked over from
+the Continent, and were appointed to all the influential posts which
+fell vacant. The barons had the national feeling behind them when they
+raised complaints against this policy. Their leader was Earl Richard
+the Marshal, the son of the Earl William who had governed England
+after the death of John. Without even the semblance of trial Henry
+declared Earl Richard and his chief supporters guilty of treason. At a
+Great Council held at Westminster some of the barons remonstrated.
+Peter des Roches replied saucily that there were no peers in England
+as in France, meaning that in England the barons had no rights against
+the king. Both Henry and Peter could, however, use their tongues
+better than their swords. They failed miserably in an attempt to
+overcome the men whom they had unjustly accused, till in =1234= Peter
+stirred up some of the English lords in Ireland to seize on Earl
+Richard's possessions there. The Earl hurried over to defend his
+estates. Amongst his followers were many of Peter's confidants, who,
+treacherously deserting him in the first battle, left him to be slain
+by his enemies. Peter at least gained nothing by his villainy. Edmund
+Rich, a saintly man, who had recently become Archbishop of Canterbury,
+protested against his misdeeds. All England was behind the Archbishop,
+and Henry was compelled to dismiss Peter and then to welcome back
+Peter's enemies and to restore them to their rights. It was of no
+slight importance that a man so devoted and unselfish as Edmund Rich
+had put himself at the head of the movement. It was a good thing, no
+doubt, to maintain that wealth should be in the hands rather of
+natives than of foreigners; but after all every contention for
+material wealth alone is of the earth, earthy. No object which appeals
+exclusively to the selfish instincts can, in the long run, be worth
+contending for. Edmund Rich's accession to the national cause was a
+guarantee that the claims of righteousness and mercy in the management
+of the national government would not altogether be forgotten, and
+fortunately there were new forces actively at work in the same
+direction. The friars, the followers of St. Francis and St. Dominic,
+had made good their footing in England.
+
+5. =Francis of Assisi.=--Francis, the son of a merchant in the Tuscan
+town of Assisi, threw aside the vanities of youth after a serious
+illness. He was wedded, he declared, to Poverty as his bride. He
+clothed himself in rags. When his father sent him with a horseload of
+goods to a neighbouring market, he sold both horse and goods, and
+offered the money to build a church. His father was enraged, and
+summoned him before the bishop that he might be deprived of the right
+of inheriting that which he knew not how to use. Francis stripped
+himself naked, renouncing even his clothes as his father's property.
+"I have now," he said, "but one Father, He that is in heaven." He
+wandered about as a beggar, subsisting on alms and devoting himself to
+the care of the sick and afflicted. In his heroism of self-denial he
+chose out the lepers, covered as they were with foul and infectious
+sores, as the main objects of his tending. Before long he gathered
+together a brotherhood of men like-minded with himself, who left all,
+to give not alms but themselves to the help of the poor and sorrowful
+of Christ's flock. In =1209= Innocent III. constituted them into a new
+order, not of monks but of Friars (_Fratres_ or brethren). The special
+title of the new order, which after ages have known by the name of
+Franciscans, was that of Minorites (_Fratres Minores_), or the lesser
+brethren, because Francis in his humility declared them to be less
+than the least of Christ's servants. Like Francis, they were to be
+mendicants, begging their food from day to day. Having nothing
+themselves, they would be the better able to touch the hearts of those
+who had nothing. Yet it was not so much the humility of Francis as his
+loving heart which distinguished him amongst men. Not only all human
+beings but all created things were dear to him. Once he is said to
+have preached to birds. He called the sun and the wind his brethren,
+the moon and the water his sisters. When he died the last feeble words
+which he breathed were, "Welcome, sister Death!"
+
+6. =St. Dominic.=--Another order arose about the same time in Spain.
+Dominic, a Spaniard, was appalled, not by the misery, but by the
+ignorance of mankind. The order which he instituted was to be called
+that of the Friars Preachers, though they have in later times usually
+been known as Dominicans. Like the Franciscans they were to be Friars,
+or brothers, because all teaching is vain, as much as all charitable
+acts are vain, unless brotherly kindness be at the root. Like the
+Franciscans they were to be mendicants, because so only could the
+world be convinced that they sought not their own good, but to win
+souls to Christ.
+
+7. =The Coming of the Friars. 1220-1224.=--In =1220= the first
+Dominicans arrived in England. Four years later, in =1224=, the first
+Franciscans followed them. Of the work of the early Dominicans in
+England little is known. They preached and taught, appealing to those
+whose intelligence was keen enough to appreciate the value of
+argument. The Franciscans had a different work before them. The misery
+of the dwellers on the outskirts of English towns was appalling. The
+townsmen had made provision for keeping good order amongst all who
+shared in the liberties,[13] or, as we should say, in the privileges
+of the town; but they made no provision for good order amongst the
+crowds who flocked to the town to pick up a scanty living as best they
+might. These poor wretches had to dwell in miserable hovels outside
+the walls by the side of fetid ditches into which the filth of the
+town was poured. Disease and starvation thinned their numbers. No man
+cared for their bodies or their souls. The priests who served in the
+churches within the town passed them by, nor had they any place in the
+charities with which the brethren of the gilds assuaged the
+misfortunes of their own members. It was amongst these that the
+Franciscans lived and laboured, sharing in their misery and their
+diseases, counting their lives well spent if they could bring comfort
+to a single human soul.
+
+ [Footnote 13: A phrase which may serve to keep in mind the medieval
+ meaning of '_libertas_' is to be found in the statement that a
+ certain monastery kept up a pair of stocks '_pro libertate
+ servanda_'--that is to say, to keep up its franchise of putting
+ offenders into the stocks.]
+
+8. =Monks and Friars.=--The work of the friars was a new phase in the
+history of the Church. The monks had made it their object to save
+their own souls; the friars made it their object to save the bodies
+and souls of others. The friars, like the monks, taught by the example
+of self-denial; but the friars added active well-doing to the passive
+virtue of restraint. Such examples could not fail to be attended with
+consequences of which those who set them never dreamed, all the more
+because the two new orders worked harmoniously towards a common end.
+The Dominicans quickened the brain whilst the Franciscans touched the
+heart, and the whole nation was the better in consequence.
+
+[Illustration: Longthorpe Manor House, Northampton; built about 1235.
+Some of the larger windows are later.]
+
+9. =The King's Marriage. 1236.=--In =1236= Henry married Eleanor, the
+daughter of the Count of Provence. The immediate consequence was the
+arrival of her four uncles with a stream of Provencals in their train.
+Amongst these uncles William, Bishop-elect of Valence, took the lead.
+Henry submitted his weak mind entirely to him, and distributed rank
+and wealth to the Provencals with as much profusion as he had
+distributed them to the Poitevins in the days of Peter des Roches. The
+barons, led now by the king's brother, Richard of Cornwall,
+remonstrated when they met in the Great Council, which was gradually
+acquiring the right of granting fresh taxes, though all reference to
+that right was dropped out of all editions of the Great Charter issued
+in the reign of Henry. For some time they granted the money which
+Henry continually asked for, coupling, however, with their grant the
+demand that Henry should confirm the Charter. The king never refused
+to confirm it. He had no difficulty in making promises, but he never
+troubled himself to keep those which he had made.
+
+[Illustration: A ship in the reign of Henry III.]
+
+10. =The Early Career of Simon de Montfort. 1231--1243.=--Strangely
+enough, Simon de Montfort, the man who was to be the chief opponent of
+Henry and his foreign favourites, was himself a foreigner. He was
+sprung from a family established in Normandy, and his father, the
+elder Simon de Montfort, had been the leader of a body of Crusaders
+from the north of France, who had poured over the south to crush a
+vast body of heretics, known by the name of Albigeois, from Albi, a
+town in which they swarmed. The elder Simon had been strict in his
+orthodoxy and unsparing in his cruelty to all who were unorthodox.
+From him the younger Simon inherited his unswerving religious zeal and
+his constancy of purpose. There was the same stern resolution in both,
+but in the younger man these qualities were coupled with a
+statesmanlike instinct, which was wanting to the father. Norman as he
+was, he had a claim to the earldom of Leicester through his
+grandmother, and in =1231= this claim was acknowledged by Henry. For
+some time Simon continued to live abroad, but in =1236= he returned to
+England to be present at the king's marriage. He was at once taken
+into favour, and in =1238= married the king's sister, Eleanor. His
+marriage was received by the barons and the people with a burst of
+indignation. It was one more instance, it was said, of Henry's
+preference for foreigners over his own countrymen. In =1239= Henry
+turned upon his brother-in-law, brought heavy charges against him, and
+drove him from his court. In =1240= Simon was outwardly reconciled to
+Henry, but he was never again able to repose confidence in one so
+fickle. In =1242= Henry resolved to undertake an expedition to France
+to recover Poitou, which had been gradually slipping out of his
+hands. At a Great Council held before he sailed, the barons, who had
+no sympathy with any attempt to recover lost possessions in France,
+not only rated him soundly for his folly, but, for the first time,
+absolutely refused to make him a grant of money. Simon told him to his
+face that the Frenchman was no lamb to be easily subdued. Simon's
+words proved true. Henry sailed for France, but in =1243= he
+surrendered all claims to Poitou, and returned discomfited. If he did
+not bring home victory he brought with him a new crowd of Poitevins,
+who were connected with his mother's second husband. All of them
+expected to receive advancement in England, and they seldom expected
+it in vain.
+
+11. =Papal Exactions. 1237--1243.=--Disgusted as were the English
+landowners by the preference shown by the king to foreigners, the
+English clergy were no less disgusted by the exactions of the Pope.
+The claim of Innocent III. to regulate the proceedings of kings had
+been handed down to his successors and made them jealous of any ruler
+too powerful to be controlled. The Emperor Frederick II. had not only
+succeeded to the government of Germany, and to some influence over the
+north of Italy, but had inherited Naples and Sicily from his mother.
+The Pope thus found himself, as it were, between two fires. There was
+constant bickering between Frederick and Gregory IX., a fiery old man
+who became Pope in =1227=, and in =1238= Gregory excommunicated
+Frederick, and called on all Europe to assist him against the man whom
+he stigmatised as the enemy of God and the Church. As the king of
+England was his vassal in consequence of John's surrender, he looked
+to him for aid more than to others, especially as England, enjoying
+internal peace more than other nations, was regarded as especially
+wealthy. In =1237=, the year before Frederick's excommunication,
+Gregory sent Cardinal Otho as his legate to demand money from the
+English clergy. The clergy found a leader in Robert Grossetete, Bishop
+of Lincoln, a wise and practical reformer of clerical disorders; but
+though they grumbled, they could get no protection from the king, and
+were forced to pay. Otho left England in =1241=, carrying immense sums
+of money with him, and the promise of the king to present three
+hundred Italian priests to English benefices before he presented a
+single Englishman. In =1243= Gregory IX. was succeeded by Innocent
+IV., who was even more grasping than his predecessor.
+
+12. =A Weak Parliamentary Opposition. 1244.=--Against these evils the
+Great Council strove in vain to make head. It was now beginning to be
+known as Parliament, though no alteration was yet made in its
+composition. In =1244= clergy and barons joined in remonstrating with
+the king, and some of them even talked about restraining his power by
+the establishment of a Justiciar and Chancellor, together with four
+councillors, all six to be elected by the whole of the baronage.
+Without the consent of the Chancellor thus chosen no administrative
+act could be done. The scheme was a distinct advance upon that of the
+barons who, in =1215=, forced the Great Charter upon John. The barons
+had then proposed to leave the appointment of executive officials to
+the king, and to appoint a committee of twenty-five, who were to have
+nothing to do with the government of the country, but were to compel
+the king by force to keep the promises which he had made. In =1244=
+they proposed to appoint the executive officials themselves. It was
+the beginning of a series of changes which ultimately led to that with
+which we are now familiar, the appointment of ministers responsible to
+Parliament. It was too great an innovation to be accepted at once,
+especially as it was demanded by the barons alone. The clergy, who
+were still afraid of the disorders which might ensue if power were
+lodged in the hands of the barons, refused to support it, and for a
+time it fell to the ground. At the same time Richard of Cornwall
+abandoned the baronial party. He had lately married the queen's
+sister, which may have drawn him over to the king; but it is also
+probable that his own position as the king's brother made him
+unwilling to consent to a scheme which would practically transfer the
+government from the king to the barons. On the other hand Earl Simon
+was found on the side of the barons. He held his earldom by
+inheritance from his English grandmother, and the barons were willing
+to forgive his descent from a foreign grandfather when they found him
+prepared to share their policy.
+
+13. =Growing Discontent. 1244--1254.=--The clergy had to learn by
+bitter experience that it was only by a close alliance with the barons
+that they could preserve themselves from wrong. In =1244= a new envoy
+from the Pope, Master Martin, travelled over England wringing money
+from the clergy. Though he was driven out of the country in =1245=,
+the Papal exactions did not cease. The Pope, moreover, continued to
+present his own nominees to English benefices, and in =1252=
+Grossetete complained that these nominees drew three times as much
+income from England as flowed into the royal exchequer. For a time
+even Henry made complaints, but in =1254= Innocent IV. won him over to
+his side. Frederick II. had died in =1250=, and his illegitimate son,
+Manfred, a tried warrior and an able ruler, had succeeded him as king
+of Sicily and Naples. Innocent could not bear that that crown should
+be worn by the son of the man whom he had hated bitterly, and offered
+it to Edmund, the second son of Henry III. Henry lept at the offer,
+hoping that England would bear the expense of the undertaking. England
+was, however, in no mood to comply. Henry had been squandering money
+for years. He had recently employed Earl Simon in Gascony, where Simon
+had put down the resistance of the nobles with a heavy hand. The
+Gascons complained to Henry, and Henry quarrelled with Simon more
+bitterly than before. In =1254= Henry crossed the sea to restore order
+in person. To meet his expenses he borrowed a vast sum of money, and
+this loan, which he expected England to meet, was the only result of
+the expedition.
+
+[Illustration: A bed in the reign of Henry III.]
+
+14. =The Knights of the Shire in Parliament. 1254.=--During the king's
+absence the queen and Earl Richard, who were left as regents, and who
+had to collect money as best they might, gathered a Great Council, to
+which, for the first time, representative knights, four from each
+shire, were summoned. They were merely called on to report what amount
+of aid their constituents were willing to give, and the regents were
+doubtless little aware of the importance of the step which they were
+taking. It was only, to all appearances, an adaptation of the summons
+calling on the united jury to meet at St. Albans to assess the damages
+of the clergy in the reign of John. It might seem as if the regents
+had only summoned a united jury to give evidence of their
+constituents' readiness to grant certain sums of money. In reality the
+new scheme was sure to take root, because it held out a hope of
+getting rid of a constitutional difficulty which had hitherto proved
+insoluble--the difficulty, that is to say, of weakening the king's
+power to do evil without establishing baronial anarchy in its place.
+It was certain that the representatives of the freeholders in the
+counties would not use their influence for the destruction of order.
+
+[Illustration: Barn of thirteenth-century date at Raunds,
+Northamptonshire.]
+
+15. =Fresh Exactions. 1254-1257.=--At the end of =1254= Henry returned
+to England. In =1255= a new Pope, Alexander IV., confirmed his
+predecessor's grant of the kingdom of Sicily to Edmund, on condition
+that Henry should give a large sum of money for the expenses of a war
+against Manfred. To make it easy for Henry to find the money,
+Alexander gave him a tenth of the revenues of the English clergy, on
+the plea that the clergy had always borne their share of the expenses
+of a crusade, and that to fight for the Pope against Manfred was
+equivalent to a crusade. Immense sums were wrung from the clergy, who
+were powerless to resist Pope and king combined. Their indignation was
+the greater, not only because they knew that religion was not at stake
+in the Pope's effort to secure his political power in Italy, but also
+because the Papal court was known to be hopelessly corrupt, it being a
+matter of common talk that all things were for sale at Rome. The
+clergy indeed were less than ever in a condition to resist the king
+without support. Grossetete was dead, and the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, the queen's uncle, Boniface of Savoy, whose duty it was to
+maintain the rights of the Church, was a man who cared nothing for
+England except on account of the money he drew from it. Other
+bishoprics as well were held by foreigners. The result of the weakness
+of the clergy was that they were now ready to unite with the barons,
+whom they had deserted in =1244= (see p. 195). Henry's misgovernment,
+in fact, had roused all classes against him, as the townsmen and the
+smaller landowners had been even worse treated than the greater
+barons. In =1257= one obstacle to reform was removed. Richard of
+Cornwall, the king's brother, who was formidable through his wealth
+and the numbers of his vassals, had for some time taken part against
+them. In =1257= he was chosen king of the Romans by the German
+electors, an election which would make him Emperor as soon as he had
+been crowned by the Pope. He at once left England to seek his fortunes
+in Germany, where he was well received as long as he had money to
+reward his followers, but was deserted as soon as his purse was empty.
+
+16. =The Provisions of Oxford. 1258.=--The crisis in England came in
+=1258=, whilst Richard was still abroad. Though thousands were dying
+of starvation in consequence of a bad harvest, Henry demanded for the
+Pope the monstrous sum of one-third of the revenue of all England.
+Then the storm burst. At a Parliament at Westminster the barons
+appeared in arms and demanded, first, the expulsion of all foreigners,
+and, secondly, the appointment of a committee of twenty-four--twelve
+from the king's party and twelve from that of the barons--to reform
+the realm. The king unwillingly consented, and the committee was
+appointed. Later in the year Parliament met again at Oxford to receive
+the report of the new committee. The Mad Parliament, as it was
+afterwards called in derision, was resolved to make good its claims.
+The scheme of reinforcing Parliament by the election of knights of the
+shire had indeed been suffered to fall into disuse since its
+introduction in =1254=, yet every tenant-in-chief had of old the right
+of attending, and though the lesser tenants-in-chief had hitherto
+seldom or never exercised that right, they now trooped in arms to
+Oxford to support the barons. To this unwonted gathering the committee
+produced a set of proposals which have gone by the name of the
+Provisions of Oxford. There was to be a council of fifteen, without
+the advice of which the king could do no act, and in this council the
+baronial party had a majority. The offices of state were filled in
+accordance with the wishes of the twenty-four, and the barons thus
+entered into possession of the authority which had hitherto been the
+king's. The danger of the king's tyranny was averted, but it remained
+to be seen whether a greater tyranny would not be erected in its
+stead. One clause of the Provisions of Oxford was not reassuring. The
+old Parliaments, which every tenant-in-chief had at least the
+customary right of attending, were no longer to exist. Their place was
+to be taken by a body of twelve, to be chosen by the barons, which was
+to meet three times a year to discuss public affairs with the council
+of fifteen.
+
+17. =The Expulsion of the Foreigners. 1258.=--The first difficulty of
+the new government was to compel the foreigners to surrender their
+castles. William de Valence, the king's half-brother, headed the
+resistance of the foreigners. The barons swore that no danger should
+keep them back till they had cleared the land of foreigners and had
+obtained the good laws which they needed. Earl Simon set the example
+by surrendering his own castles at Kenilworth and Odiham. The national
+feeling was with Simon and the barons, and at last the foreigners were
+driven across the sea. For a time all went well. The committee of
+twenty-four continued its work and produced a further series of
+reforms. All persons in authority were called on to swear to be
+faithful to the Provisions of Oxford, and the king and his eldest son,
+Edward, complied with the demand.
+
+18. =Edward and the Barons. 1259.=--Early in =1259= Richard came back
+to England, and gave satisfaction by swearing to the Provisions.
+Before long signs of danger appeared. The placing complete authority
+in the hands of the barons was not likely to be long popular, and Earl
+Simon was known to be in favour of a wider and more popular scheme.
+Hugh Bigod, who had been named Justiciar by the barons, gave offence
+by the way in which he exercised his office. Simon was hated by the
+king, and he knew that many of the barons did not love him. The
+sub-tenants--the Knights Bachelors of England as they called
+themselves--doubting his power to protect them, complained, not to
+Simon, but to Edward, the eldest son of the King, that the barons had
+obtained the redress of their own grievances, but had done nothing for
+the rest of the community. Edward was now a young man of twenty,
+hot-tempered and impatient of control, but keen-sighted enough to
+know, what his father had never known, that the royal power would be
+increased if it could establish itself in the affections of the
+classes whose interests were antagonistic to those of the barons. He
+therefore declared that he had sworn to the Provisions, and would keep
+his oath; but that if the barons did not fulfil their own promises, he
+would join the community in compelling them to do so. The warning was
+effectual, and the barons issued orders for the redress of the
+grievances of those who had found so high a patron.
+
+19. =The Breach amongst the Barons. 1259--1261.=--Simon had no wish to
+be involved in a purely baronial policy. He had already fallen out
+with Richard de Clare, Earl of Gloucester, the leader of the barons
+who had resisted the full execution of the promises made at Oxford in
+the interest of the people at large. "With such fickle and faithless
+men," said Simon to him, "I care not to have ought to do. The things
+we are treating of now we have sworn to carry out. And thou, Sir Earl,
+the higher thou art the more art thou bound to keep such statutes as
+are wholesome for the land." The king fomented the rising quarrel, and
+in =1261= announced that the Pope had declared the Provisions to be
+null and void, and had released him from his oath to observe them.
+
+20. =Royalist Reaction and Civil War. 1261.=--Henry now ruled again in
+his own fashion. Even the Earl of Gloucester discovered that if the
+king was to be resisted it must be by an appeal to a body of men more
+numerous than the barons alone. He joined Simon in inviting a
+Parliament to meet, at which three knights should appear for each
+county, thus throwing over the unfortunate narrowing of Parliament to
+a baronial committee of twelve, which had been the worst blot on the
+Provisions of Oxford. In the summer of =1262= the Earl of Gloucester
+died, and was succeeded by his son, Earl Gilbert, one of Simon's
+warmest personal admirers. In =1263= Simon, now the acknowledged head
+of the barons and of the nation, finding that the king could not be
+brought to keep the Provisions, took arms against him. He was a master
+in the art of war, and gained one fortified post after another. Henry,
+being, as usual, short of money, called on the Londoners for a loan.
+On their refusal Edward seized a sum of money which belonged to them,
+and so exasperated them that, on the queen's passing under London
+Bridge, the citizens reviled her and pelted her with stones. The war
+was carried on with doubtful results, and by the end of the year both
+parties agreed to submit to the arbitration of the king of France.
+
+21. =The Mise of Amiens. 1264.=--The king of France Louis IX.,
+afterwards known as St. Louis, was the justest and most unselfish of
+men. In =1259= he had surrendered to Henry a considerable amount of
+territory in France, which Henry had been unable to reconquer for
+himself; and was well satisfied to obtain from Henry in return a
+formal renunciation of the remainder of the lands which Philip II. had
+taken from John. Yet, well-intentioned as Louis was, he had no
+knowledge of England, and in France, where the feudal nobility was
+still excessively tyrannical, justice was only to be obtained by the
+maintenance of a strong royal power. He therefore thought that what
+was good for France was also good for England, and in the beginning of
+=1264= he relieved Henry from all the restrictions which his subjects
+had sought to place upon him. The decision thus taken was known as
+the Mise, or settlement, of Amiens, from the place at which it was
+issued.
+
+22. =The Battle of Lewes. 1264.=--The Mise of Amiens required an
+unconditional surrender of England to the king. The Londoners and the
+trading towns were the first to reject it. Simon put himself at the
+head of a united army of barons and citizens. In the early morning of
+May 14 he caught the king's army half asleep at Lewes. Edward charged
+at the Londoners, against whom he bore a grudge since they had
+ill-treated his mother, and cleared them off the field with enormous
+slaughter. When he returned the battle was lost. Henry himself was
+captured, and Richard, king of the Romans, was found hiding in a
+windmill. Edward, in spite of his success, had to give himself up as a
+prisoner.
+
+[Illustration: A fight between armed and mounted knights of the time
+of Henry III.]
+
+[Illustration: Seal of Robert Fitzwalter, showing a mounted knight in
+complete mail armour. Date, about 1265.]
+
+23. =Earl Simon's Government. 1264-1265.=--Simon followed up his
+victory by an agreement called the Mise of Lewes, according to which
+all matters of dispute were again to be referred to arbitration. In
+the meantime there were to be three Electors, Earl Simon himself, the
+Earl of Gloucester, and the Bishop of Chichester. These were to elect
+nine councillors, who were to name the ministers of state. To keep
+these councillors within bounds a Parliament was called, in which with
+the barons, bishops, and abbots there sat not only chosen knights for
+each shire, but also for the first time two representatives of certain
+towns. This Parliament met in =1265=. It was not, indeed, a full
+parliament, as only Simon's partisans amongst the barons were
+summoned, but it was the fullest representation of England as a whole
+which had yet met, and not a merely baronial committee like that
+proposed in =1258=. The views of Simon were clearly indicated in an
+argumentative Latin poem written after the battle of Lewes by one of
+his supporters. In this poem the king's claim to do as he likes with
+his own is met by a demand that he shall rule according to law. Such a
+demand was made by others than the poet. "The king," a great lawyer of
+the day had said, "is not subject to any man, but to God and the law."
+The difficulty still remained of ascertaining what the law was. The
+poet did not, indeed, anticipate modern theories, and hold that the
+law was what the representatives of the people made it to be; but he
+held that the law consisted in the old customs, and that the people
+themselves must be appealed to as the witnesses of what those old
+customs were. "Therefore," he wrote, "let the community of the kingdom
+advise, and let it be known what the generality thinks, to whom their
+own laws are best known. Nor are all those of the country so ignorant
+that they do not know better than strangers the customs of their own
+kingdom which have been handed down to them by their ancestors."[14]
+The poet, in short, regarded the Parliament as a national jury, whose
+duty it was to give evidence on the laws and customs of the nation, in
+the same way that a local jury gave evidence on local matters.
+
+ [Footnote 14:
+
+ "Igitur communitas regni consulatur;
+ Et quid universitas sentiat, sciatur,
+ Cui leges propriae maxime sunt notae.
+ Nec cuncti provinciae sic sunt idiotae,
+ Quin sciant plus caeteris regni sui mores,
+ Quos relinquunt posteris hii qui sunt priores."]
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of a knight at Gosperton, showing armour worn
+from about 1250 to 1300. Date, about 1270.]
+
+24. =The Battle of Evesham. 1265.=--Simon's constitution was
+premature. Men wanted a patriotic king who could lead the nation
+instead of one who, like Henry, used it for his own ends. The new
+rulers were sure to quarrel with one another. If Simon was still Simon
+the Righteous, his sons acted tyrannically. The barons began again to
+distrust Simon himself, and the young Earl of Gloucester, like his
+father before him, put himself at the head of the dissatisfied barons,
+and went over to the king. Edward escaped from confinement, by urging
+his keepers to ride races with one another, and then galloping off
+when their horses were too tired to follow him. Edward and Gloucester
+combined forces, and, falling on Earl Simon at Evesham, defeated him
+utterly. Simon was slain in the fight and his body barbarously
+mutilated; but his memory was treasured, and he was counted as a saint
+by the people for whom he had worked. Verses have been preserved in
+which he is compared to Archbishop Thomas, who had given himself as a
+sacrifice for the Church, as Simon had given himself as a sacrifice
+for the nation.
+
+[Illustration: Building operations in the reign of Henry III., with
+the king giving directions to the architect.]
+
+25. =The Last Years of Henry III. 1265--1272.=--The storm which had
+been raised was some time in calming down. Some of Earl Simon's
+followers continued to hold out against the king. When at last they
+submitted, they were treated leniently, and in =1267=, at a Parliament
+at Marlborough, a statute was enacted embodying most of the demands
+for the redress of grievances made by the earlier reformers. The
+kingdom settled down in peace, because Henry now allowed Edward to be
+the real head of the government. Edward, in short, carried on Earl
+Simon's work in ruling justly, with the advantage of being raised
+above jealousies by his position as heir to the throne. In =1270=
+England was so peaceful that Edward could embark on a crusade. At Acre
+he very nearly fell a victim to a fanatic belonging to a body which
+counted assassination a religious duty. His wife, Eleanor of Castile,
+who was tenderly attached to him, had to be led out of his tent, lest
+her bitter grief should distract him during an operation which the
+surgeons held to be necessary. In =1272= Henry III. died, and his
+son, though in a distant land, was quietly accepted as his successor.
+
+[Illustration: East end of Westminster Abbey Church: begun by Henry
+III. in 1245.]
+
+[Illustration: Nave of Salisbury Cathedral Church, looking west. Date,
+between 1240 and 1250.]
+
+[Illustration: A king and labourers in the reign of Henry III.]
+
+26. =General Progress of the Country.=--In spite of the turmoils of
+Henry's reign the country made progress in many ways. Men busied
+themselves with replacing the old round-arched churches by large and
+more beautiful ones, in that Early English style of which Lincoln
+Cathedral was the first example on a large scale. In =1220= it was
+followed by Beverley Minster (see p. 189). The nave of Salisbury
+Cathedral was begun in =1240= (see p. 206), and a new Westminster
+Abbey grew piecemeal under Henry's own supervision during the greater
+part of the reign (see p. 205). Mental activity accompanied material
+activity. At Oxford there were reckoned 15,000 scholars. Most
+remarkable was the new departure taken by Walter de Merton, Henry's
+Chancellor. Hitherto each scholar had shifted for himself, lived where
+he could, and been subjected to little or no discipline. In founding
+Merton College, the first college which existed in the University,
+Merton proposed not only to erect a building in which the lads who
+studied might be boarded and placed under supervision, but to train
+them with a view to learning for its own sake, and not to prepare them
+for the priesthood. The eagerness to learn things difficult was
+accompanied by a desire to increase popular knowledge. For the first
+time since the Chronicle came to an end, which was soon after the
+accession of Henry II., a book--Layamon's _Brut_--appeared in the
+reign of John in the English language, and one at least of the songs
+which witness to the interest of the people in the great struggle with
+Henry III. was also written in the same language. Yet the great
+achievement of the fifty-six years of Henry's reign was--to use the
+language of the smith who refused to put fetters on the limbs of
+Hubert de Burgh (see p. 188)--the giving of England back to the
+English. In =1216= it was possible for Englishmen to prefer a
+French-born Louis as their king to an Angevin John. In =1272= England
+was indeed divided by class prejudices and conflicting interests, but
+it was nationally one. The greatest grievance suffered from Henry III.
+was his preference of foreigners over his own countrymen. In
+resistance to foreigners Englishmen had been welded together into a
+nation, and in their new king Edward they found a leader who would not
+only prove a wise and thoughtful ruler, but who was every inch an
+Englishman.
+
+_Genealogy of John's Sons and Grandsons._
+
+ JOHN, 1199-1216
+ |
+ ----------------------------------------------
+ | | |
+ HENRY III. = Eleanor of Richard, Eleanor = Simon de
+ 1216-1272 | Provence Earl of Cornwall Montfort
+ | and King of the Romans
+ -------------
+ | |
+ EDWARD I. Edmund, titular King of Sicily
+ 1272-1307
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+EDWARD I. AND EDWARD II.
+
+EDWARD I., =1272--1307.= EDWARD II., =1307--1327.=
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+ Accession of Edward I. 1272
+ Death of Alexander III. 1285
+ The Award of Norham 1292
+ The Model Parliament 1295
+ The First Conquest of Scotland 1296
+ Confirmatio Cartarum 1297
+ Completion of the Second Conquest of Scotland 1304
+ The Incorporation of Scotland with England 1305
+ The Third Conquest of Scotland 1306
+ Accession of Edward II. 1307
+ Execution of Gaveston 1312
+ Battle of Bannockburn 1314
+ Execution of Lancaster 1322
+ Deposition of Edward II. 1327
+
+
+[Illustration: Great Seal of Edward I.]
+
+1. =The First Years of Edward I. 1272--1279.=--Edward I., though he
+inherited the crown in =1272=, did not return to England till =1274=,
+being able to move in a leisurely fashion across Europe without fear
+of disturbances at home. He fully accepted those articles of John's
+Great Charter which had been set aside at the beginning of the reign
+of Henry III., and which required that the king should only take
+scutages and aids with the consent of the Great Council or Parliament.
+The further requirement of the barons that they should name the
+ministers of the crown, was allowed to fall asleep. Edward was a
+capable ruler, and knew how to appoint better ministers than the
+barons were likely to choose for him. It was Edward's peculiar merit
+that he stood forward not only as a ruler but as a legislator. He
+succeeded in passing one law after another, because he thoroughly
+understood that useful legislation is only possible when the
+legislator on the one hand has an intelligent perception of the
+remedies needed to meet existing evils, and on the other hand is
+willing to content himself with such remedies as those who are to be
+benefited by them are ready to accept. The first condition was
+fulfilled by Edward's own skill as a lawyer, and by the skill of the
+great lawyers whom he employed. The second condition was fulfilled by
+his determination to authorise no new legislation without the counsel
+and consent of those who were most affected by it. He did not, indeed,
+till late in his reign call a whole Parliament together, as Earl Simon
+had done. But he called the barons together in any matter which
+affected the barons, and he called the representatives of the townsmen
+together in any matter which affected the townsmen, and so on with the
+other classes.
+
+2. =Edward I. and Wales. 1276--1284.=--Outside England Edward's first
+difficulty was with the Welsh, who, though their Princes had long been
+regarded by the English Kings as vassals, had practically maintained
+their independence in the mountainous region of North Wales of which
+Snowdon is the centre. Between them and the English Lords Marchers,
+who had been established to keep order in the marches, or border-land,
+there was nothing but hostility. The Welshmen made forays and
+plundered the English lands, and the English retorted by slaughtering
+Welshmen whenever they could come up with them amongst the hills.
+Naturally the Welsh took the side of any enemy of the English kings
+with whom it was possible to ally themselves. Llewelyn, Prince of
+Wales, had joined Earl Simon against Henry III., and had only done
+homage to Henry after Simon had been defeated. After Henry's death he
+refused homage to Edward till =1276=. In =1282= he and his brother
+David renewed the war, and Edward, determined to put an end to the
+independence of such troublesome neighbours, marched against them.
+Before the end of the year Llewelyn was slain, and David was captured
+and executed in =1283=. Wales then came fully under the dominion of
+the English kings. Edward's second son, afterwards King Edward II.,
+was born at Carnarvon in =1284=, and soon afterwards, having become
+heir to the throne upon the death of his elder brother, was presented
+to the Welsh as Prince of Wales, a title from that day usually
+bestowed upon the king's eldest son. At the same time, though Edward
+built strong castles at Conway and Carnarvon to hold the Welsh in awe,
+he made submission easier by enacting suitable laws for them, under
+the name of the Statute of Wales, and by establishing a separate body
+of local officials to govern them, as well as by confirming them in
+the possession of their lands and goods.
+
+[Illustration: Group of armed knights, and a king in ordinary dress.
+Date, _temp._ Edward I.]
+
+3. =Customs Duties. 1275.=--Though Edward I. was by no means
+extravagant, he found it impossible to meet the expenses of government
+without an increase of taxation. In =1275= he obtained the consent of
+Parliament to the increase of the duties on exports and imports which
+had hitherto been levied without Parliamentary sanction. He was now to
+receive by a Parliamentary grant a fixed export duty of 6_s._ 8_d._ on
+every sack of wool sent out of the country, and of a corresponding
+duty on wool-fells and leather. Under ordinary circumstances it is
+useless for any government to attempt to gain a revenue by export
+duty, because such a duty only raises the price abroad of the products
+of its own country, and foreigners will therefore prefer to buy the
+articles which they need from some country which does not levy export
+duties, and where, therefore, the articles are to be had more cheaply.
+England, however, was, in Edward's time, and for many years
+afterwards, an exception to the rule. On the Continent men could not
+produce much wool or leather for sale, because private wars were
+constantly occurring, and the fighting men were in the habit of
+driving off the sheep and the cattle. In England there were no private
+wars, and under the king's protection sheep and cattle could be bred
+in safety. There were now growing up manufactures of cloth in the
+fortified towns of Flanders, and the manufacturers there were obliged
+to come to England for the greater part of the wool which they used.
+They could not help paying not only the price of the wool, but the
+king's export duty as well, because if they refused they could not get
+sufficient wool in any other country.
+
+4. =Edward's Judicial Reforms. 1274--1290.=--Every king of England
+since the Norman Conquest had exercised authority in a twofold
+capacity. On one hand he was the head of the nation, on the other hand
+he was the feudal lord of his vassals. Edward laid more stress than
+any former king upon his national headship. Early in his reign he
+organised the courts of law, completing the division of the _Curia
+Regis_ into the three courts which existed till recent times: the
+Court of King's Bench, to deal with criminal offences reserved for the
+king's judgment, and with suits in which he was himself concerned; the
+Court of Exchequer, to deal with all matters touching the king's
+revenue; and the Court of Common Pleas, to deal with suits between
+subject and subject. Edward took care that the justice administered in
+these courts should as far as possible be real justice, and in =1289=
+he dismissed two Chief Justices and many other officials for
+corruption. In =1285= he improved the Assize of Arms of Henry II. (see
+p. 154), so as to be more sure of securing a national support for his
+government in time of danger.
+
+5. =Edward's Legislation. 1279--1290.=--It was in accordance with the
+national feeling that Edward, in =1290=, banished from England the
+Jews, whose presence was most profitable to himself, but who were
+regarded as cruel tyrants by their debtors. On the other hand, Edward
+took care to assert his rights as a feudal lord. In =1279=, by the
+statute _De religiosis_, commonly known as the Statute of Mortmain, he
+forbade the gift of land to the clergy, because in their hands land
+was no longer liable to the feudal dues. In =1290=, by another
+statute, _Quia emptores_, he forbade all new sub-infeudation. If from
+henceforth a vassal wished to part with his land, the new tenant was
+to hold it, not under the vassal who gave it up, but under that
+vassal's lord, whether the lord was the king or anyone else. The
+object of this law was to increase the number of tenants-in-chief, and
+thus to bring a larger number of landowners into direct relations with
+the king.
+
+[Illustration: Nave of Lichfield Cathedral, looking east. Built about
+1280.]
+
+6. =Edward as a National and as a Feudal Ruler.=--In his government of
+England Edward had sought chiefly to strengthen his position as the
+national king of the whole people, and to depress legally and without
+violence the power of the feudal nobility. He was, however, ambitious,
+with the ambition of a man conscious of great and beneficent aims, and
+he was quite ready to enforce even unduly his personal claims to
+feudal obedience whenever it served his purpose to do so. His
+favourite motto, 'Keep troth' (_Pactum serva_), revealed his sense of
+the inviolability of a personal engagement given or received, but his
+legal mind often led him into construing in his own favour
+engagements in which only the letter of the law was on his side,
+whilst its spirit was against him. It was chiefly in his relations
+with foreign peoples that he fell into this error, as it was here
+that he was most strongly tempted to lay stress upon the feudal tie
+which made for him, and to ignore the importance of a national
+resistance which made against him. In dealing with Wales, for
+instance, he sent David to a cruel death, because he had broken the
+feudal tie which bound him to the king of England, feeling no sympathy
+with him as standing up for the independence of his own people.
+
+7. =The Scottish Succession. 1285-1290.=--In the earlier part of
+Edward's reign Alexander III. was king of Scotland. Alexander's
+ancestors, indeed, had done homage to Edward's ancestors, but in
+=1189= William the Lion had purchased from Richard I. the abandonment
+of all the claim to homage for the crown of Scotland which Henry II.
+had acquired by the treaty of Falaise (see pp. 154, 159). William's
+successors, however, held lands in England, and had done homage for
+them to the English kings. Edward would gladly have restored the old
+practice of homage for Scotland itself, but to this Alexander had
+never given way. To Edward there was something alluring in the
+prospect of being lord of the whole island, as it would not only
+strengthen his own personal position, but would bring two nations into
+peaceful union. Between the southern part of Scotland, indeed, and the
+northern part of England there was no great dissimilarity. On both
+sides of the border the bulk of the population was of the same Anglian
+stock, whilst, in consequence of the welcome offered by the Scottish
+kings to persons of Norman descent, the nobility was as completely
+Norman in Scotland as it was in England, many of the nobles indeed
+possessing lands on both sides of the border. A prospect of effecting
+a union by peaceful means offered itself to Edward in =1285=, when
+Alexander III. was killed by a fall from his horse near Kinghorn.
+Alexander's only descendant was Margaret, a child of his daughter and
+of King Eric of Norway. In =1290= it was agreed that she should marry
+the Prince of Wales, but that the two kingdoms should remain
+absolutely independent of one another. Unfortunately, the Maid of
+Norway, as the child was called, died on her way to Scotland, and this
+plan for establishing friendly relations between the two countries
+came to naught. If it had succeeded three centuries of war and misery
+might possibly have been avoided.
+
+8. =Death of Eleanor of Castile. 1290.=--Another death, which happened
+in the same year, brought sorrow into Edward's domestic life. His wife
+Eleanor died in November. The corpse was brought for burial from
+Lincoln to Westminster, and the bereaved husband ordered the erection
+of a memorial cross at each place where the body rested.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of Eleanor of Castile, queen of Edward I., in
+Westminster Abbey.]
+
+9. =The Award of Norham. 1291--1292.=--Edward, sorrowing as he was,
+was unable to neglect the affairs of State. On the death of the Maid
+of Norway there was a large number of claimants to the Scottish crown.
+The hereditary principle, which had long before been adopted in regard
+to the succession to landed property, was gradually being adopted in
+most kingdoms in regard to the succession to the crown. There were
+still, however, differences of opinion as to the manner in which
+hereditary succession ought to be reckoned, and there were now many
+claimants, of whom at least three could make out a plausible case.
+David, Earl of Huntingdon, a brother of William the Lion, had left
+three daughters. The grandson of the eldest daughter was John Balliol;
+the son of the second was Robert Bruce; the grandson of the third was
+John Hastings. Balliol maintained that he ought to succeed as being
+descended from the eldest: Bruce urged that the son of a younger
+daughter was nearer to the common ancestor, David, than the grandson
+of the elder: whilst Hastings asked that Scotland should be divided
+into three parts--according to a custom which prevailed in feudal
+estates in which the holder left only daughters--amongst the
+representatives of David's three daughters.[15] Every one of these
+three claimants was an English baron, and Bruce held large estates in
+both countries. The only escape from a desolating civil war seemed to
+be to appeal to Edward's arbitration, and in =1291= Edward summoned
+the Scots to meet him at Norham. He then demanded as the price of his
+arbitration the acknowledgment of his position as lord paramount of
+Scotland, in virtue of which the Scottish king, when he had once been
+chosen, was to do homage to himself as king of England. Edward, who
+might fairly have held that, in spite of the abandonment of the treaty
+of Falaise by Richard, he had a right to the old vague over-lordship
+of earlier kings, appears to have thought it right to take the
+opportunity of Scotland's weakness to renew the stricter relationship
+of homage which had been given up by Richard. At all events, the
+Scottish nobles and clergy accepted his demand, though the commonalty
+made some objection, the nature of which has not been recorded. Edward
+then investigated carefully the points at issue, and in =1292= decided
+in favour of Balliol. If he had been actuated by selfish motives he
+would certainly have adopted the suggestion of Hastings that Scotland
+ought to be divided into three kingdoms.
+
+ [Footnote 15: Genealogy of the claimants of the Scottish throne:--
+
+ DAVID I.
+ 1124-1153
+ |
+ Henry
+ |
+ ----------------------------------------------
+ | | |
+ MALCOLM IV. WILLIAM David, Earl of Huntingdon
+ 1153-1165 THE LION |
+ 1165-1214 -------------------------------------
+ / | | |
+ / | | |
+ / Margaret Isabella Ada
+ ALEXANDER II. _m._ Alan, Lord _m._ Robert Bruce _m._ Henry
+ 1214-1249 of Galloway | Hastings
+ | | | |
+ ALEXANDER III. Devorguilla Robert Bruce Henry
+ 1249-1285 _m._ John Balliol the Claimant Hastings
+ | | | |
+ | ---------------- | |
+ Margaret | | | John
+ _m._ Eric, king Margaret JOHN BALLIOL Robert Bruce Hastings,
+ of Norway _m._ John, the 1292-1296 | the
+ | Black Comyn | | Claimant
+ | | | |
+ Margaret, | Edward Balliol ROBERT BRUCE
+ The Maid of John, the Red 1306-1329
+ Norway Comyn]
+
+[Illustration: Cross erected near Northampton by Edward I. in memory
+of Queen Eleanor built between 1291 and 1294.]
+
+10. =Disputes with Scotland and France. 1293--1295.=--The new king of
+Scotland did homage to Edward for his whole kingdom. If Edward could
+have contented himself with enforcing the ordinary obligations of
+feudal superiority all might have gone well. Unfortunately for all
+parties, he attempted to stretch them by insisting in =1293= that
+appeals from the courts of the king of Scotland should lie to the
+courts of the king of England. Suitors found that their rights could
+not be ascertained till they had undertaken a long and costly journey
+to Westminster. A national feeling of resistance was roused amongst
+the Scots, and though Edward pressed his claims courteously, he
+continued to press them. A temper grew up in Scotland which might be
+dangerous to him if Scotland could find an ally, and an ally was not
+long in presenting himself. Philip IV. now king of France, was as wily
+and unscrupulous as Philip II. had been in the days of John. Edward
+was his vassal in Guienne and Gascony, and Philip knew how to turn the
+feudal relationship to account in France as well as Edward knew how to
+turn it to account in Scotland. The Cinque Ports[16] along the
+south-eastern shore of England swarmed with hardy and practised
+mariners, and there had often been sea-fights between French and
+English sailors quite independently of the two kings. In =1293= there
+was a great battle in which the French were worsted. Though Edward was
+ready to punish the offenders, Philip summoned him to appear as a
+vassal before his lord's court at Paris. In =1294=, however, an
+agreement was made between the two kings. Edward was for mere form's
+sake to surrender his French fortresses to Philip in token of
+submission, and Philip was then to return them. Philip, having thus
+got the fortresses into his hands, refused to return them. In =1295= a
+league was made between France and Scotland, which lasted for more
+than three hundred years. Its permanence was owing to the fact that it
+was a league between nations more than a league between kings.
+
+ [Footnote 16: Sandwich, Dover, Hythe, Romney, Hastings; to which
+ were added Winchelsea and Rye as 'ancient towns,' besides several
+ 'limbs' or dependencies.]
+
+11. =The Model Parliament. 1295.=--Edward, attacked on two sides,
+threw himself for support on the English nation. Towards the end of
+=1295= he summoned a Parliament which was in most respects the model
+for all succeeding Parliaments. It was attended not only by bishops,
+abbots, earls, and barons, by two knights from every shire, and two
+burgesses from every borough, but also by representatives of the
+chapters of cathedrals and of the parochial clergy. It cannot be said
+with any approach to certainty, whether the Parliament thus collected
+met in one House or not. As, however, the barons and knights offered
+an eleventh of the value of their movable goods, the clergy a tenth,
+and the burgesses a seventh, it is not unlikely that there was a
+separation into what in modern times would be called three Houses, at
+least for purposes of taxation. At all events, the representatives of
+the clergy subsequently refused to sit in Parliament, preferring to
+vote money to the Crown in their own convocations.
+
+[Illustration: Sir John d'Abernoun, died 1277: from his brass at Stoke
+Dabernon: showing armour worn from about 1250 to 1300.]
+
+12. =The first Conquest of Scotland. 1296.=--In =1296= Edward turned
+first upon Scotland. After he crossed the border Balliol sent to him
+renouncing his homage. "Has the felon fool done such folly?" said
+Edward. "If he will not come to us, we will go to him." He won a
+decisive victory over the Scots at Dunbar. Balliol surrendered his
+crown, and was carried off, never to reappear in Scotland. Edward set
+up no more vassal kings. He declared himself to be the immediate king
+of Scotland, Balliol having forfeited the crown by treason. The
+Scottish nobles did homage to him. On his return to England he left
+behind him the Earl of Surrey and Sir Hugh Cressingham as guardians of
+the kingdom, and he carried off from Scone the stone of destiny on
+which the Scottish kings had been crowned, and concerning which there
+had been an old prophecy to the effect that wherever that stone was
+Scottish kings should rule. The stone was placed, where it still
+remains, under the coronation-chair of the English kings in
+Westminster Abbey, and there were those long afterwards who deemed the
+prophecy fulfilled when the Scottish King James VI. came to take his
+seat on that chair as James I. of England.
+
+13. =The Resistance of Archbishop Winchelsey. 1296--1297.=--The
+dispute with France and the conquest of Scotland cost much money, and
+Edward, finding his ordinary revenue insufficient, had been driven to
+increase it by unusual means. He gathered assemblies of the merchants,
+and persuaded them without the leave of Parliament to increase the
+export duties, and he also induced the clergy in the same way to grant
+him large sums. The clergy were the first to resist. In =1296=
+Boniface VIII., a Pope who pushed to the extreme the Papal claims to
+the independence of the Church, issued the Bull, _Clericis laicos_, in
+which he declared that the clergy were not to pay taxes without the
+Pope's consent; and when at the end of the year Edward called on his
+Parliament to grant him fresh sums, Winchelsey, the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, refused, on the ground of this Bull, to allow a penny to
+be levied from the clergy. Edward, instead of arguing with him,
+directed the chief justice of the King's Bench to announce that, as
+the clergy would pay no taxes, they would no longer be protected by
+the king. The clergy now found themselves in evil case. Anyone who
+pleased could rob them or beat them, and no redress was to be had.
+They soon therefore evaded their obligation to obey the Bull, and paid
+their taxes, under the pretence that they were making presents to the
+king, on which Edward again opened his courts to them. In the days of
+Henry I. or Henry II. it would not have been possible to treat the
+clergy in this fashion. The fact was, that the mass of the people now
+looked to the king instead of to the Church for protection, and
+therefore respected the clergy less than they had done in earlier
+days.
+
+14. =The 'Confirmatio Cartarum.' 1297.=--In =1297= Edward, having
+subdued the Scots in the preceding year, resolved to conduct one army
+to Flanders, and to send another to Gascony to maintain his rights
+against Philip IV. He therefore called on his barons to take part in
+these enterprises. Amongst those ordered to go to Gascony were Roger
+Bigod, Earl of Norfolk, and Humfrey Bohun, Earl of Hereford. They
+declared that they were only bound to follow the king himself, and
+that as Edward was not going in person to Gascony they would not go.
+"By God, Sir Earl," said the king to one of them, "you shall either go
+or hang." "By God," was the reply, "I will neither go nor hang." The
+two earls soon found support. The barons were sore because Edward's
+reforms had diminished their authority. The clergy were sore because
+of their recent treatment. The merchants were sore because of the
+exactions to which they had been subjected. Archbishop Winchelsey
+bound the malcontents together by asking Edward to confirm _Magna
+Carta_ and other charters granted by his predecessors, and by adding
+other articles now proposed for the first time, so as to preclude him
+from demanding taxes not granted by Parliament. Edward found that the
+new articles restricted his action more than it had been restricted by
+the older charters. He was deeply vexed, as he thought that he
+deserved to be trusted, and that, though he had exacted illegal
+payments, he had only done so out of necessity. He saw, however, that
+he must yield, but he could not bring himself to yield in person, and
+he therefore crossed the sea to Flanders, leaving the Prince of Wales
+to make the required concession. On October 10, =1297=, the
+_Confirmatio Cartarum_, as it was called, was issued in the king's
+name. It differed from _Magna Carta_ in this, that whereas John had
+only engaged not to exact feudal revenue from his vassals without
+consent of Parliament, Edward I. also engaged not to exact customs
+duties without a Parliamentary grant. From that time no general
+revenue could be taken from the whole realm without a breach of the
+law, though the king still continued for some time to raise tallages,
+or special payments, from the tenants of his own demesne lands.
+
+15. =Wallace's Rising. 1297--1304.=--Whilst Edward was contending with
+his own people his officers had been oppressing the Scots. They had
+treated Scotland as a conquered land, not as a country joined to
+England by equal union. Resistance began in =1297=, and a rising was
+headed by Wallace, a gentleman of moderate fortune in the western
+lowlands. Wallace's bold and vigorous attacks gained him the
+confidence of the lesser gentry and the people, though the nobles,
+mostly of Norman descent, supported the English government, and only
+joined Wallace when it was dangerous to stand aloof. In the autumn, an
+English army advancing into Scotland reached the south bank of the
+Forth near Stirling. Wallace, who showed on that day that he was
+skilful as well as brave, drew up his army on the north bank at some
+little distance from the narrow bridge over which the English must
+come if they were to attack him. When half of them had crossed, he
+fell upon that half before the troops in the rear could advance to its
+succour. Wallace's victory was complete, and he then invaded England,
+ravaging and slaughtering as far as Hexham.
+
+16. =The Second Conquest of Scotland. 1298--1304.=--In =1298= Edward,
+who had been unsuccessful on the Continent, made a truce with Philip.
+Returning to England, he marched against Wallace, and came up with
+him at Falkirk. The battle which ensued, like William's victory at
+Senlac (see p. 96), was a triumph of inventive military skill over
+valour content to rest upon ancient methods. The Scots were hardy
+footmen, drawn up in three rings, and provided with long spears.
+Against such a force so armed the cavalry of the feudal array would
+dash itself in vain. Edward, however, had marked in his Welsh wars the
+superiority of the long-bow drawn to the ear--not, as in the case of
+the shorter bows of older times, to the breast of the archer--and
+sending its cloth-yard shaft with a strength and swiftness hitherto
+unknown. He now brought with him a large force of bowmen equipped in
+this fashion. At Falkirk the long-bow was tried for the first time in
+any considerable battle. The effect was overwhelming: a shower of
+arrows poured upon a single point in the ring of the spearmen soon
+cleared a gap. Edward's cavalry dashed in before the enemy had time to
+close, and the victory was won. Wallace had had scarcely one of the
+Scottish nobles with him either at Stirling or at Falkirk, and unless
+all Scotland combined he could hardly be expected to succeed against
+such a warrior as Edward. Wallace's merit was that he did not despair
+of his country, and that by his patriotic vigour he prepared the minds
+of Scotsmen for a happier day. He himself fled to France, but Scotland
+struggled on without him. Some of the nobles, now that Wallace was no
+longer present to give them cause of jealousy, took part in the
+resistance, and only in =1304= did Edward after repeated campaigns
+complete his second conquest of the country.
+
+17. =The Incorporation of Scotland with England. 1305.=--In =1305=
+Wallace, who had returned from France, but had taken no great part in
+the late resistance, was betrayed to the English. His barbarity in his
+raid on Northumberland in =1297= (see p. 221) had marked him out for
+vengeance, and he was executed at Tyburn as a traitor to the English
+king of Scotland, whose right he had never acknowledged. Edward then
+proceeded to incorporate Scotland with England. Scotland was to be
+treated very much as Wales had been treated before. There was to be as
+little harshness as possible. Nobles who had resisted Edward were to
+keep their estates on payment of fines, the Scottish law was to be
+observed, and Scots were to be chosen to represent the wishes of their
+fellow-countrymen in the Parliament at Westminster. On the other hand,
+the Scottish nobles were to surrender their castles, and the country
+was to be governed by an English Lieutenant, who, together with his
+council, had power to amend the laws.
+
+18. =Character of Edward's Dealings with Scotland.=--Edward's
+dealings with Scotland, mistaken as they were, were not those of a
+self-willed tyrant. If it be once admitted that he was really the lord
+paramount of Scotland, everything that he did may be justified upon
+feudal principles. First, Balliol forfeited his vassal crown by
+breaking his obligations as a vassal. Secondly, Edward, through the
+default of his vassal, took possession of the fief which Balliol had
+forfeited, and thus became the immediate lord of Balliol's vassals.
+Thirdly, those vassals rebelled--so at least Edward would have
+said--against their new lord. Fourthly, they thereby forfeited their
+estates to him, and he was therefore, according to his own view, in
+the right in restoring their estates to them--if he restored them at
+all--under new conditions. Satisfactory as this argument must have
+seemed to Edward, it was weak in two places. The Scots might attack it
+at its basis by retorting that Edward had never truly been lord
+paramount of Scotland at all; or they might assert that it did not
+matter whether he was so or not, because the Scottish right to
+national independence was superior to all feudal claims. It is this
+latter argument which has the most weight at the present day, and it
+seems to us strange that Edward, who had done so much to encourage the
+national growth of England, should have entirely ignored the national
+growth of Scotland. All that can be said to palliate Edward's mistake
+is that it was, at first, difficult to perceive that there was a
+Scottish nationality at all. Changes in the political aspect of
+affairs grow up unobserved, and it was not till after his death that
+all classes in Scotland were completely welded together in resistance
+to an English king. At all events, if he treated the claim of the
+Scots to national independence with contempt, he at least strove,
+according to his own notions, to benefit Scots and English alike. He
+hoped that one nation, justly ruled under one government, would grow
+up in the place of two divided peoples.
+
+19. =Robert Bruce. 1306.=--It was better even for England that
+Edward's hopes should fail. Scotland would have been of little worth
+to its more powerful neighbour if it had been cowed into subjection;
+whereas when, after struggling and suffering for her independence, she
+offered herself freely as the companion and ally of England to share
+in common duties and common efforts, the gift was priceless. That
+Scotland was able to shake off the English yoke was mainly the work of
+Robert Bruce, the grandson of the Robert Bruce who had been one of the
+claimants of the Scottish crown at Norham. The Bruces, like Balliol,
+were of Norman descent, and as Balliol's rivals they had attached
+themselves to Edward. The time was now come when all chances of
+Balliol's restoration were at an end, and thoughts of gaining the
+crown stirred in the mind of the younger Bruce. After Edward's last
+settlement of Scotland it was plain that there was no longer room for
+a Scottish vassal king, and Bruce was therefore driven to connect his
+own aspirations with those of the Scottish nation. He had, however,
+one powerful rival amongst the nobles. John Comyn--the Red Comyn, as
+he was called--had been one of the many claimants of the throne who
+appeared before Edward at Norham, and he still looked with a jealous
+eye upon all who disputed his title. He was, however, persuaded in
+=1306= to meet Bruce in the Grey Friars Church at Dumfries. As Bruce
+pleaded his own right to the crown, Comyn denounced him as a traitor
+to Edward. Bruce answered by driving his dagger into him. "I doubt,"
+cried Bruce, as he rushed from the church, "that I have slain the Red
+Comyn." "I will mak sicker" (_make sure_), said Kirkpatrick, who was
+in attendance upon him, and, going in, completed the murder. Bruce
+made for Scone and was crowned king of Scotland in the presence of
+many of the chief nobility.
+
+20. =Edward's Last March on Scotland and Death. 1306--1307.= Edward,
+to whom Bruce was but a rebel and a murderer, despatched against him
+the Earl of Pembroke who routed his forces at Methven. The revolt was
+suppressed and Bruce's supporters were carried off to English prisons,
+and their lands divided amongst English noblemen. The Countess of
+Buchan, who had taken a prominent part in Bruce's coronation, was
+subjected to an imprisonment of great severity in the castle of
+Berwick. Bruce almost alone escaped. He knew now that he had the
+greater part of the nobility as well as the people at his side, and
+even in his lonely wanderings and hairbreadth escapes he was, what
+neither Balliol nor Wallace had been, the true head of the Scottish
+nation. Before the end of =1306= he reappeared in Carrick, where his
+own possessions lay, and where the whole population was on his side,
+and inflicted heavy losses on the English garrisons. Early in July
+=1307= Edward, who himself had tarried in Cumberland, once more set
+out to take the field in person; but he was now old and worn out, and
+he died at Burgh on Sands, a few miles on the English side of the
+border.
+
+[Illustration: Edward II.; from his monument in Gloucester Cathedral.]
+
+21. =Edward II. and Piers Gaveston. 1307--1312.=--The new king, Edward
+II., was as different as possible from his father. He was not wicked,
+like William II. and John, but he detested the trouble of public
+business, and thought that the only advantage of being a king was that
+he would have leisure to amuse himself. During his father's life he
+devoted himself to Piers Gaveston, a Gascon, who encouraged him in
+his pleasures and taught him to mistrust his father. Edward I.
+banished Gaveston; Edward II., immediately on his accession, not only
+recalled him, but made him regent when he himself crossed to France to
+be married to Isabella, the daughter of Philip IV. The barons, who
+were already inclined to win back some of the authority of which
+Edward I. had deprived them, were very angry at the place taken over
+their heads by an upstart favourite, especially as Gaveston was
+ill-bred enough to make jests at their expense. The barons found a
+leader in Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, the son of that Edmund, the
+brother of Edward I., who had received the title of king of Sicily
+from the Pope (see p. 197). Thomas of Lancaster had very large
+estates. He was an ambitious man, who tried to play the part which had
+been played by Earl Simon without any of Simon's qualifications for
+the position. In =1308= the king yielded to the barons so far as to
+send Gaveston out of the country to Ireland as his Lieutenant. In
+=1309= he recalled him. The barons were exasperated, and in the
+Parliament of =1310= they brought forward a plan for taking the
+king's government out of his hands, very much after the fashion of the
+Provisions of Oxford. Twenty-one barons were appointed Lords
+Ordainers, to draw up ordinances for the government of the country. In
+=1311= they produced the ordinances. Gaveston was to be banished for
+life. The king was to appoint officers only with the consent of the
+barons, without which he was not to go to war nor leave the kingdom.
+The ordinances may have been justified in so far as they restrained
+the authority of a king so incapable as Edward II. Constitutionally
+their acceptance was a retrograde step, as, like the Provisions of
+Oxford, they placed power in the hands of the barons, passing over
+Parliament as a whole. Edward agreed to the ordinances, but refused to
+surrender Gaveston. The barons took arms to enforce their will, and in
+=1312=, having captured Gaveston, they beheaded him near Warwick
+without the semblance of a trial.
+
+22. =Success of Robert Bruce. 1307--1314.=--Whilst Edward and the
+barons were disputing Bruce gained ground rapidly. In =1313= Stirling
+was the only fortress of importance in Scotland still garrisoned by
+the English, and the English garrison bound itself to surrender on
+June 24, =1314=, if it had not been previously relieved. Even Edward
+II. was stirred by this doleful news, and in =1314= he put himself at
+the head of an army to relieve Stirling. Lancaster, however, and all
+whom he could influence refused to follow him, on the ground that the
+king had not, in accordance with the ordinances, received permission
+from the barons to go to war. On June 24 Edward reached Bannockburn,
+within sight of Stirling. Like his father, he brought with him English
+archers as well as English horsemen, but he foolishly sent his archers
+far in advance of his horsemen, where they would be entirely
+unprotected. Bruce, on the other hand, not only had a small body of
+horse, which rode down the archers, but he strengthened the defensive
+position of his spearmen by digging pits in front of his line and
+covering them with turf. Into these pits the foremost horses of the
+English cavalry plunged. Edward's whole array was soon one mass of
+confusion, and before it could recover itself a body of gillies, or
+camp-followers, appearing over a hill was taken for a fresh Scottish
+army. The vast English host turned and fled. Stirling at once
+surrendered, and all Scotland was lost to Edward. Materially, both
+England and Scotland suffered grievously from the result of the battle
+of Bannockburn. English invasions of southern Scotland and Scottish
+invasions of northern England spread desolation far and wide, stifling
+the germs of nascent civilisation. Morally, both nations were in the
+end the gainers. The hardihood and self-reliance of the Scottish
+character is distinctly to be traced to those years of struggle
+against a powerful neighbour. England, too, was the better for being
+balked of its prey. No nation can suppress the liberty of another
+without endangering its own.
+
+[Illustration: Lincoln Cathedral--the central tower; built about
+1310.]
+
+23. =Lancaster's Government. 1314--1322.=--Edward was thrown by his
+defeat entirely under the power of Lancaster, who took the whole
+authority into his hands and placed and displaced ministers at his
+pleasure. Lancaster, however, was a selfish and incompetent ruler. He
+allowed the Scots to ravage the north of England without venturing to
+oppose them, and as he could not even keep order at home, private wars
+broke out amongst the barons. In =1318= Bruce took Berwick, the great
+border fortress against Scotland. It was rather by good luck than by
+good management that Edward was at last able to resist Lancaster.
+Edward could not exist without a personal favourite, and he found one
+in Hugh le Despenser. Despenser was at least an Englishman, which
+Gaveston had not been, and his father, Hugh le Despenser the elder,
+did his best to raise up a party to support the king. In =1321=,
+however, Parliament, under Lancaster's influence, declared against
+them and sentenced them to exile. Edward took arms for his favourites,
+and in =1322= defeated Lancaster at Boroughbridge, and then had him
+tried and beheaded at Pontefract.
+
+24. =A Constitutional Settlement. 1322.=--Favourites as they were, the
+Despensers had at least the merit of seeing that the king could not
+overpower the barons by the mere assertion of his personal authority.
+At a Parliament held at York in =1322=, the king obtained the
+revocation of the ordinances, and a declaration that 'matters to be
+established for the estate of our lord the king and of his heirs, and
+for the estate of the realm and of the people, shall be treated,
+accorded, and established in Parliaments by our lord the king, and by
+the consent of the prelates, earls and barons, and commonalty of the
+realm, according as hath been hitherto accustomed.' Edward I. had in
+=1295= gathered a full Parliament, including the commons. But there
+was no law to prevent him or his successors excluding the commons on
+some future occasion. Edward II. by this declaration, issued with
+consent of Parliament, confirmed his father's practice by a
+legislative act. Unless the law were broken or repealed, no future
+statute could come into existence without the consent of the commons.
+
+25. =The Rule of the Despensers. 1322--1326.=--For some years after
+the execution of Lancaster, Edward, or rather the Despensers, retained
+power, but it was power which did not work for good. In =1323= Edward
+made a truce with Scotland, but the cessation of foreign war did not
+bring with it a cessation of troubles at home. Edward was entirely
+unable to control his favourites. The elder Despenser was covetous and
+the younger Despenser haughty, and they both made enemies for
+themselves and the king. Queen Isabella was alienated from her
+husband, partly by his exclusive devotion to the Despensers and partly
+by the contempt which an active woman is apt to feel for a husband
+without a will of his own. In =1325= she went to France, and was soon
+followed by her eldest son, named Edward after his father. From that
+moment she conspired against her husband. In =1326= she landed,
+accompanied by her paramour, Robert Mortimer, and bringing with her
+foreign troops. The barons rose in her favour. London joined them, and
+all resistance was speedily beaten down. The elder Despenser was
+hanged by the queen at Bristol. The younger was hanged, after a form
+of trial, at Hereford.
+
+[Illustration: Sir John de Creke; from his brass at Westley Waterless,
+Cambridgeshire: showing armour worn between 1300 and 1335 or 1340.
+Date, about 1325.]
+
+26. =The Deposition and Murder of Edward II. 1327.=--Early in =1327= a
+Parliament met at Westminster. It was filled with the king's enemies,
+and under pressure from the queen and Mortimer Edward II. was
+compelled to sign a declaration of his own wrong-doing and
+incompetency, after which he formally resigned the crown. He was
+allowed to live for eight months, at the end of which he was brutally
+murdered in Berkeley Castle. The deposition of Edward II.--for his
+enforced resignation was practically nothing less than that--was the
+work of a faithless wife and of unscrupulous partisans, but at least
+they clothed their vengeance in the forms of Parliamentary action. It
+was by the action of Parliament in loosing the feudal ties by which
+vassals were bound to an unworthy king, that it rose to the full
+position of being the representative of the nation, and at the same
+time virtually proclaimed that the wants of the nation must be
+satisfied at the expense of the feudal claims of the king. The
+national headship of the king would from henceforward be the
+distinguishing feature of his office, whilst his feudal right to
+personal service would grow less and less important every year.
+
+[Illustration: Howden Church, Yorkshire--the west front; built about
+1310-1320. The tower was built between 1390 and 1407.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD III. TO THE TREATY OF BRETIGNI.
+
+1327--1360.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Edward III., 1327--1377
+
+ Accession of Edward III. 1327
+ Beginning of the War with France 1337
+ Battle of Crecy 1346
+ The Black Death 1348
+ Battle of Poitiers 1356
+ Treaty of Bretigni 1360
+
+
+1. =Mortimer's Government. 1327--1330.=--Edward III. was only fifteen
+at his accession. For three years power was in the hands of his
+mother's paramour, Mortimer. Robert Bruce, though old and smitten with
+leprosy, was still anxious to wring from England an acknowledgment of
+Scottish independence, and, in spite of the existing truce, sent an
+army to ravage the northern counties of England. Edward led in person
+against it an English force far superior in numbers and equipment; but
+the English soldier needed many things, whilst the Scot contented
+himself with a little oatmeal carried on the back of his hardy pony.
+If he grew tired of that he had but to seize an English sheep or cow
+and to boil the flesh in the hide. Such an army was difficult to come
+up with. Fighting there was none, except once when the Scots broke
+into the English camp at night and almost succeeded in carrying off
+the young king. Mortimer was at his wits' end, and in =1328= agreed to
+a treaty acknowledging the complete independence of Scotland. It was a
+wise thing to do, but no nation likes to acknowledge failure, and
+Mortimer became widely unpopular. He succeeded indeed in breaking up a
+conspiracy against himself, and in =1330= even executed Edmund, Earl
+of Kent, a brother of Edward II. The discontented barons found another
+leader in the king, who, young as he was, had been married at fifteen
+to Philippa of Hainault. Though he was already a father, he was still
+treated by Mortimer as a child, and was virtually kept a prisoner. At
+Nottingham he introduced a body of Mortimer's enemies into the castle
+through a secret passage in the rock on which it stood. His mother
+pleaded in vain for her favourite: "Fair son, have pity on the gentle
+Mortimer." Mortimer was hanged, and Queen Isabella was never again
+allowed to take part in public affairs.
+
+2. =The French Succession. 1328--1331.=--Isabella's three brothers,
+Louis X., Philip V., and Charles IV., had successively reigned in
+France. Louis X. died in =1316=, leaving behind him a daughter and a
+posthumous son, who died a week after his birth. Then Philip V. seized
+the crown, his lawyers asserting that, according to the Salic law, 'no
+part of the heritage of Salic land can fall to a woman,' and that
+therefore no woman could rule in France. As a matter of fact this was
+a mere quibble of the lawyers. The Salic law had been the law of the
+Salian Franks in the fifth century, and had to do with the inheritance
+of estates, not with the inheritance of the throne of France, which
+was not at that time in existence. The quibble, however, was used on
+the right side. What Frenchmen wanted was that France should remain an
+independent nation, which it was not likely to do under a queen who
+might marry the king of another country. The rule thus laid down was
+permanently adopted in France. When Philip V. died in =1322= the
+throne passed, not to his daughter, but to his brother, Charles IV.,
+and when Charles died in =1328=, to his cousin, Philip of Valois, who
+reigned as Philip VI. At that time England was still under the control
+of Mortimer and Isabella, and though Isabella, being the sister of
+Charles IV., thought of claiming the crown, not for herself, but for
+her son, Mortimer did not press the claim. In =1329= he sent Edward to
+do homage to Philip VI. for his French possessions, but Edward only
+did it with certain reservations, and in =1330= preparations for war
+were made in England. In =1331=, after Mortimer's fall, when Edward
+was his own master, he again visited France, and a treaty was
+concluded between the two kings in which he abandoned the reservations
+on his homage.
+
+[Illustration: Effigies of Edward III. and Queen Philippa; from their
+tombs in Westminster Abbey.]
+
+3. =Troubles in Scotland. 1329--1336.=--On his return, Edward looked
+in another direction. In =1329= Robert Bruce died, leaving his crown
+to his son, David II., a child five years old. Certain English
+noblemen had in the late treaty (see p. 231) been promised restoration
+of the estates of their ancestors in Scotland, and in =1332= some of
+them, finding the promise unfulfilled, offered English forces to John
+Balliol's son, Edward, to help him to the Scottish crown. Aided by
+his English allies, Edward Balliol landed in Scotland, defeated the
+Scottish army at Dupplin, and was crowned king. Before the end of the
+year he was surprised at Annan, and fled to England to appeal to
+Edward for help. Though Edward had all the love of enterprise of his
+grandfather, Edward I., yet there was a marked contrast between the
+deliberate calculation of Edward I. and the almost accidental way in
+which Edward III. involved himself in an attempt to regain the
+lordship of Scotland. In =1333= he laid siege to Berwick, then in the
+hands of the Scots. The Scots advanced into England, and their
+spearmen crossed a marsh to attack the English array of knights and
+archers posted on the slope of Halidon Hill. The arrows poured like
+rain on their struggling columns. The Scots were thrown into
+confusion, and their whole army was almost destroyed. Berwick was
+regained, and Bannockburn, it seemed, was avenged. Edward not only set
+up Balliol as his vassal, but compelled him to yield all Scotland
+south of the Forth to be annexed to England. Such a settlement could
+not last. Balliol was as weak as his father had been, and the Scots,
+recovering courage, drove him out in =1334=. Edward invaded Scotland
+again and again. As long as he was in the country he was strong enough
+to keep his puppet on the throne, but whenever he returned to England
+David Bruce's supporters regained strength. The struggle promised to
+be lengthy unless help came to the Scots.
+
+4. =Dispute with France. 1336--1337.=--Philip VI., like Philip IV. in
+the days of Edward I. (see p. 218), had his own reasons for not
+allowing the Scots to be crushed. He pursued the settled policy of his
+predecessors in attempting to bring the great fiefs into his power,
+and especially that part of Aquitaine which was still held by the most
+powerful of his vassals, the king of England. Whilst Edward was doing
+his best to bring Scotland into subjection by open war, Philip was
+doing his best to disturb Edward in his hold upon Aquitaine by secret
+intrigues and legal chicanery. Ill-feeling increased on both sides.
+Philip welcomed David Bruce and gave him protection in France, and in
+=1336= French sailors attacked English shipping and landed plunderers
+in the Isle of Wight. In =1337= Edward determined to resist, and the
+long war roughly known as the Hundred Years' War began. It was in
+reality waged to discover by an appeal to arms whether the whole of
+Aquitaine was to be incorporated with France and whether Scotland was
+to be incorporated with England. That which gave it its peculiar
+bitterness was, however, not so much the claims of the kings, as the
+passions of their subjects. The national antagonism aroused by the
+plunderings of French sea-rovers would be invigorated by the
+plunderings of Englishmen in the fields of France.
+
+5. =Edward's Allies. 1337--1338.=--To Edward it was merely a question
+of defending, first England, and then Aquitaine, against aggression.
+He won over, with large offers of money, the alliance of the princes
+of the Empire whose lands lay round the French frontier to the north
+and east, and even gained the support of the Emperor Lewis the
+Bavarian. His relations with Flanders were even more important. In
+Flanders there had sprung up great manufacturing towns, such as Ghent,
+Bruges, and Ypres, which worked up into cloth the wool which was the
+produce of English sheep. These wealthy towns claimed political
+independence, and thus came into collision with their feudal lord, the
+Count of Flanders. Early in the reign of Philip VI., the Count, who
+held the greater part of his lands from the king of France, had
+appealed to Philip for support, and Philip, who, unlike his wiser
+predecessors, despised the strength which he might gain from the
+goodwill of citizens in a struggle against their lords, took the part
+of the Count, and for a time crushed the citizens at the battle of
+Cassel. After a while the cities recovered themselves, and formed an
+alliance under the leadership of Jacob van Arteveldt, a Flemish
+nobleman, who had ingratiated himself with them by enrolling himself
+amongst the brewers of Ghent, and who was now successful in urging his
+countrymen to enter into friendship with Edward.
+
+6. =Chivalry and War.=--In the long run Edward's cause would be found
+a losing one, but there were circumstances which made it prevail for a
+time. In France there was a broad distinction between gentlemen on the
+one side and citizens and peasants on the other. The gentlemen
+despised all who were not of their own class. In earlier days there
+had sprung up a view of life known as chivalry, which taught that the
+knight was bound to observe the laws of honour, to fight fairly, to
+treat with courtesy a defeated enemy, and to protect women and all who
+were unable to help themselves. Ennobling as the idea was, it had been
+narrowed by the refusal of the gentlemen to extend the rules of
+chivalry beyond their own order, and they were, therefore, ready to
+exercise cruelty upon those who were not gentlemen, whilst proffering
+the most high-flown compliments to those who were. In France, too,
+this broad distinction of ranks told upon the military strength of the
+crown. The fighting force of the French king was his feudal array of
+armour-protected cavalry, composed entirely of gentlemen, and aiming
+at deciding battles in the old fashion by the rush of horsemen. If
+foot soldiers were brought at all into the field they were, for the
+most part, ill armed and ill trained peasants, exposed to be
+helplessly slaughtered by the horsemen.
+
+[Illustration: A knight--Sir Geoffrey Luttrell, who died
+1345--receiving his helm and pennon from his wife. Another lady holds
+his shield.]
+
+7. =Commerce and War.=--In England, on the other hand, the various
+orders of society had been welded together into a united people. The
+king and his vassals indeed still talked the language of chivalry, but
+they were wise enough to seek strength elsewhere. War had become in
+England the affair of the nation, and no longer the affair of a class.
+It must be waged with efficient archers as well as with efficient
+horsemen, the archers being drawn from the class of yeomen or free
+landed proprietors of small plots of land, which was entirely wanting
+in France. Such an army needed pay, and the large sums required for
+the purpose could only be extracted from a nation which, like the
+English, had grown comparatively rich because it was at peace within
+its own borders. Edward was compelled, if he wanted to fight, to
+encourage trade, though it is only fair to remember that he showed
+himself ready to encourage trade without any such ulterior object. He
+brought Flemish weavers into England, and did his best to improve the
+feeble woollen manufacture of the Eastern counties. His great
+resource, however, for purposes of taxation, was the export of wool to
+the Flemish manufacturing towns. Sometimes he persuaded Parliament to
+raise the duties upon exported wool; sometimes he raised them, by an
+evasion of the law, after making a private compact with the merchants
+without consulting Parliament at all; sometimes he turned merchant
+himself and bought wool cheaply in England to sell it dear in
+Flanders. It was said of a great minister of later times that he made
+trade flourish by means of war.[17] It might be said with greater
+truth of Edward III. that he made war flourish by means of trade.
+
+ [Footnote 17: See the inscription on the monument to the elder Pitt
+ in the Guildhall, in the City of London.]
+
+[Illustration: William of Hatfield, second son of Edward III.; from
+his tomb in York Minster: showing rich costume worn by the youth of
+the upper classes about 1340. The embroidery on the tunic has been
+partly worn off on the effigy.]
+
+[Illustration: York Minster:--The nave, looking west, built during the
+first half of the fourteenth century. The west window was completed
+and glazed in 1338.]
+
+8. =Attacks on the North of France. 1338--1340.=--Great as was
+Edward's advantage in having a united nation at his back, it hardly
+seemed in the first years of the war as though he knew how to use it.
+Though he had declared war against Philip in =1337=, he did not begin
+hostilities till the following year. In =1338=, after landing at
+Antwerp, he obtained from the Emperor Lewis the title of Imperial
+Vicar, which gave him a right to the military services of the vassals
+of the Empire. Crowds of German and Low Country lords pressed into his
+ranks, but they all wanted high pay, and his resources, great as
+they were, were soon exhausted, and he had to pawn his crowns to
+satisfy their needs. These lords proved as useless as they were
+expensive. In =1339= Edward crossed the French frontier, but he could
+not induce Philip to fight, and being deserted by his German allies,
+he was obliged to return to England. He then attempted to fall back on
+the support of the Flemings, but was told by them that unless he
+formally took the title of king of France, which he had only
+occasionally done before, they could not fight for him, as the king of
+France, whoever he might be, was their superior lord, and as such had
+a claim to their services. After some hesitation, in the beginning of
+=1340=, Edward satisfied their scruples by reviving the claim which he
+had formerly abandoned, declaring himself to be, in right of his
+mother, the lawful king of France; and quartering the French arms with
+his own. A third territorial question was thus added to the other two.
+Practically Edward's answer to Philip's effort to absorb all Aquitaine
+in France was a counter-demand that all France should be absorbed in
+England.
+
+[Illustration: Royal arms of Edward III., adopted in 1340 and used
+till about 1405. From the tomb of Edward III.]
+
+9. =Battle of Sluys. 1340.=--Edward had not yet learnt to place
+confidence in those English archers who had served him so well at
+Halidon Hill. In =1340=, however, he found himself engaged in a
+conflict which should have taught him where his true strength lay. The
+French navy held the Channel, and had burnt Southampton. The fleet of
+the Cinque Ports was no longer sufficient to cope with the enemy.
+Edward proudly announced that he, like his progenitors, was the lord
+of the English sea on every side, and called out every vessel upon
+which he could lay hands. The result was a naval victory at Sluys, in
+which well-nigh the whole French fleet was absolutely destroyed. It
+was by the English archers that the day was won. So complete was the
+victory that no one dared to tell the ill news to Philip, till his
+jester called out to him, "What cowards those English are!" "Because,"
+he explained, "they did not dare to leap into the sea as our brave
+Frenchmen did."
+
+10. =Attacks on the West of France. 1341--1345.=--If Edward was to
+obtain still greater success, he had but to fight with a national
+force behind him on land as he had fought at sea; but he was slow to
+learn the lesson. Personally he was as chivalrous as Philip, and
+thought that far more could be done by the charge of knights on
+horseback than by the cloth-yard shafts of the English bowmen. For six
+more years he frittered away his strength. There was a disputed
+succession in Brittany, and one of the claimants, John of Montfort,
+ranged himself on the side of the English. There was fighting in
+Brittany and fighting on the borders of Edward's lands in Aquitaine,
+but up to the end of =1345= there was no decisive result on either
+side. In Scotland, too, things had been going so badly for Edward that
+in =1341= David Bruce had been able to return, and was now again
+ruling over his own people.
+
+11. =The Campaign of Crecy. 1346.=--Surprising as Edward's neglect to
+force on a battle in France appears to us, it must be remembered that
+in those days it was far more difficult to bring on an engagement than
+it is in the present day. Fortified towns and castles were then almost
+impregnable, except when they were starved out; and it was therefore
+seldom necessary for a commander--on other grounds unwilling to
+fight--to risk a battle in order to save an important post from
+capture. Edward, however, does not appear to have thought that there
+was anything to be gained by fighting. In =1346= he led a large
+English army into Normandy, taking with him his eldest son, afterwards
+known as the Black Prince, at that time a lad of sixteen. It had been
+from Normandy and Calais that the fleets had put out by which the
+coasts of England had been ravaged, and Edward now deliberately
+ravaged Normandy. He then marched on, apparently intending to take
+refuge in Flanders. As the French had broken the bridges over the
+Seine, he was driven to ascend the bank of the river almost to Paris
+before he could cross. His burnings and his ravages continued till
+Philip, stung to anger, pursued him with an army more than twice as
+numerous as his own. Edward had the Somme to cross on his way, and the
+bridges over that river had been broken by the French, as those over
+the Seine had been broken; and but for the opportune discovery of a
+ford at Blanche Tache Edward would have been obliged to fight with an
+impassable river at his back. When he was once over the Somme he
+refused--not from any considerations of generalship, but from a point
+of honour--to continue his retreat further. He halted on a gentle
+slope near the village of Crecy facing eastwards, as Philip's force
+had swept round to avoid difficulties in the ground, and was
+approaching from that direction.
+
+[Illustration: Shooting at the butts with the long-bow.]
+
+12. =The Tactics of Crecy. 1346.=--Great as was Edward's advantage in
+possessing an army so diverse in its composition as that which he
+commanded, it would have availed him little if he had not known how to
+order that army for battle. At once it appeared that his skill as a
+tactician was as great as his weakness as a strategist. His experience
+at Halidon Hill (see p. 234) had taught him that the archers could
+turn the tide of battle against any direct attack, however violent. He
+knew, too, from the tradition of Bannockburn (see p. 226), that
+archers could readily be crushed by a cavalry charge on the flank; and
+he was well aware that his own horsemen were in too small numbers to
+hold out against the vast host of the French cavalry. He therefore
+drew up his line of archers between the two villages of Crecy and
+Vadicourt, though his force was not large enough to extend from one to
+the other. He then ordered the bulk of his horsemen to dismount and to
+place themselves with levelled spears in bodies at intervals in the
+line of archers. The innovation was thoroughly reasonable, as spearmen
+on foot would be able to check the fiercest charge of horse, if only
+the horse could be exposed to a shower of arrows. The English army was
+drawn up in three corps, two of them in the front line. The Black
+Prince was in command of one of the two bodies in front, whilst the
+king himself took charge of the third corps, which acted as a reserve
+in the rear.
+
+13. =The Battle of Crecy. August 26, 1346.=--When Philip drew nigh in
+the evening his host was weary and hungry. He ordered his knights to
+halt, but each one was thinking, not of obeying orders, but of
+securing a place in the front, where he might personally distinguish
+himself. Those in the rear pushed on, and in a few minutes the whole
+of the French cavalry became a disorganised mob. Then Philip ordered
+15,000 Genoese crossbowmen to advance against the enemy. At the best a
+crossbow was inferior to the English long-bow, as it was weaker in its
+action and consumed more time between each shot. To make matters
+worse, a heavy shower of rain had wetted the strings of the unlucky
+Genoese, rendering their weapons useless. The English had covers for
+their bows, and had kept them dry. The thick shower of their arrows
+drove the Genoese back. Philip took their retreat for cowardice. "Kill
+me those scoundrels!" he cried, and the French knights rode in amongst
+them, slaughtering them at every stride. Then the French horsemen
+charged the English lines. Some one amongst the Black Prince's retinue
+took alarm, and hurried to the king to conjure him to advance to the
+son's assistance. Edward knew better. "Is he dead?" he asked, "or so
+wounded that he cannot help himself?" "No, sire, please God," was the
+reply, "but he is in a hard passage of arms, and he much needs your
+help." "Return," answered the king, "to those that sent you, and tell
+them not to send to me again so long as my son lives; I command them
+to let the boy win his spurs." The French were driven off with
+terrible slaughter, and the victory was won. It was a victory of foot
+soldiers over horse soldiers--of a nation in which all ranks joined
+heartily together over one in which all ranks except that of the
+gentry were despised. Edward III. had contributed a high spirit and a
+keen sense of honour, but it was to the influence of Edward I.--to his
+wide and far-reaching statesmanship, and his innovating military
+genius--that the victory of Crecy was really due.
+
+14. =Battle of Nevill's Cross, and the Siege of Calais.
+1346--1347.=--Whilst Edward was fighting in France, the Scots invaded
+England, but they were defeated at Nevill's Cross, and their king,
+David Bruce (David II.), taken prisoner. Edward, when the news reached
+him, had laid siege to Calais. In this siege cannon,[18] which had
+been used in earlier sieges of the war, were employed, but they were
+too badly made and loaded with too little gunpowder to do much damage.
+In =1347= Calais was starved into surrender, and Edward, who regarded
+the town as a nest of pirates, ordered six of the principal burgesses
+to come out with ropes round their necks, as a sign that they were to
+be put to death. It was only at Queen Philippa's intercession that he
+spared their lives, but he drove every Frenchman out of Calais, and
+peopled it with his own subjects. A truce with Philip was agreed on,
+and Edward returned to England.
+
+ [Footnote 18: It has been said that they were used at Crecy, but
+ this is uncertain.]
+
+[Illustration: Contemporary view of a fourteenth-century walled town.]
+
+[Illustration: Gloucester Cathedral. The choir, looking east: built
+between 1340 and 1350.]
+
+15. =Constitutional Progress. 1337--1347.=--Edward III. had begun his
+reign as a constitutional ruler, and on the whole he had no reason to
+regret it. In his wars with France and Scotland he had the popular
+feeling with him, and he showed his reliance on it when, in =1340=, he
+consented to the abolition of his claim to impose tallage on his
+demesne lands (see p. 221)--the sole fragment of unparliamentary
+taxation legally retained by the king after the _Confirmatio
+Cartarum_. In =1341= the two Houses of Parliament finally separated
+from one another, and when Edward picked a quarrel with Archbishop
+Stratford, the Lords successfully insisted that no member of their
+House could be tried excepting by his peers. The Commons, on the other
+hand, were striving--not always successfully--to maintain their hold
+upon taxation. In =1341= they made Edward a large money grant on
+condition of his yielding to their demands, and Edward (whose
+constitutional intentions were seldom proof against his wish to retain
+the power of the purse) shamelessly broke his engagement after
+receiving the money. On other occasions the Commons were more
+successful; yet, after all, the composition of their House was of more
+importance than any special victory they might gain. In it the county
+members--or knights of the shire--sat side by side with the burgesses
+of the towns. In no other country in Europe would this have been
+possible. The knights of the shire were gentlemen, who on the
+Continent were reckoned amongst the nobility, and despised townsmen
+far too much to sit in the same House with them. In England there was
+the same amalgamation of classes in Parliament as on the
+battle-field. When once gentlemen and burgesses formed part of the
+same assembly, they would come to have common interests; and, in any
+struggle in which the merchants were engaged, it would be a great gain
+to them that a class of men trained to arms would be inclined to take
+their part.
+
+[Illustration: The upper chamber or solar at Sutton Courtenay
+manor-house. Date, about 1350.]
+
+[Illustration: Interior of the Hall at Penshurst, Kent: showing the
+screen with minstrels' gallery over it, and the brazier for fire in
+the middle: built about 1340.]
+
+16. =Edward's Triumph. 1347.=--Edward's return after the surrender of
+Calais was followed by an outburst of luxury. As the sea-rovers of
+Normandy and Calais had formerly plundered Englishmen, English
+landsmen now plundered Normandy and Calais. "There was no woman who
+had not gotten garments, furs, feather-beds, and utensils from the
+spoils." Edward surrounded himself with feasting and jollity. About
+this time he instituted the Order of the Garter, and his tournaments
+were thronged with gay knights and gayer ladies in gorgeous attires.
+The very priests caught the example, and decked themselves in
+unclerical garments. Even architecture lent itself to the prevailing
+taste for magnificence. The beautiful Decorated style which had come
+into use towards the end of the reign of Edward I.--and which may be
+seen[19] in the central tower of Lincoln Cathedral (see p. 227), in
+the west front of Howden Church (see p. 230), and in the nave of York
+Minster (see p. 238)--was, in the reign of Edward III., superseded by
+the Perpendicular style, in which beauty of form was abandoned for the
+sake of breadth, as in the choir of Gloucester and the nave of
+Winchester (see pp. 244, 276). Roofs become wide, as in the Hall of
+Penshurst (see p. 246), and consequently halls were larger and better
+adapted to crowded gatherings than those at Meare and Norborough (p.
+247).
+
+ [Footnote 19: Lichfield Cathedral (p. 213) is transitional.]
+
+[Illustration: A small house or cottage at Meare, Somerset. Built
+about 1350.]
+
+[Illustration: Norborough Hall, Northamptonshire. A manor-house built
+about 1350. The dormer windows and addition to the left are of much
+later date.]
+
+17. =The Black Death. 1348.=--In the midst of this luxurious society
+arrived, in =1348=, a terrible plague which had been sweeping over
+Asia and Europe, and which in modern times has been styled the Black
+Death. No plague known to history was so destructive of life. Half of
+the population certainly perished, and some think that the number of
+those who died must be reckoned at two-thirds.
+
+[Illustration: Ploughing.]
+
+[Illustration: Harrowing. A boy slinging stones at the birds.]
+
+[Illustration: Breaking the clods with mallets.]
+
+[Illustration: Cutting weeds.]
+
+[Illustration: Reaping.]
+
+18. =The Statute of Labourers. 1351.=--This enormous destruction of
+life could not fail to have important results on the economic
+condition of the country. The process of substituting money rents for
+labour service, which had begun some generations before (see p. 168),
+had become very general at the accession of Edward III. so that the
+demesne land which the lord kept in his own hands was on most estates
+cultivated by hired labour. Now, when at least half of the labourers
+had disappeared, those who remained, having less competition to fear,
+demanded higher wages, whilst at the same time the price of the
+produce of the soil was the same or less than it had been before. The
+question affected not merely the great lords but the smaller gentry
+as well. The House of Commons, which was filled with the smaller
+gentry and the well-to-do townsmen--who were also employers of
+labour--was therefore as eager as the House of Lords to keep down
+wages. In =1351= the Statute of Labourers was passed, fixing a scale
+of wages at the rates which had been paid before the Black Death, and
+ordering punishments to be inflicted on those who demanded more. It is
+not necessary to suppose that the legislators had any tyrannical
+intentions. For ages all matters relating to agriculture had been
+fixed by custom; and the labourers were outrageously violating custom.
+Custom, however, here found itself in opposition to the forces of
+nature, and though the statute was often renewed, with increasing
+penalties, it was difficult to secure obedience to it in the teeth of
+the opposition of the labourers. The chief result of the statute was
+that it introduced an element of discord between two classes of
+society.
+
+[Illustration: Stacking corn.]
+
+[Illustration: Threshing corn with the flail.]
+
+19. =The Statute of Treasons. 1352.=--In =1352= was passed the Statute
+of Treasons, by which the offences amounting to treason were defined,
+the chief of them being levying war against the king. As no one but a
+great nobleman was strong enough even to think of levying war against
+the king, this statute may be regarded as a concession to the
+wealthier landowners rather than to the people at large.
+
+20. =The Black Prince in the South of France. 1355.=--In =1350= Philip
+VI. of France died, and was succeeded by his son John. The truce (see
+p. 243) was prolonged, and it was not till =1355= that war was
+renewed. Edward himself was recalled to England by fresh troubles in
+Scotland, but the Black Prince landed at Bordeaux and marched through
+the south of France, plundering as he went. Neither father nor son
+seems to have had any idea of gaining their ends except by driving the
+French by ill-treatment into submission. "You must know," wrote a
+contemporary in describing the condition of southern Languedoc, "that
+this was, before, one of the fat countries of the world, the people
+good and simple, who did not know what war was, and no war had ever
+been waged against them before the Prince of Wales came. The English
+and Gascons found the country full and gay, the rooms furnished with
+carpets and draperies, the caskets and chests full of beautiful
+jewels; but nothing was safe from these robbers." The Prince returned
+to Bordeaux laden with spoils.
+
+21. =The Battle of Poitiers. 1356.=--In =1356= the Black Prince swept
+over central France in another similar plundering expedition. He was
+on his way back with his plunder to Bordeaux with no more than 8,000
+men to guard it when he learnt as he passed near Poitiers that King
+John was close to him with 50,000. He drew up his little force on a
+rising ground amidst thick vineyards, with a hedge in front of him
+behind which he could shelter his archers. As at Crecy, the greater
+part of the English horsemen were dismounted, and John, thinking that
+therein lay their secret of success, ordered most of his horsemen to
+dismount as well, not having discovered that though spearmen on foot
+could present a formidable resistance to a cavalry charge, they were
+entirely useless in attacking a strong position held by archers. Then
+he sent forward 300 knights who retained their horses, bidding a
+strong body of dismounted horsemen to support them. The horsemen,
+followed by the footmen, charged at a gap in the hedge, but the hedge
+on either side was lined with English bowmen, and men and horses were
+struck down. Those who survived fled and scattered their countrymen
+behind. Seeing the disorder, the Black Prince ordered the few knights
+whom he had kept on horseback to sweep round and to fall upon the
+confused crowd in the flank. The archers advanced to second them,
+and, gallantly as the French fought, their unhorsed knights could
+accomplish nothing against the combined efforts of horse and foot.
+King John was taken prisoner and the battle was at an end.
+
+22. =The Courtesy of the Black Prince.=--The Black Prince had been
+cruel to townsmen and peasants, but he was a model of chivalry, and
+knew how to deal with a captive king. At supper he stood behind John's
+chair and waited on him, praising his bravery. "All on our side," he
+said, "who have seen you and your knights, are agreed about this, and
+give you the prize and the chaplet if you will wear it." After the
+astounding victory of Poitiers, the Black Prince, instead of marching
+upon Paris, went back to Bordeaux. In =1357= he made a truce for two
+years and returned to England with his royal captive.
+
+23. =Misery of France. 1356--1359.=--In =1356=, the year in which the
+Black Prince fought at Poitiers, his father ravaged Scotland. Edward,
+however, gained nothing by this fresh attempt at conquest. In his
+retreat he suffered heavy loss, and in =1357=, changing his plan, he
+replaced David Bruce (see p. 242) on the throne, and strove to win the
+support of the Scots instead of exasperating them by violence. In the
+meanwhile the two years' truce brought no good to France. The nobles
+wrung from the peasants the sums needed to redeem their relatives, who
+were prisoners in England, and the disbanded soldiers, French and
+English, formed themselves into free companies and plundered as
+mercilessly as the Black Prince had done in time of war. Worn down
+with oppression, the French peasants broke into a rebellion known as
+the Jacquerie, from the nickname of Jacques-Bonhomme, which the gentry
+gave to them. After committing unheard-of cruelties the peasants were
+repressed and slaughtered. An attempt of the States-General--a sort of
+French Parliament which occasionally met--to improve the government
+failed. Peace with England was talked of, but Edward's terms were too
+hard to be accepted, and in =1359= war began again.
+
+24. =Edward's Last Invasion. 1359--1360.=--So miserably devastated was
+France that Edward, when he invaded the country in =1359=, had to take
+with him not only men and munitions of war, but large stores of
+provisions. He met no enemy in the field, but the land had been so
+wasted that his men suffered much from want of food, in spite of the
+supplies which they had taken with them. "I could not believe," wrote
+an Italian who revisited France after an absence of some years, "that
+this was the same kingdom which I had once seen so rich and
+flourishing. Nothing presented itself to my eyes but a fearful
+solitude, an extreme poverty, land uncultivated, houses in ruins. Even
+the neighbourhood of Paris manifested everywhere marks of destruction
+and conflagration. The streets were deserted; the roads overgrown with
+weeds; the whole a vast solitude." In the spring of =1360= Edward
+moved on towards the banks of the Loire, hoping to find sustenance
+there. Near Chartres he was overtaken by a terrible storm of hail and
+thunder, and in the roar of the thunder he thought that he heard the
+voice of God reproving him for the misery which he had caused. He
+abated his demands and signed the treaty of Bretigni.
+
+[Illustration: West front of Edington Church, Wilts: built about 1360.
+An example of the transition from the Decorated style to the
+Perpendicular.]
+
+25. =The Treaty of Bretigni. 1360.=--By the treaty of Bretigni John
+was to be ransomed for an enormous sum; Edward was to surrender his
+claim to the crown of France and to the provinces north of Aquitaine,
+receiving in return the whole of the duchy of Aquitaine together with
+the districts round Calais and Ponthieu, all of them to be held in
+full sovereignty, without any feudal obligation to the king of
+France. Probably it cost Edward little to abandon his claim to the
+French crown, which had only been an after-thought; and it was a clear
+gain to get rid of those feudal entanglements which had so frequently
+been used as a pretext of aggression against the English kings. It was
+hardly likely, however, that England would long be able to keep a
+country like Aquitaine, which was geographically part of France and in
+which French sympathies were constantly on the increase. "We will obey
+the English with our lips," said the men of Rochelle, when their town
+was surrendered, "but our hearts shall never be moved towards them."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+REIGN OF EDWARD III. AFTER THE TREATY OF BRETIGNI.
+
+1360--1377.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Edward III., 1327-1377.
+
+ Battle of Navarrete 1367
+ Renewal of war with France 1369
+ Truce with France 1375
+ The Good Parliament 1376
+ Death of Edward III. 1377
+
+
+1. =The First Years of Peace. 1360--1364.=--To hold his new provinces
+the better, Edward sent the Black Prince to govern them in =1363= with
+the title of Duke of Aquitaine. King John had been liberated soon
+after the making of the peace, and had been allowed to return to
+France on payment of part of his ransom, and on giving hostages for
+the payment of the remainder. In =1363= one of the hostages, his son,
+the Duke of Anjou, broke his parole and fled, on which John, shocked
+at such perfidy, returned to England to make excuses for him, and died
+there in =1364=. If honour, he said, were not to be found elsewhere,
+it ought to be found in the breasts of kings.
+
+2. =The Spanish Troubles. 1364--1368.=--John's eldest son and
+successor, Charles V., known as the Wise, or the Prudent, was less
+chivalrous, but more cautious than his father, and soon found an
+opportunity of stirring up trouble for the Black Prince without
+exposing his own lands to danger. Pedro the Cruel, king of Castile,
+who had for some time been the ally of England, had murdered his
+wife, tyrannised over his nobles, and contracted an alliance with the
+Mohammedans of Granada. The Pope having excommunicated him, his own
+illegitimate brother, Henry of Trastamara, claimed the crown, and
+sought aid of the king of France. Charles V. sent Bertrand du
+Guesclin, a rising young commander, to his help. Du Guesclin's army
+was made up of men of the Free Companies (see p. 252), which still
+continued to plunder France on their own account after the Peace of
+Bretigni. In this way Charles got rid of a scourge of his own country
+at the same time that he attacked an ally of the English. In =1366= Du
+Guesclin entered Spain. The tyrannical Pedro took refuge at Bayonne,
+where he begged the Black Prince to help him. The Gascon nobles
+pleaded with the Prince to reject the monster, but the Prince was not
+to be held back. "It is not a right thing or reasonable," he said,
+when they urged him to keep aloof from the unjust undertaking to which
+he invited them, "that a bastard should hold a kingdom, and thrust out
+of it, and of his heritage, a brother and heir of the land by legal
+marriage. All kings and sons of kings should never agree nor consent
+to it, for it is a great blow at the royal state." In =1367= the Black
+Prince entered Spain, and with the help of his English archers
+thoroughly defeated Henry at Navarrete. Then vengeance overtook him on
+the side on which he had sinned. Pedro was as false as he was cruel,
+and refused to pay the sums which he had engaged to furnish to the
+Prince's troops. Sickness broke out in the English ranks, and the
+Black Prince returned to Bordeaux with only a fifth part of his army,
+and with his own health irretrievably shattered. In =1368= Henry made
+his way back to Spain, defeated and slew Pedro, and undid the whole
+work of the Black Prince to the south of the Pyrenees.
+
+[Illustration: A gold noble of Edward III., struck between A.D. 1360
+and 1369.]
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of Edward the Black Prince, from his tomb at
+Canterbury: showing the type of armour worn from 1335 to 1400.]
+
+3. =The Taxation of Aquitaine. 1368--1369.=--Worse than this was in
+store for the Black Prince. As his soldiers clamoured for their wages,
+he levied a hearth tax to supply their needs. The Aquitanian
+Parliament declared against the tax, and appealed to the king of
+France to do them right. In =1369= Charles, who knew that the men of
+Aquitaine would be on his side, summoned the Black Prince to Paris to
+defend his conduct, on the pretext that, as there had been some
+informality in the treaty of Bretigni, he was himself still the feudal
+superior of the Duke of Aquitaine. "Willingly," replied the Black
+Prince when he received the summons, "we will go to the court of
+Paris, as the king of France orders it; but it shall be with helmet on
+head and sixty thousand men with us."
+
+4. =The Renewed War. 1369--1375.=--Edward, by the advice of
+Parliament, resumed the title of King of France, and war broke out
+afresh in =1369=. The result of the first war had been owing to the
+blunders of the French in attacking the English archers with the
+feudal cavalry. Charles V. and his commander, Du Guesclin, resolved to
+fight no battles. Their troops hung about the English march, cut off
+stragglers, and captured exposed towns. The English marched hither and
+thither, plundering and burning, but their armies, powerful as they
+were when attacked in a defensive position, could not succeed in
+forcing a battle, and were worn out without accomplishing anything
+worthy of their fame. The Black Prince, soured by failure and
+ill-health, having succeeded in =1370= in recapturing Limoges, ordered
+his men to spare no one in the town. "It was great pity," wrote the
+chronicler Froissart, "for men, women, and children threw themselves
+on their knees before the Prince, crying 'Mercy! mercy! gentle Sire!'"
+The Prince, who had waited at table behind a captive king, hardened
+his heart. More than three thousand--men, women and children--were
+butchered on that day. Yet the spirit of chivalry was strong within
+him, and he spared three gentlemen who fought bravely merely in order
+to sell their lives dearly. In =1371= the Black Prince was back in
+England. His eldest surviving brother, John of Gaunt--or Ghent--Duke
+of Lancaster, continued the war in France. In =1372= the English lost
+town after town. In =1373= John of Gaunt set out from Calais. He could
+plunder, but he could not make the enemy fight. "Let them go," wrote
+Charles V. to his commanders; "by burning they will not become masters
+of your heritage. Though storms rage over a land, they disperse of
+themselves. So will it be with these English." When the English
+reached the hilly centre of France food failed them. The winter came,
+and horses and men died of cold and want. A rabble of half-starved
+fugitives was all that reached Bordeaux after a march of six hundred
+miles. Aquitaine, where the inhabitants were for the most part hostile
+to the English, and did everything in their power to assist the
+French, was before long all but wholly lost, and in =1375= a truce was
+made which put an end to hostilities for a time, leaving only Calais,
+Cherbourg, Brest, Bayonne, and Bordeaux in the hands of the English.
+
+5. =Anti-Papal Legislation. 1351--1366.=--The antagonism between
+England and France necessarily led to an antagonism between England
+and the Papacy. Since =1305= the Popes had fixed their abode at
+Avignon, and though Avignon was not yet incorporated with France, it
+was near enough to be under the control of the king of France. During
+the time of this exile from Rome, known to ardent churchmen as the
+Babylonian captivity of the Church, the Popes were regarded in England
+as the tools of the French enemy. The Papal court, too, became
+distinguished for luxury and vice, and its vast expenditure called for
+supplies which England was increasingly loth to furnish. By a system
+of provisions, as they were called, the Pope provided--or appointed
+beforehand--his nominees to English benefices, and expected that his
+nominees would be allowed to hold the benefices to the exclusion of
+those of the patrons. In =1351= the Statute of Provisors[20] attempted
+to put an end to the system, but it was not immediately successful,
+and had to be re-enacted in later years. In =1353= a Statute of
+_Praemunire_[21] was passed, in which, though the Pope's name was not
+mentioned, an attempt was made to stop suits being carried before
+foreign courts--in other words before the Papal court at Avignon.
+Another claim of the Popes was to the 1,000 marks payable annually as
+a symbol of John's vassalage, a claim most distasteful to Englishmen
+as a sign of national humiliation. Since =1333=, the year in which
+Edward took the government into his own hands, the payment had not
+been made, and in =1366= Parliament utterly rejected a claim made by
+the Pope for its revival.
+
+ [Footnote 20: Provisors are the persons provided or appointed to a
+ benefice.]
+
+ [Footnote 21: So called from the first words of the writs appointed
+ to be issued under it, _Praemunire facias_; the first of these two
+ words being a corruption of _Praemoneri_.]
+
+6. =Predominance of the English Language.=--The national spirit which
+revealed itself in an armed struggle with the French and in a legal
+struggle with the Papacy showed itself in the increasing predominance
+of the English language. In =1362= it supplanted French in the law
+courts, and in the same year Parliament was opened with an English
+speech. French was still the language of the court, but it was
+becoming a foreign speech, pronounced very differently from the
+'French of Paris.'
+
+7. =Piers the Plowman. 1362.=--Cruel as had been the direct results of
+the English victories in France, they had indirectly contributed to
+the overthrow of that feudalism which weighed heavily upon France and
+upon all Continental Europe. The success of the English had been the
+success of a nation strong in the union of classes. The cessation of
+the war drove the thoughts of Englishmen back upon themselves. The old
+spiritual channels had been, to a great extent, choked up. Bishops
+were busy with the king's affairs; monks had long ceased to be
+specially an example to the world; and even the friars had fallen from
+their first estate, and had found out that, though they might
+personally possess nothing, their order might be wealthy. The men who
+won victories in France came home to spend their booty in show and
+luxury. Yet, for all the splendour around, there was a general feeling
+that the times were out of joint, and this feeling was strengthened by
+a fresh inroad of the Black Death in =1361=. To the prevalent
+yearning for a better life, a voice was given by William Langland,
+whose _Vision of Piers the Plowman_ appeared in its first shape in
+=1362=. In the opening of his poem he shows to his readers the
+supremacy of the Maiden Meed--bribery--over all sorts and conditions
+of men, lay and clerical. Then he turns to the purification of this
+wicked world. They who wish to eschew evil and to do good inquire
+their way to Truth--the eternal God--and find their only guide in
+'Piers the Plowman.' The simple men of the plough, who do honest work
+and live upright lives, know how to find the way to Truth. That way
+lies not through the inventions of the official Church, the pardons
+and indulgences set up for sale. "They who have done good shall go
+into eternal life, but they who have done evil into eternal fire."
+Langland's teaching, in short, is the same as that of the great
+Italian poet, Dante, who, earlier in the century, had cried aloud for
+the return of justice and true religion. He stands apart from Dante
+and from all others of his time in looking for help to the despised
+peasant. No doubt his peasant was idealised, as no one knew better
+than himself; but it was honesty of work in the place of dishonest
+idleness which he venerated. It was the glory of England to have
+produced such a thought far more than to have produced the men who,
+heavy with the plunder of unhappy peasants, stood boldly to their arms
+at Crecy and Poitiers. He is as yet hardly prepared to say what is the
+righteousness which leads to eternal life. It is not till he issues a
+second edition in =1377= that he can answer. To do well, he now tells
+us, is to act righteously to all in the fear of God. To do better is
+to walk in the way of love: "Behold how good a thing it is for
+brethren to dwell in unity." To do best is to live in fellowship with
+Christ and the Church, and in all humility to bring forth the fruits
+of the Divine communion.
+
+8. =The Anti-Clerical Party. 1371.=--Langland wished to improve, not
+to overthrow, existing institutions, but for all that his work was
+profoundly revolutionary. They who call on those who have left their
+first love to return to it are seldom obeyed, but their voice is often
+welcomed by the corrupt and self-seeking crowd which is eager, after
+the fashion of birds of prey, to tear the carcase from which life has
+departed. A large party was formed in England, especially amongst the
+greater barons, which was anxious to strip the clergy of their wealth
+and power, without any thought for the better fulfilment of their
+spiritual functions. In the Parliament of =1371= bishops were declared
+unfit to hold offices of state. Amongst others who were dismissed was
+William of Wykeham, the Bishop of Winchester. He was a great architect
+and administrator, and having been deprived of the Chancellorship used
+his wealth to found at Winchester the first great public school in
+England. By this time a Chancellor was no longer what he had been in
+earlier days (see p. 127), a secretary to the king. He was now
+beginning to exercise equitable jurisdiction--that is to say, the
+right of deciding suits according to equity, in cases in which the
+strict artificial rules of the ordinary courts stood in the way of
+justice.
+
+[Illustration: William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester, 1367-1404:
+from his tomb at Winchester.]
+
+9. =The Duke of Lancaster. 1374--1376.=--In =1374=, as soon as the
+Duke of Lancaster returned from his disastrous campaign (see p. 257),
+he put himself at the head of the baronial and anti-clerical party. He
+was selfish and unprincipled, but he had enormous wealth, having
+secured the vast estates of the Lancaster family by his marriage with
+Blanche, the granddaughter of the brother of Thomas of Lancaster, the
+opponent of Edward II. Rich as he was he wished to be richer, and he
+saw his opportunity in an attack upon the higher clergy, which might
+end in depriving them not only of political power, but of much of
+their ecclesiastical property as well. His accession to the baronial
+party was of the greater importance because he was now practically the
+first man in the state. The king was suffering from softening of the
+brain, and had fallen under the influence of a greedy and unscrupulous
+mistress, Alice Perrers, whilst the Black Prince was disqualified by
+illness from taking part in the management of affairs. A bargain was
+struck between the Duke and Alice Perrers, who was able to obtain the
+consent of the helpless king to anything she pleased. She even sat on
+the bench with the judges, intimidating them into deciding in favour
+of the suitors who had bribed her most highly. It seemed as if
+Langland's Meed (see p. 259) had appeared in person. The king's
+patronage was shared between her and Lancaster.
+
+10. =John Wycliffe. 1366--1376.=--If Lancaster's character had been
+higher, he might have secured a widespread popularity, as the feeling
+of the age was adverse to the continuance of a wealthy clergy. Even as
+things were, he had on his side John Wycliffe, the most able reasoner
+and devoted reformer of his age, who, like others before and after
+him, imagined that a high spiritual enterprise could be achieved with
+the help of low and worldly politicians. Wycliffe had distinguished
+himself at Oxford, and had attracted Lancaster's notice by the ability
+of his argument against the Pope's claim to levy John's tribute (see
+p. 258). In =1374= he had been sent to Bruges to argue with the
+representatives of the Pope on the question of the provisions, and by
+=1376= had either issued, or was preparing to issue, his work _On
+Civil Lordship_, in which, by a curious adaptation of feudal ideas, he
+declared that all men held their possessions direct from God, as a
+vassal held his estate from his lord; and that as a vassal was bound
+to pay certain military services, failing which he lost his estate, so
+everyone who fell into mortal sin failed to pay his service to God,
+and forfeited his right to his worldly possessions. In this way
+dominion, as he said, was founded on grace--that is to say, the
+continuance of man's right to his possessions depended on his
+remaining in a state of grace. It is true that Wycliffe qualified his
+argument by alleging that he was only announcing theoretical truth,
+and that no man had a right to rob another of his holding because he
+believed him to be living in sin. It is evident, however, that men
+like Lancaster would take no heed of this distinction, and would
+welcome Wycliffe as an ally in the work of despoiling the clergy for
+their own purposes.
+
+11. =Lancaster and the Black Prince. 1376.=--Ordinary citizens, who
+cared nothing for theories which they did not understand, were roused
+against Lancaster by the unblushing baseness of his rule. Nor was this
+all. The anti-clerical party was also a baronial party, and ever since
+the Knights Bachelors of England had turned to the future Edward I. to
+defend them against the barons who made the Provisions of Oxford (see
+p. 199), the country gentry and townsmen had learnt the lesson that
+they would be the first to suffer from the unchecked rule of the
+baronage. They now had the House of Commons to represent their wishes,
+but as yet the House of Commons was too weak to stand alone. At last
+it was rumoured that when the Black Prince died his young son Richard
+was to be set aside, and that Lancaster was to claim the inheritance
+of the crown, as an earlier John had claimed it in the place of the
+youthful Arthur. The Black Prince awoke from his lethargy, and stood
+forward as the leader of the Commons.
+
+12. =The Good Parliament. 1376.=--A Parliament, known as the Good
+Parliament, met in =1376=, and, strong through the Black Prince's
+support, the Commons refused to grant supply till an account of the
+receipts and expenditure had been laid before them. "What," cried
+Lancaster, "do these base and ignoble knights attempt? Do they think
+they be the kings and princes of the land? I think they know not what
+power I am of. I will therefore, early in the morning, appear unto
+them so glorious, and will show such power among them, and with such
+vigour I will terrify them that neither they nor theirs shall dare
+henceforth to provoke me to wrath." Lancaster soon found that his
+brother was stronger than he. The Commons obtained a new Council, in
+which Wykeham was included and from which Lancaster was shut out. They
+then proceeded to accuse before the House of Lords Richard Lyons and
+Lord Latimer of embezzling the king's revenue. Lyons, accustomed to
+the past ways of the court, packed 1,000_l._ in a barrel and sent it
+to the Black Prince. The Black Prince returned the barrel and the
+money, and the Lords condemned Lyons to imprisonment. Latimer was also
+sentenced to imprisonment, but he was allowed to give bail and
+regained his liberty. These two cases are the first instances of the
+exercise of the right of impeachment--that is to say, of the
+accusation of political offenders by the Commons before the Lords.
+Alice Perrers was next driven from court.
+
+[Illustration: Tomb of Edward III. in Westminster Abbey.]
+
+13. =The Last Year of Edward III. 1376--1377.=--Whilst Parliament was
+still sitting the Black Prince, worn out by his exertions, died. His
+son, young Richard, was at once recognised as heir to the throne.
+Lancaster, however, regained his influence over his doting father.
+Alice Perrers and Lord Latimer found their way back to court. The
+Speaker of the House of Commons was thrown into prison. Frivolous
+charges were brought against Wykeham, who was deprived of his
+temporalities and banished from the court. In =1377= a new Parliament,
+elected under Lancaster's influence, reversed all the proceedings of
+the Good Parliament, and showed how little sympathy the baronial party
+had with the people by imposing a poll tax of 4_d._ a head on all
+except beggars, thus making the payment of a labourer and a duke
+equal. The bishops, unable to strike at Lancaster, struck at Wycliffe,
+as his creature. Wycliffe was summoned to appear before an
+ecclesiastical court at St. Paul's, presided over by Courtenay, the
+Bishop of London. He came supported by Lancaster and a troop of
+Lancaster's followers. Hot words were exchanged between them and the
+Bishop. The London crowd took their Bishop's part and the Duke was
+compelled to flee for his life. In the summer of =1377= Edward III.
+died, deserted by everyone, Alice Perrers making off, after robbing
+him of his finger-rings.
+
+[Illustration: Figures of Edward, the Black Prince, and Lionel, Duke
+of Clarence, from the tomb of Edward III.; illustrating the ordinary
+costume of gentlemen at the end of the fourteenth century.]
+
+14. =Ireland from the Reign of John to that of Edward II.=--When
+England was gradually losing its hold on France, what hold it had had
+on Ireland was gradually slipping away. Henry II. had been quite
+unable to effect in Ireland the kind of conquest which William the
+Conqueror had effected in England. William had succeeded because he
+had been able to secure order by placing himself at the head of the
+conquered nation. In Ireland, in the first place, the king was a
+perpetual absentee; and, in the second place, there was no Irish
+national organisation at the head of which he could have placed
+himself, even if he had from time to time visited the island. There
+were separate tribes, each one attached to its own chief and to its
+own laws and customs. They were unable to drive out their feudal
+conquerors; but in the outlying parts of the country, they were able
+to absorb them, just as the English in their own country absorbed
+their Norman conquerors. The difference was that in England the
+conquerors were absorbed into a nation: in Ireland they were absorbed
+into the several tribes. The few who retained the English laws and
+habits were, for the most part, confined to the part of Ireland in the
+neighbourhood of Dublin, which was specially accessible to English
+influences. In =1315= Edward Bruce, the brother of Robert Bruce,
+invaded Ireland, and, though he was ultimately defeated and slain, he
+did enough to shatter the power of the English nobility; and it was
+mainly in consequence of his partial success that the authority of the
+English government was, for some time to come, limited to a certain
+district round Dublin, known about a century later as the English
+Pale, the extent of which varied from time to time.
+
+15. =The Statute of Kilkenny. 1367.=--As long as the French wars
+lasted the attention of the English Government was diverted from
+Ireland. In =1361=, however, the year after the Treaty of Bretigni,
+the king's son, Lionel Duke of Clarence, was sent to extend English
+rule. In =1367= he gathered a Parliament of the English colonists.
+This Parliament passed the Statute of Kilkenny, by which the relations
+between the two races were defined. Within the Pale English laws and
+customs were to prevail, and even Irishmen living there were to be
+debarred from the use of their own language. Beyond the Pale the Irish
+were to be left to themselves, communication between the two peoples
+being cut off as much as possible. The idea of conquering Ireland was
+abandoned, and the idea of maintaining a colony on a definite part of
+Irish soil was substituted for it. The Statute of Kilkenny was, in
+short, a counterpart of the Treaty of Bretigni. In both cases Edward
+III. preferred the full maintenance of his authority over a part of a
+country to its assertion over the whole.
+
+16. =Weakness of the English Colony. 1367--1377.=--It takes two to
+make a bargain, and the Irish were not to be prevented from
+encroaching on the English because the English had resolved no longer
+to encroach upon them. The renewal of the war with France in =1369=
+made it impossible to send help from England, and during the latter
+part of the reign of Edward III. the Irish pillaged freely within the
+English territory, constantly winning ground from their antagonists.
+
+ _Genealogy of the more important Sons of Edward III._
+
+ EDWARD III.
+ d. 1377
+ |
+ --------------------------------------------------
+ | | | | |
+ Edward, Lionel, John of Gaunt, Edmund, Thomas,
+ the Black Duke of Duke of Duke of Duke of
+ Prince, Clarence, Lancaster, York, Gloucester,
+ d. 1376 d. 1368 d. 1399 d. 1402 d. 1397
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+RICHARD II. AND THE SOCIAL REVOLUTION.
+
+1377--1381.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Richard II., 1377-1399
+
+ Accession of Richard II 1377
+ The peasants' revolt 1381
+
+
+1. =The First Years of Richard II. 1377--1378.=--"Woe to the land,"
+quoted Langland from Ecclesiastes, in the second edition of _Piers the
+Plowman_, "when the king is a child." Richard was but ten years of age
+when he was raised to the throne. The French plundered the coast, and
+the Scots plundered the Borders. In the presence of such dangers
+Lancaster and Wykeham forgot their differences, and as Lancaster was
+too generally distrusted to allow of his acting as regent, the council
+governed in the name of the young king. Lancaster, however, took the
+lead, and renewed the war with France with but little result beyond so
+great a waste of money as to stir up Parliament to claim a control
+over the expenditure of the Crown.
+
+2. =Wycliffe and the Great Schism. 1378--1381.=--In =1378= began the
+Great Schism. For nearly half a century from that date there were two
+Popes, one at Avignon and one at Rome. Wycliffe had been gradually
+losing his reverence for a single Pope, and he had none left for two.
+He was now busy with a translation of the Bible into English, and sent
+forth a band of "poor priests," to preach the simple gospel which he
+found in it. He was thus brought into collision with the pretensions
+of the priesthood, and was thereby led to question the doctrines on
+which their authority was based. In =1381= he declared his disbelief
+in the doctrine of transubstantiation, and thereby denied to priests
+that power "of making the body of Christ," which was held to mark them
+off from their fellow-men. In any case, so momentous an announcement
+would have cost Wycliffe the hearts of large numbers of his
+supporters. It was the more fatal to his influence as it was
+coincident with social disorders, the blame for which was certain,
+rightly or wrongly, to be laid at his door.
+
+[Illustration: Richard II. and his first queen, Anne of Bohemia: from
+the gilt-latten effigies on their tomb in Westminster Abbey, made by
+Nicholas Broker and Godfrey Prest, coppersmiths of London, in 1395.]
+
+3. =The Poll-taxes. 1379--1381.=--The disastrous war with France made
+fresh taxation unavoidable. In =1379= a poll-tax was imposed by
+Parliament on a graduated scale, reaching from the 6_l._ 13_s._ 4_d._
+required of a duke, to the groat or 4_d._, representing in those days
+at least the value of 4_s._ at the present day, required of the
+poorest peasant. A second poll-tax in =1380= exacted no less than
+three groats from every peasant, and from every one of his unmarried
+children above the age of fifteen. In =1381= a tiler of Dartford in
+Kent struck dead a collector who attempted to investigate his
+daughter's age in an indecent fashion. His neighbours took arms to
+protect him. In an incredibly short time the peasants of the east and
+south of England rose in insurrection.
+
+4. =The Peasants' Grievances.=--The peasants had other grievances
+besides the weight of taxation thrown on them by a Parliament in which
+they had no representatives. The landlords, finding it impossible to
+compel the acceptance of the low wages provided for by the Statute of
+Labourers (see p. 248), had attempted to help themselves in another
+way. Before the Black Death the bodily service of villeins had been
+frequently commuted into a payment of money which had been its fair
+equivalent, but which, since the rise of wages consequent upon the
+Black Death, could not command anything like the amount of labour
+surrendered. The landlords in many places now declared the bargain to
+have been unfair, and compelled the villeins to render once more the
+old bodily service. The discontent which prevailed everywhere was
+fanned not merely by the attacks made by Wycliffe's poor priests upon
+the idle and inefficient clergy, but by itinerant preachers
+unconnected with Wycliffe, who denounced the propertied classes in
+general. One of these, John Ball, a notorious assailant of the gentry,
+had been thrown into prison. His favourite question was--
+
+ When Adam delved and Eve span
+ Who was then a gentleman?
+
+5. =The Peasants' Revolt. 1381.=--From one end of England to another
+the revolt spread. The parks of the gentry were broken into, the deer
+killed, the fish-ponds emptied. The court-rolls which testified to the
+villeins' services were burnt, and lawyers and all others connected
+with the courts were put to death without mercy. From Kent and Essex
+100,000 enraged peasants, headed by Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, released
+John Ball from gaol and poured along the roads to London. They hoped
+to place the young Richard at their head against their enemies the
+gentry. The boy was spirited enough, and in spite of his mother's
+entreaties insisted on leaving the Tower, and being rowed across the
+Thames to meet the insurgents on the Surrey shore. Those who were with
+him, however, refused to allow him to land. The peasants had
+sympathisers in London itself, who allowed them to break into the
+city. Lancaster's palace of the Savoy and the houses of lawyers and
+officials were sacked and burnt. All the lawyers who could be found
+were murdered, and others who were not lawyers shared their fate. The
+mob broke into the Tower, and beheaded Simon of Sudbury, Archbishop of
+Canterbury, who had, as Chancellor, proposed the obnoxious taxes to
+Parliament.
+
+6. =The Suppression of the Revolt.=--The boy-king met the mob at
+Mile-End, and promised to abolish villeinage in England. Charters of
+manumission were drawn out and sealed, and a great part of the
+insurgents returned contentedly home. About 30,000, however, remained
+behind. When Richard came amongst them at Smithfield, Wat Tyler
+threatened him, and Walworth, the Mayor of London, slew Wat Tyler with
+his dagger. A shout for vengeance was raised. With astonishing
+presence of mind Richard rode forward. "I am your king," he said; "I
+will be your leader." His boldness inspired the insurgents with
+confidence, and caused them to desist from their threats and to return
+to their homes. In the country the gentry, encouraged by the failure
+of the insurgents in London, recovered their courage. The insurrection
+was everywhere vigorously suppressed. Richard ordered the payment of
+all services due, and revoked the charters he had granted. The judges
+on their circuits hanged the ringleaders without mercy. When
+Parliament met it directed that the charters of manumission should be
+cancelled. Lords and Commons alike stood up for the rich against the
+poor, and the boy-king was powerless to resist them, and it is
+possible that he did not wish to do so.
+
+7. =Results of the Peasants' Revolt.=--The revolt of the peasants
+strengthened the conservative spirit in the country. The villeinage
+into which the peasants had been thrust back could not, indeed, endure
+long, because service unwillingly rendered is too expensive to be
+maintained. Men were, however, no longer in a mood to listen to
+reformers. Great noblemen, whose right to the services of their
+villeins had been denied, now made common cause with the great
+churchmen. The propertied classes, lay and clerical, instinctively saw
+that they must hang together. Wycliffe's attack on transubstantiation
+finding little response, he was obliged to retire to his parsonage at
+Lutterworth, where he laboured with his pen till his death in =1384=.
+His followers, known by the nickname of Lollards,[22] were, however,
+for some time still popular amongst the poorer classes.
+
+ [Footnote 22: The name is said to have been derived from a low
+ German word, _lollen_, to sing, from their habit of singing, but
+ their clerical opponents derived it from the Latin _lolium_ (tares),
+ as if they were the tares in the midst of the wheat which remained
+ constant to the Church.]
+
+[Illustration: Portrait of Geoffrey Chaucer.]
+
+8. =Chaucer's 'Canterbury Tales.'=--A combination between the great
+nobles and the higher clergy might, at the end of the fourteenth
+century, meet with temporary success; but English society was too
+diversified, and each separate portion of it was too closely linked to
+the other to make it possible for the higher classes to tyrannise over
+the others for any long time. What that society was like is best seen
+in Chaucer's _Canterbury Tales_. Chaucer was in many ways the exact
+opposite of Langland, and was the precursor of modern literature as
+Wycliffe was the precursor of modern religion. He was an inimitable
+story-teller, with an eye which nothing could escape. He was ready to
+take men as he found them, having no yearning for the purification of
+a sinful world. Heroic examples of manly constancy and of womanly
+purity and devotion, are mingled in his pages with coarse and ribald
+tales; still, coarse and ribald as some of his narratives are, Chaucer
+never attempts to make vice attractive. He takes it rather as a matter
+of course, calling, not for reproof, but for laughter, whenever those
+who are doing evil place themselves in ridiculous situations.
+
+9. =The Prologue of the 'Canterbury Tales.'=--Whilst, however, there
+is not one of the _Canterbury Tales_ which fails to bring vividly
+before the reader one aspect or another of the life of Chaucer's day,
+it is in the prologue that is especially found evidence of the close
+connection which existed between different ranks of society. Men and
+women of various classes are there represented as riding together on
+a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Thomas of Canterbury, and beguiling
+the way by telling stories to one another. No baron, indeed, takes
+part in the pilgrimage, and the villein class is represented by the
+reeve, who was himself a person in authority, the mere cultivator of
+the soil being excluded. Yet, within these limits, the whole circle of
+society is admirably represented. The knight, just returned from deeds
+of chivalry, is on the best of terms with the rough-spoken miller and
+the reeve, whilst the clerk of Oxford, who would gladly learn and
+gladly teach, and who followed in his own life those precepts which he
+commended to his parishioners, has no irreconcilable quarrel with the
+begging friar or with the official of the ecclesiastical courts, whose
+only object is to make a gain of godliness.
+
+[Illustration: A gentleman riding out with his hawk: from the Luttrell
+Psalter.]
+
+10. =Chaucer and the Clergy.=--In his representation of the clergy,
+Chaucer shows that, like Langland, he had no reverence for the merely
+official clergy. His "poor parson of a town," indeed, is a model for
+all helpers and teachers. The parson is regardless of his own comfort,
+ever ready to toil with mind and body for his parishioners, and, above
+all, resolved to set them an example, knowing
+
+ That if gold ruste, what schulde yren doo?
+ For if a prest be foul, on whom we truste,
+ No wondur is a lewid man to ruste.[23]
+
+ [Footnote 23: _i.e._, if a priest, who is like gold, allow himself
+ to rust, or fall into sloth or sin, how can he expect the 'lewid
+ man' or layman, who is as iron to him, to be free from these
+ faults?]
+
+The final character given to him is:--
+
+ A bettre preest I trowe ther nowher non is.
+ He waytud after no pompe ne reverence,
+ Ne maked him a spiced conscience;[24]
+ But Cristes lore, and his apostles twelve,
+ He taught, and ferst he folwed[25] it himselve.
+
+ [Footnote 24: A nice conscience; to see offence where there is
+ none.]
+
+ [Footnote 25: Followed.]
+
+The majority amongst Chaucer's clergy are, however, of a very
+different kind. There is the parish clerk, who, when he is waving the
+censer in church thinks more of the pretty women there than of his
+duty; the monk who loves hunting, and hates work and reading; the
+friar who is ready to grant absolution to any one who will give money
+to the friars; who has a word and a jest for every man, and presents
+of knives and pins for the women; who takes a farthing where he cannot
+get a penny, but turns aside from those who have not even a farthing
+to give; the pardoner, who has for sale sham relics--a piece of the
+sail of the ship which carried St. Peter on the sea of Galilee, and a
+glass of pigs' bones, which he was ready to sell as bones of saints,
+if he could thereby extract something even from the poorest widow. He
+would not, he said, work with his hands like the apostles. He wanted
+to have money, wool, cheese, and wheat at other people's expense.
+Though Wycliffe had failed to reform the Church there was evidently
+much room for a reformer.
+
+[Illustration: Carrying corn--a cart going uphill: from the Luttrell
+Psalter.]
+
+11. =Roads and Bridges.=--Such men as these latter did not go on
+pilgrimages through pure religious zeal. Villeins, indeed, were "bound
+to the soil," and lived and died on land which they tilled; but the
+classes above them moved about freely, and took pleasure in a
+pilgrimage, as a modern Englishman takes pleasure in a railway
+excursion. It was considered to be a pious work to make or repair
+roads and bridges, and the existence of many bridges especially was
+owing to the clergy. The most famous bridge in England, London Bridge,
+had been begun in the place of an old wooden one in =1176=--in the
+reign of Henry II.--by a priest, Peter Colechurch, who obtained gifts
+for the purpose from notable people of all kinds. It was completed in
+=1209=, houses being built upon it in order that their rents might pay
+for keeping it in good condition. Local taxes were sometimes levied to
+maintain the roads and bridges, and in default of these, it was held
+to be the duty of the owners of land to keep the communications open.
+
+[Illustration: State carriage of the fourteenth century: from the
+Luttrell Psalter.]
+
+12. =Modes of Conveyance.=--In spite of these precautions, roads were
+often neglected, so that those who were not obliged to go on foot
+travelled almost entirely on horseback, women almost always riding
+astride like men. It was only at the end of the fourteenth century
+that a few ladies rode sideways. Kings and queens and exceedingly
+great people occasionally used lumbering but gorgeously ornamented
+carriages; but this was to enable them to appear in splendour, as this
+way of travelling must, at least in fine weather, have been far less
+agreeable than the ordinary ride. The only other wheeled vehicles in
+existence were the peasants' carts on two wheels, roughly made in the
+form of a square box either of boards or of a lighter framework. It
+was one of the grievances of the peasants that when the king moved
+from one manor to another his purveyors seized their carts to carry
+his property, and that though the purveyors were bound by frequently
+repeated statutes to pay for their hire, these statutes were often
+broken, and the carts sent back without payment for their use. The
+same purveyors often took corn and other agricultural produce, for
+which they paid little or nothing.
+
+13. =Hospitality and Inns.=--When the king arrived in the evening at a
+town his numerous attendants were billeted upon the townsmen, without
+asking leave. Monasteries were always ready to offer hospitality to
+himself or to any great person, and even to provide rougher fare for
+the poorest stranger in a special guest-house provided for the
+purpose. In castles, the owner was usually glad to see a stranger of
+his own rank. The halls were still furnished with movable tables, as
+in the days before the Conquest (see p. 76), and at night mattresses
+were placed for persons of inferior rank on the floor, which was
+strewn with rushes; whilst a stranger of high rank had usually a bed
+in the solar (see p. 245) with the lord of the castle. Travellers of
+the middle class were not thought good enough to be welcomed in
+monasteries and castles, and were not poor enough to be received out
+of charity; and for them inns were provided. These inns provided beds,
+of which there were several in each room, and the guests then bought
+their provisions and fuel from the host, instead of being charged for
+their meals as is now the custom. From a manual of French
+conversation, written at the end of the fourteenth century for the use
+of Englishmen, it appears that cleanliness was not always to be found
+in these inns. "William," one traveller is supposed to say to another,
+"undress and wash your legs, and rub them well for the love of the
+fleas, that they may not leap on your legs; for there is a peck of
+them lying in the dust under the rushes.... Hi! the fleas bite me so,
+and do me great harm, for I have scratched my shoulders till the blood
+flows."
+
+14. =Alehouses.=--By the roadside were alehouses for temporary
+refreshment, known by a bunch of twigs at the end of a pole, from
+which arose the saying that "Good wine needs no bush." The ale of the
+day was made without hops, which were still unknown in England, and
+ale would therefore only keep good for about five days.
+
+15. =Wanderers.=--Besides the better class of travellers the roads
+were frequented by wanderers of all kinds, quack doctors, minstrels,
+jugglers, beggars, and such like. Life in the country was dull, and
+even great lords took pleasure in amusements which are now only to be
+heard of at country fairs. Any one who could play or sing was always
+welcome, and the verses sung were often exceedingly coarse. A tumbler
+who could stand on his head or balance a heavy article at the end of a
+stick balanced on his chin, or the leader of a performing bear, was
+seldom turned away from the door, whilst the pedlar went from place to
+place, supplying the wants which are now satisfied in the shop of the
+village or the neighbouring town.
+
+[Illustration: Bear-baiting: from the Luttrell Psalter.]
+
+16. =Robbers and Criminals.=--The roads, indeed, were not always safe.
+Outlaws who had escaped from the punishment due to their crimes took
+refuge in the broad tracts of forest land which occupied much of the
+soil which has since been cultivated, shot the king's deer, and robbed
+merchants and wealthy travellers, leaving the poor untouched, like the
+legendary Robin Hood of an earlier date. Such robbers were highly
+esteemed by the poor, as the law from which they suffered was cruelly
+harsh, hanging being the penalty for thefts amounting to a shilling.
+Villeins who fled from service could be reclaimed by their masters,
+unless they could succeed in passing a year in a town, and
+consequently were often found amongst vagabonds who had to live as
+best they might, often enough by committing fresh crimes. Prisons, in
+which even persons guilty of no more than harmless vagabondage were
+confined, reeked with disease, and those who were, as wanderers or
+drunkards, put in the stocks, had, if an unpleasant, at least a less
+dangerous experience than the prisoner. One means of escape, indeed,
+was available to some, at least, of these unfortunates. They could
+take refuge in the sanctuaries to be found in churches, from which no
+officer of the law could take them, and, though the Church preserved
+some guilty ones from just punishment, she also saved many who were
+either innocent or who were exposed to punishments far too severe for
+their slight offences.
+
+[Illustration: West end of the nave of Winchester Cathedral: begun by
+Bishop Edington (who built the great window) between 1360 and 1366:
+carried on by Bishop William of Wykeham from 1394 to 1416, and finally
+completed after his death.]
+
+17. =Justices of the Peace.=--Even harshness is less dangerous than
+anarchy, and from time to time measures were taken to provide against
+anarchy. Before the Conquest order had been kept by making either the
+kindred or the township liable to produce offenders, and this system
+was maintained by the Norman kings. In the time of Richard I. all men
+were required to swear to keep the peace, to avoid crime, and to join
+in the hue and cry in pursuit of criminals. In the time of Henry III.
+persons called guardians of the peace were occasionally appointed to
+see that order was kept, and at the accession of Edward III. these
+officials were established for a time by Act of Parliament as
+conservators of the peace. In =1360=, the year of the Treaty of
+Bretigni, they were permanently continued, and the name of Justices of
+the Peace was given to them. They were to keep the peace in each
+county, and their number was to be made up of a lord, three or four
+gentlemen, and a lawyer, who was in those days always a cleric.[26]
+They were to seize and imprison, and even to try persons accused of
+crime. The king named these justices, but he had to name all of them
+except the lawyer from amongst the local landowners. In every way, in
+the fourteenth century, the chief local landowners were becoming
+prominent. The kings attempted to govern with their help, both in
+Parliament and in the counties.
+
+ [Footnote 26: Many clerics took one of the minor orders so as to
+ secure the immunities of the clergy, without any intention of being
+ ordained a deacon or a priest.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+RICHARD II. AND THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION.
+
+1382--1399.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Richard II., 1377--1399
+
+ The impeachment of Suffolk 1386
+ The Merciless Parliament 1388
+ Richard begins his constitutional government 1389
+ Richard's coup-d'etat 1397
+ Deposition of Richard 1399
+
+
+1. =Progress of the War with France. 1382--1386.=--In =1382= Richard
+at the early age of fifteen was married to Anne of Bohemia. Though he
+was a young husband he was at all events old enough to be accused of
+disasters which he could not avoid. Not only was the war with France
+not prospering, but English influence was declining in Flanders. In
+=1382= Philip van Arteveldt, who like his father Jacob (see p. 235)
+headed the resistance of Ghent against the Count of Flanders, was
+defeated and slain at Roosebeke by Charles VI., the young king of
+France. In =1383= an English expedition led by Henry Spencer, Bishop
+of Norwich, under the pretext of a crusade against the French as the
+followers of the Pope of Avignon, ended in complete failure, and
+Flanders, the great purchaser of English wool, fell under the control
+of France. In =1385= Richard, indeed, invaded Scotland, ravaged the
+country and burnt Edinburgh, though without producing any permanent
+result. In =1386= a French fleet and army was gathered at Sluys, and
+an invasion of England was threatened.
+
+2. =Richard's growing Unpopularity. 1385--1386.=--When the king
+returned from Scotland in =1385= he made a large creation of peers. He
+raised his two younger uncles to the Dukedoms of York and Gloucester;
+his Chancellor, Michael de la Pole, to the earldom of Suffolk, and his
+favourite, Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford, to the marquisate of
+Dublin, making him not long afterwards Duke of Ireland. Suffolk was an
+able and apparently an honest administrator, who upheld the king's
+prerogative against the encroachments of Parliament. Oxford was a gay
+and heedless companion of Richard's pleasures, who encouraged him in
+unnecessary expense, and thereby provoked to resistance those who
+might have put up with an extension of the royal authority. That
+resistance, however, was to a great extent due to causes not of
+Richard's own making. Though the French in =1386= abandoned their
+attempt at invasion, the preparations to resist them had been costly,
+and Englishmen were in an unreasonable mood. Things, they said, had
+not gone so in the days of Edward III. A cry for reform and
+retrenchment, for more victories and less expense, was loudly raised.
+
+3. =The Impeachment of Suffolk and the Commission of Regency.
+1386.=--The discontented found a leader in Gloucester, the youngest of
+the king's uncles. Wealthy, turbulent, and ambitious, he put himself
+at the head of all who had a grievance against the king. Lancaster had
+just sailed for Spain to prosecute a claim in right of his second wife
+to the throne of Castile, and as York was without ambition, Gloucester
+had it all his own way. Under his guidance a Parliament demanded the
+dismissal of Richard's ministers, and, on his refusal, impeached
+Suffolk. Suffolk, though probably innocent of the charges brought
+against him, was condemned and driven from power, and Commissioners of
+regency were appointed for a year to regulate the realm and the king's
+household, as the Lords Ordainers had done in the days of Edward II.
+(see p. 226).
+
+4. =The Lords Appellant and the Merciless Parliament. 1387--1388.=--In
+one way the Commissioners of regency satisfied the desire of
+Englishmen. In =1387= they sent the Earl of Arundel to sea, and
+Arundel won a splendid victory over a combined fleet of French,
+Flemings, and Spaniards. Richard, on the other hand, fearing that they
+would prolong their power when their year of office was ended,
+consulted upon the legality of the commission with the judges in the
+presence of Suffolk and others of his principal supporters, amongst
+whom was the Duke of Ireland. With one voice the judges declared that
+Parliament might not put the king in tutelage. Richard then made
+preparations to prevent by force the renewal of the commission, and to
+punish as traitors those who had originated it. His intention got
+abroad, and five lords, the Duke of Gloucester, the Earls of Arundel,
+Nottingham, Warwick, and Derby, the latter being the son of the absent
+Lancaster, appeared at the head of an overwhelming force against him.
+The five lords appellant, as they were called, appealed, or accused of
+treason five of Richard's councillors before a Parliament which met at
+Westminster in =1388=, by flinging down their gloves as a token that
+they were ready to prove the truth of their charge in single combat.
+The Duke of Ireland, attempting resistance, was defeated by Derby at
+Radcot Bridge, and finally escaped to Ireland. The Parliament, called
+by its admirers the Wonderful, and by its opponents the Merciless
+Parliament, was entirely subservient to the lords appellant, who,
+instead of meeting their antagonists in single combat, accused them
+before the House of Lords. The Duke of Ireland, Suffolk, Chief Justice
+Tresilian, and Brember, who had been Mayor of London, were condemned
+to be hanged. The two first-named had escaped to the Continent, but
+the others were put to death. The fifth councillor, the Archbishop of
+York, escaped with virtual deprivation by the Pope. Four other
+knights, amongst them Sir Simon Burley, a veteran soldier and trusted
+companion of the Black Prince, were also put to death. Richard was
+allowed nominally to retain the crown, but in reality he was subjected
+to a council in which Gloucester and his adherents were supreme.
+
+5. =Richard's Restoration to Power. 1389.=--Richard's entire
+submission turned the scale in his favour. England had been
+dissatisfied with him, but it had never loved the rule of the great
+feudal lords. Gloucester's council was no more popular than had been
+the Committees named in the Provisions of Oxford in the reign of Henry
+III., or the Lords Ordainers in the reign of Edward II., and it fell
+more easily than any government, before or afterwards. Suddenly, on
+May 3, =1389=, Richard asked his uncle in full council how old he was.
+"Your highness," replied Gloucester, "is in your twenty-second year."
+"Then," said Richard, "I must be old enough to manage my own affairs,
+as every heir is at liberty to do when he is twenty-one." No attempt
+having been made to confute this argument, Richard dismissed the
+council, and ruled once more in person.
+
+6. =Richard's Constitutional Government. 1389--1396.=--This sudden
+blow was followed by seven years of constitutional government. It
+seemed as if Richard had solved the problem of the relations between
+Crown and Parliament, which had perplexed so many generations of
+Englishmen. In =1389= he appointed ministers at his own pleasure, but
+when Parliament met in =1390= he commanded them to lay down their
+offices in order that no one should be deterred from bringing charges
+against them; and it was only upon finding that no one had any
+complaint to bring against them that he restored them to their posts.
+Nor did he show any signs of irritation against those by whom he had
+been outraged. Not only did he forbear to recall Suffolk and his other
+exiled favourites, but after a little time he admitted Gloucester and
+his supporters to sit in council alongside of his own adherents.
+
+7. =Livery and Maintenance. 1390.=--During the fourteenth century the
+importance of the House of Commons had been steadily growing, and the
+king on the one hand and the great nobles on the other had been sorely
+tempted to influence the elections unduly. The means of doing so had
+come with a change in civil relationships, the natural result of that
+change in military relationships which had given a new character to
+the wars of Edward III. (see p. 236). Just as the king now fought with
+paid soldiers of every rank instead of fighting with vassals bound by
+feudal tenure, so the great nobles surrounded themselves with
+retainers instead of vassals. The vassal had been on terms of social
+equality with his lord, and was bound to follow him on fixed terms.
+The retainer was an inferior, who was taken into service and professed
+himself ready to fight for his lord at all times and in all causes. In
+return his lord kept open house for his retainers, supplied them with
+coats, known as liveries, marked with his badge, and undertook to
+maintain them against all men, either by open force or by supporting
+them in their quarrels in the law courts; and this maintenance, as it
+was called, was seldom limited to the mere payment of expenses. The
+lord, by the help of his retainers, could bully witnesses and jurors,
+and wrest justice to the profit of the wrongdoer. As yet, indeed, the
+practice had not attained the proportions which it afterwards assumed,
+but it was sufficiently developed to draw down upon it in =1390= a
+statute prohibiting maintenance and the granting of liveries. Such a
+statute was not merely issued in defence of private persons against
+intimidation; it also helped to protect the Crown against the violence
+of the great lords. The growth of the power of the House of Commons
+was a good thing as long as the House of Commons represented the
+wishes of the community. It would be a bad thing if it merely
+represented knots of armed retainers who either voted in their own
+names according to the orders of their lords, or who frightened away
+those who came to vote for candidates whom their lords opposed.
+
+8. =Richard's Domestic Policy. 1390--1391.=--It was therefore well for
+the community that there should be a strong and wise king capable of
+making head against the ambition of the lords. For some years Richard
+showed himself wise. Not only did he seek, by opening the council to
+his opponents, to win over the lords to take part in the peaceable
+government of the country instead of disturbing it, but he forwarded
+legislation which carried out the general wishes of the country. The
+Statute of Provisors (see p. 258) was re-enacted and strengthened in
+=1390=, the Statute of Mortmain (see p. 212) in =1391=, and the
+Statute of Praemunire (see p. 258) in =1393=.
+
+9. =Richard's Foreign Policy. 1389--1396.=--Richard's foreign policy
+was based upon a French alliance. In =1389= he made a truce with
+France for three years. Negotiations for a permanent peace were
+frustrated because the French would make no peace unless Calais were
+surrendered to them, and English feeling was against the surrender of
+the claims sanctioned by the Treaty of Bretigni. The truce was,
+however, prolonged from time to time, and in =1396=, when Richard, who
+was by that time a widower, married Isabella, the daughter of Charles
+VI., a child of eight, it was prolonged for twenty-eight years. Wise
+as this policy was, it was distasteful to Englishmen, and their
+dissatisfaction rose when they learnt that Richard had surrendered
+Brest and Cherbourg to the French. It was true that these places had
+been pledged to him for money, and that he had only given them up as
+he was bound to do when the money was paid, but his subjects drew no
+fine distinctions, and fancied that he was equally ready to surrender
+Calais and Bordeaux.
+
+10. =Richard's Coup d'Etat. 1397.=--Richard knew that Gloucester was
+ready to avail himself of any widespread dissatisfaction, and that he
+had recently been allying himself with Lancaster against him. To
+please Lancaster, who had married his mistress, Catherine Swynford, as
+his third wife, Richard had legitimatised the Beauforts, his children
+by her, for all purposes except the succession of the crown, thus
+giving personal offence to Gloucester. Lancaster's son Derby, and
+Nottingham, another of the lords appellant (see p. 279), were now
+favourable to the king, and when rumours reached Richard that
+Gloucester was plotting against him, he resolved to anticipate the
+blow. He arrested the three of the lords appellant whom he still
+distrusted, Gloucester, Warwick, and Arundel, and charged them before
+Parliament, not with recent malpractices, of which he had probably no
+sufficient proof, but with the slaughter of his ministers in the days
+of the Merciless Parliament. Warwick was banished to the Isle of Man,
+Arundel was executed, and Gloucester imprisoned at Calais, where he
+was secretly murdered, as was generally believed by the order of the
+king. Archbishop Arundel, brother of the Earl of Arundel, was also
+banished. In such contradiction was this sudden outburst of violence
+to the prudence of Richard's recent conduct, that it has sometimes
+been supposed that, he had been dissimulating all the time. It is more
+probable that, without being actually insane, his mind had to some
+extent given way. He was always excitable, and in his better days his
+alertness of mind carried him forward to swift decisions, as when he
+met the mob at Smithfield, and when he vindicated his authority from
+the restraint of his uncle. Signs had not been wanting that his native
+energy was no longer balanced by the restraints of prudence. In =1394=
+he had actually struck Arundel in Westminster Abbey. In =1397= there
+was much to goad him to hasty and ill-considered action. The year
+before complaints had been raised against the extravagance of his
+household. The peace which he had given to his country was made the
+subject of bitter reproach against him, and he seems to have believed
+that Gloucester was plotting to bring him back into the servitude to
+which he had been subjected by the Commissioners of regency.
+
+11. =The Parliament of Shrewsbury. 1398.=--Whether Richard was mad or
+not, he at all events acted like a madman. In =1398= he summoned a
+packed Parliament to Shrewsbury, which declared all the acts of the
+Merciless Parliament to be null and void, and announced that no
+restraint could legally be put on the king. It then delegated all
+parliamentary power to a committee of twelve lords and six commoners
+chosen from the king's friends. Richard was thus made an absolute
+ruler unbound by the necessity of gathering a Parliament again. He had
+freed himself not merely from turbulent lords but also from all
+constitutional restraints.
+
+12. =The Banishment of Hereford and Norfolk. 1398.=--Richard had shown
+favour to the two lords appellant who had taken his side. Derby became
+Duke of Hereford, and Nottingham Duke of Norfolk. Before long Hereford
+came to the king with a strange tale. Norfolk, he said, had complained
+to him that the king still distrusted them, and had suggested that
+they should guard themselves against him. Norfolk denied the truth of
+the story, and Richard ordered the two to prove their truthfulness by
+a single combat at Coventry. When the pair met in the lists in full
+armour Richard stopped the fight, and to preserve peace, as he said,
+banished Norfolk for life and Hereford for ten years, a term which was
+soon reduced to six. There was something of the unwise cunning of a
+madman in the proceeding.
+
+13. =Richard's Despotism. 1398--1399.=--Richard, freed from all
+control, was now, in every sense of the word, despotic. He extorted
+money without a semblance of right, and even compelled men to put
+their seals to blank promises to pay, which he could fill up with any
+sum he pleased. He too, like the lords, gathered round him a vast
+horde of retainers, who wore his badge and ill-treated his subjects
+at their pleasure. He threatened the Percies, the Earl of
+Northumberland and his son, Harry Hotspur, with exile, and sent them
+off discontented to their vast possessions in the North. Early in
+=1399= the Duke of Lancaster died. His son, the banished Hereford, was
+now Duke of Lancaster. Richard, however, seized the lands which ought
+to have descended to him from his father. Every man who had property
+to lose felt that Lancaster's cause was his own. Richard at this
+inopportune moment took occasion to sail to Ireland. He had been there
+once before in =1394= in the vain hope of protecting the English
+colonists (see p. 265). His first expedition had been a miserable
+failure: his second expedition was cut short by bad news from England.
+
+[Illustration: Meeting of Henry of Lancaster and Richard II. at Flint:
+from Harl. MS. 1319.]
+
+14. =Henry of Lancaster in England. 1399.=--Lancaster, with a small
+force, landed at Ravenspur, in Yorkshire, a harbour which has now
+disappeared in the sea. At first he gave out that he had come merely
+to demand his own inheritance. Then he alleged that he had come to
+redress the wrongs of the realm. Northumberland brought the Percies to
+his help. Armed men flocked to his support in crowds. The Duke of
+York, who had been left behind by Richard as regent, accepted this
+statement and joined him with all his forces. When Richard heard what
+had happened, he sent the Earl of Salisbury from Ireland to Wales to
+summon the Welshmen to his aid. The Welshmen rallied to Salisbury, but
+the king was long in following, and when Richard landed they had all
+dispersed. Richard found himself almost alone in Conway Castle, whilst
+Lancaster had a whole kingdom at his back.
+
+[Illustration: Henry of Lancaster claiming the throne: from Harl. MS.
+1319.]
+
+15. =The Deposition of Richard and the Enthronement of Henry IV.
+1399.=--By lying promises Lancaster induced Richard to place himself
+in his power at Flint. "My lord," said Lancaster to him, "I have now
+come before you have sent for me. The reason is that your people
+commonly say you have ruled them very rigorously for twenty or two and
+twenty years; but, if it please God, I will help you to govern
+better." The pretence of helping the king to govern was soon
+abandoned. Richard was carried to London and thrown into the Tower. He
+consented, probably not till after he had been threatened with the
+fate of Edward II., to sign his abdication. On the following morning
+the act of abdication was read in Parliament. The throne was empty
+Then Lancaster stepped forward. "In the name," he said, "of the
+Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, I, Henry of Lancaster, challenge this
+realm of England, and the crown with all its members and
+appurtenances, as I am descended by right line of the blood coming
+from the good lord King Henry the Third,[27] and through that right
+God of his grace hath sent me, with help of my kin and of my friends,
+to recover it, the which realm was in point to be undone for default
+of governance and undoing of the good laws." The assent of Parliament
+was given, and Lancaster took his seat in Richard's throne as King
+Henry IV.
+
+ [Footnote 27: Genealogy of the claimants of the throne in 1399:--
+
+ HENRY III.
+ 1216-1272
+ |
+ ---------------------------------
+ | |
+ EDWARD I. Edmund
+ 1272-1307 |
+ | ----------------------
+ | | |
+ EDWARD II. Thomas, Henry,
+ 1307-1327 Earl of Lancaster Earl of Lancaster
+ | |
+ EDWARD III |
+ 1327-1377 |
+ | |
+ -------------------- |
+ | | Henry, Duke of Lancaster
+ Edward, Lionel, |
+ the Black Prince Duke of Clarence Blanche = John of Gaunt,
+ | | | Duke of
+ RICHARD II. Philippa = Edmund Mortimer, | Lancaster
+ 1377-1399 | Earl of March |
+ | |
+ Roger Mortimer, HENRY IV.
+ Earl of March 1399-1413
+ |
+ Edmund Mortimer,
+ Earl of March]
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of a knight at Clehonger, showing development of
+plate armour. Date, about 1400.]
+
+16. =Nature of the Claim of Henry IV.=--The claim which Henry put
+forward would certainly not bear investigation. It laid stress on
+right of descent, and it has since been thought that Henry intended to
+refer to a popular belief that his ancestor Edmund, the second son of
+Henry III., was in reality the eldest son, but had been set aside in
+favour of his younger brother, Edward I., on account of a supposed
+physical deformity from which he was known as Edmund Crouchback. As a
+matter of fact the whole story was a fable, and the name Crouchback
+had been given to Edmund not because his back was crooked, but because
+he had worn a cross on his back as a crusader (see p. 197). That Henry
+should have thought it necessary to allude to this story, if such was
+really his meaning, shows the hold which the idea of hereditary
+succession had taken on the minds of Englishmen. In no other way could
+he claim hereditary right as a descendant of Henry III. Richard had
+selected as his heir Roger Mortimer, the son of the daughter of
+Lionel, Duke of Clarence, the next son of Edward III., after the Black
+Prince, who lived to be old enough to have children. Roger Mortimer,
+indeed, had recently been killed in Ireland, but he had left a boy,
+Edmund Mortimer, who, on hereditary principles, was heir to the
+kingdom, unless the doctrine announced by Edward III. that a claim to
+the crown descended through females was to be set aside. In fact the
+real importance of the change of kings lay not in what Henry said, but
+in what he avoided saying. It was a reversion to the old right of
+election, and to the precedent set in the deposition of Edward II.
+Henry tacitly announced that in critical times, when the wearer of the
+crown was hopelessly incompetent, the nation, represented by
+Parliament, might step in and change the order of succession. The
+question at issue was not merely a personal one between Richard and
+Henry. It was a question between hereditary succession leading to
+despotism on the one side, and to parliamentary choice, perhaps to
+anarchy, on the other. That there were dangers attending the latter
+solution of the constitutional problem would not be long in appearing.
+
+
+_Books recommended for further study of Part III._
+
+GREEN, J. R. History of the English People. Vol. i. pp. 189-520.
+
+STUBBS, W. (Bishop of Oxford). Constitutional History of England. Vol.
+i. chap. xii. sections 151-155; vol. ii. chaps. ix. and x.
+
+---- The Early Plantagenets, 129-276.
+
+NORGATE, Miss K. England under the Angevin Kings. Vol. ii. p. 390.
+
+MICHELET, J. History of France (Middle Ages). Translated by G. H.
+Smith.
+
+LONGMAN, W. The History of the Life and Times of Edward III.
+
+GAIRDNER, James. The Houses of Lancaster and York, pp. 1-64.
+
+ROGERS, James E. Thorold. A History of Agriculture and Prices in
+England. Vols. i. and ii.
+
+CUNNINGHAM, W. Growth of English Industry and Commerce in the Early
+and Middle Ages, pp. 172-365.
+
+WAKEMAN, H. O. and HASSALL, A. (Editors). Essays Introductory to the
+Study of English Constitutional History.
+
+ASHLEY, W. J. An Introduction to English Economic History and Theory.
+Vol. i.
+
+JUSSERAND, J. J. English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages. Translated
+by Lucy Toulmin Smith (Miss).
+
+BROWNE, M. Chaucer's England.
+
+JESSOPP, A., Dr. The Coming of the Friars, and other Historic Essays.
+
+OMAN, C. W. C. The Art of War in the Middle Ages.
+
+ADAMS, G. B. The Political History of England. Vol. ii. From the
+Norman Conquest to the Death of John (1066-1216).
+
+TOUT, T. F. The Political History of England. Vol. iii. From the
+Accession of Henry III. to the Death of Edward III. (1216-1377).
+
+OMAN, C. The Political History of England. Vol. iv. From the Accession
+of Richard II. to the Death of Richard III. (1377-1485).
+
+
+
+
+PART IV.
+
+_LANCASTER, YORK, AND TUDOR._ =1399--1509.=
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+HENRY IV. AND HENRY V.
+
+HENRY IV., =1399--1413=. HENRY V., =1413--1422=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+ Accession of Henry IV. 1399
+ Statute for the burning of heretics 1401
+ Battle of Shrewsbury 1403
+ Fight at Bramham Moor 1408
+ Succession of Henry V. 1413
+ Battle of Agincourt 1415
+ Treaty of Troyes 1420
+ Death of Henry V. 1422
+
+
+1. =Henry's First Difficulties. 1399--1400.=--Henry IV. fully
+understood that his only chance of maintaining himself on the throne
+was to rule with due consideration for the wishes of Parliament. His
+main difficulty, like that of his predecessor, was that the great
+lords preferred to hold their own against him individually with the
+help of their armies of retainers, instead of exercising political
+power in Parliament. In his first Parliament an angry brawl arose. The
+lords who in the last reign had taken the side of Gloucester flung
+their gloves on the floor of the House as a challenge to those who had
+supported Richard when he compassed Gloucester's death; and though
+Henry succeeded in keeping the peace for the time, a rebellion broke
+out early in =1400= in the name of Richard. Henry, like the kings
+before him, found his support against the turbulent nobles in the
+townsmen and the yeomen, and he was thus able to suppress the
+rebellion. Some of the noblemen who were caught by the excited
+defenders of the throne were butchered without mercy and without law.
+
+[Illustration: Henry IV. and his queen, Joan of Navarre: from their
+tomb in Canterbury Cathedral.]
+
+2. =Death of Richard II. 1400.=--A few weeks after the suppression of
+this conspiracy it was rumoured that Richard had died in prison at
+Pontefract. According to Henry's account of the matter he had
+voluntarily starved himself to death. Few, however, doubted that he
+had been put to death by Henry's orders. To prove the untruth of this
+story, Henry had the body brought to St. Paul's, where he showed to
+the people only the face of the corpse, as if this could be any
+evidence whatever. After Richard's death, if hereditary succession had
+been regarded, the person having a claim to the crown in preference to
+Henry was the young Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, the descendant of
+Lionel, Duke of Clarence (see p. 287). Henry therefore took care to
+keep the boy under custody during the whole of his reign.
+
+[Illustration: Royal arms as borne by Henry IV. after about 1408, and
+by successive sovereigns down to 1603.]
+
+3. =Henry IV. and the Church.=--Besides seeking the support of the
+commonalty, Henry sought the support of the Church. Since the rise of
+the friars at the beginning of the thirteenth century (see p. 191) the
+Church had produced no new orders of monks or friars. In the
+thirteenth and fourteenth she produced the schoolmen, a succession of
+great thinkers who systematised her moral and religious teaching.
+Imagining that she had no more to learn, she now attempted to
+strengthen herself by persecuting those who disbelieved her teaching,
+and after the suppression of the revolt of the peasants, made common
+cause with the landlords, who feared pecuniary loss from the
+emancipation of the villeins. This conservative alliance against
+social and religious change was the more easily made because many of
+the bishops were now members of noble families, instead of springing,
+as had usually been the case in the better days of the mediaeval
+Church, from poor or middle-class parentage. In the reign of Richard
+II. a Courtenay, a kinsman of the Earl of Devonshire, had become first
+Bishop of London (see p. 263), and then Archbishop of Canterbury. He
+was succeeded in his archbishopric by an Arundel, brother of the Earl
+of Arundel who had been executed by Richard, and Archbishop Arundel
+was in the days of Henry IV. the spokesman of the clergy.
+
+[Illustration: Thomas Cranley, Archbishop of Dublin, 1397-1417: from
+his brass at New College, Oxford. Showing the archiepiscopal
+mass-vestments and the cross and pall. Date, about 1400.]
+
+4. =The Statute for the Burning of Heretics. 1401.=--In =1401= the
+clergy cried aloud for new powers. The ecclesiastical courts could
+condemn men as heretics, but had no power to burn them. Bishops and
+abbots formed the majority of the House of Lords, and though the
+Commons had not lost that craving for the wealth of the Church which
+had distinguished John of Gaunt's party, they had no sympathy with
+heresy. Accordingly the statute for the burning of heretics (_De
+haeretico comburendo_), the first English law for the suppression of
+religious opinion, was passed with the ready consent of the king and
+both Houses. The first victim was William Sawtre, a priest who held,
+amongst other things, "that after the words of consecration in the
+Eucharist the bread remains bread, and nothing more." He was burnt by
+a special order from the king and council even before the new law had
+been enacted.
+
+5. =Henry IV. and Owen Glendower. 1400--1402.=--If Henry found it
+difficult to maintain order in England, he found it still more
+difficult to keep the peace on the borders of Wales. In =1400= an
+English nobleman, Lord Grey of Ruthyn, seized on an estate belonging
+to Owen Glendower, a powerful Welsh gentleman. Owen Glendower called
+the Welsh to arms, ravaged Lord Grey's lands, and proclaimed himself
+Prince of Wales. For some years Wales was practically independent.
+English townsmen and yeomen were ready to support Henry against any
+sudden attempt of the nobility to crush him with their retainers, but
+they were unwilling to bear the burden of taxation needed for the
+steady performance of a national task. In the meanwhile Henry was
+constantly exposed to secret plots. In =1401= he found an iron with
+four spikes in his bed. In the autumn of =1402= he led an expedition
+into Wales, but storms of rain and snow forced him back. His English
+followers attributed the disaster to the evil spirits which, as they
+fully believed, were at the command of the wizard Glendower.
+
+6. =The Rebellion of the Percies. 1402--1404.=--The Scots were not
+forgetful of the advantages to be derived from the divisions of
+England. They had amongst them some one--whoever he may have
+been--whom they gave out to be King Richard, and when Henry marched
+against Wales in =1402= they invaded England. They were met by the
+Percies and defeated at Homildon Hill. The Percies had still something
+of the enormous power of the feudal barons of the eleventh century.
+Their family estates stretched over a great part of Northumberland,
+and as they were expected to shield England against Scottish invasions
+they were obliged to keep up a military retinue which might be
+employed against the king as well as in his service. It was mainly
+through their aid that Henry had seated himself on the throne. Their
+chief, the Earl of Northumberland, and his brother, the Earl of
+Worcester, were aged men, but Northumberland's son, Henry Percy--Harry
+Hotspur as he was usually called--was of a fiery temper, and
+disinclined to submit to insult. Hotspur's wife was a Mortimer, and
+her brother, Sir Edmund Mortimer, the uncle of the young Earl of
+March, had been taken prisoner by Glendower. It was noticed that
+Henry, who had ransomed other prisoners, took no steps to ransom
+Mortimer, and it was believed that he was in no hurry to set free one
+whose hereditary claim to the crown, like that of the Earl of March,
+came before his own. Other causes contributed to irritate the Percies,
+and in =1403=, bringing with them as allies the Scottish prisoners
+whom they had taken at Homildon Hill, they marched southwards against
+Henry. Southern England might not be ready adequately to support Henry
+in an invasion of Wales, but it was in no mood to allow him to be
+dethroned by the Percies. It rallied to his side, and enabled him
+signally to defeat the Percies at Shrewsbury. Hotspur was killed in
+the fight, and his uncle, the Earl of Worcester, being captured, was
+beheaded without delay. Northumberland, who was not present at the
+battle, was committed to prison in =1404=, but was pardoned on promise
+of submission.
+
+[Illustration: The battle of Shrewsbury: from the "Life of Richard
+Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick;" drawn by John Rous about 1485.]
+
+7. =The Commons and the Church. 1404.=--After such a deliverance the
+Commons could not but grant some supplies. In the autumn of =1404=,
+however, they pleaded for the confiscation of the revenues of the
+higher clergy, which were sufficient, as they alleged, to support 15
+earls, 1,500 knights, 6,200 esquires, and 100 hospitals as well. The
+king refused to listen to the proposal, and money was voted in the
+ordinary way. It was the first deliberate attempt to meet the growing
+expenditure of the Crown by the confiscation of ecclesiastical
+revenue.
+
+8. =The Capture of the Scottish Prince. 1405.=--Early in =1405= Henry
+was threatened with a fresh attack. Charles VI. of France was now a
+confirmed lunatic, and his authority had mainly fallen into the hands
+of his brother Louis, Duke of Orleans, a profligate and unscrupulous
+man who was regarded by the feudal nobility of France as their leader.
+The Duke of Orleans refused to consider himself bound to Henry by the
+truce which had been made with Richard, and, forming an alliance with
+Owen Glendower, prepared to send a fleet to his aid. When there was
+war between England and France the Scots seldom remained quiet, but
+this time Henry was freed from that danger by an unexpected
+occurrence. The reigning King of Scotland was Robert III., whose
+father, Robert II., had been the first king of the House of Stuart,
+and had ascended the throne after the death of David Bruce, as being
+the son of his sister Margaret.[28] Robert III., weakly in mind and
+body, had committed to the custody of his brother, the Duke of Albany,
+his eldest son, the Duke of Rothesay, who had gained an evil name by
+his scandalous debauchery. Rothesay died in the prison in which his
+uncle had confined him, and popular rumour alleged that Albany had
+murdered him to clear the way to the throne. Robert now sent young
+James, his only surviving son, to be educated in France in order to
+save him from Albany's machinations. On his way the prince was
+captured by an English ship, and delivered to Henry, who kept him
+under guard as a hostage for the peaceful behaviour of his countrymen.
+The prince, he said, should have been sent to him to be educated, as
+he could talk French as well as the king of France. When Robert died
+soon afterwards the captive became King James I.; but he was not
+allowed to return home, and Albany ruled Scotland as regent in his
+name.
+
+ [Footnote 28: Genealogy of the kings of Scotland from Robert Bruce
+ to James I.:--
+
+ ROBERT I., Bruce
+ (1306-1329)
+ |
+ ------------------------------
+ | |
+ DAVID II. Margaret = Walter Stewart
+ (1329-1370) |
+ ROBERT II., Stewart or Stuart
+ (1370-1390)
+ |
+ |--------------
+ | |
+ ROBERT III. Robert, Duke
+ (1390-1406) of Albany
+ |
+ --------------------|
+ | |
+ David, JAMES I.
+ Duke of Rothesay (1406-1437)]
+
+9. =The Execution of Archbishop Scrope. 1405.=--The capture of such a
+hostage as James was the more valuable to Henry as at that very moment
+there was a fresh rising in the North, in which Scrope, the Archbishop
+of York, took a leading part. The insurgents were soon dispersed, and
+both Archbishop Scrope and Mowbray, the Earl Marshal, were captured.
+Henry had them both beheaded, though neither were tried by their
+peers, and ecclesiastics were not punishable by a secular court.
+Knowing that the insurrection had been contrived by Northumberland,
+Henry gave himself no rest till he had demolished the fortifications
+of his castles of Alnwick, Warkworth, and Prudhoe. Northumberland
+himself escaped to Scotland.
+
+10. =France, Wales, and the North. 1405--1408.=--In =1405=, whilst
+Henry was in the North, a French fleet landed a force in Wales and
+seized Carmarthen. In =1406= the Duke of Orleans attacked the
+possessions still held by the English in Guienne, but though he
+plundered the country he could do no more. Once again fortune relieved
+Henry of a dangerous enemy. The Duke of Orleans had a rival in his
+cousin John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, who, in addition to his
+own duchy and county of Burgundy, was ruler of Flanders through his
+mother. His wise and firm government attached the manufacturing towns
+of Flanders to him, and the example of his government in Flanders won
+him favour in Paris and other French towns, especially in the north of
+France. He was, however, personally brutal and unscrupulous, and
+having entered into a competition for power with the Duke of Orleans,
+he had him murdered in =1407= in the streets of Paris. At once a civil
+war broke out between the Burgundian party, supported by the towns,
+and the Orleans party, which rested on the feudal nobility, and was
+now termed the party of the Armagnacs, from the Count of Armagnac, its
+chief leader after the murder of the Duke of Orleans. Henry had no
+longer to fear invasion from France. In =1408= he was freed from yet
+another enemy. The old Earl of Northumberland, who had wandered from
+Scotland to Wales, now wandered north again to try his fortunes in his
+own country. As he passed through Yorkshire he was met by the sheriff
+of the county, and defeated and slain on Bramham Moor. At the same
+time South Wales fell again under the power of the king, and though
+Owen Glendower still continued to hold out in the mountainous region
+round Snowdon, his power rapidly declined.
+
+[Illustration: Fight in the lists with poleaxes between Richard
+Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, and Sir Pandolf Malatesta, at Verona,
+_temp._ Henry IV.: from the "Life of Richard, Earl of Warwick;" drawn
+by John Rous about 1485.]
+
+11. =Henry, Prince of Wales. 1409--1410.=--No one had been more
+helpful to the king in these wars than his son, Henry, Prince of
+Wales. He had fought at Shrewsbury and in Wales, and had learnt to
+command as well as to fight. Young as he was--in =1409= he was but
+twenty-two--he was already seen to be a man born to have the mastery.
+He took his place in his father's council as well as in his armies in
+the field. He was skilful, resolute, always knowing his own mind,
+prompt to act as each occasion arose. He was, moreover, unfeignedly
+religious. It seemed as if a king as great as Edward I. was about to
+ascend the throne. Yet between the character of Edward I. and the
+character of Prince Henry there was a great difference. Edward I.
+worked for the future as well as for the present. His constructive
+legislation served his country for generations after his death. Even
+his mistaken attempt to unite England and Scotland was, to some extent
+at least, an anticipation of that which was done by the Act of Union
+four hundred years after his death. The young Henry had no such power
+of building for the future. He worked for the present alone, and his
+work crumbled away almost as soon as he was in his grave. His ideas
+were the ordinary ideas of his age, and he never originated any of his
+own. In =1410=, when a heretic, Badby, was led to be burnt, the Prince
+in vain urged him to recant. As the flames blazed up, the poor wretch,
+stung by the torment, cried for mercy. The Prince bade the
+executioners drag away the blazing faggots, and offered Badby support
+for his lifetime if he would abandon his heresy. Badby refused, and
+the Prince sternly ordered the executioners to push the faggots back
+and to finish their cruel work. In that very year the House of
+Commons, which was again urging the king to confiscate the revenues of
+the clergy, even urged him also to soften the laws against the
+Lollards. The king refused, and he had no opposition to fear from the
+Prince of Wales.
+
+[Illustration: Costume of a judge, about 1400: from the brass of Sir
+John Cassy, Chief Baron of the Exchequer, at Deerhurst,
+Gloucestershire.]
+
+12. =The Last Years of Henry IV. 1411--1413.=--It was not long before
+a bitter quarrel broke out between Henry IV. and his son, which lasted
+till the death of the old man. In later times stories were told how
+Prince Henry gave himself up to the society of low and debauched
+companions, how he amused himself by robbing the receivers of his own
+rents, and how, having struck Chief Justice Gascoigne for sitting in
+judgment on one of his unruly followers, he was sent to prison for
+contempt of court. There is no real evidence in support of these
+stories; but there is good reason to believe that, though they were
+certainly exaggerated, they were not altogether without foundation.
+Since =1410= the Prince kept house in the heart of London, and, as a
+young and active man suddenly called from service in the field to live
+in the midst of the temptations of a city, he may very well have
+developed a taste for boisterous amusements, even if he did not fall
+into grosser forms of dissipation. It is certain that during this
+period of his life he ran deeply into debt, and was no longer on good
+terms with his father. Yet even the story about the Chief Justice goes
+on to say that the Prince took his punishment meekly and offered no
+resistance, and that his father thanked God that he had so upright a
+judge and so obedient a son. Political disagreement probably widened
+the breach between the King and the Prince. Henry IV. had grown
+accustomed to live from hand to mouth, and had maintained himself on
+the throne rather because Englishmen needed a king than because he was
+himself a great ruler. In his foreign policy he was swayed by the
+interests of the moment. In =1411= he helped the Burgundians against
+the Armagnacs. In =1412= he helped the Armagnacs against the
+Burgundians. Prince Henry already aimed at a steady alliance with the
+Burgundians, with a view to a policy more thoroughgoing than that of
+keeping a balance between the French parties. The king, too, was
+subject to epileptic attacks, and to a cutaneous disorder which his
+ill-willers branded by the name of leprosy. It has even been said that
+in =1412= the Prince urged his father to abdicate in his favour. If
+so, he had not long to wait for the crown. In =1413= Henry IV. died,
+and Henry V. sat upon his throne.
+
+13. =Henry V. and the Lollards. 1413--1414.=--Henry V. was steadied by
+the duties which now devolved upon him. He indeed dismissed from the
+chancellorship Archbishop Arundel, who had supported his father
+against himself, and gave it to his half-uncle, Henry Beaufort, Bishop
+of Winchester, one of the legitimated sons of John of Gaunt and
+Catherine Swynford (see p. 282), but he allowed no plans of vengeance
+to take possession of his mind. His first thought was to show that he
+had confidence in his own title to the crown. He liberated the Earl of
+March, and transferred the body of Richard II. to a splendid tomb at
+Westminster, as if he had nothing to fear from any competitor. If
+there was one thing on which, as far as England was concerned, his
+heart was set, it was on strengthening the religion of his ancestors.
+He founded three friaries and he set himself to crush the Lollards.
+Sir John Oldcastle, who bore the title of Lord Cobham in right of his
+wife, was looked up to by the Lollards as their chief supporter.
+Oldcastle was brought before Archbishop Arundel. Both judge and
+accused played their several parts with dignity. Arundel without angry
+reviling asserted the necessity of accepting the teaching of the
+Church. Oldcastle with modest firmness maintained the falsity of many
+of its doctrines. In the end he was excommunicated, but before any
+further action could be taken he escaped, and was nowhere to be found.
+His followers were so exasperated as to form a plot against the king's
+life. Early in =1414= Henry fell upon a crowd of them in St. Giles's
+Fields. Most escaped, but of those who were taken the greater part
+were hanged or burnt. The result was a statute giving fresh powers to
+the king for the punishment of the Lollards. Every book written by
+them was to be confiscated. Three years later (=1417=) Oldcastle was
+seized and burnt. He was the last of the Lollards to play an
+historical part. The Lollards continued to exist in secret, especially
+in the towns, but there was never again any one amongst them who
+combined religious fervour with cultivated intelligence.
+
+[Illustration: Henry V.: from an original painting belonging to the
+Society of Antiquaries.]
+
+14. =Henry's Claim to the Throne of France. 1414.=--Henry V. was
+resolved to uphold the old foreign policy of the days of Edward III.
+as well as the old religion. In =1414=, whilst he amused the French
+court by offers of friendship, he was in reality preparing to demand
+the crown of France as the right of the king of England, leaving out
+of sight the consideration that if the claim of Edward III. had been
+worth anything at all, it would have descended to the Earl of March
+and not to himself. Everything seemed to combine to make easy an
+attack on France. Burgundians and Armagnacs were engaged in a
+death-struggle. In =1413= a riotous Burgundian mob had made itself
+master of Paris and the Government. Then the Armagnacs had got the
+upper hand, and the Duke of Burgundy was driven back to his own
+dominions. Henry now made an alliance with the Duke of Burgundy
+against the ruling powers, and prepared to invade the distracted land.
+Thus far he proceeded in imitation of Edward III., who had attacked
+Philip VI. in alliance with the Flemings. With Edward III., however,
+the claim to the French crown had always been a secondary
+consideration. He went to war because French sailors plundered English
+ports and the French king assisted the Scots. Henry had no such reason
+to urge. He went to war because he was young and warlike, because the
+enterprise was easy, and because foreign conquest would unite all
+Englishmen round his throne. When once the war was begun he was
+certain to carry it on in a different spirit from that of Edward III.
+Edward had gone to weaken the plunderers by plundering in return, and
+to fight battles only when they happened to come in his way. Henry
+went with the distinct resolution to conquer France and to place the
+French crown on his own head. Every step which he took was calculated
+with skill for the attainment of this end. Of immediate, perhaps of
+lifelong, success Henry was as nearly certain as it was possible to
+be. Yet, if he had remembered what had been the end of campaigns
+adorned by the brilliant victories of Crecy and Poitiers, he might
+have known that all that he could do would end in ultimate failure,
+and that the day must come when divided France would unite to cast
+out, if not himself, at least his heirs. It was significant that when
+his Chancellor, Beaufort, announced to Parliament the king's
+intention, he took for his text, after the manner of political
+speakers in those days, 'Let us work while it is called to-day.' Henry
+was not inclined, as Edward I. had been, to take thought for a distant
+morrow.
+
+15. =The Invasion of France. 1415.=--In =1415= Henry openly made his
+claim and gathered his army at Southampton. He there detected a
+conspiracy to place the Earl of March on the throne, which had been
+formed by Lord Scrope and Sir Thomas Grey, in combination with March's
+brother-in-law, the Earl of Cambridge, a son of the Duke of York (see
+genealogy at p. 327), the son of Edward III. All three were executed,
+and then Henry sailed for France. He landed at the mouth of the Seine
+and besieged Harfleur. Harfleur fell after an heroic defence, and the
+Seine valley lay open to Henry.[29] Over two-thirds of his army,
+however, had perished from dysentery and fever, and with no more, even
+at the highest calculation, than 15,000 men, he was unable to take
+advantage of the opportunity to march upon Paris. His brother the Duke
+of Clarence, urged him to return to England, but Henry knew that if he
+went back with baffled hopes his throne would hardly stand the shock.
+He resolved to march to Calais. It might be that he would find a Crecy
+on the way.
+
+ [Footnote 29: Havre de Grace was not yet in existence.]
+
+16. =The March to Agincourt. 1415.=--Not a Frenchman could be found
+who would take seriously Henry's claim to be the true king of France.
+When he reached the Somme he found the bridges over the river broken,
+and he was only able to cross it by ascending it almost to its source.
+Then, bending to the left, he pushed on towards Calais. His own army
+was by this time scarcely more than 10,000 strong, and he soon learnt
+that a mighty French host of at least 50,000 men blocked the way at
+Agincourt. Though his little band was worn with hunger, he joyfully
+prepared for battle. He knew that the Duke of Burgundy had kept aloof,
+and that the Armagnac army opposed to him was a feudal host of the
+same character as that which had been defeated at Crecy. There were no
+recognised commanders, no subordination, no notion of the superior
+military power of the English archers.
+
+17. =The Battle of Agincourt, October 25, 1415.=--In the early
+morning, mass was said in the English army, and Henry's scanty
+followers prayed earnestly that their king's right, as they believed
+it to be, might be shown on that day. Henry's own prayers were long
+and fervid. He was told that it was the hour of prime, the first hour
+of prayer. "Now," he said, "is good time, for all England prayeth for
+us, and, therefore, be of good cheer." He then went forth to marshal
+his army. To a knight who wished that every brave Englishman now at
+home were there, he replied that he would not have one man more. Few
+as they were, they were in the hands of God, who could give them the
+victory. Henry's tactics were those of Crecy. He drew up his archers
+between thick woods which defended their flanks, and with sharp stakes
+planted in the ground to defend them in front, placing his dismounted
+horsemen at intervals between the bodies of archers. The French,
+however, showed no signs of attacking, and Henry, knowing that unless
+he cut his way through his soldiers would starve, threw tactics to
+the winds and ordered his archers to advance. He had judged wisely.
+The French horsemen were on ploughed ground soaked with rain, and when
+at last they charged, the legs of their horses stuck fast in the
+clinging mud. The English arrows played thickly on them. Immovable and
+helpless, they were slaughtered as they stood. In vain their
+dismounted horsemen pushed forward in three columns upon the English
+knights. Their charge was vigorously resisted, and the archers,
+overlapping each column, drew forth the heavy leaden mallets which
+each man carried, and fell upon the helpless rout with blows which
+crashed through the iron headpieces of the Frenchmen. Such as could
+escape fled hastily to the rear, throwing into wild confusion the
+masses of their countrymen who had not as yet been engaged. The battle
+was won, but unfortunately the victory was stained by a cruel deed.
+Some French plunderers had got into the rear to seize upon the
+baggage, and Henry, believing that a fresh enemy was upon him, gave
+orders, which were promptly carried out, to slay the prisoners. The
+loss of the French was enormous, and fell heavily on their nobility,
+always eager to be foremost in fight. Amongst the prisoners who were
+spared was the young Duke of Orleans.
+
+18. =Henry's Diplomacy. 1416--1417.=--If Henry had not yet secured the
+crown of France, he had at least made sure of the crown of England.
+When he landed at Dover he was borne to land on the shoulders of the
+multitude. He entered London amidst wild enthusiasm. There was no fear
+of any fresh conspiracy to place the Earl of March on the throne. In
+=1416= he sent his brother, the Duke of Bedford, to secure Harfleur
+against a French attack, whilst he himself was diplomatically active
+in an attempt to win over to his side the Duke of Burgundy and
+Sigismund, King of the Romans, who actually visited him in England.
+Sigismund promised much, but had little power to fulfil his promises,
+whilst the Duke shifted backwards and forwards, looking out for his
+own advantage and giving no real help to either side. In =1417= the
+quarrels in France reached a head. The Count of Armagnac, getting into
+his possession the Dauphin Charles, a boy of fourteen, established a
+reign of terror in Paris, and the Duke of Burgundy, summoned by the
+frightened citizens to their help, levied war against the Armagnacs
+and marched to Paris.
+
+19. =Henry's Conquest of Normandy. 1417--1419.=--Henry seized the
+opportunity and landed in Normandy. Caen was taken by storm, and in a
+few weeks all Normandy except Rouen had submitted to Henry. There had
+been a terrible butchery when Caen was stormed, but when once
+submission was secured Henry took care that justice and order should
+be enforced, and that his soldiers should abstain from plunder and
+outrage. In Paris affairs were growing worse. The citizens rose
+against the Armagnacs and imprisoned all of them on whom they could
+lay hands. Then the mob burst into the prisons and massacred the
+prisoners, the Count of Armagnac himself being one of the number.
+Henry's army in the meanwhile closed round Rouen. The magistrates, to
+prolong the defence, thrust out the poorer inhabitants. Henry, who
+knew not pity when there was a practical object to be gained, thrust
+them back. During five months the poor wretches wandered about half
+starved, dying off day by day. On Christmas Day, in honour of Christ's
+nativity, Henry sent some food to the few who were left. Famine did
+its work within as well as without the walls, and on January 19,
+=1419=, Rouen, the old ducal capital of the Norman kings, surrendered
+to Henry.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of William Phelip, Lord Bardolf (died 1441),
+with the Garter and Lancastrian collar of SS.: from his tomb at
+Dennington, Suffolk. The type of armour here shown prevailed from
+about 1415 to 1435.]
+
+[Illustration: Marriage of Henry V. and Catherine of France: from the
+'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick,' drawn by John Rous about
+1485.]
+
+20. =The Murder of the Duke of Burgundy and the Treaty of Troyes.
+1419--1420.=--In the summer of =1419= English troops swept the country
+even up to the walls of Paris. Henry, however, gained more by the
+follies and crimes of his enemies than by his own skill. Terrified at
+the prospect of losing all, Burgundians and Armagnacs seemed for a
+moment to forget their quarrel and to be ready to join together in
+defence of their common country; but the hatred in their hearts could
+not be rooted out. At a conference between the Duke of Burgundy and
+the Dauphin on the bridge of Montereau, angry words sprang easily to
+the lips of both. The Duke put his hand on the pommel of his sword,
+and some of the Dauphin's attendants, believing their master's life in
+danger, fell on the Duke and slew him. After this an agreement between
+the factions was no longer possible. The new Duke of Burgundy, Philip
+the Good, at once joined the English against the Dauphin, whom he
+regarded as an accomplice of his father's murderers. Even Queen
+Isabella, the mother of the Dauphin, shared in the outcry against her
+own son, and in =1420= was signed the Treaty of Troyes, by which the
+Dauphin was disinherited in favour of Henry, who was to be king of
+France on the death of Charles VI. In accordance with its terms, Henry
+married Charles's daughter Catherine, and ruled France as regent till
+the time came when he was to rule it as king.
+
+21. =The Close of the Reign of Henry V. 1420--1422.=--The Treaty of
+Troyes was very similar in its stipulations to that which Henry II.
+had made with Stephen at Wallingford (see p. 137). The result was, as
+might have been expected, totally different. Henry II. had the English
+nation behind his back. Henry V. presumed to rule over a foreign
+nation, the leaders of which had only accepted him in a momentary fit
+of passion. He never got the whole of France into his power. He held
+Paris and the North, whilst the Duke of Burgundy held the East. South
+of the Loire the Armagnacs were strong, and that part of France stood
+by the Dauphin, though even here the English possessed a strip of land
+along the sea-coast in Guienne and Gascony, and at one time drew over
+some of the lords to admit Henry's feudal supremacy. In =1420= Henry
+fancied it safe for him to return to England, but, in his absence, in
+the spring of =1421= his brother, the Duke of Clarence, was defeated
+and slain at Bauge by a force of Frenchmen and of Scottish
+auxiliaries. Clarence had forgotten that English victories had been
+due to English archery. He had plunged into the fight with his
+horsemen, and had paid the penalty for his rashness with his life.
+Henry hurried to the rescue of his followers, and drove the French
+over the Loire; though Orleans, on the north bank of that river,
+remained unconquered. Instead of laying siege to it Henry turned
+sharply round northwards to besiege Meaux, the garrison of which was
+plundering the country round Paris in the name of the Dauphin, and
+seemed likely to shake the fidelity to Henry even of Paris itself.
+Meaux held out for many months. When at last it fell, in =1422=, Henry
+was already suffering from a disease which carried him off before the
+end of the year at the age of thirty-five. Henry V. had given his life
+to the restoration of the authority of the Church in England, and to
+the establishment of his dynasty at home by means of the glory of
+foreign conquest. What man could do he did, but he could not achieve
+the impossible.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+HENRY VI. AND THE LOSS OF FRANCE. =1422--1451=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Henry VI., 1422-1461
+
+ The accession of Henry VI. 1422
+ The relief of Orleans 1429
+ End of the alliance with the Duke of Burgundy 1435
+ Marriage of Henry VI. with Margaret of Anjou 1445
+ Murder of the Duke of Suffolk and Jack Cade's rebellion 1450
+ Loss of the last French possessions except Calais 1451
+
+
+1. =Bedford and Gloucester. 1422.=--In England Henry V. was succeeded
+in =1422= by his son, Henry VI., a child of nine months. In the same
+year, in consequence of the death of Charles VI., the infant was
+acknowledged as king of France in the north and east of that country.
+The Dauphin, holding the lands south of the Loire, and some territory
+even to the north of it, claimed to reign over the whole of France by
+hereditary right as Charles VII. Henry V. had appointed his eldest
+surviving brother, John, Duke of Bedford, regent in France, and his
+youngest brother, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, regent in England. In
+England there were no longer any parties banded against the Crown, and
+the title of the Earl of March had not a single supporter; but both
+the Privy Council and the Parliament agreed that the late king could
+not dispose of the regency by will. Holding that Bedford as the elder
+brother had the better claim, they nevertheless, in consequence of his
+absence in France, appointed Gloucester Protector, with the proviso
+that he should give up his authority to Bedford if the latter were to
+return to England. They also imposed limitations upon the authority of
+the Protector, requiring him to act by the advice of the Council.
+
+2. =Bedford's Success in France. 1423--1424.=--The English nation was
+bent upon maintaining its supremacy in France. Bedford was a good
+warrior and an able statesman. In =1423= he prudently married the
+sister of Philip of Burgundy, hoping thereby to secure permanently the
+all-important fidelity of the Duke. His next step was to place
+difficulties in the way of the Scottish auxiliaries who poured into
+France to the help of Charles. Through his influence the captive James
+I. (see p. 295) was liberated and sent home to Scotland, on the
+understanding that he would prevent his subjects from aiding the
+enemies of England. Bedford needed all the support he could find, as
+the French had lately been gaining ground. In =1424=, however, Bedford
+defeated them at Verneuil. In England it was believed that Verneuil
+was a second Agincourt, and that the French resistance would soon be
+at an end.
+
+3. =Gloucester's Invasion of Hainault. 1424.=--Bedford's progress in
+France was checked by the folly of his brother Gloucester, who was as
+unwise and capricious as he was greedy of power. Gloucester had lately
+married Jacqueline, the heiress of Holland and Hainault, though her
+husband, the Duke of Brabant, was still living, on the plea that her
+first marriage was null on the ground of nearness of kin. In =1424=
+Gloucester overran Hainault, which was under the government of the
+Duke of Brabant, thereby giving offence to the Duke of Burgundy, who
+was a cousin and ally of the Duke of Brabant, and who had no wish to
+see the English holding a territory so near to his own county of
+Flanders. The Duke of Brabant recovered Hainault and captured
+Jacqueline, who had already been abandoned by Gloucester. A coolness
+arose between the Duke of Burgundy and the English which was never
+completely removed.
+
+[Illustration: Henry VI.: from an original picture in the National
+Portrait Gallery.]
+
+4. =Gloucester and Beaufort. 1425--1428.=--In England as well as on
+the Continent Gloucester's self-willed restlessness roused enemies,
+the most powerful of them being his uncle, the Chancellor, Henry
+Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester (see pp. 301, 335), a wealthy and
+ambitious prelate not without those statesmanlike qualities which were
+sadly lacking to Gloucester. If Beaufort ruled the Council, Gloucester
+had the art of making himself popular with the multitude, whose
+sympathies were not likely to be given to a bishop of the type of
+Beaufort, who practised no austerities and who had nothing in him to
+appeal to the popular imagination. So bitter was the feud between
+Gloucester and Beaufort that in =1426= Bedford was obliged to visit
+England to keep the peace between them. Before he returned to France
+he persuaded Beaufort to surrender the chancellorship to Kemp, the
+Bishop of London, and to leave England for a time. Moreover, in =1427=
+he himself swore that as long as the king was under age the Council
+and not the Protector was to govern. When Gloucester was asked to take
+the same oath, he signed it, but refused to swear. In =1428=, after
+Bedford had returned to France, Beaufort came back, bringing with him
+from Rome the title of Cardinal, and authority to raise soldiers for a
+crusade against heretics in Bohemia. A storm was at once raised
+against him. A Cardinal, it was said, was a servant of the Roman See,
+and as no man could serve two masters, he ought not to hold an English
+bishopric or to sit in the English Council, far less to send to
+Bohemia English troops which were needed in France. Gloucester fancied
+that the opportunity of overthrowing his rival had come. Beaufort,
+however, was too prudent to press his claims. He absented himself from
+the Council and allowed the men whom he had raised for Bohemia to be
+sent to France instead. Before the end of the year the outcry against
+him died away, and, Cardinal as he was, he resumed his old place in
+the Council.
+
+5. =The Siege of Orleans. 1428--1429.=--The time had arrived when the
+presence of every English soldier was needed in France. Bedford had
+made himself master of almost the whole country north of the Loire
+except Orleans. If he could gain that city it would be easy for him to
+overpower Charles, who kept court at Chinon. In =1428=, therefore, he
+laid siege to Orleans. The city, however, defended itself gallantly,
+though all that the French outside could hope to do was to cut off the
+supplies of the besiegers. In February =1429= they attempted to
+intercept a convoy of herrings coming from Paris for the English
+troops, but were beaten off in what was jocosely styled the Battle of
+the Herrings, and it seemed as though Orleans, and with it France
+itself, were doomed. Frenchmen were indeed weary of the foreign yoke
+and of the arrogant insolence of the rough island soldiers. Yet in
+France all military and civil organisation had hitherto come from the
+kings, and unfortunately for his subjects Charles was easy-tempered
+and entirely incapable either of carrying on war successfully or of
+inspiring that enthusiasm without which the most careful organisation
+is as the twining of ropes of sand. It would need a miracle to inspire
+Frenchmen with the belief that it was possible for them to defeat the
+victors of Agincourt and Verneuil, and yet without such a miracle
+irretrievable ruin was at hand.
+
+6. =Jeanne Darc and the Relief of Orleans. 1429.=--The miracle was
+wrought by a young maiden of seventeen, Jeanne Darc, the daughter of a
+peasant of Domremi, in the duchy of Bar. Her home was at a distance
+from the actual scenes of war, but whilst she was still little more
+than a child, tales of horror, reaching her from afar, had filled her
+with 'pity for the realm of France' and for its young king, whom she
+idealised into the pattern of every virtue. As she brooded over the
+thought of possible deliverance, her warm imagination summoned up
+before her bright and saintly forms, St. Michael, St. Catherine, and
+St. Margaret, who bade her, the chosen of God, to go forth and save
+the king, and conduct him to Reims to be crowned and anointed with the
+holy oil from the vessel which, as men believed, had been brought down
+from heaven in days of old. At last in =1428= her native hamlet was
+burnt down by a Burgundian band. Then the voices of the saints bade
+her go to Vaucouleurs, where she would find a knight, Robert de
+Baudricourt, who would conduct her to Charles. Months passed before
+Baudricourt would do aught but scorn her message, and it was not till
+February =1429=, when the news from Orleans was most depressing, that
+he consented to take her in his train. She found Charles at Chinon,
+and, as the story goes, convinced him of her Divine mission by
+recognising him in disguise in the midst of his courtiers. Soldiers
+and theologians alike distrusted her, but her native good sense, her
+simple and earnest faith, and above all her purity of heart and life
+disarmed all opposition, and she was sent forth to lead an army to the
+relief of Orleans. She rode on horseback clothed in armour as a man,
+with a sword which she had taken from behind the altar of St.
+Catherine by her side, and a consecrated banner in her hand. She
+brought with her hope of victory, enthusiasm built on confidence in
+Divine protection, and wide-reaching patriotism. 'Pity for the realm
+of France' inspired her, and even the rough soldiers who followed her
+forsook for a time their debaucheries that they might be fit to follow
+God's holy maid. Such an army was invincible; but whilst to the French
+the maid was an instrument of the mercy of God, to the English she was
+an emissary of hell and the forerunner of defeat. On May 7 she led the
+storm of one of the English fortified posts by which the town was
+hemmed in. After a sharp attack she planted her standard on the wall.
+The English garrison was slain to a man. The line of the besiegers was
+broken through, and Orleans was saved. On the 12th the English army
+was in full retreat.
+
+[Illustration: Fotheringhay Church, Northamptonshire. The contract for
+building it, between Edward Duke of York, and William Horwod,
+freemason, is dated September 24, 1434.]
+
+7. =The Coronation of Charles VII. and the Capture of the Maid.
+1429--1430.=--The Maid followed up her victory. She had at her side
+brave and skilful warriors, such as La Hire and the Bastard of
+Orleans, the illegitimate son of the murdered Louis of Orleans, and
+with their help she pressed the English hard, driving them northwards
+and defeating them at Patay. She insisted on conducting Charles to
+Reims, and he, indolently resisting at first, was carried away by her
+persistent urgency. Hostile towns opened their gates to her on the
+way, and on July 17 she saw with chastened joy the man whom she had
+saved from destruction crowned in the great cathedral of Reims. For
+her part, she was eager to push on the war, but Charles was slothful,
+and in a hurry to be back to the pleasures of his court. When she led
+the troops to the attack of Paris, she was ordered back by the king,
+and the army sent into winter quarters. In the spring of =1430= the
+Maid was allowed again to attack the English, but she had no longer
+the support which she had once had. Many of the French soldiers were
+meanly jealous of her, and were vexed when they were told that they
+owed their victories to a woman. On the other side the Duke of
+Burgundy was frightened by the French successes into giving real aid
+to Bedford, and on May 23, in a skirmish before Compiegne, her
+countrymen doing nothing to save or to rescue her, the Maid was taken
+by Burgundian soldiers. Before the end of the year her captors sold
+her to the English, who firmly believed her to be a witch.
+
+8. =The Martyrdom at Rouen. 1431.=--The English had no difficulty in
+finding an ecclesiastical court to judge their prisoner. Even the
+French clergy detested the Maid as having appealed to supernatural
+voices which had not been recognised by the Church; and in spite of an
+intelligent and noble defence she was condemned to be burnt. At the
+stake she behaved with heroic simplicity. When the flames curled round
+her she called upon the saints who had befriended her. Her last
+utterance was a cry of "Jesus!" An Englishman who had come to triumph
+hung his head for shame. "We are lost," he said; "we have burnt a
+saint!"
+
+9. =The Last Years of the Duke of Bedford. 1431--1435.=--The English
+gained nothing by their unworthy vengeance. Though the personal
+presence of the Maid was no longer there to encourage her countrymen,
+they had learnt from her to cherish that 'pity for the realm of
+France' which had glowed so brightly in her own bosom. It was in vain
+that towards the end of =1431= Bedford carried the young Henry, now a
+boy of ten years, who had already been crowned in England the year
+before, to be crowned at Notre Dame, the cathedral of Paris. The
+Parisians were disgusted by the troop of foreigners which accompanied
+him, and their confidence was shaken when Bedford sent the king back
+to England as not venturing to trust him amongst his French subjects.
+In =1432= the armies of Charles VII. stole forwards step by step, and
+Bedford, who had no money to pay his troops, could do nothing to
+resist them. The English Parliament, which had cheerfully voted
+supplies as long as there seemed a prospect of conquering France, hung
+back from granting them when victories were no longer won. In =1433=
+Bedford was again forced to return to England to oppose the intrigues
+of Gloucester, who, though he had lost the title of Protector when the
+young king was crowned, had thrown the government into confusion by
+his intrigues. When Bedford went back to France in =1434= he found the
+tide running strongly against him. Little more than Paris and Normandy
+were held by the English, and the Duke of Burgundy was inclining more
+and more towards the French. In =1435= a congress was held at Arras,
+under the Duke of Burgundy's presidency, in the hope that peace might
+be made. The congress, however, failed to accomplish anything, and
+soon after the English ambassadors were withdrawn Bedford died at
+Rouen. If so wise a statesman and so skilful a warrior had failed to
+hold down France, no other Englishman was likely to achieve the task.
+
+10. =The Defection of Burgundy. 1435.=--After Bedford's death the Duke
+of Burgundy renounced his alliance with the English and entered into a
+league with Charles VII. In =1430=, by the death of the Duke of
+Brabant, he inherited Brabant, and in =1436= he inherited from the
+faithless Jacqueline Hainault, Holland, Zealand, and Friesland (see p.
+308). He thus, being already Count of Flanders, became ruler over
+well-nigh the whole of the Netherlands in addition to his own
+territories in Burgundy. The vassal of the king of France was now a
+European potentate. England had therefore to count on the enmity of a
+ruler whose power of injuring her was indeed serious.
+
+11. =The Duke of York in France. 1436--1437.=--Bedford's successor was
+the young Richard, Duke of York, whose father was that Earl of
+Cambridge who had been executed at Southampton (see p. 301); whilst
+his mother was Anne Mortimer, the sister of the Earl of March. As the
+Earl of March had died in =1425=, the Duke of York was now, through
+his mother, the heir of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, and thus, if
+hereditary right was to be regarded, heir to the throne. That a man
+with such claims should have been entrusted with such an office shows
+how firmly the victories of Henry V. had established the House of
+Lancaster in England. Disputes in the English Council, however,
+delayed his departure, and in April =1436=, before he could arrive in
+France, Paris was lost, whilst the Duke of Burgundy besieged Calais.
+England, stung by the defection of Burgundy, made an unusual effort.
+One army drove the Burgundians away from before Calais, whilst another
+under the Duke of York himself regained several fortresses in
+Normandy, and in =1437= Lord Talbot drove the Burgundians behind the
+Somme.
+
+12. =The English Lose Ground. 1437--1443.=--Gallant as the Duke of
+York was, he was soon recalled, and in =1437= was succeeded by Richard
+Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick. Warwick, however, failed to do more than
+to hold what his predecessor had gained, and he died in =1439=. Both
+in England and France the suffering was terrible, and England would
+find neither men nor money to support a falling cause. In =1439= a
+peace conference was held at Calais, but the English continued
+arrogantly to claim the crown of France, and peace was not to be had.
+In =1440= York was sent back, and fighting went on till =1443=, in
+which the English lost ground both in Normandy and in Guienne.
+
+[Illustration: Gilt-latten effigy (front view) of Richard Beauchamp,
+Earl of Warwick, died 1439: from his tomb at Warwick. Made by William
+Austen, of London, founder, 1453.]
+
+[Illustration: Gilt-latten effigy (back view) of Richard Beauchamp,
+Earl of Warwick, died 1439: from his tomb at Warwick. Made by William
+Austen, of London, founder, 1453.]
+
+13. =Continued Rivalry of Beaufort and Gloucester. 1439--1441.=--The
+chief advocate in England of the attempt to make peace at Calais in
+=1439= had been Cardinal Beaufort, whose immense wealth gave him
+authority over a Council which was always at its wits' end for money.
+Beaufort was wise enough to see that the attempt to reconquer the lost
+territory, or even to hold Normandy, was hopeless. Such a view,
+however, was not likely to be popular. Nations, like men, often
+refuse openly to acknowledge failure long after they cease to take
+adequate means to avert it. Of the popular feeling Gloucester made
+himself the mouthpiece, and it was by his influence that exorbitant
+pretensions had been put forward at Calais. In =1440= he accused
+Beaufort of using his authority for his own private interests, and
+though Beaufort gave over to the public service a large sum of money
+which he received as the ransom of the Duke of Orleans from a
+captivity which had lasted twenty-four years (see p. 303), Gloucester
+virulently charged him with an unpatriotic concession to the enemy.
+Gloucester's domestic relations, on the other hand, offered an easy
+object of attack. When he deserted Jacqueline he took a mistress,
+Eleanor Cobham, and subsequently married her, which he was able to do
+without difficulty, as his union with Jacqueline was, in the eyes of
+the Church, no marriage at all. The new Duchess of Gloucester being
+aware that if the king should die her husband would be next in order
+of succession to the throne, was anxious to hasten that event. It was
+a superstitious age, and the Duchess consulted an astrologer as to the
+time of the king's death, and employed a reputed witch to make a waxen
+image of the king under the belief that as the wax melted before the
+fire the king's life would waste away. In =1441= these proceedings
+were detected. The astrologer was hanged, the witch was burnt, whilst
+the Duchess escaped with doing public penance and with imprisonment
+for life. Gloucester could not save her, but he did not lose his
+place in the Council, where he continued to advocate a war policy,
+though with less success than before.
+
+[Illustration: Tattershall Castle, Lincolnshire: built of brick by
+Ralph, Lord Cromwell, between 1433 and 1455.]
+
+14. =Beaufort and Somerset. 1442--1443.=--In =1442= Henry was in his
+twenty-first year. Unfeignedly religious and anxious to be at peace
+with all men, his character was far too weak and gentle to fit him for
+governing in those rough times. He had attached himself to Beaufort
+because Beaufort's policy was pacific, and because Gloucester's life
+was scandalous. Beaufort's position was secured at court, but the
+situation was not one in which a pacific statesman could hope for
+success. The French would not consent to make peace till all that they
+had lost had been recovered; yet, hardly bested as the English in
+France were, it was impossible in the teeth of English public opinion
+for any statesman, however pacific, to abandon lands still commanded
+by English garrisons. Every year, however, brought the problem nearer
+to the inevitable solution. In =1442= the French attacked the strip of
+land which was all that the English now held in Guienne and Gascony,
+and with the exception of Bordeaux and Bayonne captured almost every
+fortified town. The command in France was given to Cardinal Beaufort's
+nephew, John Beaufort, Duke of Somerset. Somerset, who was thoroughly
+incompetent, did not even leave England till the autumn of =1443=, and
+when he arrived in France accomplished nothing worthy of his office.
+
+15. =The Angevin Marriage Treaty. 1444--1445.=--Henry now fell under
+the influence of William de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk, a descendant of
+the favourite of Richard II. Suffolk had fought bravely in France, and
+had learnt by sad experience the hopelessness of the English cause. In
+=1444=, with the consent of the king and the Parliament, he negotiated
+at Tours a truce for ten months. In order to make it more lasting
+there was to be a marriage between Henry and Margaret of Anjou. Her
+father, Rene, the Duke of Anjou, was titular king of Jerusalem and
+Sicily, in neither of which did he possess a foot of ground, whilst
+his duchy of Anjou was almost valueless to him in consequence of the
+forays of the English, who still held posts in Maine. Charles had the
+more readily consented to the truce, because it was understood that
+the surrender of Maine would be a condition of the marriage. In =1445=
+Suffolk led Margaret to England, where her marriage to Henry was
+solemnised. A French queen who brought with her no portion except a
+truce bought by the surrender of territory could hardly fail to be
+unpopular in England.
+
+[Illustration: Part of Wingfield manor-house, Derbyshire: built by
+Ralph, Lord Cromwell, about 1440.]
+
+16. =Deaths of Gloucester and Beaufort. 1447.=--The truce was renewed
+from time to time, and Suffolk's authority seemed firmly established.
+In =1447= Gloucester was charged with high treason in a Parliament
+held at Bury St. Edmunds, but before he had time to answer he was
+found dead in his bed. His death may, with strong probability, be
+ascribed to natural causes, but it was widely believed that he had
+been murdered and that Suffolk was the murderer. A few weeks later
+Gloucester's old rival, Cardinal Beaufort, the last real statesman who
+supported the throne of Henry VI., followed him to the grave, and
+Suffolk was left alone to bear the responsibility of government and
+the disgrace of failure.
+
+[Illustration: The Divinity School, Oxford: built between 1445 and
+1454.]
+
+17. =The Loss of the French Provinces. 1448--1449.=--Suffolk had
+undertaken more than he was able to fulfil. Somerset had died in
+=1444=, and Suffolk being jealous of all authority but his own, he
+sent York to govern Ireland. He could not secure the fulfilment of the
+conditions which he had made with the king of France. The English
+commanders refused to evacuate Maine, and in =1448= a French army
+entered the province and drove out the English. Edmund, the new Duke
+of Somerset, was sent to take the command in Normandy, which had
+formerly been held by his brother. In =1449= an Aragonese captain in
+the English service, who had no pay for his troops, having seized
+Fougeres, a place on the frontier of Brittany, for the sake of the
+booty to be gained, Charles made the attack an excuse for the renewal
+of the war. So destitute was the condition in which the English forces
+were left that neither Somerset nor the warlike Talbot (see p. 313),
+who had recently been created Earl of Shrewsbury, was able to resist
+him. Rouen fell in =1450=, and in =1450= the whole of Normandy was
+lost. In =1451= the French attacked Bordeaux and Bayonne, two
+port-towns which, in consequence of their close commercial intercourse
+with England, had no wish to transfer their allegiance to Charles.
+England, however, sent them no succour, and before the end of the year
+they were forced to capitulate. The relics of Guienne and Gascony thus
+passed into the hands of the French, and of all the possessions which
+the kings of England had once held on the Continent Calais alone
+remained.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+THE LATER YEARS OF HENRY VI. =1450--1461=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+Reign of Henry VI., 1422--1461
+
+ Murder of the Duke of Suffolk and Jack Cade's rebellion 1450
+ First Protectorate of the Duke of York 1453
+ First Battle of St. Albans and second Protectorate of the
+ Duke of York 1455
+ Battle of Blore Heath and the discomfiture of the Yorkists 1459
+ After a Yorkist victory at Northampton the Duke of York
+ is declared heir to the crown, but is defeated and slain
+ at Wakefield 1460
+ Battles of Mortimer's Cross, St. Albans, and Towton 1461
+ Coronation of Edward IV. 1461
+
+
+1. =The Growth of Inclosures.=--Since the insurrection of the peasants
+in =1381= (see p. 268) villeinage had to a great extent been dying
+out, in consequence of the difficulty felt by the lords in enforcing
+their claims. Yet the condition of the classes connected with the land
+was by no means prosperous. The lords of manors indeed abandoned the
+old system of cultivating their own lands by the labour of villeins,
+or by labourers hired with money paid by villeins in commutation for
+bodily service. They began to let out their land to tenants who paid
+rent for it; but even the new system did not bring in anything like
+the old profit. The soil had been exhausted for want of a proper
+system of manuring, and arable land scarcely repaid the expenses of
+its cultivation. For this evil a remedy was found in the inclosure of
+lands for pasturage. This change, which in itself was beneficial by
+increasing the productiveness of the country, and by giving rest to
+the exhausted soil, became oppressive because all the benefit went to
+the lords of the manors, whilst the tenants of the manors were left to
+struggle on as best they might. Not only had they no share in the
+increase of wealth which was brought about by the inclosure of what
+had formerly been the common land of the manors, but the poorer
+amongst them had less employment than before, as it required fewer men
+to look after sheep than to grow corn.
+
+2. =Increasing Power of the Nobility.=--The disproportionate increase
+of the wealth of the landowners threw into their hands a
+disproportionate amount of power. The great landowner especially was
+able to gather bands of retainers and to spread terror around him. The
+evil of liveries and maintenance, which had become prominent in the
+reign of Richard II. (see p. 281), had increased since his deposition.
+It was an evil which the kings were powerless to control. Again and
+again complaints were raised of 'want of governance.' Henry V. had
+abated the mischief for a time by employing the unruly elements in his
+wars in France, but it was a remedy which, when defeat succeeded
+victory, only increased the disease which it was meant to cure. When
+France was lost bands of unruly men accustomed to deeds of violence
+poured back into England, where they became retainers of the great
+landowners, who with their help set king and laws at defiance.
+
+3. =Case of Lord Molynes and John Paston.=--The difficulty of
+obtaining justice may be illustrated by a case which occurred in
+Norfolk. The manor of Gresham belonged to John Paston, a gentleman of
+moderate fortune. It was coveted by Lord Molynes, who had no legal
+claim to it whatever. Lord Molynes, however, took possession of it in
+=1448= with the strong hand. If such a thing had happened at present
+Paston would have gone to law; but to go to law implies the submitting
+of a case to a jury, and in those days a jury was not to be trusted to
+do justice. In the first place it was selected by the sheriff, and the
+sheriff took care to choose such men as would give a verdict pleasing
+to the great men whom he wished to serve, and in the second place,
+supposing that the sheriff did not do this, a juryman who offended
+great men by giving a verdict according to his conscience, but
+contrary to their desire, ran the risk of being knocked on the head
+before he reached home. Paston accordingly, instead of going to law,
+begged Lord Molynes to behave more reasonably. Finding his entreaties
+of no avail, he took possession of a house on the manor. Lord Molynes
+merely waited till Paston was away from home, and then sent a thousand
+men, who drove out Paston's wife and pillaged and wrecked the house.
+Paston ultimately recovered the manor, but redress for the injury done
+him was not to be had.
+
+4. =Suffolk's Impeachment and Murder. 1450.=--A government which was
+too weak to redress injuries was certain to be unpopular. The loss of
+the French possessions made it still more unpopular. The brunt of the
+public displeasure fell on Suffolk, who had just been made a duke, and
+who, through the queen's favour, was all-powerful at court. It was
+believed that he had sold himself to France, and it was known that
+whilst the country was impoverished large grants had been made to
+court favourites. An outcry was raised that the king 'should live of
+his own,' and ask for no more grants from his people. In =1450=
+Suffolk was impeached. Though the charge brought against him was a
+tissue of falsehoods, Henry did not dare to shield him entirely, and
+ordered him into banishment for five years. Suffolk, indeed, embarked
+for the Continent, but a large ship ranged up alongside of the vessel
+in which he was. Having been dragged on board amidst cries of
+"Welcome, traitor!" he was, two days afterwards, transferred to a
+boat, where his head was chopped off with six strokes of a rusty
+sword. His body was flung on the beach at Dover.
+
+5. =Jack Cade's Rebellion. 1450.=--Suffolk's supporters remained in
+office after his death. The men of Kent rose against them, and found a
+leader in an Irish adventurer, Jack Cade, who called himself Mortimer,
+and gave out that he was an illegitimate son of the late Earl of
+March. He established himself on Blackheath at the head of 30,000 men,
+asking that the burdens of the people should be diminished, the Crown
+estates recovered, and the Duke of York recalled from Ireland to take
+the place of the present councillors. Jack Cade's rebellion, in short,
+unlike that of Wat Tyler, was a political, not a social movement. In
+demanding that the government should be placed in the hands of the
+Duke of York, Jack Cade virtually asked that the Duke should step into
+the place, not of the Council, but of the King--that is to say, that a
+ruler who could govern should be substituted for one who could not,
+and in whose name the great families plundered England. It was this
+demand which opened the long struggle which was soon to devastate the
+country. At first it seemed as if Jack Cade would carry all before
+him. London, which had the most to gain by the establishment of a
+strong government, opened its gates to him. When, however, he was
+tested by success, he was found wanting. Striking with his sword the
+old Roman milestone known as London Stone, he cried out, "Now is
+Mortimer lord of this city." His followers gave themselves up to wild
+excesses. They beheaded Lord Say and his son-in-law, the Sheriff of
+Kent, and carried about their heads on pikes. They plundered houses
+and shops. The citizens who had invited them to enter now turned
+against them. After a fight on London Bridge the insurgents agreed to
+go home on the promise of a pardon. Jack Cade himself, attempting to
+gather fresh forces, was chased into Sussex and slain.
+
+6. =Rivalry of York and Somerset. 1450--1453.=--In the summer of
+=1450=, Richard, Duke of York, the real leader of the opposition, came
+back from Ireland. He found that Somerset, who had just returned from
+Normandy after the final loss of that province (see p. 320), had
+succeeded Suffolk in the king's confidence. Somerset, however, was not
+merely the favourite of Henry and the queen. The bulk of the nobility
+was on his side, whilst York was supported by the force of popular
+discontent and by such of the nobility as cherished a personal grudge
+against Somerset and his friends. In =1451= the loss of Guienne and
+Gascony increased the weight of Somerset's unpopularity. In =1452=
+both parties took arms; but, this time, civil war was averted by a
+promise from the king that York should be admitted to the Council, and
+that Somerset should be placed in confinement till he answered the
+charges against him. On this York dismissed his army. Henry, however,
+was not allowed to keep his promise, and Somerset remained in power,
+whilst York was glad to be allowed to retire unhurt. Somerset
+attempted to recover his credit by fresh victories in France, and sent
+the old Earl of Shrewsbury to Bordeaux to reconquer Gascony.
+Shrewsbury was successful for a while, but in =1453= he was defeated
+and slain at Castillon, and the whole enterprise came to nothing.
+
+7. =The First Protectorate of the Duke of York. 1453--1454.=--Henry's
+mind had never been strong, and in =1453= it entirely gave way. His
+insanity was probably inherited from his maternal grandfather, Charles
+VI. The queen bore him a son, named Edward, but though the infant was
+brought to his father, Henry gave no sign of recognising his
+presence. It was necessary to place the government in other hands, and
+in =1454= the Duke of York was named Protector by the House of Lords,
+which, as the majority of its members were at that time ecclesiastics,
+did not always re-echo the sentiments of the great families. If only
+the king had remained permanently insane York might have established
+an orderly government. Henry, however, soon recovered as much sense as
+he ever had, and York's protectorate came to an end.
+
+8. =The First Battle of St. Albans and the Duke of York's Second
+Protectorate.=--The restoration of Henry was in reality the
+restoration of Somerset. In =1455= York, fearing destruction, took
+arms against his rival. A battle was fought at St. Albans, in which
+Somerset was defeated and slain. This was the first battle in the wars
+known as the Wars of the Roses, because a red rose was the badge of
+the House of Lancaster, to which Henry belonged, and a white rose the
+badge of the House of York. After the victory York accompanied the
+king to London. Though the bulk of the nobility was against him, he
+had on his side the powerful family of the Nevills, as he had married
+Cicely Nevill, the sister of the head of that family, the Earl of
+Salisbury. Still more powerful was Salisbury's eldest son, who had
+married the heiress of the Beauchamps, Earls of Warwick, and who held
+the earldom of Warwick in right of his wife.[30] In June =1455= the
+king was again insane, and York was for the second time named
+Protector. This Protectorate, however, did not last long, as early in
+=1456= the king recovered his senses, and York had to resign his post.
+
+ [Footnote 30: Genealogy of the Nevills:--
+
+ John of Gaunt
+ |
+ Ralph Nevill, = Joan
+ Thomas Montague, Earl of |
+ Earl of Salisbury Westmoreland |
+ | |
+ | ---------------------
+ Richard Beauchamp, | | |
+ Earl of Warwick Alice = Richard, Cicely = Richard,
+ | | Earl of Duke of
+ | | Salisbury, York,
+ | | beheaded at killed at
+ | | Pontefract, Wakefield,
+ | | 1460 1460
+ | |
+ | -------------------------------------
+ | | | |
+ Anne = Richard, John, George,
+ Earl of Warwick, Marquess of Archbishop
+ the king-maker, Montague of York
+ killed at Barnet,
+ 1471]
+
+[Illustration: A sea-fight: from the 'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl
+of Warwick:' drawn by John Rous about 1485.]
+
+9. =Discomfiture of the Yorkists. 1456--1459.=--For two years Henry
+exercised such authority as he was capable of exercising. In =1458= he
+tried his hand at effecting a reconciliation. The chiefs of the two
+parties walked hand in hand in procession to St. Paul's, York himself
+leading the queen. The Yorkists founded masses for the repose of the
+souls of their enemies slain at St. Albans, and paid money to their
+widows. It seemed as if the old practice of the weregild (see p. 32)
+had been unexpectedly revived. The spirit which had made weregild
+possible was, however, no longer to be found. Warwick retired to
+Calais, of which he was governor, and sent out vessels to plunder the
+merchant ships of all nations. When he was summoned to Westminster to
+give account of his actions, a quarrel broke out there between his
+servants and those of the king. Believing his own life to be in
+danger, he made his way back to Calais. The Yorkists spent the winter
+in preparing for war. In the summer of =1459= Lord Audley, sent by the
+queen to seize the Earl of Salisbury, was defeated by him at Blore
+Heath, in Staffordshire. Later in the year the two parties with their
+whole forces prepared for a battle near Ludlow, but the Yorkists found
+themselves no match for their enemies, and, without fighting, York,
+with his second son, the Earl of Rutland, took refuge in Ireland. His
+eldest son Edward, Earl of March, with Salisbury and Warwick, made his
+way to Calais.
+
+[Illustration: Effigy of Sir Robert Harcourt, K.G. (died 1471): from
+his tomb at Stanton Harcourt, Oxon; showing armour worn from about
+1445 to 1480.]
+
+10. =The Battle of Northampton and the Duke of York's Claim to the
+Throne. 1460.=--In =1460= the Yorkist Earls of Salisbury, Warwick, and
+March were once more in England. They defeated the royal army at
+Northampton and captured the king. York returned from Ireland, and,
+as soon as Parliament met, took an unexpected step. If hereditary
+descent was to count for anything, his claim to the throne was
+superior to that of Henry himself, as he was the heir of Edward III.
+through his mother Anne, the sister of the last Earl of March.[31] The
+Duke of York now placed his hand on the throne, claiming it in right
+of birth. The Lords decided that Henry, to whom they had sworn oaths
+of fealty, should retain the crown, but that York should succeed him,
+to the exclusion of Henry's son, Edward, Prince of Wales.
+
+ [Footnote 31: Genealogy of the Houses of Lancaster and York:--
+
+ EDWARD III.
+ (1307-1377)
+ |
+ ------------------------------------------------
+ | | | |
+ Edward, Lionel, Duke John of Edmund, Duke of
+ the Black Prince of Clarence Gaunt of York
+ | | | |
+ | ------- | ----------------
+ | | | |
+ RICHARD II. Philippa = Edmund HENRY IV. |
+ (1377-1399) | Mortimer, (1399-1413) |
+ | Earl of | |
+ | March ----------------- |
+ | | | |
+ | (1) HENRY V. (2) John, Duke |
+ | (1413-1422) of Bedford |
+ | | (3) Thomas, Duke |
+ Roger Mortimer, HENRY VI. of Clarence |
+ Earl of March (1422-1461) (4) Humphrey, |
+ | Duke of |
+ | Gloucester |
+ | |
+ --------------------- ----------------------------
+ | | |
+ Edmund Mortimer, Anne = Richard, Earl of Cambridge
+ Earl of March |
+ Richard, Duke of York
+ |
+ Edward, Earl of March,
+ afterwards EDWARD IV.]
+
+11. =The Battle of Wakefield. 1460.=--The struggle, which had at first
+been one between two unequal sections of the nobility, each nominally
+acknowledging Henry VI. as their king, thus came to be one between the
+Houses of Lancaster and York. The queen, savage at the wrong done to
+her son, refused to accept the compromise. Withdrawing to the North,
+she summoned to her aid the Earl of Northumberland and the Lancastrian
+lords. The North was always exposed to Scottish invasions, and the
+constant danger kept the inhabitants ready for war, and strengthened
+the authority of the great lords who led them. For the same reason the
+people of the North were ruder and less civilised than their
+fellow-countrymen in the South. Plunder and outrage did not come amiss
+to men who were frequently subjected to plunder and outrage. An army
+composed of 18,000 of these rough warriors placed itself at the
+queen's disposal. With these she routed her enemies at Wakefield. York
+himself was slain. His son, Rutland, was stabbed to death by Lord
+Clifford, whose father had been slain at St. Albans. Salisbury was
+subsequently beheaded by the populace at Pontefract. By command of
+Margaret, York's head was cut off, and, adorned in mockery with a
+paper crown, was fixed with those of Salisbury and Rutland above one
+of the gates of York.
+
+12. =The Battle of Mortimer's Cross and the Second Battle of St.
+Albans. 1461.=--The battle of Wakefield differed in character from the
+earlier battles of the war. They had been but conflicts between bands
+of noblemen and their armed retainers, in which the general population
+took little part, whilst the ordinary business of the country went on
+much as usual. At Wakefield not only were cruel passions developed,
+but a new danger appeared. When Margaret attempted to gain her ends
+with the help of her rude northern followers, she roused against her
+the fears of the wealthier and more prosperous South. The South found
+a leader in York's son, Edward. Though only in his nineteenth year,
+Edward showed that he had the qualities of a commander. Rapid in his
+movements, he fell upon some Lancastrian forces and defeated them on
+February 2, =1461=, at Mortimer's Cross. In the meanwhile Margaret was
+marching with her northern host upon London, plundering and destroying
+as she went. Warwick, carrying the king with him, met her on the way,
+but in the second battle of St. Albans--fought on February 17--was
+driven back, leaving the king behind him.
+
+13. =The Battle of Towton and the Coronation of Edward IV.
+1461.=--With a civilised army at her back, Margaret might have won her
+way into London, and established her authority, at least for a time.
+Her unbridled supporters celebrated their victory by robbery and rape,
+and Margaret was unable to lead them forward. The Londoners steeled
+their hearts against her. Edward was marching to their help, and on
+February 25 he entered London. The men of the neighbouring counties
+flocked in to his support. On March 2 the crown was offered to him at
+Clerkenwell by such lords as happened to be in London. On his
+presenting himself to the multitude in Westminster Hall, he was
+greeted with shouts of "Long live the king!" Edward IV. represented to
+peace-loving England the order which had to be upheld against the
+barbarous host which Margaret and the Lancastrian lords had called to
+their aid. He had yet to justify the choice. The northern host had
+retreated to its own country, and Edward swiftly followed it up. His
+advanced guard was surprised and driven back at Ferry Bridge; but his
+main army pressed on, and on March 29 gained a decisive victory at
+Towton. The slaughter of the defeated side was enormous. Margaret
+escaped with Henry to Scotland, and Edward, returning southwards, was
+crowned at Westminster on June 29.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+THE YORKIST KINGS.
+
+EDWARD IV., =1461--1483=. EDWARD V., =1483=. RICHARD III.,
+=1483--1485=.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+ Coronation of Edward IV. 1461
+ Restoration of Henry VI. 1470
+ Edward IV. recovers the crown--Battles of Barnet and
+ Tewkesbury 1471
+ Edward V. 1483
+ Richard III. deposes Edward V. 1483
+ Richard III. killed at Bosworth 1485
+
+
+1. =Edward IV. and the House of Commons. 1461.=--On June 29, =1461=,
+Edward IV. was crowned, and created his two brothers, George and
+Richard, Dukes of Clarence and Gloucester. His first Parliament
+declared the three Lancastrian kings to have been usurpers, and Henry
+VI., his wife, his son, and his chief supporters, to be traitors. At
+the end of the session Edward thanked the Commons for their support,
+and assured them of his resolution to protect them at the hazard of
+his own life. It was the first time that a king had addressed the
+Commons, and his doing so was a sign that a new era had begun, in
+which the wishes of the middle class in town and country were to
+prevail over those of the great nobles. It did not follow that the
+House of Commons would take the control of the government into its own
+hands, as it does at the present day. For a long time the election of
+the members had been carried out under pressure from the local
+nobility. If the great men in a county resolved that certain persons
+should be returned as members, those who came to the place of election
+in support of others would be driven off, and perhaps beaten or
+wounded. Consequently each House of Commons had hitherto represented
+the dominant party, Lancastrian or Yorkist, as the case might be.
+Before there could be a House of Commons capable of governing, the
+interference of the nobles with elections would have to be brought to
+an end, and it was only by a strong king that their power could be
+overthrown. The strengthening of the kingship was the only road to
+future constitutional progress.
+
+[Illustration: Edward IV.: from an original painting belonging to the
+Society of Antiquaries.]
+
+2. =Loss of the Mediaeval Ideals.=--Before the end of the 15th century
+the English people had lost all the ideals of the middle ages. The
+attempt of Henry V. to revive the old ecclesiastical feeling had
+broken down through the race for material power opened by his French
+wars, and through the savagery of the wars of the Roses. The new
+religious feeling of Wycliffe and the nobler Lollards had perished
+with Sir John Oldcastle from the same causes. Neither the Church nor
+the opponents of the Church had any longer a sway over men's hearts.
+The clergy continued to perform their part in the services of the
+Church not indeed without belief, but without the spiritual fervour
+which influences the lives of men. The chivalry of the middle ages was
+as dead as its religion. Men spoke of women as coarsely as they spoke
+of their cattle. Human nature indeed could not be entirely crushed.
+John Paston's wife (see p. 321), for instance, was quaintly
+affectionate. "I would," she once wrote to her husband, "ye were at
+home, if it were for your ease ... now liever than a gown, though it
+were of scarlet." But the system of wardship (see p. 116) made
+marriages a matter of bargain and sale. "For very need," wrote a
+certain Stephen Scrope, "I was fain to sell a little daughter I have
+for much less than I should." When Scrope was old he wished to marry
+Paston's young sister, and the girl was willing to take him if she
+were sure that his land was not burdened with debt. She would be glad
+enough to escape from home. Her mother kept her in close confinement
+and beat her once or twice every week, and sometimes twice a day, so
+that her head was broken in two or three places. This low and material
+view of domestic life had led to an equally low and material view of
+political life, and the cruelty which stained the wars of the Roses
+was but the outcome of a state of society in which no man cared much
+for anything except his own greatness and enjoyment. The ideal which
+shaped itself in the minds of the men of the middle class was a king
+acting as a kind of chief constable, who, by keeping great men in
+order, would allow their inferiors to make money in peace.
+
+3. =Fresh Efforts of the Lancastrians. 1462--1465.=--Edward IV. only
+very partially responded to this demand. He was swift in action when a
+crisis came, and was cruel in his revenge, but he was lustful and
+indolent when the crisis was passed, and he had no statesmanlike
+abilities to lay the foundations of a powerful government. The wars
+were not ended by his victory at Towton. In =1462= Queen Margaret
+reappeared in the North, and it was not till =1464= that Warwick's
+brother, Lord Montague, thoroughly defeated her forces at Hedgeley
+Moor and Hexham; for which victories he was rewarded by Edward with
+the earldom of Northumberland, which had been forfeited by the
+Lancastrian head of the House of Percy. Montague's victory was marked
+by the usual butcheries; the Duke of Somerset, a son of the duke who
+had been slain at St. Albans, being amongst those who perished on the
+scaffold. In =1465= Henry himself was taken prisoner and lodged in the
+Tower.
+
+4. =Edward's Marriage. 1464.=--Whilst these battles were being fought
+Edward was lingering in the South courting the young widow of Sir John
+Grey, usually known by her maiden name as Elizabeth Woodville. His
+marriage to her gave offence to his noble supporters, who disdained to
+acknowledge a queen of birth so undistinguished; and their ill-will
+was increased when they found that Edward distributed amongst his
+wife's kindred estates and preferments which they had hoped to gain
+for themselves. The queen's father became Earl Rivers and Lord
+Constable, and her brothers and sisters were enriched by marriages
+with noble wards of the Crown. One of her brothers, a youth of twenty,
+was married to the old Duchess of Norfolk, who was over eighty.
+
+5. =Estrangement of Warwick. 1465--1468.=--No doubt there was as much
+of policy as of affection in the slight shown by Edward to the Yorkist
+nobility. Warwick--the King-maker, as he was called--had special cause
+for ill-humour. He had expected to be a King-ruler as well as a
+King-maker, and he took grave offence when he found Edward slipping
+away from his control. It seemed as if Edward had the settled purpose
+of raising up a new nobility to counterbalance the old. In =1467=
+Warwick's brother, the Archbishop of York, was deprived of the
+chancellorship. In foreign politics, too, Edward and Warwick
+disagreed. Warwick had taken up the old policy of the Beauforts, and
+was anxious for an alliance with the astute Louis XI., who had in
+=1461= succeeded his father, Charles VII., as king of France. Edward,
+perhaps with some thought passing through his head of establishing his
+throne by following in the steps of Henry V., declared for an alliance
+with Burgundy. In =1467= Warwick was allowed to go to France as an
+ambassador, whilst Edward was entertaining Burgundian ambassadors in
+England. In the same year Charles the Rash succeeded his father,
+Philip the Good (see p. 306), as Duke of Burgundy, and in =1468=
+married Edward's sister, Margaret. The Duke of Burgundy, the rival of
+the king of France, was the lord of the seventeen provinces of the
+Netherlands, and his friendship brought with it that peaceful
+intercourse with the manufacturing towns of Flanders which it was
+always the object of English policy to secure.
+
+6. =Warwick's Alliance with Clarence. 1469--1470.=--Warwick, disgusted
+with Edward, found an ally in Edward's brother, Clarence, who, like
+Warwick, was jealous of the Woodvilles. Warwick had no son, and his
+two daughters, Isabel and Anne, would one day share his vast estates
+between them. Warwick gave Isabel in marriage to Clarence, and
+encouraged him to think that it might be possible to seat him--in days
+when everything seemed possible to the strong--on Edward's throne.
+Edward had by this time lost much of his popularity. His extravagant
+and luxurious life made men doubt whether anything had been gained by
+substituting him for Henry, and in =1469= and =1470= there were
+risings fomented by Warwick. In the latter year Edward, with the help
+of his cannon, the importance of which in battles was now great,
+struck such a panic into his enemies at a battle near Stamford that
+the place of action came to be known as Lose-coat Field, from the
+haste with which the fugitives stripped themselves of their armour to
+make their flight the easier. Warwick and Clarence fled across the
+sea. Warwick was governor of Calais, but his own officer there refused
+to admit him, and he was forced to take refuge in France.
+
+[Illustration: A fifteenth-century ship: from Harl. MS. 2278.]
+
+7. =The Restoration of Henry VI. 1470.=--Warwick knew that he had no
+chance of recovering power without the support of the Lancastrian
+party, and, disagreeable as it was to him, he allowed Louis XI. to
+reconcile him to Queen Margaret, the wife of that Henry VI., of whom
+he had been the bitterest enemy. Louis, who dreaded Edward's alliance
+with the Duke of Burgundy, did everything to support Edward's foes,
+and sent Warwick off to England, where he was subsequently to be
+joined by the queen. Edward, who was in his most careless mood, was
+foolish enough to trust Warwick's brother, Montague, from whom he had
+taken away, not only his new earldom of Northumberland to restore it
+to the head of the Percies (see p. 331), but all the lands connected
+with it, and had thought to compensate him with the mere marquisate
+of Montague, unaccompanied by any estate wherewith to support the
+dignity of his rank. Montague turned against him, and Edward, fearing
+for his life, fled to Holland. Warwick became master of England, and
+this time the King-maker drew Henry from the Tower and placed him once
+more on the throne, imbecile as he now was.
+
+8. =Edward IV. recovers the Throne. 1471.=--In the spring of =1471=
+Edward was back in England, landing at Ravenspur, where Henry IV. had
+landed in =1399=. Like Henry IV., he lyingly declared that he had come
+merely to claim his duchy and estates. Like Henry IV., too, he found a
+supporter in an Earl of Northumberland, who was this time the Percy
+who, Lancastrian as he was, had been restored by Edward to his earldom
+at the expense of Montague. Clarence, too--false, fleeting, perjured
+Clarence, as Shakspere truly calls him--had offered to betray Warwick.
+Edward gathered a sufficient force to march unassailed to London,
+where he was enthusiastically received. Taking with him the
+unfortunate Henry he won a complete victory at Barnet. The battle was
+fought in a dense fog, and was decided by a panic caused amongst
+Warwick's men through the firing of one of their divisions into
+another. Warwick and Montague were among the slain. By this time
+Margaret had landed with a fresh army at Weymouth. Edward caught her
+and her army at Tewkesbury, where he inflicted on her a crushing
+defeat. Her son, Edward Prince of Wales, was either slain in the
+battle, or more probably murdered after the fight was over; and the
+Duke of Somerset, the brother of the duke who had been executed after
+the battle of Hexham (see p. 331), the last male heir of the House of
+Beaufort, as well as others, who had taken refuge in the abbey, were
+afterwards put to death, though Edward had solemnly promised them
+their lives. On the night after Edward's return to London Henry VI.
+ended his life in the Tower. There can be no reasonable doubt that he
+was murdered, and that, too, by Edward's directions.
+
+9. =Edward IV. prepares for War with France. 1471--1474.=--Edward IV.
+was now all powerful. He had no competitor to fear. No descendant of
+Henry IV. remained alive. Of the Beauforts, the descendants of John of
+Gaunt by Catherine Swynford (see p. 282), the male line had perished,
+and the only representative was young Henry, Earl of Richmond, whose
+mother, the Lady Margaret, was the daughter of the first Duke of
+Somerset, and the cousin of the two dukes who had been executed after
+the battles of Hexham and Tewkesbury.[32] His father, Edmund Tudor,
+Earl of Richmond, who died before his birth, was the son of a Welsh
+gentleman of no great mark, who had had the luck to marry Catherine of
+France, the widow of Henry V. The young Richmond was, however, an
+exile, and, as he was only fourteen years of age when Edward was
+restored, no serious danger was as yet to be apprehended from that
+side. Moreover, the slaughter amongst both the Yorkist and the
+Lancastrian nobility had, for the time, put an end to all danger of a
+rising. Edward was, therefore, at liberty to carry out his own foreign
+policy. He obtained grants from Parliament to enable him, in alliance
+with Charles of Burgundy, to make war against Louis XI. The grants
+were insufficient, and he supplemented them by a newly invented system
+of benevolences, which were nominally free gifts made to him by the
+well-to-do, but which were in reality exactions, because those from
+whom they were required dared not refuse to pay. The system raised
+little general ill will, partly because the small owners of property
+who were relieved from taxation were not touched by the benevolences,
+and partly because the end which Edward had put to the civil war made
+his government welcome. In some cases his personal charm counted for
+something. One old lady whom he asked for ten pounds replied that for
+the sake of his handsome face she would give him twenty. He kissed her
+and she at once made it forty.
+
+ [Footnote 32: Genealogy of the Beauforts and the Tudors:--
+
+ John of Gaunt = Catherine Swynford
+ ----------+------------
+ | |
+ John Beaufort, Cardinal Beaufort,
+ Earl of Somerset, legitimated by Act
+ legitimated by Act of of Parliament
+ Owen Tudor = Catherine, Parliament
+ | widow of |
+ | Henry V. |----------------------
+ | | |
+ | John, 1st Duke of Somerset Edmund,
+ | | 2nd Duke of
+ | | Somerset,
+ | | killed at
+ | | St. Albans,
+ | | 1455
+ | | ------------+----
+ | | | |
+ Edmund Tudor = Margaret Henry, Edmund,
+ Earl of Richmond, | 3rd Duke of 4th Duke of
+ d. 1456 | Somerset, Somerset,
+ HENRY VII. executed after executed after
+ (1485-1509) the battle of the battle of
+ Hexham, 1464 Tewkesbury, 1471]
+
+10. =The Invasion of France. 1475.=--In =1475= Edward invaded France.
+If he could have secured the steady support of the Duke of Burgundy he
+might have accomplished something, but the Duke's dominions were too
+scattered to enable him to have a settled policy. He was sometimes led
+to attack the king of France, because he had interests as a French
+vassal; whilst at other times he threw all his strength into projects
+for encroachments in Germany, because he had also interests as a
+vassal of the Emperor. When Edward landed Charles was anxious to carry
+on war in Germany, and would give no help to Edward in France. Louis
+XI., who preferred a victory of diplomacy to one of force, wheedled
+Edward into a seven years' truce by a grant of 75,000 crowns, together
+with a yearly pension of 50,000, and by a promise to marry the Dauphin
+Charles to Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of the king of England.
+Louis also made presents to Edward's chief followers, and was
+delighted when the English army turned its back on France. In
+consequence of this understanding Queen Margaret recovered her
+liberty.
+
+11. =Fall and Death of Clarence. 1476--1478.=--Soon after Edward's
+return he became suspicious of his brother Clarence, who took upon
+himself to interfere with the course of justice. In =1477= the Duke of
+Burgundy, Charles the Rash, was slain at Nancy by the Swiss, leaving
+only a daughter, Mary. Ducal Burgundy was at once seized by Louis, as
+forfeited for want of male heirs, but Franche Comte, or the county of
+Burgundy, was a part of the Empire, and therefore beyond his reach;
+and this latter district, together with the provinces of the
+Netherlands, formed a dower splendid enough to attract suitors for
+Mary's hand. Amongst these was Clarence,[33] now a widower. Edward,
+who had no wish to see his brother an independent sovereign, forbade
+him to proceed with his wooing. Other actions of Clarence were
+displeasing to the king, and when Parliament met, =1478=, Edward with
+his own mouth accused his brother of treason. Clarence was condemned
+to death, and perished secretly in the Tower, being, according to
+rumour, drowned in a butt of malmsey.
+
+ [Footnote 33: Mary was the child of an earlier wife of Charles the
+ Bold than Margaret the sister of Edward IV. and Clarence, and the
+ latter was therefore not related to her.]
+
+12. =The Last Years of Edward IV. 1478--1483.=--The remainder of
+Edward's life was spent in quiet, as far as domestic affairs were
+concerned. In foreign affairs he met with a grave disappointment.
+Mary of Burgundy had found a husband in Maximilian, archduke of
+Austria, the son of the Emperor Frederick III. In =1482= she died,
+leaving two children, Philip and Margaret. The men of Ghent set
+Maximilian at naught, and, combining with Louis, forced Maximilian in
+the treaty of Arras to promise the hand of Margaret to the Dauphin,
+and the cession of some Netherlandish territory to France. Edward died
+on April 9, =1483=, and it has been said that the treaty of Arras,
+which extended French influence in the Netherlands, brought about his
+death. It is more reasonable to attribute it to the dissoluteness of
+his life.
+
+13. =Edward V. and the Duke of Gloucester. 1483.=--Edward IV. left two
+sons. The elder, a boy of twelve, was now Edward V., and his younger
+brother, Richard, was Duke of York.[34] The only grown-up man of the
+family was the youngest brother of Edward IV., Richard, Duke of
+Gloucester. Gloucester had shown himself during his brother's reign to
+be possessed of the qualities which fit a man to fulfil the duties of
+a high position. He was not only a good soldier and an able commander,
+but, unlike his brother Clarence, was entirely faithful to Edward,
+though he showed his independence by refusing to take part in Edward's
+treaty with Louis of France. He had a rare power of winning popular
+sympathy, and was most liked in Yorkshire, where he was best known. He
+had, however, grown up in a cruel and unscrupulous age, and had no
+more hesitation in clearing his way by slaughter than had Edward IV.
+or Margaret of Anjou. Though absolute proof is wanting, there is
+strong reason to believe that he took part in cutting down Prince
+Edward after the battle of Tewkesbury, and that he executed his
+brother's orders in providing for the murder of Henry VI. in the
+Tower. He made no remonstrance against, though he took no part in, the
+death of Clarence, with whom he was on bad terms, because Clarence
+claimed the whole of the estates of the King-maker, whose eldest
+daughter Isabel he had married; whereas Gloucester, having married the
+younger daughter Anne, the widow of the slaughtered son of Henry VI.
+put in a claim to half. Gloucester was now to be tried as he had never
+been tried before, his brother having appointed him by will to be the
+guardian of his young nephew and of the kingdom. If the authority thus
+conferred upon him met with general acceptance, he would probably make
+an excellent ruler. If it were questioned he would strike out, and
+show no mercy. In those hard days every man of high position must be
+either hammer or anvil, and Richard was resolved that he would not be
+the anvil.
+
+ [Footnote 34: Genealogy of the Yorkist Kings:--
+
+ Richard, Duke of York,
+ killed at Wakefield, 1460
+ |
+ ----------------------------------------------------
+ | | | |
+ Elizabeth = EDWARD IV. Margaret = Charles, George = Isabel RICHARD
+ Woodville | (1461-1483) the Rash, Duke of | Nevil III.,
+ | Duke of Clarence,| Duke of
+ | Burgundy d. 1478| Gloucester,
+ | | afterwards
+ | | king, m. to
+ | | Anne Nevill
+ | | (1483-1485)
+ --------------------------- | |
+ | | | | |
+ Elizabeth, m. EDWARD V., Richard, Edward, |
+ to Henry VII. murdered Duke of York, Earl of Edward,
+ 1483 murdered 1483 Warwick, d. 1484
+ executed 1499]
+
+14. =Fall of the Queen's Relations. 1483.=--The young king was at
+Ludlow, and rode up towards London, guarded by Earl Rivers, his uncle
+on his mother's side, and by his half-brother, Sir Richard Grey.
+Another half-brother, the Marquis of Dorset, was lieutenant of the
+Tower.[35] Gloucester had strong reasons for believing that the Greys
+intended to keep the young king in their hands and, having him crowned
+at once, so as to put an end to his own guardianship, to make
+themselves masters of the kingdom. He therefore struck the first blow.
+Accompanied by his friend and supporter, the Duke of Buckingham, he
+overtook the cavalcade, and sent Rivers and Grey prisoners to
+Pontefract. The queen-mother at once took refuge in the sanctuary at
+Westminster, whence no one could remove her without violating the
+privileges of the Church.
+
+ [Footnote 35: Genealogy of the Woodvilles and Greys:--
+
+ Richard, Earl Rivers
+ |
+ +--------------------------------+
+ | |
+ Anthony (1) Sir John Grey = Elizabeth Woodville = (2) EDWARD IV.
+ Woodville, | |
+ Earl Rivers, +----------+---------+ +-----+
+ executed | | |
+ 1483 Thomas Grey, Sir Richard Grey, EDWARD V.,
+ Marquis of Dorset executed 1483 murdered 1483]
+
+[Illustration: Large ship and boat of the fifteenth century. The
+mainsail of the ship has the Beauchamp arms, and the streamer the bear
+and ragged staff. From the 'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of
+Warwick,' by John Rous; drawn about 1485.]
+
+15. =Execution of Lord Hastings.=--The young king arrived in London on
+May 4. The Council acknowledged Gloucester as Protector, and removed
+Edward to the Tower, which in those days was a place of safety rather
+than a prison. Dorset, however, had equipped a fleet, and Gloucester
+was afraid lest a fresh attempt might be made by the queen's party to
+overthrow him. His fears were increased because Lord Hastings, the
+leading member of the Council, who had taken his part against the
+Woodvilles, now turned against him and began to intrigue with the
+queen's supporters. Coming into the council chamber on June 13, he
+laid bare his left arm, which had been withered from his birth, and
+declared that the mischief was the effect of witchcraft, and that the
+witches were the queen and Jane Shore, who had been one of the many
+mistresses of Edward IV., and was now the mistress of Hastings.
+Hastings admitted that the queen and Jane Shore were worthy of
+punishment if they were guilty. "What!" cried Gloucester, "dost thou
+serve me with ifs and with ands? I tell thee they have done it, and
+that I will make good on thy body, traitor." Gloucester struck his
+fist on the table. Armed men rushed in, dragged Hastings out, and cut
+off his head on a log of wood. Jane Shore was compelled to do public
+penance in a white sheet. Of the causes of Hastings' desertion of
+Gloucester it is impossible to speak with certainty. It is a probable
+conjecture that he had discovered that Gloucester entertained the
+thought of making himself more than Protector. Young Edward's
+coronation would make the boy capable, formally at least, of
+exercising royal power, and as it was known that the boy loved his
+mother's relations, it was almost certain that he would place the
+Woodvilles in power. Now that Gloucester had imprisoned Rivers and
+Grey, it was certain that the first thing done by the Woodvilles, if
+they got a chance, would be to send Gloucester to the scaffold, and
+Gloucester was not the man patiently to allow himself to be crushed.
+It is ridiculous to speak of Gloucester as an accomplished dissembler.
+The story of witchcraft served its purpose, but it was the stupid lie
+of a man who had not hitherto been accustomed to lying.
+
+16. =Deposition of Edward V. 1483.=--The execution of Hastings was
+promptly followed by the execution of Rivers and Grey. Dorset saved
+himself by escaping beyond sea. By threats Gloucester got the Duke of
+York into his hands, and lodged him with his brother in the Tower. He
+was now in a temper which would stop at no atrocity. He put up a Dr.
+Shaw to preach a sermon against Edward's claim to the throne. In those
+days if a man and woman made a contract of marriage neither of the
+contracting parties could marry another, though no actual marriage had
+taken place. Shaw declared that Edward IV. had promised marriage to
+one of his mistresses before he met Elizabeth Woodville, and that
+therefore, his marriage with Elizabeth being invalid, all his children
+by her were illegitimate, and Gloucester was the true heir to the
+throne. Further, Shaw declared that Gloucester was the only legitimate
+son of the Duke of York, both Edward IV. and Clarence being the sons
+of their mother by some other man. That Richard should have authorised
+so base an attack upon his mother's honour shows the depth of infamy
+to which he had now sunk. At first it seemed as if he had lowered
+himself to no purpose. The hearers of the sermon, instead of shouting,
+"God save King Richard!" held their peace. At a meeting in the City
+the Duke of Buckingham told the same story as had been told by Shaw,
+and there the servants of the two dukes shouted for 'King Richard,'
+and their voice was taken as the voice of the City. On June 25
+Parliament declared Gloucester to be the lawful heir, and on July 6 he
+was crowned as Richard III. The Woodvilles were not popular, and the
+bloodshed with which Richard had maintained himself against them was
+readily condoned.
+
+[Illustration: Richard III.: from an original painting belonging to
+the Society of Antiquaries.]
+
+17. =Buckingham's Rebellion. 1483.=--Richard's enemies were chiefly to
+be found amongst the nobility. No nobleman could feel his life secure
+if he crossed Richard's path. The first to revolt was Buckingham, who
+had played the part of a king-maker, and who was disappointed because
+Richard did not reward him by conceding his claim to estates so vast
+that if he possessed them he would have been master of England.
+Buckingham, who was descended from Edward III. through his youngest
+son, the Duke of Gloucester, at first thought of challenging a right
+to the throne for himself, but afterwards determined to support the
+claim of the Earl of Richmond, the Tudor heir of the House of
+Lancaster (see p. 334). He was skilfully led from one step to another
+by John Morton, Bishop of Ely, one of the ablest statesmen of the
+day. Richmond was to sail from Brittany, where he was in exile, and
+Buckingham was to raise forces in Wales, where the Welsh Tudors were
+popular, whilst other counties were to rise simultaneously. The
+rebellion came to nothing. Heavy rains caused a flood of the Severn,
+and Buckingham, in Shropshire, was cut off from his army in Wales.
+Buckingham was betrayed to Richard, and on November 2 was beheaded at
+Salisbury.
+
+18. =Murder of the Princes. 1483.=--At some time in the summer or
+autumn the princes in the Tower ceased to live. There had been
+movements in their favour in some counties, and there can be no
+reasonable doubt that Richard had them secretly killed. It was only by
+degrees that the truth leaked out. Wherever it was believed it roused
+indignation. Murders there had been in plenty, but the murdered as yet
+had been grown men. To butcher children was reserved for Richard
+alone.
+
+19. =Richard's Government. 1484--1485.=--As long as the last tale of
+murder was still regarded as doubtful, Richard retained his
+popularity. In a Parliament which met in January =1484= he enacted
+good laws, amongst which was one declaring benevolences illegal. In
+the summer he was welcomed as he moved about, yet he knew that danger
+threatened. Richmond was preparing invasion and the hollow friendship
+of the English nobility was not to be trusted. In vain Richard
+scattered gifts in profusion amongst them. They took the gifts and
+hoped for deliverance. The popular goodwill grew cooler, and in the
+winter Richard, needing money, and not venturing to summon another
+Parliament, raised a forced loan. A loan not being a gift, he did not
+technically break the statute against benevolences though practically
+he set it at naught. Domestic misfortunes came to add to Richard's
+political troubles. His only son, Edward, died in =1484=. His wife,
+Anne, died in =1485=. Richard was now eager, if he had not been eager
+before, to marry his niece, Elizabeth of York, the daughter of Edward
+IV. This monstrous proposal was scouted by his own supporters, and he
+had reluctantly to abandon the scheme. If there could be queens in
+England, Elizabeth was on hereditary principles the heiress of the
+throne, unless, indeed, Richard's argument against her mother's
+marriage (see p. 340) was to be accepted. Richmond was naturally as
+anxious as Richard could be to win her hand, and his promise to marry
+her was the condition on which he obtained the support of those
+Yorkists who were Richard's enemies.
+
+20. =Richard Defeated and Slain at Bosworth. 1485.=--In August =1485=
+Richmond landed at Milford Haven. As he marched on he was joined by
+considerable numbers, but on August 22 he found Richard waiting for
+him near Bosworth, with a host far larger than his own. Richard,
+however, could not count on the fidelity of his own commanders. Lord
+Stanley, who had married Richmond's widowed mother, the Lady Margaret
+(see p. 334), together with his brother, Sir William Stanley, were
+secretly in accord with Richmond, though they had placed themselves on
+Richard's side. When the battle began Stanley openly joined Richmond,
+whilst the Earl of Northumberland who was also nominally on Richard's
+side withdrew his forces and stood aloof. Knowing that defeat was
+certain, Richard, with the crown on his head, rushed into the thick of
+the fight and met a soldier's death. After the battle the fallen crown
+was discovered on a bush, and placed by Stanley, amidst shouts of
+'King Henry!' on Richmond's head.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+HENRY VII. 1485--1509.
+
+
+LEADING DATES
+
+ Accession of Henry VII. 1485
+ The Battle of Stoke 1487
+ Poynings' Acts 1494
+ Capture of Perkin Warbeck 1497
+ Alliance with Scotland 1503
+ Death of Henry VII. 1509
+
+
+[Illustration: Henry VII.: from an original picture in the National
+Portrait Gallery.]
+
+1. =The First Measures of Henry VII. 1485--1486.=--Henry VII. owed his
+success not to a general uprising against Richard, but to a
+combination of the nobles who had hitherto taken opposite sides. To
+secure this combination he had promised to marry Elizabeth, the
+heiress of the Yorkist family. Lest an attempt should be made to
+challenge her title, Henry imprisoned in the Tower the Earl of
+Warwick, the son of Clarence, who might possibly maintain that a
+female was incapable of inheriting. He was indeed unwilling to have it
+thought that he derived his title from a wife, and when Parliament met
+on November 7 he obtained from it a recognition of his own right to
+the throne, though it would have puzzled the most acute
+controversialist to discover in what that right consisted. Parliament,
+therefore, contented itself with declaring that the inheritance of the
+crown was to 'be, rest, and abide in King Henry VII. and his heirs,'
+without giving any reasons why it was to be so.[36] As far as the
+House of Lords was concerned the attendance when this declaration was
+made was scanty. Only twenty-nine lay peers were present, not because
+many of the great houses had become extinct, but because some of the
+principal Yorkist peers had been attainted, and others had been left
+without a summons. In the quieter times which followed this slur upon
+them was removed, and the House of Lords was again filled. On January
+18, =1486=, Henry married Elizabeth. This marriage and the blending of
+the white and red rose in the Tudor badge was Henry's way of
+announcing that he intended to be the king of both parties.
+
+ [Footnote 36: Abbreviated genealogy of Henry VII. and his
+ competitors:--
+
+ EDWARD III.
+ |
+ +----------------+----------------+
+ | |
+ Lionel, Duke of Clarence John of Gaunt,
+ : Duke of Lancaster
+ : :
+ +-----+-----------+ :
+ | | :
+ | George :
+ | Duke of Clarence :
+ | | :
+ EDWARD IV. Edward, :
+ | Earl of Warwick :
+ Elizabeth HENRY VII.]
+
+[Illustration: Elizabeth of York, queen of Henry VII.: from an
+original picture in the National Portrait Gallery.]
+
+2. =Maintenance and Livery.=--Henry could not maintain himself on the
+throne merely by the support of the nobility. The middle classes, as
+in the days of Edward IV., called out for a strong king, and were
+ready to overlook violence and cruelty if only order could be secured.
+Henry was shrewd enough to know that their aid was indispensable, and,
+Lancastrian as he was, he adopted the policy of the Yorkist kings.
+Economical and patient, he might succeed where Edward IV. had
+partially failed. He had no injuries to avenge, no cruelties to repay.
+He clearly saw that both the throne and the lives and properties of
+the middle classes were rendered insecure by maintenance and
+livery--the support given by the great landowners to their retainers,
+and the granting of badges by which the retainers might recognise one
+another, and thus become as it were a uniformed army ready to serve
+their lords in the field. Against these abuses Richard II. had
+directed a statute, (see p. 281) and that statute had been confirmed
+by Edward IV. These laws had, however, been inoperative; and Henry, in
+his first Parliament, did not venture to do more than to make the
+peers swear to abandon their evil courses.
+
+3. =Lovel's Rising. 1486.=--In =1486= Lord Lovel, who had been one of
+Richard's ministers, rose in arms and seized Worcester. Henry found
+warm support even in Yorkshire, where Richard had been more popular
+than elsewhere. At short warning a 'marvellous great number of
+esquires, gentlemen, and yeomen' gathered round him, and the rebellion
+was easily put down. Lovel escaped to Flanders, where he found a
+protector in Margaret, the dowager Duchess of Burgundy, the sister of
+Edward IV. and Richard III. Before long a new attack upon Henry was
+developed. For the first time an English king had to ward off danger
+from Ireland.
+
+[Illustration: Tudor rose (white and red): from the gates of the
+Chapel of Henry VII.]
+
+4. =Lancaster and York in Ireland. 1399--1485.=--Since the expedition
+of Richard II. no king had visited Ireland, and the English colonists
+were left to defend themselves against the Celtic tribes as best they
+might. In =1449= Richard, Duke of York, who had not at that time
+entered on his rivalry with Henry VI., was sent to Dublin as Lord
+Lieutenant (see p. 319) where he remained till =1450=, and gained
+friends amongst both races by his conciliatory firmness. In =1459=,
+after the break-up of his party at Ludlow (see p. 326), he appeared in
+Ireland in the character of a fugitive seeking for allies. Between him
+and the English colony a bargain was soon struck. They gave him troops
+which fought gallantly for him at Wakefield, and he, claiming to be
+Lord Lieutenant, assented to an act in which they asserted the
+complete legislative independence of the Parliament of the colony. The
+colony, therefore, became distinctly Yorkist. Its leader was the Earl
+of Kildare, the chief of the eastern Fitzgeralds or Geraldines, the
+Earl of Desmond being the chief of the Geraldines of the West. Between
+them was the Earl of Ormond, the chief of the Butlers, the hereditary
+foe of the Geraldines, who, probably merely because his rivals were
+Yorkist, had attached himself to the Lancastrian party. All three were
+of English descent, but all three exercised the tribal authority of an
+Irish chief, and were practically independent of English control.
+Ormond fought at Towton on the Lancastrian side, and was executed
+after the battle. Family quarrels broke out amongst his kindred, and
+for the time Kildare was supreme in the English Pale (see p. 265).
+
+5. =Insurrection of Lambert Simnel. 1487.=--Kildare and the colonists
+had every reason to distrust Henry, but to oppose him they needed a
+pretender. They found one in the son of an Oxford tradesman, a boy of
+ten, named Lambert Simnel, who had been persuaded to give himself out
+as the Earl of Warwick, who, as it was said, had escaped from the
+Tower. In =1487= Simnel landed in Ireland, where he was soon joined by
+Lord Lovel from Flanders, and by the Earl of Lincoln, of the family of
+Pole or De la Pole,[37] whose mother, Elizabeth, was the eldest sister
+of Edward IV., and who had been named by Richard III. as his heir
+after the death of his son (see p. 342). Lincoln and Lovel, after
+crowning Simnel at Dublin, crossed to Lancashire, taking with them the
+pretender, and 2,000 trained German soldiers under Martin Schwarz; as
+well as an Irish force furnished by Kildare. Scarcely an Englishman
+would join them, and on June 16 they were utterly defeated by Henry at
+Stoke, a village between Nottingham and Newark. Lincoln and Schwarz
+were slain. Lovel was either drowned in the Trent or, according to
+legend, was hidden in an underground vault, where he was at last
+starved to death through the neglect of the man whose duty it was to
+provide him with food. Simnel was pardoned, and employed by Henry as
+a turnspit in his kitchen.
+
+ [Footnote 37: Genealogy of the De la Poles and Poles:--
+
+ Richard, Duke of York
+ |
+ +------------------------+--------------------------+
+ | |
+ Elizabeth= John de la Pole, George, Duke
+ | Duke of Suffolk of Clarence,
+ | died 1477
+ +--+--------------+----------------------+ |
+ | | | |
+ John de la Pole, Edmund de la Pole, Sir Richard Margaret, = Sir Richard
+ Earl of Lincoln, Earl of Suffolk, de la Pole, Countess | Pole
+ killed at Stoke, beheaded 1513 killed at of |
+ 1487 Pavia, 1525 Salisbury |
+ |
+ +-------------------------------+--------------------+
+ | |
+ Henry, Lord Montague, Reginald Pole,
+ beheaded 1538 Cardinal and Archbishop
+ of Canterbury, died 1558]
+
+6. =The Court of Star Chamber. 1487.=--Nothing could serve Henry
+better than this abortive rising. At Bosworth he had been the leader
+of one party against the other. At Stoke he was the leader of the
+nation against Irishmen and Germans. He felt himself strong enough in
+his second Parliament to secure the passing of an act to ensure the
+execution of the engagements to which the lords had sworn two years
+before (see p. 345). A court was to be erected, consisting of certain
+specified members of the Privy Council and of two judges, empowered to
+punish with fine and imprisonment all who were guilty of interfering
+with justice by force or intrigue. The new court, reviving, to some
+extent, the disused criminal authority of the king's Council, sat in
+the Star Chamber[38] at Westminster. The results of its establishment
+were excellent. Wealthy landowners, the terror of their neighbours,
+who had bribed or bullied juries at their pleasure, and had sent their
+retainers to inflict punishment on those who had displeased them, were
+brought to Westminster to be tried before a court in which neither
+fear nor favour could avail them. It was the greatest merit of the new
+court that it was not dependent on a jury, because in those days
+juries were unable or unwilling to give verdicts according to their
+conscience.
+
+ [Footnote 38: So called either because the roof was decorated with
+ stars or because it was the room in which had formerly been kept
+ Jewish bonds or 'starres.']
+
+7. =Henry VII. and Brittany. 1488--1492.=--Henry VII. was a lover of
+peace by calculation, and would gladly have let France alone if it had
+been possible to do so. France, however, was no longer the divided
+power which it had been in the days of Henry V. When Louis XI. died in
+=1483=, he left to his young son, Charles VIII., a territory the whole
+of which, with the exception of Brittany, was directly governed by the
+king. Charles's sister, Anne of Beaujeu, who governed in his name,
+made it the object of her policy to secure Brittany. She waged war
+successfully against its duke, Francis II., and after he died, in
+=1488=, she continued to wage war against his daughter, the Duchess
+Anne. In England there was a strong feeling against allowing the
+Duchess to be overwhelmed. At the beginning of =1489= Henry, having
+received from Parliament large supplies, sent 6,000 Englishmen to
+Anne's assistance. Maximilian--whose hold on the Netherlands, where he
+ruled in the name of his young son, Philip (see p. 337), was always
+slight--proposed marriage to the young duchess, and in =1490= was
+wedded to her by proxy. He was a restless adventurer, always aiming at
+more than he had the means of accomplishing. Though he could not find
+time to go at once to Brittany to make good his claim, yet in =1491=
+he called on Henry to assist him in asserting it.
+
+8. =Cardinal Morton's Fork. 1491.=--Henry, who knew how unpopular a
+general taxation was, fell back on the system of benevolences (see p.
+335), excusing his conduct on the plea that the statute of Richard
+III. abolishing benevolences (see p. 342) was invalid, because Richard
+himself was a usurper. In gathering the benevolence the Chancellor,
+Cardinal Morton, who had been helpful to Henry in the days of his
+exile (see p. 341), invented a new mode of putting pressure on the
+wealthy, which became known as Cardinal Morton's fork. If he addressed
+himself to one who lived in good style, he told him that his mode of
+living showed that he could afford to give money to the king. If he
+had to do with one who appeared to be economical, he told him that he
+must have saved and could therefore afford to give money to the king.
+Before Henry could put the money thus gained to much use, Anne,
+pressed hard by the French, repudiated her formal marriage with
+Maximilian, who had never taken the trouble to visit her, and gave her
+hand to Charles VIII., who on his part refused to carry out his
+contract to marry Maximilian's daughter Margaret (see p. 337). From
+that time Brittany, the last of the great fiefs to maintain its
+independence, passed under the power of the king of France. Feudality
+was everywhere breaking down, and in France, as in England, a strong
+monarchy was being erected on its ruins.
+
+9. =The Invasion of France. 1492.=--Maximilian's alliance had proved
+but a broken reed, but there was now arising a formidable power in the
+south of Europe, which might possibly give valuable support to the
+enemies of France. The peninsula to the south of the Pyrenees had
+hitherto been divided amongst various states, but in =1469= a marriage
+between Ferdinand, king of Aragon, and Isabella, the heiress of
+Castile, united the greater part under one dominion. Ferdinand and
+Isabella were, for the present, fully occupied with the conquest of
+Granada, the last remnant of the possessions of the Moors in Spain,
+and that city did not surrender till early in =1492=. In the meanwhile
+all England was indignant with the king of France on account of his
+marriage with the heiress of Brittany. Money was voted and men were
+raised, and on October 2, =1492=, Henry crossed to Calais to invade
+France. He was, however, cool enough to discover that both Ferdinand
+and Maximilian wanted to play their own game at his expense, and as
+Anne of Beaujeu was ready to meet him half-way, he concluded a treaty
+with the French king on November 3 at Etaples, receiving large sums of
+money for abandoning a war in which he had nothing to gain. In =1493=
+the Spaniards followed Henry's example, and made a peace with France
+to their own advantage.[39]
+
+ [Footnote 39: Genealogy of the Houses of Spain and Burgundy:--
+
+ Charles the Rash, Duke of Burgundy Frederick III., Emperor
+ | |
+ | +---------------+
+ | |
+ Mary = Maximilian I. Ferdinand V. = Isabella,
+ | Emperor King of Aragon | Queen of
+ | | Castile
+ | |
+ +-----+--+ +----------+--------+
+ | | | |
+ Margaret Philip = Juana Catharine = HENRY VIII.,
+ | | King
+ | | of England
+ +-----------------+---+ |
+ | | MARY,
+ Charles V., Ferdinand I., Queen of England
+ Emperor Emperor]
+
+10. =Perkin Warbeck. 1491--1494.=--Henry's prudent relinquishment of a
+war of conquest was not likely to bring him popularity in England, and
+his enemies were now on the watch for another pretender to support
+against him. Such a pretender was found in Perkin Warbeck, a Fleming
+of Tournay, who had landed at Cork in the end of =1491= or the
+beginning of =1492=, and who had been pressed by the townsmen to give
+himself some name which would attach him to the Yorkist family. He
+allowed them to call him Richard, Duke of York, the younger of the
+princes who had been murdered in the Tower. He received support from
+Desmond, and probably from Kildare, upon which Henry deprived Kildare
+of the office of Lord Deputy. Perkin crossed to France, and ultimately
+made his way to Flanders, where he was supported by Margaret of
+Burgundy. In =1493= Henry demanded his surrender, and on receiving a
+refusal broke off commercial intercourse between England and Flanders.
+The interruption of trade did more harm to England than to Flanders,
+and gave hopes to the Yorkist party that it might give rise to
+ill-will between the nation and the king. For some time, however, no
+one gave assistance to Perkin, and in =1494= Charles VIII. crossed the
+Alps to invade Italy, and drew the attention of the Continental powers
+away from the affairs of England.
+
+11. =Poynings' Acts. 1494.=--Henry seized the opportunity to bring
+into obedience the English colony in Ireland. He sent over as Lord
+Deputy Sir Edward Poynings, a resolute and able man. At a Parliament
+held by him at Drogheda two acts were passed. By the one it was
+enacted that all English laws in force at that time should be obeyed
+in Ireland; by the other, known for many generations afterwards as
+Poynings' Law, no bill was to be laid before the Irish Parliament
+which had not been previously approved by the king and his Council in
+England. At the same time the greater part of the Statute of Kilkenny
+(see p. 265) was re-enacted; and restricted the authority of the
+Government at Dublin to the English Pale.
+
+12. =Perkin's First Attempt on England. 1495.=--Henry's firm
+government in England had given offence even to men who were not
+Yorkists. Early in =1495= he discovered that Sir William Stanley, who
+had helped him to victory at Bosworth, had turned against him.
+Stanley, who was probably involved in a design for sending Perkin to
+invade England, was tried and executed. In the summer of =1495= Perkin
+actually arrived off Deal. Being no warrior, he sent a party of his
+followers on shore, though he remained himself on shipboard to see
+what would happen. The countrymen fell upon the invaders, who were all
+slain or captured. Then Perkin sailed to Ireland, was repulsed at
+Waterford, and ultimately took refuge in Scotland, where King James
+IV., anxious to distinguish himself in a war with England,
+acknowledged him as the Duke of York, and found him a wife of noble
+birth, Lady Catherine Gordon. It was probably in order to rally even
+the most timid around him, in face of such a danger, that Henry
+obtained the consent of Parliament to an act declaring that no one
+supporting a king in actual possession of the crown could be subjected
+to the penalty of treason in the event of that king's dethronement.
+
+13. =The Intercursus Magnus. 1496.=--The danger of a Scottish invasion
+made Henry anxious to be on good terms with his neighbours. Maximilian
+had become Emperor in =1493= upon his father's death. In the
+Netherlands, however, his influence had declined, as his son, the
+young Archduke Philip, was now growing up, and claimed actually to
+rule the country which he had inherited from his mother, Mary of
+Burgundy (see p. 337), his father having merely the right of
+administering the government of it till he himself came of age. It was
+therefore with Philip, and not with Maximilian, that Henry concluded,
+in =1496=, a treaty known as the _Intercursus Magnus_, for the
+encouragement of trade between England and the Netherlands, each
+party engaging at the same time to give no shelter to each other's
+rebels.
+
+14. =Kildare Restored to the Deputyship. 1496.=--In Ireland also Henry
+was careful to avert danger. The government of Poynings had not been
+entirely successful, and the Geraldines had taken good care to show
+that they could be troublesome in spite of the establishment of
+English government. The Earl of Kildare was at the time in England,
+and a story is told of some one who, having brought a long string of
+charges against him, wound up by saying that all Ireland could not
+govern the Earl, whereupon the king replied that then the Earl should
+govern all Ireland. The story is untrue, but it well represents the
+real situation. In =1496= Henry sent Kildare back as Lord Deputy. A
+bargain seems to have been struck between them. Henry abandoned his
+attempt to govern Ireland from England, and Kildare was allowed to use
+the king's name in any enterprise upon which his heart was set,
+provided that he did not support any more pretenders to the English
+throne.
+
+15. =Perkin's Overthrow. 1496--1497.=--In the autumn of =1496= James
+IV. made an attack on England in Perkin's name, but it was no more
+than a plundering foray. Henry, however, early in =1497=, obtained
+from Parliament a grant of money, to enable him to resist any attempt
+to repeat it. This grant had unexpected consequences. The Cornishmen,
+refusing payment, marched up to Blackheath, where on June 18 they were
+overpowered by the king's troops. James IV., thinking it time to be
+quit of Perkin, sent him off by sea. In July Perkin arrived at Cork,
+but there was no shelter for him there now that Kildare was Lord
+Deputy, and in September he made his way to Cornwall. Followed by
+6,000 Cornishmen he reached Taunton, but the news of the defeat of the
+Cornish at Blackheath depressed him, and the poor coward ran away from
+his army and took sanctuary in Beaulieu Abbey. He was brought to
+London, where he publicly acknowledged himself to be an impostor.
+Henry was too humane to do more than place him in confinement.
+
+[Illustration: Tower of St. Mary's Church, Taunton: built about 1500.]
+
+16. =European Changes. 1494--1499.=--In =1494= Charles VIII. had
+passed through Italy as a conqueror to make good his claims to the
+kingdom of Naples. In =1495= he had returned to France, and in =1496=
+the French army left behind had been entirely destroyed. Yet the
+danger of a renewed attack from France made the other Continental
+powers anxious to unite, and in =1496= the Archduke Philip married
+Juana, the eldest daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, whilst his
+sister was sent to Spain to be married to their only son, Juan. In
+=1497= the death of the young prince led to consequences unexpected
+when the two marriages were arranged. Philip, who held Franche Comte
+and the Netherlands, and who was through his father Maximilian heir to
+the German dominions of the House of Austria, would now, that his wife
+had become the heiress of Spain, be able to transmit to his
+descendants the whole of the Spanish monarchy as well. That monarchy
+was no longer confined to Europe. Portugal at the end of the
+fourteenth century had led the way in maritime adventure, and
+Portuguese navigators discovered a way to India round the Cape of Good
+Hope. Spain was anxious to do as much, and in =1492= Columbus had
+discovered the West Indies, and the kings of Spain became masters of
+the untold wealth produced by the gold and silver mines of the New
+World. It was impossible but that the huge power thus brought into
+existence would one day arouse the jealousy of Europe. For the
+present, however, the danger was less than it would be after the
+deaths of Ferdinand and Isabella, as the actual combination of their
+territories with those which Philip was to inherit from Maximilian had
+not been effected. In =1499= France gave a fresh shock to her
+neighbours. Charles VIII. had died the year before, and his successor,
+Louis XII., invaded Italy and subdued the duchy of Milan, to which he
+had set up a claim. Naturally the powers jealous of France sought to
+have Henry on their side. There had been for some time a negotiation
+for a marriage between Henry's eldest son, Arthur, Prince of Wales,
+and Catherine of Aragon, the youngest daughter of Ferdinand and
+Isabella, but hitherto nothing had been concluded.
+
+17. =Execution of the Earl of Warwick. 1499.=--Perkin had long been
+eager to free himself from prison. In =1498= he was caught attempting
+to escape, but Henry contented himself with putting him in the stocks.
+He was then removed to the Tower, where he persuaded the unhappy Earl
+of Warwick (see p. 343) to join him in flight. It is almost certain
+that Warwick was guilty of no more, but Henry, soured by the repeated
+attempts to dethrone him, resolved to remove him from his path. On
+trumped-up evidence Warwick was convicted and executed, and Perkin
+shared his fate.
+
+[Illustration: King's College Chapel, Cambridge (looking east). Begun
+by Henry VI. in 1441, completed by Henry VII. The screen built between
+1531 and 1535.]
+
+18. =Prince Arthur's Marriage and Death. 1501--1502.=--Warwick's death
+was the one judicial murder of Henry's reign. To the Spaniards it
+appeared to be a prudent action which had cleared away the last of
+Henry's serious competitors. The negotiations for the Spanish
+marriage were pushed on, and in =1501= Catherine, a bride of fifteen,
+gave her hand to Arthur, a bridegroom of fourteen. In =1502= the
+prince died, and the attempt to bind England and Spain together seemed
+to have come to an end.
+
+19. =The Scottish Marriage. 1503.=--Another marriage treaty proved
+ultimately to be of far greater importance. Henry was sufficiently
+above the prejudices of his time to be anxious to be on good terms
+with Scotland. For some time a negotiation had been in progress for a
+marriage between James IV. and Henry's daughter, Margaret. The
+marriage took place in =1503=. To the counsellors who urged that in
+the case of failure of Henry's heirs in the male line England would
+become subject to Scotland Henry shrewdly replied that there was no
+fear of that, as 'the greater would draw the less.'
+
+20. =Maritime Enterprise.=--Henry's chief merit was that he had
+re-established order. Commercial prosperity followed, though the
+commerce was as yet on a small scale. It is probable that the
+population of England was no more than 2,500,000. London contained but
+130,000 inhabitants, whilst Paris contained 400,000. There was no
+royal navy, as there was no royal army, but merchant vessels were
+armed to protect themselves. The company of Merchant Adventurers made
+voyages to the Baltic, and the men of Bristol sent out fleets to the
+Iceland fishery. Henry did what he could to encourage maritime
+enterprise. He had offered to take Columbus into his service before
+the great navigator closed with Spain, and in =1497= he sent the
+Venetian, John Cabot, and his sons across the Atlantic, where they
+landed in Labrador before any Spaniards had set foot on the American
+continent. England however, was as yet too poor to push these
+discoveries farther, and the lands beyond the sea were for the present
+left to Spain.
+
+21. =Growth of the Royal Power.=--The improvement in the general
+well-being of the country had been rendered possible by the extension
+of the royal power, and the price paid for order was the falling into
+abeyance of the constitutional authority of Parliaments. The loss
+indeed was greater in appearance than in reality. In the fifteenth
+century the election of members of the House of Commons depended more
+upon the will of the great lords than upon the political sentiments of
+the community. In the first half of the sixteenth century they
+depended on the will of the king. The peculiarity of the Tudor rule
+was that its growing despotism was exercised without the support of
+the army. It rested on the goodwill of the middle classes. Treading
+cautiously in the steps of Edward IV., Henry VII. recognised that in
+order to have a full treasury it was less dangerous to exact payments
+illegally from the few than to exact them legally from the many. Hence
+his recourse in times of trouble to benevolences. Hence, too, the
+eagerness with which he gathered in fines. The Cornish rebels were
+fined individually. The great lords who persisted in keeping retainers
+were fined. On one occasion the king visited the Earl of Oxford, and
+found, when he went away, a band of retainers drawn up to do him
+honour. "My lord," he said, "I thank you for your entertainment, but
+my attorney must speak with you." If there was a man in England who
+had deserved well of Henry it was Oxford, but Oxford had to pay
+15,000_l._, a sum worth perhaps 180,000_l._ at the present day, to
+atone for his offence. No services rendered to Henry were to excuse
+from obedience to the law.
+
+22. =Empson and Dudley.=--As Henry grew older the gathering of money
+became a passion. His chief instruments were Empson and Dudley, who
+under pretence of enforcing the law established the worst of
+tyrannies. Even false charges were brought for the sake of extracting
+money. At the end of his reign Henry had accumulated a hoard of
+1,800,000_l._, mainly gathered by injustice and oppression. The
+despotism of one man was no doubt better than the despotism of many,
+but the price paid for the change was a heavy one.
+
+23. =Henry and his Daughter-in-law. 1502--1505.=--On the death of
+Prince Arthur in =1502=, Ferdinand and Isabella proposed that their
+daughter Catharine should marry her brother-in-law, Henry, the only
+surviving son of the king of England, though the boy was six years
+younger than herself. They had already paid half their daughter's
+marriage portion, and they believed, probably with truth, that they
+had little chance of recovering it from Henry VII., and that it would
+therefore be more economical to re-marry their daughter where they
+would get off with no more expense than the payment of the other half.
+Henry on the other hand feared lest the repayment of the first half
+might be demanded of him, and consequently welcomed the proposal. In
+=1503= a dispensation for the marriage was obtained from Pope Julius
+II., but in =1505=, when the time for the betrothal arrived, the young
+Henry protested, no doubt at his father's instigation, that he would
+proceed no farther.
+
+24. =The Last Years of Henry VII. 1505--1509.=--Circumstances were
+changed by the death of Isabella in =1504=, when her son-in-law, the
+Archduke Philip, claimed to be sovereign of Castile in right of his
+wife Juana. Philip, sailing from the Netherlands to Spain in =1506=,
+was driven into Weymouth by a storm, and Henry seized the opportunity
+of wringing from him commercial concessions as well as the surrender
+of Edmund de la Pole, a brother of the Earl of Lincoln who perished at
+Stoke, and a nephew of Edward IV. Henry was himself now a widower on
+the look-out for a rich wife, and Philip promised him the hand of his
+sister, Margaret, who had formerly been betrothed to Charles VIII.
+(see p. 337). Once more, however, the conditions of the game changed.
+Philip died a few months after his arrival in Spain, leaving a mad
+widow, and as Ferdinand then regained his authority Catharine's
+marriage was again discussed. Other schemes were also proposed,
+amongst them one for marrying Catharine, not to the young prince, but
+to her old father-in-law, the king. In =1509=, before any of these
+plans could take effect, Henry VII. died. He deserves to be reckoned
+amongst the kings who have accomplished much for England. If he was
+not chivalrous or imaginative, neither was the age in which he lived.
+His contemporaries needed a chief constable to keep order, and he gave
+them what they needed.
+
+25. =Architectural Changes and the Printing Press.=--Architecture,
+which in England, as upon the Continent, had been the one great art of
+the Middle Ages, was already, though still instinct with beauty,
+giving signs in its over-elaboration of approaching decadence. To the
+tower of Fotheringhay Church (see p. 311) had succeeded the tower of
+St. Mary's, Taunton. To the roof of the nave of Winchester Cathedral
+(see p. 276) had succeeded the roof of the Divinity School at Oxford
+(see p. 319), and of the chapel of King's College, Cambridge (see p.
+355). Art in this direction could go no farther. The new conditions in
+which the following age was to move were indicated by the discovery of
+America and the invention of printing. New objects of knowledge
+presented themselves, and a new mode of spreading knowledge was at
+hand. In the reign of Edward IV., Caxton, the earliest English
+printer, set up his press at Westminster, and the king and his nobles
+came to gaze at it as at some new toy, little knowing how profoundly
+it was to modify their methods of government. Henry VII. had enough to
+do without troubling himself with such matters. It was his part to
+close an epoch of English history, not to open a fresh one.
+
+
+_Books recommended for further study of Part IV._
+
+GREEN, J. R. History of the English People. Vol. i. p. 521-Vol. ii. p.
+77.
+
+STUBBS, W. (Bishop of Oxford). Constitutional History of England. Vol.
+ii. from p. 441, and Vol. iii.
+
+HALLAM, H. Constitutional History of England. Vol. i. pp. 1-15.
+
+ROGERS, J. E. THOROLD. History of Agriculture and Prices. Vols. iii.
+and iv.
+
+CUNNINGHAM, W. The Growth of English Industry and Commerce. Vol. i.
+pp. 335-449.
+
+WYLIE, J. H. History of England under Henry IV.
+
+GAIRDNER, JAMES. Lancaster and York.
+
+-------- Richard III.
+
+-------- Henry VII.
+
+RAMSAY, SIR JAMES. Lancaster and York.
+
+OMAN, C. The Political History of England. Vol. iv. From the Accession
+of Richard II. to the Death of Richard III. (1377-1485).
+
+FISHER, H. A. L. The Political History of England. Vol. v. From the
+Accession of Henry VII. to the Death of Henry VIII. (1485-1547).
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+TO
+
+THE FIRST VOLUME
+
+
+ Aaron, martyrdom of, 23.
+
+ Aclea, battle of, 57.
+
+ Acre, captured by the Crusaders, 161;
+ Edward I. at, 204.
+
+ Adrian IV. grants Ireland to Henry II., 152.
+
+ Adulterine castles, 137.
+
+ Aedan, king of the Scots, is defeated at Degsastan, 42.
+
+ AElfgar, earl of the Mercians, 90.
+
+ AElfgifu, wife of Eadwig, 65, 66.
+
+ AElfheah, Archbishop, murdered by the Danes, 82.
+
+ AElfred, his struggle with the Danes, 58;
+ his position after the Treaty of Wedmore, 59;
+ gains London, _ib._;
+ character of his work, 60.
+
+ AElfred the AEtheling, murder of, 85, 86.
+
+ AElfthryth, wife of Eadgar, 78.
+
+ AElla, king of Deira, slave-boys from his kingdom found at Rome, 38.
+
+ AEscesdun, battle of, 58.
+
+ AEthelbald, king of the Mercians, 53.
+
+ AEthelbald, king of the West Saxons, 57.
+
+ AEthelberht, king of Kent, his supremacy, 38;
+ becomes a Christian, 39;
+ helps Augustine to set up bishoprics, 40;
+ death of, 41.
+
+ AEthelberht, king of the West Saxons, 57.
+
+ AEthelflaed, the Lady of the Mercians, 62.
+
+ AEthelfrith, king of North-humberland, his struggle with the northern
+ Welsh, 41;
+ defeats the Scots at Degsastan, 42;
+ and the Kymry near Chester, 43;
+ is defeated and slain by Eadwine, _ib._
+
+ AEthelred, ealdorman of Mercia, 60.
+
+ AEthelred, king of the West Saxons, his struggle with the
+ Danes, 58, 62.
+
+ AEthelred the Unready, his relations with the Danes, 79;
+ and with the Normans, 80;
+ orders a massacre of the Danes, 81;
+ flies to Normandy, 82;
+ returns and dies, 83.
+
+ AEthelric unites North-humberland, 41.
+
+ AEthelstan, reign of, 63.
+
+ AEthelstan, the Half-King, 73.
+
+ AEthelwold drives secular canons from Winchester, 68.
+
+ AEthelwulf defeats the Northmen, 57.
+
+ Aetius refuses help to the Britons, 26.
+
+ Agincourt, battle of, 302.
+
+ Agricola, campaigns of, 16;
+ forts built by, 17.
+
+ Agriculture in Eadgar's time, 75.
+
+ Aidan establishes himself in Holy Island, 47;
+ his relations with Oswald, _ib._;
+ and with Oswine, _ib._
+
+ Alban, martyrdom of, 23.
+
+ Albany, the Duke of, suspected of the murder of the Duke of
+ Rothesay, 295;
+ is regent of Scotland, 296.
+
+ Albigeois, the, crusade against, 193.
+
+ Albin, probable Iberian derivation of the name, 6.
+
+ Albion, _see_ Albin.
+
+ Alcluyd (Dumbarton), the capital of Strathclyde, 43.
+
+ Alexander, bishop of Lincoln, 134.
+
+ Alexander III., king of Scotland, death of, 214.
+
+ Alexander III., Pope, shrinks from supporting Archbishop
+ Thomas, 145.
+
+ Alexander IV., Pope, confirms a grant of Sicily to Edmund
+ Crouchback, 197.
+
+ Allectus asserts a claim to the Empire, 22.
+
+ Alnwick, Malcolm Canmore slain at, 119;
+ William the Lion captured at, 154;
+ dismantled, 296.
+
+ Ambresbyrig (Amesbury) named from Ambrosius, 34.
+
+ Ambrosius fights with the West Saxons, 34.
+
+ Ambrosius Aurelianus, fights with the Jutes, 27.
+
+ Amiens, the mise of, 200.
+
+ Anderida destroyed by the South Saxons, 28.
+
+ Andred's Wood covers the Weald, 27.
+
+ Angevin kings, Church and State under, 165;
+ growth of learning under, 167;
+ growth of commerce under, 168;
+ architectural changes under, 170.
+
+ Angles ravage Roman Britain, 24;
+ settle in Britain, 28;
+ advance gradually, 36;
+ _see_ Bernicia, Deira, East Anglia, Mercia, North-humberland.
+
+ Anglesea, _see_ Mona.
+
+ Anjou, Geoffrey, Count of, 131;
+ united with Normandy, 137;
+ declares for Arthur, 174;
+ conquered by Philip II., 176;
+ English forays in, 317.
+
+ Anne of Beaujeu, policy of, 348.
+
+ Anne of Bohemia marries Richard II., 278.
+
+ Anne of Brittany is married to Maximilian by proxy, 349;
+ married to Charles VIII., 349.
+
+ Anselm acknowledges AElfheah to be a martyr, 82;
+ character of, 117;
+ becomes Archbishop of Canterbury, 118;
+ quarrels with William II., _ib._;
+ his relations with Henry I., 125.
+
+ Antoninus Pius, wall of, 17.
+
+ Appellant, the Lords, 279.
+
+ Aquitaine, Duchy of, passes to Henry II. by his marriage, 137;
+ is given to Richard, 155;
+ divided in language and character from the North of France, 176;
+ intrigues of Philip IV. in, 218;
+ efforts of Philip VI. to gain, 234;
+ ceded to Edward III., 253;
+ the Black Prince made Duke of, 254;
+ resistance to the Black Prince in, 256;
+ almost wholly lost, 257;
+ complete loss of, 320.
+
+ Aquae Sulis (Bath) subdued by the West Saxons, 35.
+
+ Archers employed at Senlac, 96;
+ armed with the long bow at Falkirk, 221;
+ improperly employed at Bannockburn, 226;
+ effect of, at Halidon Hill, 234;
+ drawn from the yeomen, 236;
+ win the battle of Crecy, 242;
+ are successful at Poitiers, 251.
+
+ Architecture before the Conquest, 51;
+ Norman, 89;
+ under the Angevins, 170;
+ Early English style of, 207;
+ Decorated and Perpendicular styles of, 247;
+ later development of, 358.
+
+ Arles, Council of, 23.
+
+ Armagnac, the Count of, establishes a reign of terror, 303;
+ murder of, 304.
+
+ Armagnacs, party of the, oppose the Burgundians, 296;
+ relations of Henry IV. with, 299;
+ make war with the Burgundians, 301;
+ insurrection of the Parisians against, 304.
+
+ Army, the, the folk-moot in arms, 33;
+ AElfred's organisation of, 60;
+ under William I., 104, 106;
+ reorganised by Henry II., 141;
+ its condition under Edward III., 236.
+
+ Arras, congress at, 313;
+ Treaty of, 337.
+
+ Arteveldt, Jacob van, 235.
+
+ Arteveldt, Philip van, 278.
+
+ Arthur, legend of, 33.
+
+ Arthur, nephew of John, descent of, 173;
+ murder of, 174.
+
+ Arthur, Prince of Wales, marriage and death of, 356.
+
+ Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury, banished, 282;
+ his position under Henry IV., 292;
+ deprived of the Chancellorship, 299;
+ Oldcastle tried before, 300.
+
+ Arundel, the Earl of, opposes Richard II., 279;
+ executed, 282.
+
+ Aryans, the, 5.
+
+ Assandun, battle of, 83.
+
+ Asser, life of AElfred by, 61.
+
+ Assize of Arms, 154.
+
+ Assize of Clarendon, _see_ Clarendon.
+
+ Athelney, AElfred takes refuge in, 58.
+
+ Augustine preaches to the men of Kent, 39;
+ becomes Archbishop of Canterbury and founds other bishoprics, 40;
+ fails to obtain the co-operation of the Welsh bishops, 41.
+
+ Aumale, Earl of, surrenders his castles to Hubert de Burgh, 187.
+
+ Austria, imprisonment of Richard I. in, 161.
+
+ Avice of Gloucester divorced by John, 174.
+
+ Avignon, the Popes at, 257.
+
+
+ Badby burnt as a heretic, 298.
+
+ Badon, Mount, _see_ Mount Badon.
+
+ Balliol, Edward, wins and loses the crown of Scotland, 232, 233.
+
+ Balliol, John, descent of, 215;
+ declared King of Scotland, 216;
+ is defeated and surrenders the crown, 219.
+
+ Bamborough, Ida's fortress at, 36;
+ Mowbray besieged in, 120.
+
+ Bangor-iscoed, monastery at, 42;
+ slaughter of the monks of, 43.
+
+ Bannockburn, battle of, 226.
+
+ Barnet, battle of, 334.
+
+ Basques, the, Iberian descent of, 5.
+
+ Bath, _see_ Aquae Sulis.
+
+ Battle Abbey, site of, 96.
+
+ Bauge, battle of, 306.
+
+ Bayeux Tapestry, the, 98.
+
+ Bayonne taken by the French, 320.
+
+ Bears, performing, 275.
+
+ Beaufort, Henry, Bishop of Winchester, becomes Chancellor, 299;
+ invites Parliament to support Henry V., 301;
+ opposes Gloucester, 308;
+ becomes a cardinal, 309;
+ continues his opposition to Gloucester, 314;
+ policy of, 317;
+ death of, 318.
+
+ Bec, Abbey of, 89, 117.
+
+ Becket, _see_ Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury.
+
+ Bede, Ecclesiastical History of, 52.
+
+ Bedford, West Saxon victory at, 35;
+ castle of Faukes de Breaute at, 187.
+
+ Bedford, John, Duke of, brother of Henry V., sent to secure
+ Harfleur, 303;
+ Regent of France, 307;
+ marries the Duke of Burgundy's sister, _ib._;
+ defeats the French at Verneuil, 308;
+ returns to England, 312;
+ death of, 313.
+
+ Belgians land in Britain, 8.
+
+ Belleme, _see_ Robert of Belleme.
+
+ Benedict of Nursia establishes the Benedictine rule, 40.
+
+ Benedictines, monasteries of the, 128.
+
+ Benevolences invented by Edward IV., 335;
+ abolished by Richard III., 342.
+
+ Bensington, Mercian victory at, 53.
+
+ Berengaria marries Richard I., 161.
+
+ Bernard du Guesclin, _see_ Du Guesclin.
+
+ Bernicia, formation of the kingdom of, 36;
+ is merged for a time in North-humberland, 41;
+ is untouched by the preaching of Paulinus, 46;
+ is finally merged in North-humberland, 48;
+ maintains its independence after the Danish conquest, 59.
+
+ Bertha obtains from AEthelberht a disused church, 38.
+
+ Bigod, Hugh, appointed justiciar by the barons, 199.
+
+ Bigod, Roger, Earl of Norfolk, resists Edward I., 220.
+
+ Black Death, the, 248, 259.
+
+ Black Prince, the, fights at Crecy, 242;
+ ravages the south of France, and defeats the French at
+ Poitiers, 251;
+ his courtesy to King John, 252;
+ is sent to Aquitaine, 254;
+ his expedition into Spain, 255;
+ taxes Aquitaine, 256;
+ loses Aquitaine, 257;
+ leads the Good Parliament, and dies, 262.
+
+ Blanche Tache, ford of, 240.
+
+ Blore Heath, battle of, 326.
+
+ Boadicea, insurrection of, 15.
+
+ Bohun, Humfrey, Earl of Hereford, resists Edward I., 220.
+
+ Boniface VIII., 220.
+
+ Boniface of Savoy, Archbishop of Canterbury, 197.
+
+ Bordeaux taken by the French, 320.
+
+ Boroughbridge, defeat of Thomas of Lancaster at, 228.
+
+ Bosworth, battle of, 343.
+
+ Bouvines, battle of, 181.
+
+ Brabant, the Duke of, captures Jacqueline of Hainault, 308.
+
+ Bradford-on-Avon, early stone church at, 51.
+
+ Bramham Moor, defeat of Northumberland on, 296.
+
+ Brember hanged, 280.
+
+ Bretigni, Treaty of, 253.
+
+ Bretwalda, title of, 44.
+
+ Bridgenorth, Robert of Belleme's castle at, 121;
+ besieged by Henry I., 124.
+
+ Bridges, making and repair of, 272, 273.
+
+ Brigantes, the, conquest of, 16.
+
+ Brihtnoth slain at Maldon, 79.
+
+ Bristol garrisoned by Robert of Gloucester, 134.
+
+ Britain, its name derived from the Britons, 6;
+ tin trade opened to, 8;
+ Gauls and Belgians in, _ib._;
+ Caesar's invasion of, 11;
+ trade of Gaul with, 12;
+ beginning of the Roman conquest of, 13-17;
+ condition of the Roman province of, 19-22;
+ emperors specially connected with, 22;
+ Christianity in, 23;
+ ravaged by the Picts and Scots, 23;
+ and by the Saxons, 24;
+ military divisions of, _ib._;
+ end of the Roman government of, 25, 26;
+ is deserted by the Romans, 26;
+ its organisation after the departure of the Romans, _ib._;
+ the English conquest of, 27-29.
+
+ Britons, the, succeed the Goidels, 6;
+ languages spoken by the descendants of, 7;
+ habits of, 9;
+ religion of, 10;
+ introduction of Roman manners amongst, 13;
+ increased civilisation of, 21;
+ non-existence of a national feeling amongst, 22;
+ ask Honorius in vain for help, 25;
+ the groans of the, 26;
+ treatment of, by the English conquerors, 29;
+ are better treated in the West, 31;
+ slight modification of English language by them, 31;
+ _see_ Kymry.
+
+ Brittany, its relation with Henry II., 155;
+ Edward III. sends forces to, 240;
+ annexed to France, 349.
+
+ Bruce, Edward, invades Ireland, 264.
+
+ Bruce, Robert, claims the crown of Scotland, 215.
+
+ Bruce, Robert, grandson of the preceding, _see_ Robert I.
+
+ Brunanburh, battle of, 63.
+
+ Brut, Layamon's, 207.
+
+ Brythons, _see_ Britons.
+
+ Buchan, Countess of, imprisoned, 224.
+
+ Buckingham, Edward Stafford, Duke of, supports
+ Richard III., 338, 341;
+ executed as a rebel, 342.
+
+ Burford, West Saxon victory at, 53.
+
+ Burgundians, party of the, opposed to the Armagnacs, 296, 299;
+ are friendly to Henry V., 301.
+
+ Burgundy, Charles the Rash, Duke of, marries the sister of
+ Edward IV., 332;
+ policy of, 336;
+ is slain at Nancy, _ib._
+
+ Burgundy, John the Fearless, Duke of, has the Duke of Orleans
+ murdered, 296;
+ allies himself with Henry V., 301;
+ holds aloof in the campaign of Agincourt, 302;
+ makes war upon the Armagnacs, 303;
+ murder of, 305.
+
+ Burgundy, Philip the Good, Duke of, joins the English against
+ the Dauphin, 306;
+ allies himself with the Duke of Bedford, 307;
+ forms a league with Charles VII., 313;
+ inherits territories in the Netherlands, _ib._
+
+ Burhs erected by Eadward the Elder, 62.
+
+ Burley, Sir Simon, executed, 280.
+
+ Bury St. Edmunds, foundation of the monastery at, 58;
+ death of Svend at, 82;
+ meeting of barons at, 181.
+
+
+ CADE, JACK, rebellion of, 322.
+
+ Caedmon, poetry of, 52.
+
+ Caedwalla, allied with Penda, 46;
+ is defeated by Oswald, 47.
+
+ Caen, burial of William I. at, 114;
+ stormed by Henry V., 303.
+
+ Caerleon upon Usk, _see_ Isca Silurum.
+
+ Caesar, Gaius Julius, makes war in Gaul and Germany, 10;
+ twice invades Britain, 11.
+
+ Caint, the, occupied by the Cantii, 8.
+
+ Calais taken by Edward III., 243;
+ besieged by the Duke of Burgundy, 313.
+
+ Caledonians, the, wars of Agricola with, 16.
+
+ Cambridge, the Earl of, execution of, 301.
+
+ Camulodunum, Cunobelin's headquarters at, 12;
+ Roman colony of, 13;
+ captured by Boadicea, 15.
+
+ Cannon, first use of, 242.
+
+ Canterbury, AEthelberht's residence at, 38;
+ Augustine preaches at, 39;
+ foundation of the archbishopric of, 40;
+ murder of Archbishop Thomas at, 150;
+ Henry II. does penance at, 153;
+ architecture of the choir of, 171;
+ disputed election of the Archbishop of, 177.
+
+ _Canterbury Tales_, the, 270.
+
+ Caractacus, defeat and flight of, 13;
+ capture of, 14.
+
+ Carausius claims to be emperor, 22.
+
+ Carham, battle of, 84.
+
+ Carlisle fortified by William II., 119.
+
+ Carnarvon, Edward I. builds a castle at, 210.
+
+ Carriages and carts, 273.
+
+ Carucage substituted for Danegeld, 162.
+
+ Cashel, synod at, 152.
+
+ Cassel, battle of, 235.
+
+ Cassiterides, the geographical position of, 8.
+
+ Cassivelaunus, resistance to Caesar by, 11.
+
+ Castile, intervention of the Black Prince in, 255;
+ united with Aragon, 349.
+
+ Catherine of Aragon married to Prince Arthur, 356;
+ marriages proposed for, 357.
+
+ Catherine of France marries Henry V., 306;
+ marries Owen Tudor, 335.
+
+ Catuvellauni, the, position of, 9;
+ attacked by Caesar, 11;
+ subsequent history of, 12.
+
+ Caxton, William, establishes a printing press at Westminster, 358.
+
+ Ceawlin overruns the Severn Valley, 35;
+ defeated at Wanborough, 36.
+
+ Celibacy of the clergy, early opinion in favour of, 65;
+ inculcated at Cluny, 67.
+
+ Celtic Christianity, influence of, 47, 49.
+
+ Celts, the, succeed the Iberians in Western Europe, 5;
+ are divided into two stocks, 7;
+ know their conquerors as Saxons, 29.
+
+ Ceorls, distinguished from Eorls, 29;
+ are the tillers of the soil, 30.
+
+ Chancellor, the official position of, 127;
+ becomes a judge, 260.
+
+ Charles Martel defeats the Mohammedans, 54.
+
+ Charles the Great, Emperor, 55, 63.
+
+ Charles the Simple, king of the West Franks, 63;
+ cedes Normandy to Hrolf, 80.
+
+ Charles IV., king of France, death of, 232.
+
+ Charles V., king of France, opposes the English in Spain, 255;
+ summons the Black Prince to Paris, 256;
+ renews the war against the English, _ib._;
+ avoids a battle, 257.
+
+ Charles VI., king of France, defeats the Flemings, 278;
+ allies himself with Richard II., 282;
+ loses his senses, 295;
+ disinherits the Dauphin, 306;
+ dies, 307.
+
+ Charles VII., king of France, as Dauphin, falls into the hands
+ of the Armagnacs, 303;
+ is present at the murder of John, Duke of Burgundy, 305;
+ is disinherited, 306;
+ claims to succeed to the crown at his father's death, 307;
+ his weakness, 309;
+ is helped by the Maid of Orleans, 310;
+ is crowned, 311;
+ consents to a truce, 317;
+ renews the war, 320.
+
+ Charles VIII., king of France, succeeds to the crown, 348;
+ invades Italy, 352;
+ death of, 354.
+
+ Chateau Gaillard built by Richard I., 165;
+ lost by John, 354.
+
+ Chaucer, Geoffrey, his _Canterbury Tales_, 270.
+
+ Chester (_see_ Deva) submits to William I., 103.
+
+ Chinon, Henry II. dies at, 157.
+
+ Chivalry, 235.
+
+ Christ Church, at Canterbury, privileges of, 177;
+ expulsion of the monks of, 178.
+
+ Christianity introduced into Britain, 23;
+ into England, 39;
+ character of early English, _see_ England, the Church of.
+
+ Chronicle, the, begun under AElfred, 61;
+ continued at Worcester, 68, 129;
+ completed at Peterborough, 129.
+
+ Church of England, _see_ England, the Church of.
+
+ Cinque Ports, the, 218.
+
+ Cirencester, _see_ Corinium.
+
+ Cistercians, the, introduced into England, 129;
+ decline of asceticism amongst, 167;
+ are fined by John, 179.
+
+ Clare, Gilbert de, _see_ Gloucester, Earl of.
+
+ Clare, Richard de, _see_ Strongbow.
+
+ Clare, Richard de, _see_ Gloucester, Earl of.
+
+ Clarence, Lionel, Duke of, sent to Ireland, 265.
+
+ Clarence, George, Duke of, brother of Edward IV., created a
+ duke, 329;
+ marries Warwick's daughter, and quarrels with Edward IV., 332;
+ put to death, 336.
+
+ Clarence, Thomas, Duke of, brother of Henry IV., killed at
+ Bauge, 306.
+
+ Clarendon, the Constitutions of, 144;
+ the assize of, 146.
+
+ Claudius, the Emperor, plans the conquest of Britain, 13.
+
+ Clergy, the, _see_ Ecclesiastical Courts, England, Church of.
+
+ _Clericis Laicos_, the Bull named, 220.
+
+ Clifford, Lord, stabs the Earl of Rutland, 328.
+
+ Cluny, clerical celibacy inculcated at, 67;
+ reforms originated at, 107.
+
+ Cnut, reign of, 83-85.
+
+ Cobham, Eleanor, mistress and wife of the Duke of Gloucester, 315;
+ does penance for witchcraft, 316.
+
+ Colleges, first foundation of, at Oxford, 207.
+
+ Colman disputes with Wilfrid, 50.
+
+ Columba founds a monastery at Iona, 47.
+
+ Columbus discovers the West Indies, 354.
+
+ Commerce between Britain and Gaul, 8, 12;
+ between England and Gaul, 38;
+ under the Angevin kings, 168;
+ under Edward I., 211;
+ under Edward III., 235, 236;
+ under Henry VII., 351.
+
+ Common Pleas, establishment of a separate Court of, 212.
+
+ Commons, the House of (_see_ Parliament), finally separated
+ from the Lords, 243;
+ struggle of, against unparliamentary taxation, 244;
+ importance of the constitution of, 245;
+ supported by the Black Prince, 261;
+ influence over the elections of, 281;
+ proposes to confiscate Church property, 294;
+ addressed by Edward IV., 329.
+
+ Compurgation, system of, 32;
+ set aside by Henry II., 146, 147.
+
+ Comyn, John (the Red), slain by Bruce, 224.
+
+ _Confirmatio Cartarum_, 221.
+
+ Conrad III., Emperor, takes part in the second Crusade, 157.
+
+ Constance of Brittany marries Geoffrey, 155.
+
+ Constantine takes an army from Britain, 25.
+
+ Constantine, king of the Scots, allies himself with Eadward, 63.
+
+ Constantine the Great becomes sole Emperor, 22;
+ acknowledges Christianity as the religion of the Empire, 23.
+
+ Constantius, the Emperor, 22.
+
+ Constitutions of Clarendon, 144;
+ renounced by Henry II., 153.
+
+ Convocations of the clergy vote money, 219.
+
+ Conway, Edward I. builds a castle at, 210.
+
+ Corinium (Cirencester), West Saxon conquest of, 35.
+
+ Cornish, the, derivation of the old language of, 7;
+ submit to Ecgberht, 55.
+
+ Cotentin, the, sold to Henry, 119.
+
+ County courts derived from the shire-moots, 141.
+
+ Courtenay, Bishop of London, supported by the citizens against
+ Lancaster, 263.
+
+ Crecy, battle of, 241, 242.
+
+ Cressingham, Sir Hugh, governs Scotland in the name of
+ Edward I., 219.
+
+ Crown, the, _see_ King.
+
+ Crusade, the first, 120;
+ the second, 157;
+ the third, 161;
+ against the Albigeois, 193;
+ the seventh, 204.
+
+ Cumberland, origin of the name of, 37;
+ annexed by William II., 119;
+ left to David I., 133;
+ regained by Henry II., 140.
+
+ Cunedda, extensive rule of, 37.
+
+ Cunobelin, government of, 12.
+
+ _Curia Regis_, the, organised under Henry I., 127;
+ strengthened by Henry II., 141;
+ powers assigned by the Constitutions of Clarendon to, 145;
+ orders the appointment of recognitors, 147;
+ divided into three courts, 212.
+
+ Customs on imports and exports under Edward I., 211, 221.
+
+ Cutha, 35.
+
+ Cymbeline, original of Shakspere's, 12.
+
+ Cynric captures Sorbiodunum, 34.
+
+
+ Danegeld, levy of, 81; abolition of, 143.
+
+ Danelaw, the, formation of, 59.
+
+ Danes, the, invade England, 58;
+ make peace with AElfred, 59;
+ extent of the settlements of, 62;
+ are amalgamated with the English, 64;
+ relations of Dunstan with, 67;
+ reappear as invaders, 79;
+ conquer England, 81-83;
+ settle in Ireland, 152.
+
+ Darc, Jeanne, delivers Orleans, 310;
+ conducts Charles VII. to Rheims, 311;
+ martyrdom of, 312.
+
+ David I., king of the Scots, invades England, 131.
+
+ David II. (Bruce), king of Scotland, 232;
+ takes refuge with Philip VI., 234;
+ restoration of, 240;
+ taken prisoner at Nevill's Cross, 242;
+ restored by Edward III., 252.
+
+ David, brother of Llewelyn, executed, 140.
+
+ David, Earl of Huntingdon, 215.
+
+ David, St., piety of, 42.
+
+ Decorated style, the, 247.
+
+ Degsastan, AEthelfrith's victory at, 42.
+
+ Deira, formation of the kingdom of, 36;
+ is merged for a time in North-humberland, 41;
+ accepts Christianity, 46;
+ is finally merged in North-humberland, 48;
+ Danish kingdom of, 62, 63.
+
+ Deorham, battle of, 35.
+
+ Derby, Earl of (son of John of Gaunt), opposes Richard II., 279;
+ defeats the Duke of Ireland, 280;
+ becomes Duke of Hereford, and is banished, 283;
+ succeeds to the Duchy of Lancaster, 284;
+ and forces Richard II. to abdicate, 285;
+ _see_ Henry IV.
+
+ Dermot invites Strongbow to Ireland, 152.
+
+ Despensers, the, 228, 229.
+
+ Deva, Roman colony of, 14, 19.
+
+ Devizes, surrender of the castle of, 134.
+
+ _Dialogus de Scaccario_, 167.
+
+ Diocletian reorganises the Empire, 22.
+
+ Domesday Book, 111.
+
+ Domestic life in Eadgar's time, 75.
+
+ Domfront occupied by Henry, 119.
+
+ Dominic, St., 190.
+
+ Dominicans arrive in England, 191.
+
+ Donald Bane made king of the Scots by the Celts, 119.
+
+ Dorchester, abandonment of the see of, 107.
+
+ Dorset, Marquis of, his relations with Richard III., 338.
+
+ Druids, character of the, 10;
+ resist Suetonius, 14.
+
+ Dublin, Danish settlement in, 152.
+
+ Du Chatel, Tannegui, murders the Duke of Burgundy, 305.
+
+ Du Guesclin, Bernard, supports Henry of Trastamara, 255;
+ his mode of fighting with the English, 256.
+
+ Dunbar, Balliol defeated at, 219.
+
+ Duncan II., king of the Scots, 120.
+
+ Dunstan, character and work of, 65;
+ banished by Eadwig, 67;
+ becomes Eadgar's Minister, _ib._;
+ his attitude towards the monks, 68;
+ supports Eadward's succession, 78;
+ death of, 79.
+
+ Dupplin, Edward Balliol's victory at, 234.
+
+ Durham, architecture of the choir and galilee of, 171.
+
+
+ Eadgar, reign of, 67.
+
+ Eadgar, king of the Scots, 121.
+
+ Eadgar the AEtheling, early years of, 90;
+ chosen king, 98;
+ is abandoned, 100.
+
+ Eadgyth married to Eadward the Confessor, 87.
+
+ Eadgyth married to Henry I., 122;
+ is known as Matilda, 124.
+
+ Eadmund Ironside, 83.
+
+ Eadmund, king of East Anglia, killed by the Danes, 58.
+
+ Eadmund, king of the English, 63.
+
+ Eadred, king of the English, 64.
+
+ Eadward the Confessor, his life in Normandy, 85;
+ is chosen king, 86;
+ his relations with Godwine, 87;
+ makes William his heir, 88;
+ dies, 91.
+
+ Eadward the Elder, reign of, 62;
+ his relations with the Scots, 63.
+
+ Eadward the AEtheling, death of, 90.
+
+ Eadward the Martyr, 78.
+
+ Eadwig, reign of, 64;
+ his quarrel with the clergy, 65;
+ his marriage and death, 67.
+
+ Eadwine, king of North-humberland, greatness of, 43;
+ marries AEthelburh, 44;
+ is converted and slain, 46.
+
+ Eadwine, son of AElfgar, becomes Earl of the Mercians, 90;
+ is present at Eadgar's election, 98;
+ submits to William, 102;
+ is murdered, 103.
+
+ Eadwinesburh, _see_ Edinburgh.
+
+ Ealdhelm as a builder and teacher, 51.
+
+ Ealdormen, the, are the leaders of the English conquerors, 30;
+ preside over the folk-moot, 33;
+ growing power of, 73;
+ their position under AEthelred the Unready, 79.
+
+ Ealdred, Archbishop of York, crowns William I., 100.
+
+ Earl, title of, derivation of, 64.
+
+ Earldoms under Cnut, 83;
+ diminished after the Norman Conquest, 105.
+
+ Early English architecture, 171.
+
+ East Anglia, first settlement of, 28;
+ growth of, 36;
+ comparative weakness of, 41;
+ its relations with Ecgberht, 55;
+ overrun by the Danes, 58.
+
+ East Saxons establish themselves to the north of the Thames, 28;
+ capture London, 35;
+ _see_ Essex.
+
+ Easter, dispute on the mode of keeping, 50.
+
+ Ebbsfleet, landing of the Jutes at, 27;
+ landing of Augustine at, 39.
+
+ Ecclesiastical courts, jurisdiction of, 106;
+ conflict of Henry II. with, 142.
+
+ Ecgberht, at the court of Charles the Great, 53;
+ becomes king of the West Saxons, and over-lord of the other
+ kingdoms, 55.
+
+ Edinburgh, Eadwine builds the castle of, 43;
+ occupied by the Scots, 68.
+
+ Edmund Crouchback, second son of Henry III., named king of
+ Sicily and Naples, 196;
+ supposed primogeniture of, 286.
+
+ Education in the time of AElfred, 61;
+ in the time of Dunstan, 65;
+ carried on at Oxford, 167, 207.
+
+ Edward I., appeal of the Knights Bachelors to, 199;
+ taken prisoner at Lewes, 201;
+ defeats Earl Simon at Evesham, 203;
+ takes part in the seventh Crusade 204;
+ becomes king, 208;
+ constitutional position of, 209;
+ his dealings with Wales, 210;
+ finance of, 211;
+ judicial reforms and legislation of, 212;
+ arranges for a personal union between England and Scotland, 214;
+ erects the Eleanor crosses, 215;
+ awards the Scottish crown to John Balliol, 216;
+ his relations with Philip IV., 218;
+ summons the Model Parliament, 218;
+ his first conquest of Scotland, 219;
+ grants the _Confirmatio Cartarum_, 220;
+ his second conquest of Scotland, 221;
+ incorporates Scotland with England, 222;
+ his third conquest of Scotland, and death, 224.
+
+ Edward II., birth of, 210;
+ succeeds to the crown, 224;
+ marriage of, 225;
+ resistance of the barons to, _ib._;
+ defeated at Bannockburn, 226;
+ overthrows Lancaster and effects a constitutional settlement, 228;
+ deposed and murdered, 229.
+
+ Edward III., accession and marriage of, 231;
+ does homage to Philip VI., 232;
+ sets up Edward Balliol in Scotland and begins war with
+ France, 234;
+ allies himself with the Emperor and the cities of Flanders, 235;
+ encourages trade, 236;
+ is named Imperial Vicar, 237;
+ claims the crown of France, 239;
+ wins the battle of Sluys, _ib._;
+ marches through the north of France, 240;
+ wins the battle of Crecy, 241, 242;
+ takes Calais, 243;
+ constitutional progress under, _ib._;
+ restores David Bruce, 252;
+ makes peace with France, 253;
+ enters on a fresh war with France, 256.
+
+ Edward IV., as Earl of March, takes part in the battle of
+ Northampton, 326;
+ wins the battle of Mortimer's Cross,
+ and is acknowledged by the Londoners as king, 328;
+ wins the battle of Towton, and is crowned, 329;
+ marries Elizabeth Woodville, and promotes her kindred, 331;
+ allies himself with Burgundy, 332;
+ loses and recovers the crown, 334;
+ invents benevolences, 335;
+ invades France, 336;
+ puts Clarence to death, 336;
+ death of, 337.
+
+ Edward V. succeeds to the throne, 337;
+ lodged in the Tower, 340;
+ deposed, 341;
+ murdered, 342.
+
+ Edward, Prince of Wales, _see_ Black Prince, the.
+
+ Edward, Prince of Wales, son of Henry VI., birth of, 323;
+ slain at Tewkesbury, 334.
+
+ Edward, Prince of Wales, son of Richard III., death of, 342.
+
+ Eleanor of Aquitaine marries Henry II., 137;
+ imprisonment of, 155;
+ takes part with John against Arthur, 174.
+
+ Eleanor of Castile, wife of Edward I., accompanies her husband
+ on the Crusade, 204;
+ death of, 214.
+
+ Eleanor of Provence marries Henry III., 192.
+
+ Eleanor, sister of Henry III., marries Simon de Montfort, 193.
+
+ Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., proposed marriage of the
+ Dauphin to, 336;
+ proposed marriage of Richard III. to, 342;
+ marries Henry VII., 345.
+
+ Elmet conquered by Eadwine, 43.
+
+ Emma marries AEthelred, 81.
+
+ Empire, the Western, revived by Charles the Great, 55.
+
+ Empson and Dudley, exactions of, 357.
+
+ England, early social and political institutions of, 29-32;
+ contrasted with Gaul, 37;
+ commerce with Gaul renewed by, 38;
+ Christianity introduced into, 39;
+ growing power of three kingdoms in, 41;
+ character of the later conquests in, 44;
+ political changes in, 45;
+ spread of Christianity in, 49;
+ influence of Church Councils on the political unity of, 52;
+ Ecgberht's over-lordship in, 55;
+ attacks of the Northmen and Danes on, 56;
+ its condition under AElfred, 60;
+ its relations with Scotland, 63, 68;
+ development of the institutions of, 69;
+ Danish conquest of, 79-83;
+ Norman conquest of, 96-103;
+ Norman constitution of, 113;
+ civil war in, 134;
+ pacification of, 137;
+ administrative reforms of Henry II. in, 140;
+ made tributary to the Papacy, 180;
+ military reforms in, 154;
+ effect of the reign of Henry II. on, 158;
+ constitutional result of the administration of Hubert Walter
+ in, 163;
+ growth of learning in, 167;
+ growth of commerce in, 168;
+ architectural changes in, 170;
+ the Barons' Wars in, 200-203;
+ architectural and literary growth in, 206, 207;
+ complete national unity of, 208;
+ completion of the Parliamentary constitution of, 218, 220, 228, 243;
+ relieved of tribute to the Papacy, 258;
+ social and moral condition of, during the Wars of the Roses, 330.
+
+ England, the Church of, Wilfrid's influence on, 50;
+ parochial organisation of, _ib._;
+ its close connection with the State, 52;
+ councils of, _ib._;
+ organisation of, after the Norman Conquest, 106;
+ its relations with Stephen, 134;
+ and with Henry II., 149;
+ result of the Angevin reigns on, 166;
+ Papal exactions resisted by, 194;
+ payments exacted from, 197;
+ temporary Parliamentary representation of the clergy of, 219;
+ taxation resisted by the clergy of, 220;
+ social condition of, 236;
+ supports Henry IV., 291;
+ members of noble families in the episcopate of, _ib._;
+ procures a statute for burning heretics, 292;
+ proposal to confiscate the property of, 294.
+
+ English, the, origin of the name of, 28;
+ nature of their conquest of Britain, 29;
+ village settlements of, _ib._;
+ division of ranks among, _ib._;
+ effect of the conquest of Britain on the language of, 31;
+ early political organisation of, _ib._;
+ early judicial system of, 32;
+ position of, under William I., 104;
+ support William II., 115;
+ support Henry I. 124;
+ cease to be distinguished from Normans, 155;
+ reappearance of their language in literature, 207;
+ predominance of their language, 258.
+
+ Eorls, distinguished from Ceorls, 29;
+ their relation to Gesiths, 30.
+
+ Erse, a Goidelic language, 7.
+
+ Eskimos, compared with palaeolithic men, 3.
+
+ Essex, Saxon settlement in, 28;
+ is dependent on Kent, and accepts Christianity, 40;
+ relapses into heathenism, 41;
+ comparative weakness of, _ib._
+
+ Eustace, Count of Boulogne, visits Eadward the Confessor, 87.
+
+ Eustace, son of Stephen, death of, 137.
+
+ Evesham, battle of, 203.
+
+ Exchequer, the, organised by Roger of Salisbury, 127;
+ disorganised under Stephen, 134;
+ reorganised under Henry II., 140;
+ establishment of a separate Court of, 212.
+
+ Exeter taken by William I., 102.
+
+
+ Faddiley, battle of, 35.
+
+ Falaise, Treaty of, 154;
+ abandoned by Richard I., 159.
+
+ Falkirk, Wallace defeated at, 222.
+
+ Faukes de Breaute, banishment of, 187.
+
+ Ferdinand V., king of Aragon, marries Isabella of Castile, 349.
+
+ Ferry Bridge, skirmish at, 429.
+
+ Feudality, early forms of, 81;
+ after the Norman Conquest, 104;
+ organised by William I., 113;
+ Flambard's further organisation of, 116;
+ ideas of Edward I. on, 214.
+
+ Fitz-Osbern, William, oppresses the English, 102.
+
+ Five Boroughs, the, 62.
+
+ Flambard, Ranulf, tyranny of, 116;
+ imprisonment of, 122;
+ escapes, 124.
+
+ Flanders, commercial intercourse with, 211;
+ Edward I. in, 221;
+ alliance of Edward III. with, 235;
+ falls under the control of France, 278.
+
+ Flemings emigrate to Wales, 128;
+ introduced as weavers by Edward III., 236.
+
+ Folk-moot, functions of the, 33.
+
+ Fountains Abbey, 129.
+
+ France, social condition of, 235;
+ miserable state of, 251, 252;
+ friendship of Richard II. with, 282.
+
+ Francis of Assisi, St., 190.
+
+ Franciscans, the, constitution of, 190;
+ arrive in England, 191.
+
+ Frederick I., Barbarossa, Emperor, supports an anti-pope, 145.
+
+ Frederick II., Emperor, excommunication of, 194;
+ death of, 195.
+
+ Freemen, gradual disappearance of, 69.
+
+ French, the, Dukes of, 63;
+ Hugh Capet, king of, 80.
+
+ Friars, the, orders of, 190;
+ arrive in England, 191.
+
+ Fyrd, the, a general army of the villagers, 30;
+ AElfred reforms, 60;
+ comparative disuse of, 69;
+ retained after the Norman Conquest, 106;
+ _see_ Assize of Arms.
+
+
+ Gaelic a Goidelic language, 7.
+
+ Gainas, the, settlements of, 28.
+
+ Gainsborough, origin of the name of, 28.
+
+ Garter, the order of the, institution of, 246.
+
+ Gascoigne, Chief Justice, 299.
+
+ Gaul, trade of Britain with, 8, 12;
+ persistency of Roman civilisation in, 37;
+ renewal of trade with, 38.
+
+ Gauls arrive in Britain, 8.
+
+ Gaveston, Piers, favoured by Edward II., 224;
+ execution of, 226.
+
+ Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, marries the Empress Matilda, 131;
+ conquers Normandy, 136.
+
+ Geoffrey Fitz-Peter, Justiciar, 163.
+
+ Geoffrey, son of Henry II., marries the heiress of Brittany, 155;
+ dies, 156.
+
+ Gesiths, the, personal devotion of, 30;
+ their relation to the Ceorls, _ib._;
+ their name changed to that of Thegns, 31.
+
+ Gewissas, the, combine with Jutes, 28;
+ _see_ West Saxons.
+
+ Ghent, Jacob van Arteveldt at, 235;
+ Philip van Arteveldt at, 278.
+
+ Giraldus Cambrensis, 167.
+
+ Glanvile, Ranulf de, captures William the Lion, 154;
+ writes the first English law-book, 167.
+
+ Glastonbury, Dunstan, abbot of, 65;
+ proceedings of Dunstan at, 106.
+
+ Glendower, Owen, heads the Welsh, 293;
+ decline of the power of, 296.
+
+ Glevum (Gloucester), Saxon conquest of, 35.
+
+ Gloucester, Duke of (brother of Edward IV.), _see_ Richard III.
+
+ Gloucester, Duke of, Humphrey (brother of Henry V.), appointed
+ Protector, 307;
+ marries Jacqueline of Hainault, 308;
+ quarrels with Cardinal Beaufort, 309, 314;
+ his relations with Eleanor Cobham, 315;
+ advocates a war policy, 317;
+ death of, 318.
+
+ Gloucester, Duke of, Thomas, son of Edward III., heads the
+ opposition to Richard II., 279;
+ driven from power, 280;
+ murdered, 282.
+
+ Gloucester, Earl of (Gilbert de Clare), allies himself with Earl
+ Simon, 200;
+ becomes one of the three Electors, 201;
+ joins Edward against Simon at Evesham, 203.
+
+ Gloucester, Earl of, _see_ Robert.
+
+ Gloucester, Earl of (Richard de Clare), quarrels with Earl
+ Simon, 199;
+ joins Earl Simon, and dies, 200.
+
+ Gloucester, _see_ Glevum.
+
+ Godfrey of Bouillon, 121.
+
+ Godwine becomes Earl of the West Saxons, 84;
+ supports Harthacnut, 85;
+ charged with the murder of AElfred, 86;
+ governs under Eadward, 87;
+ outlawed, 88;
+ return and death of, 89.
+
+ Goidels, the, a branch of the Celts, 6;
+ languages spoken by the descendants of, 7.
+
+ Good Parliament, the, 262.
+
+ Granada, conquest of, 349.
+
+ Graupian Hill, the, battle of, 17.
+
+ Great Council, the, composition of, 113;
+ urges William to name an archbishop, 117;
+ summoned to Rockingham, 118;
+ becomes unimportant under Henry I., 126;
+ frequently consulted by Henry II., 141;
+ meets at Clarendon, 144;
+ remonstrates with Henry III., 188, 192;
+ refuses money to Henry III., 194;
+ begins to be known as Parliament, 195;
+ _see_ Parliament.
+
+ Gregory I., Pope, finds English slave-boys at Rome, 28;
+ sends Augustine to England, 39.
+
+ Gregory VII., Pope, his relations with William I., 107.
+
+ Gregory IX., Pope, demands money from England, 194.
+
+ Grey, John de, nominated Archbishop of Canterbury by John, 177;
+ unpopularity of, 178.
+
+ Grey, family of, favoured by Edward IV., 331.
+
+ Grey, Sir Thomas, execution of, 301.
+
+ Grossetete, Robert, Bishop of Lincoln, opposes Henry III., 194, 195;
+ death of, 197.
+
+ Gualo, legate of Honorius III., 185.
+
+ Guthrum defeats AElfred, 58;
+ makes peace at Wedmore, 59;
+ cedes London to AElfred, _ib._;
+ extent of the kingdom of, 62.
+
+ Gwledig, British title of, 26;
+ title thought to have been assumed by Eadwine, 44.
+
+ Gwynnedd under Caedwalla, 46.
+
+ Gyrth, Earl of East Anglia, 89.
+
+
+ Hadrian, the Emperor, wall of, 17.
+
+ Halidon Hill, the Scots defeated at, 234.
+
+ Harfleur taken by Henry V., 302;
+ secured by the Duke of Bedford, 303.
+
+ Harold Hardrada invades England, 94;
+ is slain at Stamford Bridge, 96.
+
+ Harold, son of Cnut, chosen king by the Mercians, 85;
+ death of, 86.
+
+ Harold, son of Godwine, earl of the West Saxons, 89;
+ rules England under Eadward, 90;
+ chosen king, 91;
+ his oath to William, 93;
+ marches into the North, 94;
+ defeats Harold Hardrada at Stamford Bridge, 95;
+ defeated and slain at Senlac, 98.
+
+ Harthacnut, chosen king of the West Saxons, 85;
+ comes to England, and dies, 86.
+
+ Hastings, battle of, _see_ Senlac.
+
+ Hastings, John, claims a third of Scotland, 215.
+
+ Hastings, Lord, turns against Richard III., 339;
+ execution of, 340.
+
+ Heathfield, battle of, 46.
+
+ Heavenfield, battle of, 47.
+
+ Hedgeley Moor, battle of, 331.
+
+ Helie de la Fleche opposes William II., 121.
+
+ Hengist, traditional leader of the Jutes, 27.
+
+ Henry I. receives no land at his father's death, 114;
+ his wars with his brothers, 119;
+ accession and marriage of, 122;
+ puts down insurrections, 124;
+ conquers Normandy, 125;
+ his dispute with Anselm, _ib._;
+ judicial reforms of, 127;
+ makes war in Normandy, 129;
+ loses his only son, 130;
+ death of, 131.
+
+ Henry II., early career of, 136;
+ marries Eleanor, 137;
+ character of, 138;
+ advances Thomas of London, 140;
+ administrative system of, 140-142;
+ appoints Thomas archbishop, and quarrels with him, 143;
+ draws up the Constitutions of Clarendon, 144;
+ persecutes Thomas, 145;
+ issues the Assize of Clarendon, 146;
+ renews the itinerant justices, and inquires into the conduct
+ of the sheriffs, 148;
+ has young Henry crowned, 149;
+ uses strong language against Thomas, 150;
+ goes to Ireland, 151;
+ renounces the Constitutions of Clarendon, 153;
+ does penance, 154;
+ issues the Assize of Arms, _ib._;
+ his domestic troubles, 155;
+ takes the cross and dies, 157;
+ his weakness on the Continent and strength in England, 158;
+ literary vigour under, 167.
+
+ Henry III., minority of, 185;
+ favours Poitevins under the influence of Peter des Roches, 187;
+ marries Eleanor of Provence and favours Provencals, 192;
+ frequently renews the Great Charter, 192;
+ quarrels with Simon de Montfort, 193;
+ surrenders Poitou, 194;
+ is opposed by Parliament, 195;
+ hopes to make his second son King of Sicily, 196;
+ misgovernment of, 197;
+ consents to the Provisions of Oxford, 198;
+ recovers power, 200;
+ taken prisoner at Lewes, 201;
+ last years of, 204;
+ progress of the country in the reign of, 206.
+
+ Henry IV., (_see_ Derby) Earl of, claims the throne, 286;
+ meets with difficulties, 289;
+ leans on the Church, 291;
+ rebellion of the Percies against, 293;
+ keeps James I. as a hostage, 295;
+ suppresses a rebellion in the North, 296;
+ quarrels with the Prince of Wales, 298;
+ death of, 299.
+
+ Henry IV., Emperor, resists Gregory VII., 108.
+
+ Henry V., career of, as Prince of Wales, 297-299;
+ domestic policy of, 299;
+ claims the crown of France, 300;
+ defeats the French at Agincourt, 302;
+ conquers Normandy, 303;
+ forms an alliance with the Duke of Burgundy, and is declared
+ heir to the French throne, 306;
+ marriage and death of, _ib._
+
+ Henry V., Emperor, marries Matilda, 131.
+
+ Henry VI., accession of, 307;
+ crowned at Westminster and Paris, 312;
+ marriage of, 317;
+ supports Somerset, 323;
+ insanity of, _ib._;
+ recovery and renewed insanity of, 324;
+ second recovery of, _ib._;
+ attempts to reconcile the parties, 325;
+ declared a traitor by Edward IV., 329;
+ restoration of, 333;
+ murder of, 334.
+
+ Henry VI., Emperor, his relations with Richard I., 161, 162.
+
+ Henry VII., as Earl of Richmond, genealogy of, 334;
+ invades England, 343;
+ defeats Richard III. and becomes king, _ib._;
+ supported by the middle classes, 345;
+ suppresses Lord Lovel's rising, 346;
+ his relations with Brittany and France, 348;
+ assailed by Perkin Warbeck, 350;
+ sends Poynings to Ireland, 352;
+ restores Kildare to the Deputyship, 352;
+ secures Warbeck, _ib._;
+ effects an alliance with Scotland, 356;
+ encourages maritime enterprise, 356;
+ fills his treasury, 357;
+ his alliance with the Archduke Philip, 358;
+ last years and death of, 358.
+
+ Henry of Blois, Bishop of Winchester, 131;
+ declares against Stephen, 134.
+
+ Henry of Trastamara, 255.
+
+ Henry, son of Henry II., coronation of, 149;
+ rebellion of, 153;
+ death of, 156.
+
+ Henry the Fowler, his mode of warfare, 79.
+
+ Hereford, Duke of, _see_ Derby, Earl of.
+
+ Hereford, Earl of, _see_ Bohun, Humfrey.
+
+ Heretics, Statute for burning, 292.
+
+ Hereward, rising of, 103.
+
+ Herrings, battle of the, 309.
+
+ Hexham, battle of, 331.
+
+ Hii, _see_ Iona.
+
+ Hlaford, _see_ Lord.
+
+ Homildon Hill, battle of, 293.
+
+ Honorius III., Pope, protects Henry III., 185.
+
+ Horsa, a traditional leader of the Jutes, 27.
+
+ Horses used to carry warriors to battle, 75.
+
+ House-carls, 83, 93.
+
+ Hrolf, Duke of the Normans, 80.
+
+ Hubert, Walter, administration of, 163;
+ death of, 177.
+
+ Hubert de Burgh holds Dover Castle, 185;
+ administration of, 186-188.
+
+ Hugh Capet, 80.
+
+ Hugh of Lusignan rises against John, 174.
+
+ Hugh the Great, Duke of the French, 63.
+
+ Hundreds, early political organisation of the, 31.
+
+ Hundred Years' War, the, 234.
+
+ Hundred-moot, the, organisation of, 31;
+ judicial functions of, 32;
+ gradual decay of, 72.
+
+ Huntingdon, David I. holds the earldom of, 132.
+
+ Hwiccas, the, split off from the West Saxons, 36.
+
+
+ Iberians, the, 5.
+
+ Iceni, the geographical position of, 8;
+ take part with the Romans, 13;
+ roused to insurrection by Boadicea, 15.
+
+ Ictis, probably identified with Thanet, 8.
+
+ Ida becomes king of Bernicia, 36.
+
+ Idle, the, Eadwine's victory on, 43.
+
+ Impeachment of Latimer and Lyons, 262;
+ of Suffolk, 322.
+
+ Inclosures, growth of, 320.
+
+ Ine, his rule in Wessex, 53.
+
+ Innocent III., Pope, influences the election of Stephen
+ Langton, 177;
+ puts England under an interdict, and reduces John to
+ submission, 178-180;
+ declares against the barons, 181-184;
+ establishes the Friars, 190.
+
+ Innocent IV. becomes Pope, 195;
+ wins over Henry III., 196.
+
+ Inquisition of the Sheriffs, the, 148.
+
+ _Intercursus Magnus_, the, 351.
+
+ Interdict, England under, 178.
+
+ Investiture, William I. claims the right of granting, 108;
+ Anselm's position with regard to, 125;
+ compromise on, 126.
+
+ Iona, missionaries sent forth from, 47.
+
+ Ireland, ancient language of, 7;
+ Druids in, 10;
+ Christianity introduced into, 47;
+ state of civilisation in, 151;
+ partially conquered by Henry II., 152;
+ results of the conquest of, 264;
+ weakness of the English colony in, 265;
+ under Lancaster and York, 346;
+ under Henry VII., 350, 351.
+
+ Ireland, Duke of (_see_ Oxford, Earl of), supports Richard II., 279;
+ is condemned to death, but escapes, 280.
+
+ Isabella of Angouleme marries John, 174.
+
+ Isabella of Bavaria, Queen of France, takes part against her
+ son, 306.
+
+ Isabella of France marries Edward II., 225;
+ obtains the deposition of her husband, 229;
+ gives power to Mortimer, 231;
+ is placed in seclusion, 232.
+
+ Isca Silurum, Roman colony of, 14;
+ martyrdom of Aaron at, 23.
+
+ Isle of Wight, Jutish settlements in, 28;
+ plundered by the French, 234.
+
+ Itinerant justices under Henry I., 127;
+ under Henry II., 148.
+
+
+ Jacquerie, the, 252.
+
+ Jacqueline of Hainault, marriage of, 308.
+
+ James I., king of Scotland, kept in custody by Henry IV., 295;
+ liberation of, 307.
+
+ James IV., king of Scotland, invades England, 352;
+ marries the daughter of Henry VII., 356.
+
+ Jerusalem captured by the Crusaders, 121;
+ captured by Saladin, 157;
+ Richard I. refuses to look at, 161.
+
+ Jews, the, encouraged by William II., 115;
+ protected by Henry I., 128;
+ massacre of, 160;
+ persecuted by John, 179;
+ banished by Edward I., 212.
+
+ Jews' House, the so-called, 170.
+
+ John, king of England, his misconduct in Ireland, 156;
+ leads the opposition to William of Longchamps, 161;
+ joins Philip II. against Richard, 162;
+ accession of, 173;
+ loses Normandy and Anjou, 174;
+ appoints an Archbishop of Canterbury, 177;
+ quarrels with the Pope, 178;
+ submits to the Pope, 180;
+ quarrels with the barons, 181;
+ confirms _Magna Carta_, 182;
+ makes war with the barons, 184;
+ dies, 185.
+
+ John, king of France, defeated at Poitiers, 251;
+ brought to England, 252;
+ is liberated, but returns to England and dies, 254.
+
+ John Ball, 268.
+
+ Judicial system of the early English, 31;
+ of Eadgar, 72;
+ of William I., 107;
+ of Henry I., 127;
+ of Henry II., 146.
+
+ Judith accuses Waltheof, 110.
+
+ Jury of presentment, 147.
+
+ Jury system, the, germ of, 147;
+ completed, 321.
+
+ Justices of the peace, the, origin of, 277.
+
+ Justiciar, institution of the office of, 116;
+ his position under Henry I., 127.
+
+ Jutes, probably ravage Roman Britain, 24;
+ subdue Kent, 27;
+ settle in the Isle of Wight and the mainland opposite, 28.
+
+
+ Kemp, Bishop of London, becomes Lord Chancellor, 309.
+
+ Kenilworth, Earl, Simon's castle at, 199.
+
+ Kenneth, king of the Scots, receives Lothian from Eadgar, 68.
+
+ Kenneth MacAlpin unites the Scots and Picts, 63.
+
+ Kent, foundation of the Jutish kingdom of, 27;
+ its inhabitants driven back by the West Saxons, 35;
+ Gaulish traders in, 38;
+ accepts Christianity, 39;
+ is kept by Lawrence from relapsing, 41;
+ comparative weakness of, _ib._
+
+ Kent, Earl of (brother of Edward II.), execution of, 231.
+
+ Kildare, Earl of, supports the Yorkists, 347;
+ supports Lambert Simnel, _ib._;
+ is deprived of the Deputyship for supporting Warbeck, 350;
+ restored to the Deputyship, 352.
+
+ Kilkenny, Statute of, 265.
+
+ King, authority of the, origin of, 33;
+ effect of the enlargement of the kingdoms on, 45;
+ increased importance of, 69;
+ limitations imposed by _Magna Carta_ on, 182;
+ proposed administrative restrictions on, 195;
+ effect of the revolution of 1399 upon, 289.
+
+ King's Bench, Court of, 212.
+
+ Knights Bachelors, the, appeal to Edward, 199.
+
+ Knights of the shire first admitted to Parliament, 196;
+ later elections of, 200, 201;
+ importance of their conjunction with borough members, 245.
+
+ Kymry, the, origin of the name, 37;
+ share in the defeat of the Scots at Degsastan, 42;
+ are defeated by AEthelfrith near Chester, 43;
+ geographical dismemberment of, _ib._;
+ in alliance with Penda, 46;
+ weakness of, 49;
+ _see_ Welsh.
+
+
+ Labourers, Statute of, 248, 268.
+
+ Lambeth, ford over the Thames at, 20.
+
+ Lancaster, Duke of (John of Gaunt), makes unsuccessful war
+ in France, 257;
+ heads the anti-clerical party, 260;
+ opposes the Black Prince, 262;
+ reverses the proceedings of the Good Parliament, _ib._;
+ supports Wycliffe, 263;
+ takes the lead at the accession of Richard II., 266;
+ goes to Spain, 279;
+ marries Catherine Swynford, 282.
+
+ Lancaster, Earl of (Thomas), opposes Edward II., 225;
+ execution of, 228.
+
+ Lanfranc trusted by William I., 88;
+ becomes Archbishop of Canterbury, 106;
+ crowns William II., 114;
+ death of, 117.
+
+ Langland, William, 259.
+
+ Langton, Stephen, chosen Archbishop of Canterbury at Rome, 177;
+ allowed by John to come to England, 180;
+ produces a charter of Henry I., 181;
+ his part in obtaining the Great Charter, 182.
+
+ Latimer, Lord, impeached, 262.
+
+ Lawrence, Archbishop of Canterbury, keeps Kent Christian, 41.
+
+ Layamon's Brut, 207.
+
+ Leicester, Anglian settlement at, 36;
+ earldom of, inherited by Simon de Montfort, 193.
+
+ Leicester, Earl of, shares the Justiciar's office with Richard
+ de Lucy, 140.
+
+ Le Mans, sieges of, 121.
+
+ Leo IX., Papacy of, 88.
+
+ Leofric, Earl of the Mercians, 85, 90.
+
+ Leofwine, Earl of the Mercians, 84.
+
+ Leofwine, son of Godwine, earl of the shires about the Thames, 90.
+
+ Leopold, Duke of Austria, imprisons Richard I., 161.
+
+ Lewes, battle of, 201.
+
+ Lewis III. (the Bavarian), Emperor, supports Edward III., 235.
+
+ Lilla gives his life for his lord, 44.
+
+ Limoges taken by the Black Prince, 257.
+
+ Lincoln (_see_ Lindum), settlement of the Lindiswaras round, 28;
+ establishment of the see of, 107;
+ Stephen taken prisoner at, 135;
+ cathedral at, 171, 207.
+
+ Lincoln, Earl of, killed at Stoke, 347.
+
+ Lindiswaras, settlement of, 28;
+ possible advance of, 36.
+
+ Lindum, Roman city at, 20;
+ Anglian settlers round, 28.
+
+ Liveries, _see_ Maintenance and Livery.
+
+ Llewelyn, career of, 140.
+
+ Loidis conquered by Eadwine, 43.
+
+ Lollards, the, rise of, 269;
+ Oldcastle's leadership of, 300.
+
+ Londinium, _see_ London.
+
+ London, early importance of the position of, 20;
+ foundation of the bishopric of, 40;
+ its commercial position under the kings of Essex, _ib._;
+ acquired and fortified by AElfred, 62, 63;
+ attacked by Olaf Trygvasson and Svend, 79;
+ after the Conquest, 127;
+ supports Stephen, 131, 134;
+ submits for a time to Matilda, 135;
+ municipal organisation of, 169;
+ sends troops to the battle of Lewes, 201;
+ Wat Tyler in, 269;
+ Jack Cade in, 323;
+ Edward IV. in, 328.
+
+ London Bridge, building of, 272.
+
+ Long bow, the, _see_ Archers.
+
+ Longchamps, William of, appointed a justiciar in the absence
+ of Richard I., 159;
+ is banished, 161.
+
+ Lord, devotion of Gesiths to their, 30;
+ is expected to marry, _ib._;
+ growth of his jurisdiction, 72.
+
+ Lords, House of, names the Duke of York Protector, 324;
+ decides on his claim to the crown, 329.
+
+ Lose-coat Field, 332.
+
+ Lothian, cession of, to Scotland, 68, 84.
+
+ Louis VI., king of France, makes war with Henry I., 129.
+
+ Louis VII., king of France, divorces Eleanor of Aquitaine, 137;
+ supports young Henry's rebellion, 153;
+ takes part in the second Crusade, 157.
+
+ Louis (afterwards Louis VIII., king of France) opposes John, 184;
+ expelled from England, 185.
+
+ Louis IX., Saint, king of France, surrenders territory to
+ Henry III., 200;
+ mediates between Henry III. and the barons, _ib._
+
+ Louis X., king of France, succeeded by his brother, 232.
+
+ Louis XI., king of France, succeeds his father, 332;
+ buys off Edward IV., 336.
+
+ Louis XII., king of France, invades Italy, 354.
+
+ Lovel, Lord, insurrection of, 345;
+ supports Simnel, and is defeated at Stoke, 346, 347.
+
+ Lucy, Richard de, joint justiciar with the Earl of Leicester, 140;
+ makes head against young Henry's rebellion, 153.
+
+ Ludlow, break-up of the Yorkists at, 326.
+
+ Lynn supports Stephen, 134.
+
+ Lyons, Richard, impeached, 262.
+
+
+ Mad Parliament, the, 198.
+
+ _Magna Carta_, 182;
+ partially renewed at the accession of Henry III., 185;
+ attitude of Edward I. to, 288.
+
+ Magnus, king of Norway, 85.
+
+ Maiden Castle, 4.
+
+ Maine conquered by William I., 91;
+ failures of William II. in, 121;
+ conquered by Philip II., 176;
+ surrendered to Rene by Henry VI., 317;
+ the English driven out of, 319.
+
+ Maintenance and livery, Statute against, 281;
+ increase of, 321;
+ measures of Henry VII. against, 345.
+
+ Malcolm, king of the Scots, his alliance with Eadmund, 64.
+
+ Malcolm III., Canmore, ravages England, 103;
+ submits to William I., 104;
+ death of, 119.
+
+ Malcolm IV. loses North-humberland and Cumberland, 140.
+
+ Man, Isle of, subdued by Eadwine, 43.
+
+ Manfred, king of Sicily and Naples, 195, 197.
+
+ Manor courts, 141.
+
+ Mantes burnt by William I., 114.
+
+ Manx, a Goidelic language, 7.
+
+ March, Earl of, _see_ Edward IV.
+
+ March, Edmund Mortimer, Earl of, his claim to the crown, 287;
+ imprisoned by Henry IV., 291;
+ freed by Henry V., 299.
+
+ March, Roger, Earl of, grandson of the Duke of Clarence, named
+ heir by Richard II., 287.
+
+ Margaret, daughter of Henry VII., married to James IV., 356.
+
+ Margaret of Anjou marries Henry VI., 317;
+ gives birth to a son, 323;
+ puts herself at the head of the Northern forces, 326;
+ defeats the Duke of York at Wakefield, and Warwick at the
+ second battle of St. Albans, 328;
+ is defeated at Towton, 329;
+ is defeated at Hedgeley Moor and Hexham, 331;
+ reconciled to Warwick, 333;
+ defeated at Tewkesbury, 334.
+
+ Margaret, sister of Edward IV., married to Charles the Rash, 332;
+ protects Lord Lovel, 346.
+
+ Margaret, the Lady, 334.
+
+ Margaret, the Maid of Norway, 214.
+
+ Margaret, first wife of Malcolm Canmore, 119.
+
+ Marlborough, Statute of, 204.
+
+ Marriages of heiresses arranged by the lord, 117.
+
+ Marshal, Richard the, 188, 189.
+
+ Marshal, William, the, guardian of Henry III., 185.
+
+ Martin, Master, his exactions, 195.
+
+ Mary, heiress of Burgundy, 336;
+ marries the Archduke Maximilian, and dies, 337.
+
+ Maserfield, Oswald slain at, 48.
+
+ Massalia, tin-trade of, 8.
+
+ Matilda, daughter of Henry I., married to the Emperor Henry V.,
+ and to Geoffrey of Anjou, 131;
+ claims the crown, 134;
+ fails to maintain her claim, 135.
+
+ Matilda, wife of Henry I., _see_ Eadgyth.
+
+ Maximilian I., Emperor, as Archduke, marries Mary of Burgundy, 337;
+ marries Anne of Brittany by proxy, 348.
+
+ Maximus leads an army out of Britain, 25.
+
+ Meaux besieged by Henry V., 306.
+
+ Mercenaries employed on the Continent by Henry II., 142;
+ temporarily brought to England, 153, 155;
+ employed by John, 182.
+
+ Merchant Adventurers, the, 356.
+
+ Merchant Gild, the, 169.
+
+ Mercia, first settlement of, 36;
+ comparative smallness of, 41;
+ unites with other districts under Penda, 46;
+ accepts Christianity, and rejects the supremacy of
+ North-humberland, 48;
+ its relations with Ecgberht, 55;
+ its relations with AElfred, 60;
+ under Leofwine, 84;
+ under Leofric, 85, 87;
+ under AElfgar and Eadwine, 90.
+
+ Mercians, the, distinguished from the Middle English, 36.
+
+ Merciless Parliament, the, 280.
+
+ Merton College, foundation of, 207.
+
+ Middle English, the, first settlements of, 36.
+
+ Middle Saxons a branch of the East Saxons, 35.
+
+ Middlesex, Saxon settlement in, 35.
+
+ Ministerial responsibility, proposal to establish, 195.
+
+ Mirebeau, Eleanor besieged in, 174.
+
+ Mise of Amiens, the, 200.
+
+ Mohammedanism, origin and spread of, 54.
+
+ Molynes, Lord, ill-treats John Paston, 321.
+
+ Mona (Anglesey) conquered by Suetonius, 14.
+
+ Monasticism, character of early, 39;
+ converts made in England by, 40;
+ character of Irish, 47;
+ Benedictine, 128.
+
+ Monks contrasted with Friars, 191.
+
+ Montague, Lord, made Earl of North-humberland, 331;
+ is deprived of the earldom, 333;
+ turns against Edward IV., and is killed at Barnet, 332.
+
+ Montfort, de, _see_ Simon de Montfort.
+
+ Morkere, becomes Earl of North-humberland, 90;
+ is present at Eadgar's election, 98;
+ submits to William, 102;
+ is banished, 103.
+
+ Mortimer, Edmund, _see_ March, Earl of.
+
+ Mortimer, Roger, paramour of Queen Isabella, 229;
+ governs in the name of Edward III., 231;
+ is hanged, 232.
+
+ Mortimer, Sir Edmund, imprisoned by Glendower, 293.
+
+ Mortimer's Cross, battle of, 328.
+
+ Mortmain, Statute of, 212.
+
+ Morton, Thomas, Bishop of Ely, afterwards Cardinal and Archbishop
+ of Canterbury, gives advice to Buckingham, 341, 342;
+ his 'fork,' 349.
+
+ Mount Badon, British victory at, 28.
+
+ Mowbray, Robert of, rebellion of, 120.
+
+
+ Navarrete, battle of, 255.
+
+ Navy, AElfred's, 60.
+
+ Neolithic man, 3.
+
+ Nevill, influence of the family of, 324.
+
+ Nevill, George, Archbishop of York, deprived of the
+ Chancellorship, 332.
+
+ Nevill's Cross, battle of, 242.
+
+ Newark, death of John at, 185.
+
+ Newcastle-on-Tyne, foundation of, 120.
+
+ New Forest, the, making of, 110;
+ death of William II. in, 122.
+
+ Nigel, Bishop of Ely, Treasurer of Henry I., Stephen's attack on, 134;
+ is reappointed Treasurer, 140.
+
+ Norfolk, origin of the name of, 28.
+
+ Norfolk, Duke of, banished by Richard II., 283.
+
+ Norfolk, Earl of, _see_ Bigod, Roger.
+
+ Norham, award of the crown of Scotland at, 216.
+
+ Norman Conquest, the, 96-103.
+
+ Normandy, early dukes of, 80;
+ institutions of, 81;
+ its condition under Robert, 118;
+ pledged to William II., 121;
+ recovered by Robert, 124;
+ conquered by Henry I., 125;
+ conquered by Geoffrey, 136;
+ Henry, Duke of, 137;
+ conquered by Philip II., 174, 176;
+ invaded by Edward III., 240;
+ conquered by Henry V., 303;
+ reconquered by the French, 320.
+
+ Normans favoured by Eadward, 87;
+ their style of architecture, 89.
+
+ Northampton, Archbishop Thomas called to account at, 145;
+ battle of, 326.
+
+ North-humberland, component parts of, 36;
+ united by AEthelric, 41;
+ divided by Penda, and re-united under Oswald, 47;
+ is again divided, but re-united under Oswiu, 48;
+ its relations with Ecgberht, 55;
+ overrun by the Danes, 58;
+ Danish kingdom in, 62, 63;
+ is amalgamated with England, 64;
+ its condition under Cnut, 84;
+ under Siward, 84, 87.
+
+ Northmen, their attacks on England, 56;
+ religion of, 57;
+ _see_ Danes.
+
+ Northumberland invaded by Malcolm Canmore, 119;
+ given to Henry, son of David I. 133;
+ recovered by Henry II., 140.
+
+ Northumberland, the Earl of, assists Henry IV., 284;
+ quarrels with Henry IV., 293;
+ imprisoned and pardoned, 294;
+ defeated and slain, 296.
+
+ Norwich, establishment of the see of, 107.
+
+ Nottingham, Anglian settlement at, 56;
+ seizure of Mortimer at, 232.
+
+ Nottingham, Earl of, opposes Richard II., 279;
+ is made Duke of Norfolk and banished, 283.
+
+
+ Oda, Archbishop, advocates the celibacy of the clergy, 65;
+ separates Eadwig and AElfgifu, 67.
+
+ Odo oppresses the English, 102;
+ is banished by William II., 115.
+
+ Offa, king of the Mercians, defeats the West Saxons at Bensington, 53;
+ his dyke, 54.
+
+ Olaf Trygvasson, 79, 80.
+
+ Oldcastle, Sir John, burnt as a Lollard, 300.
+
+ Old Sarum, earthworks of Sorbiodunum at, 34.
+
+ Ordainers, the Lords, 226.
+
+ Ordeal, system of, 32;
+ continued by Henry II., 146.
+
+ Ordovices, the, resist the Romans, 14.
+
+ Orleans, siege of, 309.
+
+ Orleans, Duke of, Charles, captured at Agincourt, 303;
+ ransomed, 315.
+
+ Orleans, Duke of, Louis, makes an alliance with Glendower, 295;
+ murdered, 296.
+
+ Ormond, Earl of, supports the Lancastrians, 346.
+
+ Osric governs Deira, 48.
+
+ Ostorius Scapula arrives in Britain, 13;
+ conquests of, 14.
+
+ Oswald, bishop of Worcester, 68.
+
+ Oswald, King of North-humberland, his greatness and piety, 47;
+ is slain at Maserfield, 48.
+
+ Oswini, his relations with Aidan, 48;
+ is murdered, _ib._
+
+ Oswiu unites North-humberland, 48;
+ defeats Penda, _ib._;
+ decides for Wilfrid against Colman, 50.
+
+ Otho, Cardinal, legate of Gregory IX., 194.
+
+ Otto I., Emperor, 63.
+
+ Otto IV., Emperor, supports John, 179;
+ defeated at Bouvines, 181.
+
+ Over-lordship, character of, 38.
+
+ Oxford, growth of the University of, 167;
+ the so-called Mad Parliament meets at, 198;
+ thronged with scholars, 207.
+
+ Oxford, Earl of (Robert de Vere), made Duke of Ireland, 278;
+ _see_ Ireland, Duke of.
+
+
+ Palaeolithic man, 1.
+
+ Pandulf receives John's submission, 180.
+
+ Papacy, influence of, in the time of Gregory I., 39;
+ strength of, in the eleventh century, 88;
+ its position in the time of Gregory VII., 107;
+ in the time of Innocent III., 178;
+ Babylonian captivity of, 257;
+ England relieved of tribute to, 258;
+ great schism of, 266.
+
+ Paris, the capital of Hugh Capet's duchy, 80;
+ rising against the Armagnacs in, 304;
+ Henry VI. crowned at, 312;
+ lost to the English, 313.
+
+ Parliament (_see_ Great Council, the), germ of representation in, 180;
+ first use of the name of, 195;
+ scheme of administrative reform proposed in, _ib._;
+ knights of the shire elected to, 196;
+ relations between the clergy and the barons, 197;
+ insists on the Provisions of Oxford, 197;
+ representatives of towns admitted by Earl Simon to, 201;
+ growth of, under Edward I., 210, 218;
+ Scottish representatives in, 222;
+ acknowledgment of the legislative power of the Commons in, 228;
+ finally separated into two Houses, 244;
+ opposition to the clergy in, 259;
+ Richard II. invites complaints in, 280.
+
+ Paston, John, attacked by Lord Molynes, 321;
+ domestic life of, 330.
+
+ Patay, battle of, 311.
+
+ Patrick, St., introduces Christianity into Ireland, 47.
+
+ Paulinus effects conversions in Deira, 46.
+
+ Peasants' Revolt, the, 268.
+
+ Pedro the Cruel, 255.
+
+ Pembroke, Earl of, _see_ William the Marshal.
+
+ Penda defeats Eadwine at Heathfield, 46;
+ splits up North-humberland, 47;
+ is defeated and slain, 48.
+
+ Penitential system, the, introduced by Theodore, 50.
+
+ Percies, the, territorial influence of, 293.
+
+ Percy, Henry (Hotspur), 293, 294.
+
+ Perpendicular style, the, 247.
+
+ Perrers, Alice, 260, 262.
+
+ Peter des Roches influences Henry III., 188;
+ is dismissed, 189.
+
+ Peter the Hermit, 120.
+
+ Pevensey, landing of William at, 96.
+
+ Philip I., king of France, makes war with William I., 114.
+
+ Philip II., king of France, stirs up enmity between Henry II.
+ and his sons, 156;
+ quarrels with Richard I., 161;
+ stirs up John against Richard, 162;
+ supports Arthur against John, 174;
+ wins Normandy and Anjou from John, 175;
+ prepares an invasion of England, 179;
+ wins a victory at Bouvines, 181.
+
+ Philip IV., king of France, his relations with Edward I. and
+ with Scotland, 218.
+
+ Philip V., king of France, succeeds in virtue of the so-called
+ Salic law, 232.
+
+ Philip VI., king of France, succeeds in virtue of the so-called
+ Salic law, and receives the homage of Edward III., 232;
+ protects David Bruce, 234;
+ defeats the Flemings at Cassel, 235;
+ avoids fighting the English, 239;
+ is defeated at Crecy, 242;
+ death of, 251.
+
+ Philip, the Archduke, birth of, 337;
+ marries Juana, 352;
+ dies, 358.
+
+ Philippa of Hainault marries Edward III., 231;
+ begs the lives of the burgesses of Calais, 243.
+
+ Phoenicians, the, supposed visits to Britain of, 7.
+
+ Picts, the, ravages of, 23, 26;
+ unite with the Scots, 63.
+
+ _Piers the Plowman_, 259.
+
+ Pippin becomes king of the Franks, 54.
+
+ Plautius, Aulus, subdues south east Britain, 13.
+
+ Poitevins, favour of Henry III. to, 187, 194.
+
+ Poitiers, battle of, 251.
+
+ Poitou, John's attack on the barons of, 174;
+ submission to Philip II. of part of, 176;
+ John attempts to recover, 180;
+ Henry III. surrenders, 194.
+
+ Poll-taxes, 267, 268.
+
+ Poor priests sent out by Wycliffe, 268.
+
+ Posidonius visits Britain, 8.
+
+ Poynings' Acts, 350.
+
+ Praemunire, Statute of, 258;
+ re-enacted, 282.
+
+ Printing press, the, 358.
+
+ Prisons, condition of, 275.
+
+ Provencals favoured by Henry III., 192.
+
+ Provisions of Oxford, the, 198.
+
+ Provisors, Statute of, 258;
+ re-enacted, 282.
+
+ Puiset, Hugh de, appointed a justiciar in the absence of
+ Richard I., 159.
+
+ Punishments, early English, 32;
+ mediaeval, 275.
+
+ Purveyors, 274.
+
+ Pytheas opens a trade-route to Britain, 8.
+
+
+ _Quia emptores_, Statute of, 212.
+
+
+ Radcot Bridge, the Duke of Ireland defeated at, 280.
+
+ Raedwald, king of East Anglia, 41;
+ Eadwine takes refuge with, 43.
+
+ Ralph de Diceto, 167.
+
+ Ralph of Wader takes part in the Rising of the Earls, 110.
+
+ Ranulph Flambard, _see_ Flambard.
+
+ Recognitions, 147.
+
+ Reginald elected Archbishop of Canterbury by the monks, 177.
+
+ Regni, the, join Aulus Plautius, 13.
+
+ Regular clergy, the, 65.
+
+ Rent, land let for, 321.
+
+ Representative institutions, _see_ Parliament.
+
+ Retainers substituted for vassals, 281;
+ increase of the number of, 321.
+
+ Rich, Edmund, Archbishop of Canterbury, 189.
+
+ Richard I., as Duke of Aquitaine, 155;
+ takes the cross, 157;
+ becomes King of England, 159;
+ sells the homage of Scotland, _ib._;
+ his Crusade and imprisonment, 161;
+ is liberated, 162;
+ his short visit to England, _ib._;
+ death of, 165.
+
+ Richard II., proposal to set aside, 261;
+ his minority, 266;
+ meets the insurgents, 268;
+ offers to head them, 269;
+ marries Anne of Bohemia, 278;
+ his favouritism, _ib._;
+ superseded in his authority by a Commission of Regency, 279;
+ regains power and governs constitutionally, 280;
+ makes an alliance with France, and marries Isabella, 282;
+ makes himself absolute, _ib._;
+ banishes Norfolk and Hereford, 283;
+ goes to Ireland, 284;
+ forced to abdicate, 285;
+ murdered, 291;
+ alleged reappearance of, 293;
+ buried at Westminster, 299.
+
+ Richard III. (_see_ Duke of Gloucester) is created a duke, 329;
+ character of, 337;
+ becomes Protector, 338;
+ has Hastings executed, 340;
+ is crowned king, 341;
+ his government, 342;
+ defeated and slain, 343.
+
+ Richard, Earl of Cornwall, leads the barons against Henry III., 192;
+ deserts the barons, 195;
+ takes part in summoning knights of the shire to Parliament, 196;
+ is chosen king of the Romans, 198;
+ hides himself after the battle of Lewes, 201.
+
+ Richard Fitz-Nigel writes the _Dialogus de Scaccario_, 167.
+
+ Richard the Fearless, Duke of the Normans, 80.
+
+ Richard the Good, Duke of the Normans, 81.
+
+ Richmond, Earl of, _see_ Henry VII.
+
+ Riding on horseback, 273.
+
+ Ripon, architecture of the choir of, 171.
+
+ Rising of the Earls, the, 110.
+
+ Rivers, Earl, becomes Lord Constable, 331;
+ imprisoned, 338;
+ executed, 340.
+
+ Roads, making and repair of, 272, 273.
+
+ Robert I. (Bruce), king of Scotland, allied with Edward I., 223;
+ slays Comyn, and is crowned King of Scotland, 224;
+ defeats Edward II. at Bannockburn, 226;
+ leprosy of, 231;
+ death of, 232.
+
+ Robert II., king of Scotland, 295.
+
+ Robert III., king of Scotland, 295.
+
+ Robert, Earl of Gloucester, his power in the West of England, 133;
+ declares for Matilda, 134;
+ taken prisoner, and exchanged for Stephen, 135;
+ death of, _ib._
+
+ Robert, Duke of the Normans (father of William the Conqueror), 88.
+
+ Robert, Duke of the Normans (son of William the Conqueror),
+ incapacity of, 114;
+ rebellion in England in favour of, 115;
+ goes on the first Crusade, 121;
+ fails to overthrow Henry I., 124;
+ defeat, imprisonment, and death of, 125.
+
+ Robert of Belleme, cruelty of, 119;
+ becomes Earl of Shrewsbury, 121;
+ expelled by Henry I., 124;
+ imprisonment of, 125.
+
+ Robert of Jumieges, Archbishop of Canterbury, 87.
+
+ Robin Hood, legend of, 275.
+
+ Rochester, foundation of the bishopric of, 40;
+ Odo besieged in, 115.
+
+ Rockingham, Council at, 118.
+
+ Roger, Archbishop of York, crowns the young Henry, 149.
+
+ Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, Minister of Henry I., 126;
+ quarrels with Stephen, 134.
+
+ Roger, Earl of Hereford, takes part in the Rising of the Earls, 110.
+
+ Roger of Hoveden, 167.
+
+ Roger, son of Roger of Salisbury, 134.
+
+ Roman Empire, the establishment of, 12;
+ continuance of, in the East after its destruction in the West, 27.
+
+ Romans, the, invasion of Gaul by, 10;
+ invasion of Britain by, 11;
+ commencement of the conquest of Britain by, 12;
+ massacre of, 15;
+ complete conquest of the greater part of Britain by, 17;
+ civilisation introduced into Britain by, 21;
+ end of their rule in Britain, 26;
+ persistency of their civilisation in Gaul, 37.
+
+ Romney Marsh divides Jutes from South Saxons, 27.
+
+ Roosebeke, battle of, 278.
+
+ Roses, Wars of the, _see_ Wars of the Roses.
+
+ Rothesay, Duke of, death of, 295.
+
+ Rouen occupied by Hrolf, 80;
+ surrenders to Henry V., 304;
+ retaken by the French, 320.
+
+ Rutland, Earl of (son of the Duke of York), accompanies his
+ father to Ireland, 326;
+ murdered, 328.
+
+
+ St. Albans (_see_ Verulam), architecture of the nave of the
+ abbey of, 171;
+ meeting of a national jury at, 180;
+ the first battle of, 324;
+ the second battle of, 328.
+
+ St. John, Knights of, 157.
+
+ St. Michael's Mount, Henry besieged at, 119.
+
+ Saladin takes Jerusalem, 157.
+
+ Saladin tithe, the, 157.
+
+ Salic law, the so-called, 232.
+
+ Salisbury, great Gemot at, 113;
+ cathedral at, 207.
+
+ Salisbury, Richard, Earl of, his connection with the Duke of York, 324;
+ takes part in the battles of Blore Heath and Northampton, 326;
+ beheaded, 328.
+
+ Sarum, Old, 34.
+
+ Savoy, the, burnt, 269.
+
+ Saxon shore, the defence of, 25;
+ over run by the Jutes, 27.
+
+ Saxons, the (_see_ East Saxons, South Saxons, West Saxons), ravage
+ Roman Britain, 24;
+ settle in Britain, 27;
+ merge their name in that of English, 28;
+ are known by the Celts as Saxons, 29.
+
+ Sawtre, William, burnt as a heretic, 292.
+
+ Say, Lord, beheaded by Jack Cade, 323.
+
+ Schwartz, Martin, defeated at Stoke, 347.
+
+ Scotland, kingdom of, formed by a union of Scots and Picts, 63;
+ its relations with England under Eadmund, 64;
+ its relations with Cnut, 84;
+ with William I., 104;
+ with William II., 119;
+ with Stephen, 133;
+ with Henry II., 154;
+ with Richard I., 159;
+ disputed succession in, 214;
+ Edward I. acknowledged Lord Paramount of, 216;
+ its league with France, 218;
+ twice conquered by Edward I., 219, 221;
+ incorporated with England, 222;
+ conquered a third time by Edward I., 224;
+ independence of, 226;
+ first war of Edward III. with, 231;
+ struggle between Edward Balliol and David Bruce in, 233, 234;
+ accession of the Stuarts to the throne of, 295;
+ assists France in its wars with England, 307.
+
+ Scots, the ravages of, 23;
+ abode of, in Ireland, 23;
+ renewed ravages of, 26;
+ settle in Argyle, and are defeated at Degsastan, 42;
+ their relations with Eadward the Elder, 63;
+ _see_ Scotland.
+
+ Scrope, Archbishop of York, executed, 296.
+
+ Scrope, Lord, execution of, 301.
+
+ Scutage, 141.
+
+ Secular clergy, the, 67.
+
+ Selsey, landing of the South Saxons near, 27.
+
+ Senlac, battle of, 96.
+
+ Serfs, _see_ Villeins.
+
+ Severn, West Saxon conquest of the Valley of, 35.
+
+ Severus fails in conquering the Caledonians, 19.
+
+ Sheriffs, their position in Eadgar's reign, 73;
+ weakened by Henry II., 148.
+
+ Shires, origin of, 73.
+
+ Shire-moot, the, 73;
+ _see_ County Courts.
+
+ Shore, Jane, penance of, 340.
+
+ Shrewsbury, Earl of, _see_ Talbot, Lord.
+
+ Shrewsbury, Parliament of, 283;
+ battle of, 294.
+
+ Silchester, Roman church at, 23.
+
+ Simnel, Lambert, insurrection in favour of, 347.
+
+ Simon de Montfort, early career of, 193;
+ takes the side of the barons, 195;
+ employed in Gascony, 196;
+ executes the Provisions of Oxford, 199;
+ heads the baronial party, 200;
+ wins the battle of Lewes, 201;
+ constitutional scheme of, _ib._;
+ killed at Evesham, 203;
+ compared with Archbishop Thomas, 204.
+
+ Siward, Earl of North-humberland, 84, 87.
+
+ Slaves preserved alive at the English conquest, 30.
+
+ Sluys, battle of, 239.
+
+ Somerset, Welsh driven out of, 53.
+
+ Somerset, Edmund Beaufort, second Duke of, commands in Normandy, 320;
+ supported by Henry VI., 323;
+ slain at St. Albans, 324.
+
+ Somerset, Edmund Beaufort, fourth Duke of, executed, 334.
+
+ Somerset, John Beaufort, first Duke of, commands in France, 317;
+ kept from court by Suffolk, 318;
+ dies, 320.
+
+ Somerset, Henry Beaufort, third Duke of, executed, 331.
+
+ Sorbiodunum (_Old Sarum_), the stronghold of Ambrosius, 34.
+
+ South Saxons, the, first conquests of, 27;
+ destroy Anderida, 28.
+
+ Spain, union of the kingdoms of, 349;
+ growth of the monarchy of, 354.
+
+ Spencer, Henry, bishop of Norwich, leads an expedition to
+ Flanders, 278.
+
+ Stamford Bridge, battle of, 95.
+
+ Standard, battle of the, 133.
+
+ Stanley, Lord, joins Henry VII., 343.
+
+ Stanley, Sir William, deserts Richard III., 343;
+ execution of, 351.
+
+ Star Chamber, Court of, organisation of, 348.
+
+ States-General, the French, meet during John's captivity, 252.
+
+ Statute of Wales, 210.
+
+ Stephen, accession of, 131;
+ makes peace with the Scots, 133;
+ quarrels with the barons, _ib._;
+ quarrels with the clergy, 134;
+ death of, 135.
+
+ Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury, 89.
+
+ Stirling, Wallace's victory at, 221.
+
+ Stoke, battle of, 347.
+
+ Stone implements, 1-4.
+
+ Strathclyde, formation of the kingdom of, 43;
+ is not dependent on Ecgberht, 55;
+ its relations with Eadmund, 64.
+
+ Strongbow in Ireland, 152.
+
+ Stuart, family of, inherit the throne of Scotland, 295.
+
+ Suetonius Paullinus, campaigns of, 14-16.
+
+ Suffolk, origin of the name of, 28.
+
+ Suffolk, Michael de la Pole, Earl of, Chancellor of Richard II., 278;
+ driven from power, 279;
+ condemned to death, 280.
+
+ Suffolk, William de la Pole, Earl of, arranges a truce with
+ France, 317;
+ presides over the government of England, 318;
+ impeached and murdered, 322.
+
+ Surrey, Earl of, governs Scotland in the name of Edward I., 219.
+
+ Sussex, conquest of, 27, 28;
+ weakness of, 41;
+ accepts Christianity, 49.
+
+ Svend attacks London, 79;
+ returns to Denmark, 80;
+ invades England, 81;
+ death of, 83.
+
+ Swegen, son of Godwine, misconduct of, 87;
+ death of, 88.
+
+ Swynford, Catherine, marries John of Gaunt, 282.
+
+
+ Talbot, Lord, defeats the Burgundians, 313;
+ becomes Earl of Shrewsbury, 320;
+ defeated and slain, 323.
+
+ Tallages levied by Edward I., 221;
+ abolished by Edward III., 243.
+
+ Taxation, _see_ Danegeld, Customs.
+
+ Templars, the Knights, 157.
+
+ Tewkesbury, battle of, 334.
+
+ Thames, the, early ferry over, 20.
+
+ Thanet, probable identification of Ictis with, 8;
+ Jutes established in, 27.
+
+ Thegns, how distinguished from Gesiths, 31;
+ their devotion to their lord, 44;
+ growing military importance of, 69.
+
+ Theodore, Archbishop, his influence on the Church of England, 50;
+ assembles the first Church Council, 52.
+
+ Thetford, removal of the see from, 107.
+
+ Thomas of London (Becket), Chancellor, 140;
+ being appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, resists Henry II., 143;
+ takes refuge in France, 145;
+ returns to England, 149;
+ is murdered, 150.
+
+ Thurstan, Archbishop, leads the levies at the Battle of the
+ Standard, 132.
+
+ Tiberias, battle of, 157.
+
+ Tin, Phoenician and Greek trade in, 8.
+
+ Tinchebrai, battle of, 125.
+
+ Tintern Abbey, 129.
+
+ Togidumnus, death of, 13.
+
+ Tostig, Earl of North-humberland, 89;
+ driven from his earldom, 90;
+ allied to Harold Hardrada, 94;
+ killed at Stamford Bridge, 96.
+
+ Touraine conquered by Philip II., 176.
+
+ Towns, growth of, 62, 72, 168;
+ condition of the outskirts of, 191.
+
+ Townships, early political organisation of, 31.
+
+ Towton, battle of, 329.
+
+ Trade, _see_ Commerce.
+
+ Transition from round-arched to Pointed architecture, 171.
+
+ Travelling modes of, 273.
+
+ Treasons, Statute of, 250.
+
+ Trent, the Anglian occupation of the Valley of, 36.
+
+ Tresilian, Chief Justice, hanged, 280.
+
+ Trinobantes, the geographical position of, 8;
+ side with Caesar, 11;
+ submit to Cunobelin, 12.
+
+ Troyes, the Treaty of, 306.
+
+ Tudor, Owen, marries the widow of Henry V., 335.
+
+ Tumblers, 275.
+
+ Tyre in danger, 157.
+
+
+ Universities, growth of, 167.
+
+ Urban II., Pope, supported by Lanfranc, 118;
+ preaches a Crusade, 120.
+
+ Uriconium, _see_ Viriconium.
+
+
+ Valence, William de, resists the Provisions of Oxford, 199.
+
+ Val-es-dunes, battle of, 88.
+
+ Verneuil, battle of, 308.
+
+ Verulamium, Roman city at, 19;
+ martyrdom of St. Alban at, 23.
+
+ Vicar, meaning of the term, 129.
+
+ Villages, arrangements of, 75.
+
+ Villeins, the, uncertain origin of, 31;
+ increase of, 69;
+ position of, after the Norman conquest, 102;
+ partial commutation of the services of, 168;
+ effect of the Black Death upon, 248;
+ insurrection of, 268;
+ take refuge in towns, 275;
+ land ceases to be cultivated by, 320, 321.
+
+ Viriconium, Roman colony at, 14.
+
+ Vortigern establishes Jutes in Thanet, 27.
+
+
+ Wakefield, battle of, 328.
+
+ Wales reduced by Harold, 90;
+ Flemish settlement in, 128;
+ conquered by Edward I., 210;
+ marches of, _ib._;
+ supports Richard II., 285.
+
+ Wallace, William, rises against Edward I., 221;
+ execution of, 222.
+
+ Wallingford, Treaty of, 137.
+
+ Walls, the Roman, 17.
+
+ Walter Map, 167.
+
+ Waltheof, Earl of Northamptonshire and Huntingdonshire, 90;
+ is beheaded, 110.
+
+ Wanborough, Ceawlin defeated at, 36.
+
+ War-band, the, composed of Gesiths, 30.
+
+ Warbeck, Perkin, insurrection of, 350-352;
+ execution of, 354.
+
+ Wardship, nature of the lord's claim to, 116;
+ results of the system, 330.
+
+ Wars of the Roses, origin of the name of, 324;
+ state of society during, 330.
+
+ Warwick, Earl of, opposes Richard II., 279;
+ banishment of, 282.
+
+ Warwick, Earl of (son of the Duke of Clarence), imprisonment of, 343;
+ execution of, 354.
+
+ Warwick, Richard Beauchamp, Earl of, regent in France, 313.
+
+ Warwick, Richard Nevill, Earl of (the King-maker), influence of, 324;
+ retires to Calais, and comes back and defeats the Lancastrians
+ at Northampton, 326;
+ estranged from Edward IV., 332;
+ is reconciled to Queen Margaret, 333;
+ restores Henry VI., and is defeated and slain at Barnet, 334.
+
+ Wat Tyler, insurrection of, 268, 269.
+
+ Wedmore, Peace of (the so-called), 59.
+
+ Welsh, the, speak a language derived from that of the Britons, 7;
+ origin of their name, 31;
+ adopt the name Kymry, 37;
+ defeated by AEthelfrith near Chester, 43;
+ split up into three divisions, _ib._;
+ driven out of Somerset, 53;
+ their relations with Ecgberht, 56;
+ _see_ Wales.
+
+ Weregild, system of, 32.
+
+ Wessex, gradual formation of, 28, 34, 35;
+ is weakened by internal quarrels, 41;
+ accepts Christianity, 48;
+ growing unity of, 53;
+ causes of the supremacy of, 55;
+ an earldom under Godwine and Harold, 84, 89.
+
+ West Saxons, the, first conquests of, 28;
+ defeated at Mount Badon, _ib._;
+ occupy Salisbury Plain, 34;
+ wage war with the men of Kent and with the Britons of the
+ Severn Valley, 35;
+ are defeated at Faddiley, _ib._;
+ _see_ Wessex.
+
+ West Wales split off from other Welsh territory, 42.
+
+ Westminster Abbey, consecration of, 91;
+ coronation of William I. in, 100.
+
+ White Ship, the, wreck of, 129.
+
+ Wilfrid supports Papal authority, 50.
+
+ William I. (the Conqueror) declared heir of Eadward the
+ Confessor, 88;
+ his rule in Normandy, _ib._;
+ claims the crown from Harold, 91;
+ lands at Pevensey, and defeats Harold at Senlac, 96-98;
+ crowned at Westminster, 100;
+ progress of his conquest, 101-103;
+ devastates the Vale of York, 103;
+ subdues Hereward, and receives Malcolm's submission, 104;
+ his method of keeping English and Normans in subjection, 104-106;
+ his relations with the Church, 106-110;
+ suppresses the Rising of the Earls, 110;
+ lays waste the New Forest, _ib._;
+ has Domesday Book prepared, 111;
+ receives oaths at Salisbury, 113;
+ death of, 114.
+
+ William II. (Rufus) is crowned King of England, 114;
+ is supported by the English against Robert, 115;
+ character of, _ib._;
+ his treatment of Anselm, 117;
+ his quarrels with his brothers, 118;
+ his relations with Scotland, 119;
+ suppresses Mowbray's rebellion, 120;
+ last years of, 121;
+ is murdered, 122.
+
+ William, son of Henry I., wrecked, 129.
+
+ William Clito, son of Robert, 129.
+
+ William Longbeard, 169, 170.
+
+ William of Malmesbury, 129.
+
+ William of Newburgh, 167.
+
+ William the Lion, king of Scotland, acknowledges himself to be
+ a vassal of Henry II., 154;
+ frees himself from vassalage, 159.
+
+ Winchelsey, Archbishop, 221.
+
+ Winchester, secular canons driven out of 68;
+ burial of William II. at, 122;
+ Stephen chosen king at, 131.
+
+ Winwaed, the battle of, 48.
+
+ Witenagemot, the, constitution of, 45;
+ discussion on the acceptance of Christianity in, 46;
+ constitutional powers of, 74;
+ becomes the Great Council, 113;
+ _see_ Great Council, the.
+
+ Women, education of, in the Middle Ages, 65.
+
+ Wonderful Parliament, the, 280.
+
+ Worcester, secular canons driven from, 68.
+
+ Wroxeter, _see_ Viriconium.
+
+ Wulfhere maintains the independence of Mercia, 48.
+
+ Wycliffe, John, his doctrines, 261;
+ summoned before an ecclesiastical court at St. Paul's, 262;
+ sends out 'poor priests,' and renounces transubstantiation, 266;
+ retires, and dies, 269.
+
+ Wykeham, William of, deprived of the Chancellorship, 260;
+ restored to the Council, and again dismissed, 262.
+
+
+ Yarmouth supports Stephen, 134.
+
+ York (_see_ Eboracum) submits to Harold Hardrada, 95;
+ taken by William I., 102;
+ devastation of the Vale of, 103;
+ massacre of Jews at, 160.
+
+ York Archbishop of, his right to crown a king questioned, 149.
+
+ York, Archbishopric of, founded, 46.
+
+ York, Duke of Edmund (son of Edward III.), joins Henry IV., 285.
+
+ York, Richard, Duke of, (father of Edward IV.), is regent in
+ France, 313;
+ governs Ireland, 319;
+ first Protectorate of, 323;
+ second Protectorate of, 324;
+ driven to Ireland, 326;
+ claims the throne, 327;
+ defeated and slain, 328.
+
+ York, Richard, Duke of (son of Edward IV.), lodged in the Tower, 341;
+ murdered, 342.
+
+
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