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+Project Gutenberg's The Wanderings and Homes of Manuscripts, by M. R. James
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Wanderings and Homes of Manuscripts
+       Helps for Students of History, No. 17.
+
+Author: M. R. James
+
+Release Date: February 25, 2009 [EBook #28187]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WANDERINGS, HOMES OF MANUSCRIPTS ***
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+Produced by Michael Ciesielski and the Booksmiths at
+http://www.eBookForge.net
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+[Illustration: HELPS FOR STUDENTS OF HISTORY
+
+THE WANDERINGS AND HOMES OF MANUSCRIPTS
+
+M. R. JAMES]
+
+
+
+
+HELPS FOR STUDENTS OF HISTORY. No. 17
+
+
+EDITED BY C. JOHNSON, M.A., AND J. P. WHITNEY, D.D., D.C.L.
+
+THE WANDERINGS AND HOMES OF MANUSCRIPTS
+
+BY
+
+M. R. JAMES, LITT.D., F.B.A.
+
+          PROVOST OF ETON
+          SOMETIME PROVOST OF KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE
+
+
+          LONDON
+
+          SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING
+          CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE
+
+          NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+
+          1919
+
+
+
+
+THE WANDERINGS AND HOMES OF MANUSCRIPTS
+
+
+THE Wanderings and Homes of Manuscripts is the title of this book. To
+have called it the survival and transmission of ancient literature would
+have been pretentious, but not wholly untruthful. Manuscripts, we all
+know, are the chief means by which the records and imaginings of twenty
+centuries have been preserved. It is my purpose to tell where
+manuscripts were made, and how and in what centres they have been
+collected, and, incidentally, to suggest some helps for tracing out
+their history. Naturally the few pages into which the story has to be
+packed will not give room for any one episode to be treated
+exhaustively. Enough if I succeed in rousing curiosity and setting some
+student to work in a field in which an immense amount still remains to
+be discovered.
+
+In treating of so large a subject as this--for it is a large one--it is
+not a bad plan to begin with the particular and get gradually to the
+general.
+
+
+SOME SPECIMEN PEDIGREES OF MSS.
+
+I take my stand before the moderate-sized bookcase which contains the
+collection of MSS. belonging to the College of Eton, and with due care
+draw from the shelves a few of the books which have reposed there since
+the room was built in 1729.
+
+The first shelf I lay hands upon contains some ten large folios. Four of
+them are a single great compilation, beginning with a survey of the
+history of the world and of the Roman Empire, and merging into the
+heraldry of the German _noblesse_. It was made, we find, in 1541, and is
+dedicated to Henry VIII. Large folding pictures on vellum and portraits
+of all the Roman Emperors adorn the first volume. It is a sumptuous
+book, supposed to be a present from the Emperor Ferdinand to the King.
+How did it come here? A printed label tells us that it was given to the
+college by Henry Temple, Viscount Palmerston, in 1750 (he had previously
+given it to Sir Richard Ellys on whose death Lady Ellys returned it: so
+much in parenthesis). Then, more by luck than anything else, I find
+mention of it in the diary of Thomas Hearne, the Oxford antiquary; his
+friend Thomas Jett, F.R.S., owned it and told him about it in 1722: he
+had been offered £100 a volume for it; it was his by purchase from one
+Mr. Stebbing. It was sold, perhaps to Palmerston, at Jett's auction in
+1731. The gap between Henry VIII. and Stebbing remains for the present
+unfilled. So much for the first draw.
+
+Next, a yet larger and more ponderous volume, _Decreta Romanorum
+Pontificum_--the Papal decretals and the Acts of the Councils. It is
+spotlessly clean and magnificently written in a hand of the early part
+of the twelfth century, a hand which very much resembles that in use at
+Christchurch, Canterbury. I am indeed, tempted to call it a Canterbury
+book; only it bears none of the marks which it ought to have if it was
+ever in the library of the Cathedral Priory. Was it perhaps written
+there and sold or given to a daughter-house, or to some abbey which had
+a less skilful school of writers? Not to Rochester, at any rate, though
+Rochester did get many books written at Christchurch. If it had belonged
+to Rochester there would have been some trace, I think, of an
+inscription on the lower margin of the first leaf. No; the only clue to
+the history is a title written on the fly-leaf in the fifteenth century,
+which says: "The book of the decrees of the Pope of Rome," and it begins
+on the second leaf "_tes viii_." That does not tell us much; I do not
+recognize the handwriting of the title, though I guess it to have been
+written when the book came to Eton College. All I can say is that here
+is an example of a large class, duplicates of indispensable and common
+works, which the abbey libraries possessed in great numbers, and often
+parted with, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, to colleges and
+private purchasers.
+
+Next we take out a thin folio written on paper. This time it is a Greek
+book which we open; it has the works of the Christian apologists
+Athenagoras and Tatian, and a spurious epistle of Justin Martyr, copied
+in 1534 by Valeriano of Forlí. A single MS. now at Paris, written in
+914, is the ancestor of all our copies of these texts; but it has been
+shown that this Eton book is not an immediate copy of that, but of one
+now at Bologna. Obviously it was written in Italy. How does it come to
+be here? Sir Henry Wotton, Provost of the college, spent the best part
+of twenty years in Italy, mainly as Ambassador to the Court of Venice
+for James I., and left all his MSS. to the college at his death in 1639.
+There are numbers of MSS. from Italy in this bookcase, and, though
+hardly any of them have Wotton's name in them, it is not to be doubted
+that they came from him. A good proportion of them, too, can be traced
+back a step farther, for they have in them the name or the arms or the
+handwriting of Bernardo Bembo of Venice, the father of the more famous
+Cardinal Pietro Bembo. This Justin volume is not of that number, but we
+have a clue to its history which may be deemed sufficient.
+
+I turn to another shelf and open a large book written somewhere about
+the year 1150, which was given to the college in 1713 by one of the
+Fellows; in 1594 it belonged to John Rogers (if I read the name right).
+It contains St. Jerome's Commentary on Daniel and the Minor Prophets,
+followed by a tract of St. Ambrose, and another ascribed to Jerome
+(subject, the hardening of Pharaoh's heart), which was in reality, we
+are now told, written by a Pelagian. It is a very uncommon text. After
+that we have Jerome's (so-called) prophecy of the fifteen signs which
+are to precede the last judgment--of which signs, let it be said in
+passing, there is a fine representation in an ancient window in the
+Church of All Saints, North Street, at York. Can we trace this volume
+any farther back than 1594? I think so; the Ambrose and the two spurious
+tracts of Jerome (one, as I said, being of very rare occurrence) are
+entered, in that order, in the catalogue of the library of Peterborough
+Abbey. The library has long been dispersed, but the catalogue remains,
+and was printed by Gunton in his History of the Abbey. But the said
+catalogue makes no mention of the Commentary of Jerome, which fills 323
+out of the 358 leaves of our book. A serious obstacle, it will be said,
+to an identification; yet a long series of observations, too long to be
+set out here, has led me to the conclusion that our Peterborough
+catalogue makes a practice of not entering the main contents of the
+volumes, but only the short subsidiary tracts, which might else escape
+notice. And without much hesitation I put down the book before me as a
+relic of the Peterborough Library.
+
+Somewhat higher up stands a very stout book bound in old patterned
+paper. The material of it is paper too, the language is Greek, and the
+contents, for the most part, Canons of Councils. There are two hands in
+it; one is perhaps of the fourteenth century, the other is of the early
+part of the fifteenth. This latter is the writing of one Michael Doukas,
+who tells us that he was employed as a scribe by Brother John of Ragusa,
+who held some position at a Church Council, unnamed. There were two
+Johns of Ragusa, it seems, both Dominicans, one of whom figured at the
+Council of Constance in 1413, the other at that of Basle in 1433. The
+latter must be the right one, for there are still Greek MSS. at Basle
+which belonged to the Dominicans of that city, and were bequeathed by
+the second John at his death in 1442.
+
+The book is important, because the first thing in it is the only copy of
+a treatise ascribed to St. Athanasius, called a Synopsis of Holy
+Scripture. This treatise was printed first in 1600 by an editor named
+Felckmann, and no MS. of it has been used or known since. Where did
+Felckmann find it? In a MS. which belonged to Pierre Nevelet, procured
+for him (the editor) by Bongars, a distinguished scholar of Orleans.
+Now, the Eton book has in it a whole series of names of owners, some
+erased, but decipherable. The earliest seems to be Joannes Gastius, who
+in 1550 gave it to Johannes Hernogius (as I doubtfully read it). Then
+come Petrus Neveletus and his son, I(saac) N(icolas) Neveletus.
+Evidently, then, we have here the MS. which Felckmann used, and we
+arrive at some date after 1600. In 1665 or 1685 Daniel Mauclerc, Doctor
+of Law, living at Vitry le François, is the owner. He leaves France (the
+family were Huguenots), and brings the book to Holland. His son Jacques,
+Doctor of Medicine, has it in 1700, in England; his nephew, John Henry
+Mauclerc, also M.D., succeeds to it and enters his name in 1748, and
+gives it to Mr. Roger Huggett, Conduct and Librarian of the College, who
+died in 1769.
+
+This is an unusually full and clear pedigree. One more, and I have done.
+
+This time it is a copy of the Polychronicon of Ranulph Higden, monk of
+Chester; it was the popular history of the world and of England for
+anyone who could read Latin in the fifteenth century. No abbey library
+could be without it, just as no gentleman's library could be without a
+copy of the English Chronicle called the Brut. Here is a case in which
+we know the beginning and end of the book's wanderings, but not the
+middle of the story. The arms of Eton adorn the beginning of each of the
+seven "books" of the Chronicle, so we may take it that it was owned from
+the first by a member of the foundation. An inscription tells us that
+within the fifteenth century it belonged to the Carthusians of Witham in
+Somerset, and was given to them by Master John Blacman. Here is light.
+John Blacman was Fellow and Chanter of Eton, then Head of a House
+(King's Hall) in Cambridge, and lastly a Carthusian monk. He was also
+confessor to Henry VI., and wrote a book about him. In a MS. at Oxford
+there is a list of the books he gave to Witham, and among them is this
+Polychronicon. More: he has prefixed to the text a pedigree of the Kings
+of England from Egbert, illustrated with drawings, the last of which is
+the earliest known representation of Windsor Castle. We have not, then,
+to complain of lack of information about the early stages of the
+history; but then comes a gap, and between the Dissolution and the early
+part of the nineteenth century, when Rodd of London had it and sold it
+to the fourth Earl of Ashburnham, I can (at present) hear nothing of the
+book. In quite recent years it passed from the Ashburnham family to Mr.
+H. Y. Thompson, from him to Mr. George Dunn, and at his death was bought
+back for its first home.
+
+There, then, are half a dozen histories of MSS., fairly typical and
+fairly diverse. Naturally I have picked out books which have some
+traceable story. Very many have none. We can only say of them that they
+were written in such a century and such a country, and acquired at such
+a date: and there an end. Rebinding and loss of leaves, especially of
+fly-leaves, have carried off names of owners and library-marks, and
+apart from that there are but very few cases in which we are warranted
+in proclaiming from the aspect and character of the script that a book
+was written at one particular place and nowhere else.
+
+I think it will be seen, from what has been said, that my subject is one
+which depends for its actuality upon the accumulation of a great number
+of small facts. There is, of course, a broad historical background: no
+less than the whole history of Western Europe since the period of the
+Barbarian invasions. That cannot be looked for here, of course; but
+there are certain _data_ of capital importance which cannot be spared,
+and some plotting out of the whole field is indispensable.
+
+
+THE LIMITS OF THE SUBJECT
+
+Greek and Latin MSS. are the main subject. Oriental books we do not even
+touch upon, and vernacular books in English or French have to take a
+secondary place; and we may treat first of the Greek, for it is by far
+the most compact division. In the case of both Greek and Latin books we
+shall ask where and when they were chiefly made, when and how they left
+their early homes, and where they are to be found now.
+
+We shall rule out the whole of what may be called the classical
+period--the libraries of Alexandria and Pergamon, the bookshops of
+Martial's time--yes, and even the fourth-century library of Cæsarea--for
+of these we have no relics. Our concern is with what exists to-day, or
+what did exist until the nation, which has contributed so largely to
+learning and history in the past, turned apostate, and to its lasting
+shame destroyed and dispersed what more ignorant men had spared. The
+mischief Germany has done--and it will be long before we learn the full
+extent of it--she has done with open eyes.
+
+We think primarily of Belgium and North-Eastern France as the scenes of
+her worst devastations, but she has not confined her work of spoliation
+to them. The Balkan provinces and Russia held great masses of Greek and
+Slavonic MSS. as yet very incompletely known. The actual invasions of
+German troops, and the wars and revolutions which Germany has fostered
+in those regions, can hardly have been less mischievous than her
+operations in the West.
+
+
+GREEK MSS.: PRODUCTION AND DISPERSION
+
+The area in which Greek MSS. were produced in the medieval period was
+(with negligible exceptions) confined to Greece proper, "Turkey in
+Europe," the Levant, and South Italy. In the monastic centres,
+particularly Mount Athos, there were and are large stores of Greek
+books, the vast majority of which are theological or liturgical; and the
+theological authors most in vogue are those of the fourth and later
+centuries. Copies of primitive Christian authors or classical ones are
+comparative rarities. True, one or two of surpassing interest have been
+found in such libraries; a famous Plato was brought by Dr. E. D. Clarke
+from Patmos, and is at Oxford now; the treatise of Hippolytus against
+heresies came in the forties from a monastery to the Paris library. But
+these are exceptions. We have to look at Constantinople as by far the
+most important centre of learning and of book-production. The city was
+full of libraries, public and private, and of readers. The culture of
+the place was, no doubt, self-contained; it did not aim at enriching the
+outer world, which it despised; its literary productions were imitative,
+the work of _dilettanti_ and decadents. Nevertheless, it preserved for
+us wellnigh all that we now have of the best literature of Greece, and,
+but for a few catastrophes, it would have handed on much more. Of
+thirty-two historical writings read and excerpted by Photius in his
+_Bibliotheca_, late in the ninth century, nineteen are lost; of several
+of the Attic orators, Lysias, Lycurgus, Hyperides, Dinarchus, he
+possessed many more speeches than we have seen. Michael Psellus, who
+died about 1084, is credited (I must allow that the evidence is not of
+the best) with writing notes on twenty-four comedies of Menander, of
+which, as is well known, we have not one complete. In the twelfth
+century John Tzetzes and Eustathius apparently had access still to very
+many lost authors. In short, before the Latin occupation of
+Constantinople in 1204, the remains of ancient Greek literature very
+notably exceeded their present bulk. Much of it, no doubt, was preserved
+in single copies, and only a narrow selection of authors was in constant
+use for educational purposes. Only three plays out of seven of Æschylus,
+for example, were read in the schools. The rest, with Sophocles and
+Apollonius Rhodius, practically depended for their survival on the
+famous copy now at Florence. Instances might be multiplied. The threads
+of transmission to which we owe most of the Euripidean plays, the
+Anthology, the History of Polybius, the works of Clement of Alexandria,
+the Christian Apologists, the commentary of Origen upon St. John, are
+equally slender. We cannot doubt that the sack of Constantinople by the
+Crusaders was, in its obliteration of works of art and of literature,
+far more disastrous than the capture of the city by the Turks in 1453.
+For the best part of a century before the latter date, the export of
+precious MSS. to Italy had been going on, and many of our greatest
+treasures were already safe in the hands of scholars when the crash
+came. Nor is it possible, I believe, to show that between 1204 and 1453
+many authors whose works no longer exist were read in Byzantine circles.
+That there was destruction of books in 1453 is no doubt true; but within
+a very few years the Turks had learned that money was to be made of
+them, and the sale and export went on at a great rate.
+
+
+EUROPEAN CENTRES FOR GREEK MSS.: CONTINENTAL
+
+Thus the drafting of Greek MSS. into the libraries of Western Europe has
+been a long and gradual process. Many of the best, that were secured by
+individual scholars such as Giannozzo Manetti, Aurispa, and Niccolo
+Niccoli, found their way into the Laurentian Library at Florence;
+others, collected by Nicholas V. (d. 1455), are the nucleus of the
+Vatican collection; a third set was the gift of the Greek Cardinal
+Bessarion (d. 1468) to Venice. But probably in quality, and certainly in
+quantity, the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris excels even the Italian
+storehouses of Greek MSS. The premier Greek MS. of France is a copy of
+the works attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite, which the Greek
+Emperor Michael the Stammerer sent to Louis the Pious in the year 827.
+It was long at the Royal Abbey of St. Denis, but strayed away somehow;
+then, bought by Henri de Mesmes in the sixteenth century, it came into
+the Royal Library in 1706, and has been there ever since. Its present
+number is Bib. Nat. Grec 437. Another treasure of ancient times which
+was once at St. Denis is the sixth-century uncial Greek MS. of the
+Prophets known as Codex Marchalianus, now in the Vatican; but when it
+came to France is not clearly made out. Coming to later times, the not
+inconsiderable collection made by Francis I. received a notable increase
+in that of Catherine de' Medici, once the property of Cardinal Ridolfi,
+and the reigns of Louis XIV. and XV. were for it an epoch of rapid
+growth. Between 1645 and 1740 the number of volumes swelled from 1,255
+to 3,197. The Revolution period added the collection of Coislin, or
+rather of Séguier--400 more. At the present day Paris must possess 5,000
+Greek MSS.
+
+In Central Europe Vienna may be reckoned the chief repository. It
+contains the remarkable collection of the traveller Augier de Busbecq,
+made in the East about 1570, which was once at Augsburg. Spain--I think
+principally of the Escurial Library--has suffered from depredation and
+from fire, and is poorer than the prominence of its early contributions
+to the cause of learning deserves.
+
+
+GREEK MSS. IN ENGLAND
+
+It is a temptation, when one turns to England, to enlarge upon the early
+history of Greek scholarship in the country, but it is a temptation
+which must be resisted. We had a share in preparing for the revival of
+learning. Roger Bacon and Grosseteste (I say nothing of the earlier age,
+of Theodore of Tarsus and Bede) were men whose work in this direction
+has hardly met with full appreciation as yet; and later on we gave
+Erasmus a welcome and a home. But we did not rival Italy or France in
+the early scramble for Greek books. Such classical MSS. of first-class
+value as we possess have been importations of the seventeenth and later
+centuries. Let me, however, speak somewhat more in detail.
+
+There was a turbulent person called George Neville, who died Archbishop
+of York in 1476. It is evident, though not, I think, from anything that
+he wrote, that he was interested in Greek learning, and not only
+theological learning. A MS. of some orations of Demosthenes now at
+Leyden contains a statement by the scribe that he wrote it for
+Archbishop Neville in 1472. This is our starting-point. Now, the scribe
+in question--Emmanuel of Constantinople--generally writes a hand (ugly
+enough) which no one who has once seen it can fail to recognize. This
+hand appears in a not inconsiderable group of books: in a Plato and an
+Aristotle now at Durham, in a Suidas given by the Chapter of Durham to
+Lord Oxford (Brit. Mus., MS., Harl. 3,100), in a rather famous New
+Testament at Leicester, in three Psalters at Oxford and Cambridge, and
+in half of another copy of Suidas at Oxford. In this second Suidas
+Emmanuel's hand is associated with another, equally easy to
+recognize--that of Joannes Serbopoulos. Serbopoulos lived, I know not
+how long, in the abbey at Reading, and transcribed several Greek MSS.
+now in Oxford and Cambridge libraries; he was still at work in the first
+years of the sixteenth century. This little episode is one that
+demonstrates, in a rather pleasing way, the value of the study of
+handwritings and of the inscriptions written by scribes; the light it
+throws on the history of scholarship is unexpected, and is worth having.
+
+Two Biblical MSS. of high importance came to England as gifts to our
+Sovereigns. One was the well-known Codex Alexandrinus (A), given to
+Charles I. in 1628 by Cyril Lucar, the reforming Patriarch of
+Constantinople. Of the other I shall take leave to say more. It was that
+known as the Cottonian Genesis, which was brought over by two Greek
+Bishops "from Philippi" and presented to Henry VIII. It was a
+sixth-century copy of the Book of Genesis, written in uncial letters and
+illustrated, we are told, with 250 pictures. Queen Elizabeth passed it
+on to her tutor, Sir John Fortescue, and he to Sir Robert Cotton, the
+collector of a library of which we shall hear more in the sequel, and in
+that library it remained (when not out on loan) till Saturday, October
+23, 1731. On that day a fire broke out in Ashburnham House in
+Westminster (where the Cotton and Royal Libraries were then kept), and
+the bookcase in which the Genesis was suffered horribly. The Cotton
+MSS.--for I may as well explain this matter now as later--were kept in
+presses, each of which had a bust of a Roman Emperor on the top. They
+ran from Julius to Domitian, and were supplemented by Cleopatra and
+Faustina. Augustus and Domitian had but one shelf each (Augustus
+contained charters, drawings, and the like; Domitian was originally,
+perhaps, a small case over a doorway); the others had usually six
+shelves, lettered from A to F, and the books in each shelf were numbered
+from i. onwards in Roman figures. The Genesis was Otho, B vi., and the
+three presses of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius were those in which the fire
+did most mischief. No complete leaf is left of Genesis; there are bits
+of blackened text and pictures, a few of which strayed to the library of
+the Baptist College at Bristol. The text had been examined by competent
+scholars for editions of the Greek Old Testament, and we are able to
+judge of its value; but of the pictures, alas! no list or description
+had been made. Still, something is known. An eminent French polymath,
+the Sieur de Peiresc (whose life by P. Gassendi is well worth reading),
+borrowed the book from Cotton, and had careful copies of one or two of
+the illustrations made for him, and these exist. And a further
+interesting fact has come out: by the help of our scanty relics a
+student of art, Professor Tikkanen, of Helsingfors, in Finland, was able
+to show that the designers of a long series of mosaic pictures from
+Genesis in St. Mark's at Venice must have had before them either the
+Cotton Genesis or its twin sister, so closely do the mosaics follow the
+compositions in the MS.
+
+In somewhat similar fashion, by gift from the reformer Theodore de Béze,
+the University of Cambridge acquired its greatest Greek treasure, the
+Codex Bezæ (D) of the Gospels and Acts in Elizabeth's reign. The riddles
+which its text presents have exercised many brains, and I do not know
+who would allow that they are finally solved. Another famous MS., the
+unique Lexicon of Photius, was acquired by Thomas Gale, Dean of York,
+early in the eighteenth century--one would like to know where. To my eye
+it bears signs of having been long in Western Europe, if not in England.
+Roger Gale gave it, with his own and his father's other MSS., to Trinity
+College, Cambridge, in 1738. On the whole, however, Cambridge has not
+been nearly so fortunate as Oxford in accumulating Greek books. Oxford
+had a magnificent present in 1629 from its Chancellor, the Earl of
+Pembroke, of 240 MSS. purchased in block from the Venetian Barocci, and
+in 1817 made a great and wise purchase of 128 more, contained in the
+collection of another Venetian, the Abate Canonici. In the interval such
+diverse benefactors as Laud and Cromwell had enriched it with some very
+notable gifts. The pedigree of one of Laud's MSS. may be familiar, but
+is too illuminating to be omitted. It is a seventh-century copy of the
+Acts of the Apostles in Greek and Latin. The earliest home to which we
+can trace it is Sardinia; a document connected with that island is
+written on a fly-leaf. Then we find indisputable evidence that Bede,
+writing early in the eighth century, had access to it; he quotes in his
+_Retractations_ on the Acts readings which are characteristic of it; and
+as he never left his monastery in the North, we may be sure that the
+book was at Jarrow or Wearmouth in his time. After that it disappears
+until Laud buys it. Like many of his books, it came to him from Germany,
+a spoil of the Thirty Years' War. These various _data_ are best linked
+up if we suppose (1) that the MS. was brought from Italy to England by
+Theodore of Tarsus or his companion Abbot Hadrian in 668; (2) that it
+was taken from England to Germany after Bede's death by one of the
+companions of St. Boniface, the apostle of that country, and remained
+there, in or near Fulda, perhaps, until the convulsion which threw it
+back upon our shores.
+
+Take another illustration. When John Leland, in Henry VIII.'s reign,
+visited the library of Canterbury Cathedral, he saw there part of the
+Old Testament in Greek--chiefly the poetical books and the Psalter. He
+does not mention the Pentateuch. Nevertheless, it can be shown that that
+was also there, for among the Canonici MSS. in the Bodleian is one of
+the thirteenth century containing Genesis to Ruth in Greek, which has on
+a margin the inscription, legible though erased: "liber ecclesie Christi
+Cantuarie." How it left England at the Dissolution one may guess easily
+enough, but what its fortunes were before it came to light again at
+Venice I believe there is nothing to show.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Speaking broadly, then, of the destinies of Greek MSS., I may repeat
+that they were produced in a comparatively small area, that a great many
+of the most precious ones were concentrated in one place, and that from
+the fourteenth century onwards they became objects of desire to the
+great ones of the earth, who vied with each other in sending special
+emissaries to collect them. As a result, the greatest treasures were
+soon locked up in the libraries of princes and prelates, and became less
+commonly exposed to dispersion and sale than Latin books. We must
+remember, too, that as a rule the monasteries of Western Europe did not
+collect Greek MSS.; they possessed a chance one here and there, as we
+have seen, but rather as curiosities than as books to be used.[A] To
+the noble and the scholar there was a flavour of distinction about a
+Greek MS. which was wanting to all but the most venerable and beautiful
+of the Latin ones.
+
+There is still much to be done in the investigation of the history and
+relationships of Greek MSS. In spite of the numberless editions of the
+great authors, and the labour that has been lavished upon them, I
+believe that scholars would agree that in very few cases, if any, is the
+transmission of the text at all perfectly known. For some writings we
+have too little MS. evidence, for some so much as to be embarrassing. In
+no case can we afford to neglect and to leave unrecorded anything that a
+MS. can tell us as to its place of origin, its scribe, or its owners.
+Names and scribblings on fly-leaves, which to one student suggest
+nothing, may combine in the memory of another into a coherent piece of
+history, and show him the home of the book at a particular date, and by
+consequence unveil a whole section of the story of its wanderings. With
+one little instance of this kind I will bring to an end my remarks on
+this first and shorter portion of my subject. In the library of Corpus
+Christi College at Cambridge is a Greek Psalter written in the middle
+of the twelfth century. On one of its last pages is scribbled in Greek
+letters by a later hand the name of John Farley ("[Greek: Hiôhannês
+pharlehi]"). Only about five-and-twenty volumes away from this stands a
+MS. containing letters written by the University of Oxford on public
+occasions. One of these is signed by J. Farley. A little enquiry elicits
+the fact that John Farley was official scribe of that University near
+the end of the fifteenth century. The Greek Psalter, then, was pretty
+certainly at Oxford in Farley's time. What do we know of Greek MSS. then
+at Oxford? We know that Bishop Robert Grosseteste of Lincoln owned such
+things, and that he bequeathed his books to the Franciscans of Oxford at
+his death in 1254; and when we examine the Psalter again, we find that
+it is full of notes in a hand which occurs in other Greek MSS. known to
+have belonged to Grosseteste, and which I take to be Grosseteste's
+autograph. So the mere occurrence of John Farley's name helps us to
+write the history of the book from within a hundred years of its making
+until the present day. Procured by Grosseteste some time before 1254, it
+passes to Oxford, and remains there till the Grey Friar's Convent is
+dissolved by Henry VIII. Then there is a gap of a generation at most.
+Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, acquires it (believing it,
+absurdly enough, to have belonged to Archbishop Theodore in the seventh
+century), and bequeaths it to his college of Corpus Christi in 1574.
+
+
+LATIN MSS.
+
+We turn to the Latin division, and here the difficulty of selecting
+lines of procedure is very great. A paragraph of historical preface, at
+any rate, must be attempted.
+
+At the period of the Barbarian invasions--the fifth century--the learned
+countries were Italy, France (especially Southern France) and Spain. Of
+these three, Italy may be described as stationary or even decadent, but
+she possessed greater accumulations of books than either of the other
+two. The result of the invasions was, no doubt, that libraries were
+destroyed and education dislocated; but there was another result, as we
+have lately begun to realize--namely, that in the case of France there
+was a transplanting of culture to another soil. A number of teachers
+fled the country, and some at least came to Ireland. This, as far as we
+can now see, was the beginning of that Irish learning which has been so
+widely, yet so vaguely, extolled. Ireland, then, in the late fifth
+century and the sixth, holds the lamp. Its light passes to England in
+the middle of the seventh century, and from thence, near the end of the
+eighth, to the Court of Charlemagne, where it initiates the Carolingian
+Renaissance. In the ninth century, when England is a prey to the Danes,
+the Carolingian Court and the great abbeys of Germany are enjoying a
+vigorous intellectual life, stimulated and enriched by scholars from
+Italy and from Ireland. In a general view the tenth and eleventh
+centuries must figure as a period of degeneration; the twelfth as one of
+immense intellectual and artistic vigour, culminating in the thirteenth.
+In the fourteenth the foundations of what we call the Renaissance are
+already being laid, and we have hardly passed the middle of the
+fifteenth before the MS. has received its death-blow in the publication
+of the first printed Bible.
+
+This absurdly condensed review of ten centuries has, I believe, some
+truth in it, in spite of the fact that every clause needs qualification.
+We shall have to go over the same ground again a little more slowly. At
+present we will devote a little time to the beginnings of our period.
+
+A few relics of the days before the Barbarian invasion have reached us.
+I am not thinking of the library of rolls found at Herculaneum in the
+eighteenth century, the unrolling and decipherment of which still goes
+on slowly at Naples, nor of the many precious fragments of rolls and
+books which have come in our own generation from Egypt, but rather of
+those which have been preserved above ground in libraries. Such are the
+Virgils of the Vatican, of St. Gall, and of Florence.
+
+Perhaps a word about these ancient Virgils will not be unwelcome. They
+are cited in all the textbooks, it is true, but I think they are apt to
+be confused; at any rate it is easy to confuse them.
+
+They are five in number: three very fragmentary, two more or less
+complete. The surnames they go by are _Sangallensis_, _Augusteus_,
+_Vaticanus_, _Romanus_, _Mediceus_.
+
+_Sangallensis_ and _Augusteus_ are practically the only pieces of books
+we have which are written in the old square capitals, like those of the
+Roman inscriptions. _Sangallensis_ consists of a few leaves which were
+found by Von Arx, a librarian of St. Gall, in the bindings of books in
+that abbey's library. Of _Augusteus_ there are four leaves at Rome
+(_Vaticanus latinus_ 3,256) and three at Berlin; and somewhere, perhaps
+in a private library in France, is or was another bit which was known to
+scholars in the seventeenth century. This copy was once at the Royal
+Abbey of St. Denis. Both of these are fourth-century books at latest.
+
+_Vaticanus_ (_lat._ 3,225) is a more complete copy, illustrated with
+fifty paintings in good classical style, and is also assigned to the
+fourth century.
+
+_Romanus_ (_Vat. lat._ 3,867), once at St. Denis, is a pictured copy
+too, but not nearly so good in style.
+
+_Mediceus_, written before A.D. 494, is at Florence (a single leaf of it
+is bound up with _Vaticanus_). It was formerly in the abbey library of
+Bobbio.
+
+These three books are written in "rustic capitals."
+
+A larger, but still small, group of books of "classical" date are the
+palimpsests, the most famous of which are at Milan and Rome. There was a
+time, early in the nineteenth century, when Angelo Mai, afterwards
+Cardinal, and Prefect of the Vatican Library, was constantly launching
+fresh surprises upon scholars, the results of his work in what was then
+an almost untouched field. Large fragments of Cicero's _Republic_, of
+lost orations of Cicero, of the works of the rhetorician Fronto, were
+issued at short intervals: and all the most important of these were
+recovered from palimpsests in the Ambrosian or the Vatican Library. They
+had all come, too, from one place, the same Bobbio which has been
+already named. Bobbio was founded by the Irishman St. Columban (d. 615).
+The list of the early and valuable MSS. which can be traced to it would
+take up a large share of my available space; but among the precious
+things it owned was a number of quite ancient volumes, the Cicero and
+Fronto and others--books sumptuously written in uncial letters in the
+fourth century, which, sad to say, the Bobbio monks themselves broke up,
+washed out the earlier writing, and covered the pages with texts more
+immediately useful to them. Whence did they come? An answer to that
+question has been offered recently which finds favour among experts.
+They are the relics, it is said, of the library formed by Cassiodorus at
+his monastery of Vivarium or Squillace, in South Italy. Cassiodorus is
+a great figure in the history of his own time, and in his influence upon
+the general course of learning. He was private secretary to Theodoric
+King of the Goths; in his old age he retired from public to monastic
+life, and his last years were devoted to equipping the monks he had
+gathered about him for study--first and foremost the study of the
+Scriptures, but also, as leading up to that, the study of languages, of
+history and geography, and, as conducing to the general welfare, of
+medicine, botany, and other useful arts. It had been a cherished project
+of his to found an academy at Rome where all such learning might be
+fostered, but that plan failed, and Cassiodorus took into his retreat at
+Vivarium all the store of books he had accumulated, and wrote a little
+manual to guide his monks to the right use of them. His _Institutes_ (as
+the book is called) do not give a set catalogue of his library, but
+there are many and striking coincidences between the manual and the
+literary works which can be traced to Bobbio. A specimen may be given:
+he recommends a writer on gardening called Gargilius Martialis. Hardly
+anyone else mentions this person, and his work had disappeared until Mai
+found pieces of it in a palimpsest at Naples which had come from Bobbio.
+We owe much to Cassiodorus in any case, for it was he who commended
+secular learning to monks, and the fact that monks were the great
+preservers of ancient literature cannot be dissociated from his
+influence. I shall be glad if the theory I have stated (it is that of
+the late Dr. Rudolf Beer) proves sound; to have some of the very volumes
+which Cassiodorus handled would be worth much.
+
+There is a link between the library of Cassiodorus and our own country.
+A famous Latin Bible now at Florence, the _Codex Amiatinus_, is known to
+have been once in England, at Wearmouth or Jarrow, and to have been
+taken abroad by Ceolfrid, Abbot of those monasteries, in 716 as a
+present to the Pope, whom it never reached, for Ceolfrid died at Langres
+on his way to Rome. The story has often been told, and needs not to be
+dwelt upon here; but a view has been broached, and is stoutly maintained
+by Sir Henry Howorth, which does deserve mention and is not yet
+familiar. It is that the first quire in the Amiatine Bible, which
+contains pictures and lists of Biblical books, is actually a portion of
+a Bible written for Cassiodorus. There is much to be said for this, and
+at the least we may be sure that it is a direct copy from such a Bible.
+Sir Henry would go farther, and claim the whole book as Cassiodorian. I
+do not know that expert opinion is prepared to endorse this.
+
+The mention of Cassiodorus has led us below the date of the "classical"
+period, for he died in 583. For one moment I revert to the earlier time
+to record an interesting example of wandering. Illustrated books of the
+early centuries are the greatest of rarities. The two Virgils, the
+Vienna and the Cotton Genesis, the Homer at Milan, the Gospels of
+Rossano in Calabria and those of Sinope now at Paris, the Dioscorides at
+Vienna, the Pentateuch of Tours, the Joshua-roll at the Vatican--these
+are the most famous, and there are very few beside them. Among those few
+are some pieces of a Latin Bible written in the fourth century, and
+containing parts of Samuel and Kings, with paintings which, when fresh,
+must have been of high excellence. They have unhappily suffered grievous
+damage, for they were used in the seventeenth century to make covers for
+municipal documents at the royal and ancient abbatial town of
+Quedlinburg (the scene of Canning's _Rovers_). The painted leaves are
+now at Berlin; a leaf of plain text remains at Quedlinburg. No one
+doubts that the book to which they belonged was made in Italy, and the
+likeliest history that can be imagined for it is that it was brought as
+a gift to the abbey by a German prince, say in the tenth century. It is
+hard to explain the neglect and mutilation of so noble a book, in whose
+contents there was nothing to offend Protestant or other religious
+susceptibilities. Only we find, by numerous examples, that the MSS. we
+should most prize now, those written in capitals or uncials with the
+words undivided, or in Irish or English scripts which became
+unfamiliar, were uniformly despised and neglected by the readers of
+later centuries. We meet with notes of this kind in monastic catalogues:
+"It cannot be read," "Old and useless," and the like. Still, one would
+have thought that the pictures of the Quedlinburg book would have saved
+it, even in a German nunnery.
+
+
+CHRONOLOGICAL SURVEY
+
+Since this little book is not a treatise on palæography, a manual of
+art, or a history of learning, and yet has to touch upon all three
+provinces, it is important to keep it from straying too far into any of
+them, and this is one of the most difficult tasks that I have ever
+enterprised. The temptation to dilate upon the beauty and intrinsic
+interest of the MSS. and upon the characteristic scripts of different
+ages and countries is hard to resist. And, indeed, without some slight
+elucidation of such matters my readers may be very much at fault.
+
+I had begun a geographical survey of the field, taking countries as the
+units, and had written upon Italy and Spain, and attempted France. But I
+found that when the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were reached my
+tract was becoming a disquisition upon palæography, art, and learning,
+and, of course, was failing to do justice either to any one of them or
+to what it had promised in its title. I now think that a chronological
+survey will be more practicable, and that it will be best to take first
+the subject of book-production, looking at each country in turn in a
+single period, instead of following the course taken by each, from the
+sixth century to the fifteenth.
+
+_Sixth and Seventh Centuries._--Italy, France, and Spain are the main
+centres. Ireland is active in learning, and in the second half of the
+seventh century England, under Archbishop Theodore and Abbot Hadrian,
+produces schools which rival the Irish, and, in the person of Bede, has
+the greatest scholar of the time. Some of the great Irish monasteries,
+such as Bobbio, Luxeuil, St. Gall, are founded on the Continent.
+
+Books are produced in considerable numbers in Italy, France, Spain; and
+from Italy they are exported, especially by English pilgrims, such as
+Benedict Biscop. The Gospel harmony written in 546 by or for Bishop
+Victor of Capua comes to England, and goes abroad again, with St.
+Boniface, perhaps, and now rests at Fulda, where also his body lies. A
+copy of St. Jerome on Ecclesiastes, written in Italy in the sixth or
+seventh century, has in it the Anglo-Saxon inscription, "The book of
+Cuthsuuitha the Abbess." The only Abbess Cuthsuuitha we know of presided
+over a nunnery in or near Worcester about 690-700. Her book travelled to
+Germany with some British or English missionary, and is at Würzburg.
+Würzburg is an Irish foundation; its apostle and patron, St. Kilian, is
+said to have been assassinated in 689. From Italy, too, came (most
+likely) the illustrated Gospels now at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
+(286), which belonged once to Christchurch, Canterbury; and the
+beautiful little copy of St. John's Gospel at Stonyhurst College, which
+was found in the coffin of St. Cuthbert (d. 687) when it was opened in
+1104. And St. Gall must have acquired its ancient Virgil from Italy
+also--when, we do not know.
+
+Spain kept her books very much to herself, one would guess, judging from
+the very few Spanish MSS. of this age which are to be met with in the
+rest of Europe. The guess, however, would not be quite correct. There
+was one great Spanish scholar in the seventh century, Isidore of Seville
+(636), and his encyclopædia (The _Etymologies_ or _Origins_), which fed
+many later centuries with learning, made its way all over educated
+Europe very quickly. Not only so, but we find English scholars (Aldhelm
+and Bede) quoting Spanish writers on grammar and Spanish poets who were
+almost their own contemporaries.
+
+_Eighth Century._--This sees the last part of Bede's career (d.
+734)--the zenith of English scholarship, the mission of St. Boniface (d.
+758) to Germany, the meeting of Alcuin with Charlemagne (781), and the
+beginning of the Carolingian Renaissance. But, on the other hand, Spain
+is overrun by the Moors, Italy is inert, England begins to be harried
+by the Northmen. On the whole, if there really was a Dark Age, the
+middle of the eighth century seems to answer the description best. But,
+of course, there were points of light. The great centres of Northern
+France, such as Corbie and Laon, particularly Corbie, were beginning
+their activities of collecting and copying books. Ireland was capable of
+producing such a work as the Book of Kells--whether it actually falls
+within the century or not I will not be positive, but work of the same
+amazing beauty was carried out before 800. Nor was the export of
+treasures from Italy to England quite stopped, in spite of difficulties.
+At the Plantin Museum at Antwerp is a copy of the writings of the
+Christian poet Sedulius, which has pictures of the old Italian sort,
+such as we find in the frescoes of the Roman catacombs. In it is a note
+connecting it with a Bishop of the name of Cuthwin, who held the East
+Anglian see and died about 754. Another MS., at Paris, has a note
+describing an elaborately illustrated life of St. Paul, which, it says,
+the same Bishop Cuthwin brought with him from Rome.
+
+_Ninth Century._--There is immense activity, literary and artistic,
+afoot at the Court of Charlemagne (d. 814) and of his successors. The
+German abbeys--_e.g._, Lorsch, Fulda--and cathedral schools (Mainz,
+Bamberg, etc.) are full of scribes and teachers. Irishmen who know
+Greek flock to the Continent, driven from home by Danish invasion: such
+are Johannes Scottus Eriugena and Sedulius Scottus. They haunt Liége,
+Laon, Aix-la-Chapelle, and penetrate to Italy. Not less prolific are the
+French houses: at Tours the handwriting called the Carolingian
+minuscule, the parent of our modern "Roman" printing, is developed,
+though not at Tours alone. At Corbie, Fleury on the Loire, (now called
+St. Bénoit sur Loire), St. Riquier by Abbeville, Rheims, and many
+another centre in Northern and Eastern France, libraries are accumulated
+and ancient books copied. Of St. Gall and Reichenau the same may be
+said. In Italy, Verona is conspicuous. The archdeacon Pacificus (d. 846)
+gave over 200 books to the cathedral, where many of them still are; and
+at Monte Cassino, the head house of the Benedictine Order, books were
+written in the difficult "Beneventane" hand (which used to be called
+Lombardic, and was never popular outside Italy). Spain has its own
+special script at this time, the Visigothic, as troublesome to read as
+the Beneventane; its _a_'s are like _u_'s and its _t_'s like _a_'s.
+England is still overrun by the Danes, and does nothing before the very
+end of the century, when King Alfred exerts himself to revive education,
+and starts a vernacular literature.
+
+An enormous proportion of the earliest copies we have of classical Latin
+authors come from this century, when old copies of them were actively
+sought out and transcribed. Often great liberties in the way of revision
+and even abridgment of the text were taken by the scholars of the time,
+and, once transcribed, the old archetypes were neglected or even
+destroyed.
+
+Books of very great beauty--Bibles, Gospels, Psalters--were produced for
+the Emperors and the great nobles and prelates. In these there is a
+marked effort to imitate and continue the traditions of classical art.
+
+_Tenth Century._--The tradition of study and scholarship lives on, but
+the impulse from Britain and Ireland has worked itself out, and few
+geniuses are born on the Continent. There is a period of splendour and
+vigour in England under the Kings Athelstan and Edgar and the
+Archbishops Odo and Dunstan. The calligraphic school of Winchester
+achieves magnificent results. At the end of the century the great
+teacher and scholar Gerbert (Pope Sylvester II.) is a prominent figure
+at the Imperial Court. The Ottos emulate Charlemagne in their zeal for
+literature and for fine works of art, but their attainment is slighter.
+
+_Eleventh Century._--Men still live on the traditions of the Carolingian
+Revival in the early part: there is later an awakening, principally,
+perhaps, in France and Italy. Great names like those of Anselm, Abelard,
+Bernard, come forward. Monastic reform is active; great schools, as at
+Chartres, take their rise; there is a preparation for the wonderful
+vigour of the next century. The First Crusade brings East and West
+together in a new fashion.
+
+_Twelfth Century._--The strength and energy of Europe is now tremendous
+in every department, and not least in that with which we are concerned.
+Our libraries are crammed to-day with twelfth-century MSS. The
+Gregories, Augustines, Jeromes, Anselms, are numbered by the hundred. It
+is the age of great Bibles and of "glosses"--single books or groups of
+books of the Bible equipped with a marginal and interlinear comment
+(very many of which, by the way, seem to have been produced in North
+Italy). Immense, too, is the output of the writers of the time; Bernard,
+Hugh and Richard of St. Victor, Peter Comestor, Peter Lombard. The two
+last are the authors of two of the most popular of medieval
+textbooks--Peter Lombard of the _Sentences_ (a body of doctrine), Peter
+Comestor of the _Historia Scholastica_ (a manual of Scripture history).
+The Cistercian Order, now founding houses everywhere, is, I think,
+specially active in filling its libraries with fine but austerely plain
+copies of standard works, eschewing figured decoration in its books, as
+in its buildings, and caring little for secular learning. The University
+of Paris is the centre of intellectual vigour.
+
+_Thirteenth Century._--This is commonly regarded as the greatest of all
+in medieval history; and truly, when we think of achievements such as
+Westminster, Amiens, and Chartres, and of men such as St. Louis, St.
+Thomas Aquinas, St. Francis, Dante, Edward I., Roger Bacon, we must
+agree that the popular estimate is sound. Certainly we see in France and
+in England the fine flower of art in buildings and in books.
+
+Paris is still the centre. The "Gothic" spirit is concentrated there.
+The book trade is enormous. It is passing--under the influence of the
+University, most likely--out of the hands of the monastic scribes into
+those of the professional "stationers"; while great individual artists,
+such as Honoré, arise to provide for Royal and noble persons examples of
+art which stand as high to-day as when they were first produced.
+
+It is now that we find a large multiplication of textbooks. If the
+twelfth century was the age of great Bibles, the thirteenth is the age
+of small ones. Thousands of these exist, written with amazing minuteness
+and uniformity. Only less common are the Aristotles, the _Sentences_,
+the _Summæ_, and the other works of the golden age of scholasticism. The
+Orders of Friars, Franciscan and Dominican, form libraries--partly of
+duplicates procured from older foundations, partly of new copies to
+which they were helped by charitable friends.
+
+Towards the end of the century Italy comes forward as the great purveyor
+of books of a special sort. The University of Bologna becomes the great
+law school of Europe, and exports in numbers copies of the immense texts
+and commentaries of and upon the Church (Canon) and Roman (Civil) law
+which were indispensable to the unfortunate student. These books become
+common at the end of the thirteenth century, and run over well into the
+fourteenth. They are prettily (but often very carelessly) written in a
+round Gothic hand, sometimes christened "Bolognese." Some were not only
+written but decorated (with poorish ornament) on the spot, but very many
+were exported in sheets and provided, in France or England, with such
+decoration as the purchaser could afford. A leading example is a copy of
+the Decretals in the British Museum (Royal 10, E. iv.) which belonged to
+St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield. It is in Italian script, but on each of
+the spacious lower margins of its many pages is a picture by an English
+artist; these pictures run in sets, illustrating Bible stories, legends,
+and romances.
+
+As the centuries go on, the material they have left increases in bulk,
+and the complication of the threads is proportionately greater. I cannot
+hope in a survey like this to give prominence to every factor; but we
+shall not be wrong in fixing upon Northern France and England as the
+areas of greatest productiveness and the sources of the best art in the
+thirteenth century.
+
+Before we pass to the next century a word must be devoted to a not
+unimportant class of books which seem to have been manufactured chiefly
+in Picardy and Artois, the illustrated Romances--_e.g._ the Grail and
+Lancelot--of great bulk, usually in prose, which served to pass the
+winter evenings of persons of quality. A few of these, and a book of
+devotions to take to church (oftenest a Psalter at this time; later on a
+book of Hours), were the staple books owned by the upper classes.
+
+_Fourteenth Century._--If the thirteenth century gives us on the whole
+the noblest books, the early part of the fourteenth affords the
+loveliest. They come from England, France, and the Netherlands. A
+noticeable element in their art is that of the grotesque and burlesque,
+never, of course, quite absent even from early books, but now most
+prominent and most delightful. The defect of the art of this time is
+lack of strength and austerity; its delicacy is above praise.
+
+The middle of the century sees Petrarch, and with him the Renaissance
+begins. Italy has been producing great men in every field, but the work
+of Petrarch reached farther and was more enduring than that of any
+other.
+
+France, tortured by wars, put forth little in the middle years, but then
+came Charles V., a King who was really interested in books, and the
+library he formed at the Louvre gave a stimulus to book-production which
+spread wide and lasted long. Under Richard II. and through his Queen,
+Anne of Bohemia, a foreign influence makes itself felt in England, and
+some lovely results are achieved; but on the whole English art is
+waning.
+
+The Universities, and to some extent the monasteries, were throughout
+this century great customers for the bulky books of scholastic divinity
+(Duns Scotus, Albertus, and the like) and the later generation of
+commentators on the Bible, such as Nicolas de Lyra and Hugo de S. Caro.
+Many shelves are filled with these.
+
+_Fifteenth Century._--The fifteenth century is our last; it ends the MS.
+period. Under the influence of the Renaissance, now enormously potent,
+every Italian noble forms a library. The scholars are seeking out the
+ninth-century copies of the classics, and they discard the Gothic
+(black-letter) hands of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in
+favour of the Carolingian minuscule (or, some say that of the twelfth
+century). As early as 1426 we find books written in a script adapted and
+refined from this; we call it a Roman hand, though the great centre of
+its propagation seems to have been Florence. In all essentials it is the
+parent of the type in which this page will be printed.
+
+Italy, then, is the hub of the universe for books; and in Italy,
+Florence, Naples, and Rome are the most active _nuclei_. We have a
+record written by a Florentine bookseller, Vespasiano Bisticci, in the
+form of short biographies of great persons, many of whom had dealt with
+him. For some he provided whole libraries, as for Frederick, Duke of
+Urbino, whose books are now mostly in the Vatican. Such a man as this
+would not look at a printed book--which in Vespasiano's mind is, of
+course, very greatly to his credit; for the press was bound to put an
+end to his particular industry. We still find, by the way, this
+prejudice against print in the very last years of the century. Some rich
+persons had MS. copies actually made from printed editions and
+elaborately illustrated. Such a one was Raphael de Marcatellis, natural
+son of Philip the Good of Burgundy and titular Bishop of Rhossus, near
+Antioch.[B] Part of his library may be found at Ghent, part at Holkham,
+and stray volumes at Cambridge (Peterhouse) and in the Arundel
+collection at the British Museum. They are very handsome books, and many
+have full-page paintings by capable artists, but the resulting
+impression is on the whole that of decadence.
+
+Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary (d. 1490), is a name famous among old
+bibliophiles. He got together a library of fine books, mostly recent
+copies made for him, and it was dispersed and sacked by the Turks in
+1526. It is spoken of with bated breath by the old writers, as if it had
+contained priceless treasures. I am sceptical.
+
+Ferdinand of Aragon and Calabria was a collector of the same kind, whose
+beautiful books, adorned with his arms in the lower margin of the first
+page, are many of them at Valencia, having passed to the University
+there by way of the Abbey of St. Miguel de Los Reyes. These are of
+Italian and not of Spanish manufacture, and very fine they are.
+
+These last-mentioned libraries have been scattered, but there are still
+some of the Renaissance period which survive in their original homes.
+The Laurentian at Florence and the Vatican at Rome stand at the head of
+all. With regard to the latter it may be said that though earlier Popes,
+of course, had libraries (that of Avignon was quite considerable), yet
+Nicholas V. (d. 1455) must be regarded as the founder of the Vatican
+library in its present state. So, too, the Marciana at Venice and the
+Malatestiana at Cesena must rank as genuine Renaissance collections.
+
+It was not only the great men who loved to have books. The tribe of
+scholars, foreign as well as native, who coveted them was numerous.
+Every library now has its quota of humbler copies of the classics, often
+on paper, in the Roman or the more cursive Italic hand, not written by a
+professional scribe. Often these are of infinitesimal value,
+transcripts of extant copies of no greater age; but there is always the
+possibility that they may be a competent scholar's own careful apograph
+of some ancient MS. which a Poggio had unearthed at St. Gall, and which
+has since vanished. A glance at the _apparatus criticus_ of a few
+editions of classics will show that often a fifteenth-century MS. ranks
+high among the authorities for the text. Pedigree is what matters, not
+beauty of hand, nor, necessarily, date.
+
+It has been the fate of these scholars' books, as it is the fate of all
+MSS., to be absorbed into great libraries, and many of them lurk there
+still unexamined and their origin undetermined. Discoveries, no doubt,
+yet remain to be made among them.
+
+Whether or not a breath of influence from Italy was the cause, it is
+plain that library-making was popular in countries and circles which
+were not obviously affected by the Renaissance. The monasteries of
+England were certainly not so affected, yet we find many of them setting
+their books in order and building special rooms to contain them.
+Christchurch at Canterbury and Bury St. Edmunds are leading instances.
+Now, too, Universities and colleges made fresh catalogues, and received
+large accessions of books.
+
+If the Renaissance did not touch the English public as a whole in this
+century, it made some proselytes. Among Englishmen who dealt with our
+Florentine Vespasiano were John Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester, Humphrey,
+Duke of Gloucester, William Gray, Bishop of Ely, Andrew Holes, of Wells.
+Others who resorted to Italy were John Free, Thomas Linacre, John
+Gunthorpe, Dean of Wells, William Flemming, Dean of Lincoln, William
+Tilley of Sellinge, Prior of Christchurch, Canterbury. We shall see
+later on what traces some of these have left on our libraries.
+
+In places to which the Italian influence did not penetrate the humdrum
+trade of copying went on. Anselm, Bernard, and Augustine; sermon-books
+by the score; Burley on Aristotle, etc. Then, in another class, the
+production of books for use in church was very large. There were few
+Bibles, but Missals, Breviaries, large choir-books to be laid on the
+lectern, Graduals and Processionals, are legion. Then, again, every
+well-to-do person must have his or her Book of Hours, illuminated if
+possible. Such things were common wedding-presents, it seems. Upon the
+best of them really great artists were employed, like Foucquet of Tours
+and Gerard David; we even find Perugino painting a page in one, but the
+average are shop work made for the Italian market at Naples or Florence,
+for the French at Paris, Tours, or Rouen, for the English very often at
+Bruges, where also many sumptuous chronicle books and French versions
+of secular history and romances were turned out. Edward IV. had a
+considerable number of such in his library.
+
+These private Prayer Books are, of course, incomparably the commonest of
+all illuminated manuscripts. They vary from loveliness to
+contemptibility. Perversely, they figure in catalogues, and are lettered
+on their backs, as Missals; our ancestors of the eighteenth and
+nineteenth centuries forgot that a Missal must contain the service of
+the Mass, and that none of these books do.
+
+There, then, is a second survey of our ground, somewhat more detailed
+than the first, but woefully sketchy. Everyone who has studied MSS. of
+any class or period would detect omissions in it which for him would
+vitiate the whole story. The best I can hope is that the assertions in
+it are not incorrect, and that it gives a true notion of the general
+course of book-production in medieval times.
+
+
+WANDERINGS OF LATIN MSS.: THE CONTINENT
+
+We are now to concern ourselves with the later destinies of the books
+which we have seen in the making. Here generalities will be less in
+place; nevertheless, I must begin with some.
+
+There are two main classes of persons interested in MSS.: those who care
+for their literary contents, and those who prize them for their artistic
+beauty. Roughly speaking--very roughly--the precious literary things of
+ancient times were preserved in monastic and cathedral libraries, and
+the beautiful things in palaces and castles and church treasuries. I do
+not forget that poetry and romance in the vernacular were chiefly in the
+hands of the laity, nor do I depreciate their value as literature.
+
+The ancient books, pagan and Christian, are perhaps to be regarded as
+the backbone of the subject, and therefore the first part of my enquiry
+shall be devoted to the ecclesiastical libraries, and considerations of
+space shall rule me on the other head.
+
+The monastic and cathedral libraries can be best treated by countries.
+France, Germany, and England will serve as specimens. Of Italy perhaps
+enough has been said incidentally to attract attention to the most
+important centres, such as Bobbio, Monte Cassino, and Verona, and upon
+the whole I do not think that in Italy this class of library played so
+great a part in the later Middle Ages as it did in the rest of Europe.
+
+France is full of Latin MSS. Every considerable town, besides many that
+are inconsiderable, has its public library, into which at the Revolution
+were collected the remains of the libraries of the religious houses of
+the district. France's Dissolution came at a time when many eyes were
+open to the possible value of ancient books, and strings could be
+pulled and influence exercised to stem the unreasoning fury that said:
+
+          We'll pull all arts and learning down,
+          And hey, then, up go we!
+
+It is easier, also, to rescue books than buildings. The Revolutionists
+tore down a cathedral, and it is gone; but books are portable and,
+moreover, do not burn or tear or drown easily, especially vellum MSS.;
+and when the first hurricane of idiocy had blown over they were very
+likely found, rather dustier than before, still on their shelves.
+
+Nowadays our methods are more effective, of course; but I have said as
+much about that as I can bear.
+
+If, then, one took a map of France and marked down the principal abbeys,
+one would have a fair _prima-facie_ indication where to look for their
+MSS. From Corbie, you would say, they went to Amiens, from Cîteaux to
+Dijon, from Bec and Mont St. Michel to Avranches, and so on. This would
+be right, but there are exceptions. Corbie, a specially important
+library, is one.
+
+When in 1636 the French under Louis XIII. regained that territory from
+the Spaniards, the precarious situation of its treasures was recognized,
+and 400 select MSS. were taken to Paris. The Reformed Benedictines of
+the Congregation of St. Maur had done much at Corbie for the
+preservation of the books, and they now petitioned that the Corbie MSS.
+might not be alienated from the Order, "n' ayant personne qui soit si
+jaloux de conserver l'héritage de leurs pères que les propres enfants."
+The petition was successful, and the MSS. were placed in the Abbey of
+St. Germain des Près at Paris. This was in 1638. In 1791, during the
+Revolutionary troubles, there was a fire at the abbey, and in the
+confusion a batch of early books was stolen. These came into the hands
+of a Russian envoy, Dubrowsky, and most of them, if not all, are (or
+were until a more recent Revolution) in the Imperial Library at
+Petrograd. The rest, still a great collection, were drafted out of St.
+Germain into the National Library in 1795-96. Meanwhile a large number
+(including some very important books) had remained at Corbie, and these
+did go to Amiens in or about 1791.
+
+But before 1636 Corbie MSS. had begun to stray from home. One fairly
+clear case seems to be that of the Harley MS. 3,063, which was once in
+the library founded late in the fifteenth century at Cues, on the
+Moselle, by Cardinal Nicholas of Cues (_Cusanus_). It is one of two
+copies of the Latin version of Theodore of Mopsuestia's Commentary on
+the Pauline Epistles. The other is a Corbie book at Amiens. Both show
+the same gaps and blanks in the text, but the one is not believed to be
+a direct copy of the other. Both go back to a common original.
+
+Other Corbie books are at Montpellier. They had a long roundabout
+journey to get there. Part of a magnificent collection formed by
+successive Bouhiers (seven of whom were Presidents of the Parlement de
+Bourgogne, and lived at Dijon), they were bought in 1781 from the heir
+of the last Bouhier by the last Abbot but one of Clairvaux. Then, when
+Clairvaux was suppressed at the Revolution, its library went to Troyes.
+Government commissioners were sent round to look through the
+departmental libraries and note the most valuable MSS. and printed
+books. One of those who visited Troyes was a Montpellier professor, Dr.
+Prunelle. The 300 and odd MSS. which he put aside would, if precedent
+had been followed, have gone to Paris, but they did in fact go to the
+famous old school of medicine at Montpellier, and there they are at this
+day.
+
+One at least of the remarkable collection given by Archbishop Parker to
+Corpus Christi College at Cambridge (193), is a Corbie book--a product
+evidently of the Corbie _scriptorium_, though it bears on its first leaf
+the traces of an inscription of ownership which, illegible as it is,
+does seem to be that of another monastery. Parker's is, on the whole, so
+English a collection that the presence of this early French book arrests
+attention. It does not, however, stand quite alone; there is a rather
+similar one (334) which Professor Lindsay tells me is a Laon book of
+about the same (eighth-century) date.
+
+Corbie has occupied a considerable space, but it is entitled to do so on
+several accounts. The number of early MSS. traceable to it is very
+large, their intrinsic interest is high, and for a third reason I may
+again quote Professor Lindsay as having decided, from a minute study of
+the abbreviations used by Corbie scribes, that Anglo-Saxon influences
+were at work in the formation of its peculiar hand.
+
+Corbie was, as I have hinted before, but one of many venerable centres
+of learning in the northern half of France. I shall not attempt a list
+of them, but go on to note one salient fact, that the southern half of
+the country is noticeably the poorer in MSS.
+
+At Autun and Lyons, both of them magnificent cities in Roman times, some
+very ancient books did linger, and here is room for a digression. Lyons
+had a Pentateuch in Latin which was a great rarity, for not only was it
+in uncials of the fifth century, but it was of the Old Latin version,
+that made from the Greek before St. Jerome made his version from the
+Hebrew, which we call the Vulgate.
+
+Rather before the middle of the nineteenth century an Italian adventurer
+of some learning and little virtue, the Chevalier Guglielmo (etc.)
+Libri, obtained employment under the French Government in the Department
+of Public Instruction, and was sent on a tour of inspection among
+provincial libraries. He made this the occasion for increasing a
+collection of MSS. which he had already begun for his private uses.
+Where he found that the town librarian was a good easy man, he removed
+(silently) from his keeping a selection of the most precious volumes,
+or, if it seemed unsafe to take the whole of a MS., he detached some few
+quires. Now and then he left a less valuable book in the place of the
+other. His best hunting-grounds were Tours, Orléans, and Lyons. At Lyons
+he conveyed away the Book of Leviticus and part of Numbers out of the
+Pentateuch. He had skilled workmen in his pay at Paris, who wrote names
+of other (generally Italian) monasteries and former owners on the first
+page of the stolen books, and otherwise disguised them; when he had made
+up a selection of a suitable bulk and attractiveness, he looked about
+for a wealthy purchaser, and found one in the Earl of Ashburnham, who
+bought _en bloc_, and whose manuscripts were not readily made accessible
+to the public. So the Lyons Leviticus and an illustrated sixth-century
+Pentateuch from Tours and many other precious things from Fleury (near
+Orléans) and elsewhere reposed in England until the early eighties, when
+M. Leopold Delisle made public the result of a most patient and most
+subtle investigation of the whole fraud, and a selection of the best of
+the plunder was got back for France. Sad to say, the municipalities
+which had been most negligent in keeping their MSS. refused to
+contribute to the recovery of them. They are still at Paris, to the
+advantage of students, but to the discredit of the provinces.
+
+Meanwhile Libri's reputation had been thoroughly blown upon, and he
+retired from France, and was dead in Italy or elsewhere before his
+crimes had been atoned for. A great mass of his accumulations was bought
+from the Ashburnhams by the Italians and is now at Florence. Madame
+Libri survived, like Madame Fosco, to defend his memory.
+
+To return. In spite of the long history and great wealth of Bordeaux,
+Marseilles, Arles, Narbonne, Toulouse, you will not trace many famous
+books to those places. The city which, on the whole, has preserved its
+early manuscripts best is Albi, but it was never a great centre of
+learning, and its library, though extremely interesting, is not large.
+
+However, we need not be surprised at the poverty of a region which has
+had to undergo Albigensian crusades, English occupation, wars of
+religion, and a revolution.
+
+Some of the great early libraries of Germany were mentioned in our
+historical survey. Fulda and Lorsch were as remarkable as any. At the
+present day Fulda retains only the few Bonifacian MSS. which rank as
+relics of the saint--the blood-stained volume of Ambrose which was on
+Boniface when the pagans killed him, his pocket copy of the Gospels,
+the MS. written for Victor of Capua. The bulk of its abbey library,
+which remained together until the close of the sixteenth century, is
+dispersed and gone, no one knows where. Some books are at Cassel in the
+ducal library. Lorsch has nothing _in situ_, but a good deal in the
+Vatican. Both houses were instrumental in preserving the classics; we
+owe to them Suetonius, Tacitus, Ammianus Marcellinus, and part of Livy.
+
+The Thirty Years' War was responsible for a good deal of dispersion.
+Cargoes of books made their way to England, and Archbishop Laud bought
+and gave to the Bodleian many from Würzburg and Erfürt; in the Arundel
+collection at the British Museum the German contingent is large. Sweden
+also profited at this time, and got its lovely _Codex Aureus_ (once at
+Canterbury), its _Codex Argenteus_ (the Gothic Gospels at Upsala), and
+its _Gigas_, or Devil's Bible, which came from Prague.
+
+In the Revolutionary period there was extensive secularization of
+abbeys, and whole libraries passed into central depots, as at Munich,
+which has the MSS. of St. Emmeram of Ratisbon and of Tegernsee,
+Benedictbeuern, Schäftlarn, and many other houses. Those of the old and
+rich foundation of Reichenau passed to Carlsruhe. Precious books, like
+the gold-covered Gospels of Lindau, were exported. This particular gem
+was bought by Lord Ashburnham, and in recent years has gone to America.
+Fine Gospels and other service-books from Weingarten are at Holkham;
+they appeal to the Englishman, for they contain pictures of our sainted
+King Oswald, of whom Weingarten owned a relic.
+
+North Germany's contribution is far inferior to that of Bavaria and the
+Rhine provinces. The inhabitants of large regions were pagans till a
+late date (some might say they were so still), and have never, we
+conceive, been really civilized. Few books were made there before the
+fourteenth century, and I know of no good libraries that existed there
+in the medieval period. A good part of the contents of one at Elbing,
+near Dantzic, came somehow to Cambridge (Corpus Christi) in the
+seventeenth century; it is a dreary collection, mostly on paper, of
+scholastic theology, sermons, meditations, and a little medicine.
+
+In Austria the abbeys were let alone till 1918. Such houses as Melk on
+the Danube, St. Florian, St. Paul in Carinthia, Admont in Styria, still
+owned their estates, their revenues, and their libraries. That of Melk
+is noticeable, and at St. Paul is, oddly enough, one of the very
+earliest Irish vernacular MSS. I believe it came thither in fairly
+recent times from St. Blasien in the Black Forest. But, on the whole,
+these places were too remote from the main stream to accumulate many
+treasures of the very first quality.
+
+
+LATIN MSS. IN ENGLAND
+
+Let me now turn to England, and treat in greater detail of the monastic
+and cathedral libraries there, and what happened to them. The
+Dissolution, as we know, occurred here near on 400 years ago, which
+makes the task of tracing the books at once harder and more fascinating
+than in the case of France or Germany, where a whole library may be
+found practically intact in a town near its old home. Of course, what
+was done there ought to have been done here. Leland, the King's
+antiquary, the abusive Protestant, John Bale, and the foolish but
+learned Dr. John Dee, begged that it might be done. Yet, whatever Henry
+VIII's or Mary's or Elizabeth's intentions may have been at times as to
+the foundation of a "solempne library" where the ancient books of the
+realm might be stored, they got but a very little way. Leland did secure
+some MSS. for the Royal Library, perhaps most from Rochester, but upon
+the whole the work was left in Elizabeth's days to individual
+enthusiasts--Sir Robert Cotton, Archbishop Parker, and Dee and Bale
+themselves. Others who did good work were Henry Fitzalan, Earl of
+Arundel; Lord William Howard; Long Harry Savile of Bank; Laurence
+Nowell, who rescued Anglo-Saxon books; Nicholas Brigam, who was
+interested in English literature and built Chaucer's tomb in the Abbey;
+the Theyers of Brockworth, near Gloucester. These are names to some of
+which we shall return; it would be well at this moment to take a few
+libraries one by one and see what can be said of them.
+
+
+CATALOGUES OF MSS.
+
+But, first, what are our means for pursuing such an investigation? We
+are best off if we have a catalogue of our abbey library, and preferably
+a late one; for in that case not only will the library be at its
+fullest, but probably the cataloguer will have set down, after the title
+of each book, the first words of its second leaf. Does this need
+explanation? Perhaps. In MSS., unlike printed books, the first words of
+the second leaf will be different in any two copies, say, of the Bible;
+the scribes did not make a page for page or line for line copy of their
+archetype--in fact, they may probably have avoided doing so purposely.
+By the help of such a catalogue we can search through collections of
+MSS., noting the second leaves in each case, and, it may be, identifying
+a considerable number of books. It is a laborious but an interesting
+process.
+
+But, alas! such catalogues are very few; we have them for Durham, St.
+Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury (and partly also for Christchurch), St.
+Paul's Cathedral, Exeter Cathedral, Dover Priory, the Austin Friars of
+York (all now in print), and for not many more.
+
+Next best it is to have a catalogue enumerating the contents of each
+volume; and next, and commonest, one which gives usually but a single
+title to each. Among the most useful I reckon those of Christchurch,
+Canterbury, Peterborough (an anomalous one), Glastonbury, Bury St.
+Edmunds, Rochester, Dover, Lincoln, Leicester Abbey (not yet printed in
+full), Ramsey, Rievaulx, Lanthony-by-Gloucester, Titchfield. There are a
+good many short catalogues for smaller houses, written on the fly-leaves
+of books, which do not, as a rule, help us much. The list of monastic
+catalogues, however, is dreadfully defective. We have none for St.
+Albans or Norwich or Crowland or Westminster, for Gloucester or
+Worcester, St. Mary's, York, or Fountains. What do we do in such cases?
+
+
+THE EVIDENCE OF MSS. THEMSELVES
+
+We have to depend, of course, on the evidence of the MSS. themselves. It
+was happily a common practice to write on the fly-leaf or first leaf
+_Liber (Sancte Marie) de (tali loco)_. This is decisive. Then, again,
+some libraries devised a system of press-marks, such as "N. lxviii.,"
+let us say. You find this in conjunction with the inscription of
+ownership; it is a Norwich book, you discover, that you have in hand,
+and all books showing press-marks of that form are consequently Norwich
+books too. Or you will find the name of a donor. "This book was the gift
+of John Danyell, Prior." Search in Dugdale's _Monasticon_ will reveal,
+perhaps, that John Danyell was Prior of St. Augustine's, Bristol, in
+1459. A clue to locality will often be given in such a case by the
+monk's surname, for it was their custom to call themselves by the name
+of their native village. Thus, a monk named John Melford or William
+Livermere will be a Suffolk man, and the abbey in which he was professed
+is likely to be Bury. Coming to later times, it is apparent that at the
+Dissolution groups of books from a single abbey came into the hands of a
+single man. If I find Dakcombe on the fly-leaf of a MS., I am almost
+entitled to assume that it is a Winchester book: John Stonor got his
+books from Reading Abbey, John Young drew from Fountains, and so forth.
+Lastly, and most rarely, you are justified in saying that the
+handwriting and decoration of this or that book shows it to have been
+written at St. Albans or at Canterbury. Hitherto the instances where
+this is possible are few, but I do not doubt that multiplication of
+observations will add to their number.
+
+In questioning a MS. for any of these indications (except the last) you
+must be on the look-out for signs of erasures, especially on the margins
+of the first leaf and on the fly-leaves at either end. Here the owner's
+name was usually written. Often it was accompanied by a curse on the
+wrongful possessor, and at the Dissolution there were many wrongful
+possessors, who, whether disliking the curse or anticipating trouble
+from possible buyers, thought it well to erase name, and curse, and all.
+They seldom did it so thoroughly that the surface of the vellum does not
+betray where it was, and it can be revived by the dabbing (_not_
+painting) upon it of ammonium bisulphide, which, unlike the
+old-fashioned galls, does not stain the page. Dabbed on the surface with
+a soft paint-brush, and dried off at once with clean blotting paper, it
+makes the old record leap to light, sometimes with astonishing
+clearness, sometimes slowly, so that the letters cannot be read till
+next day. It is not always successful; it is of no use to apply it to
+writing in red, and its smell is overpowering, but it is the elixir of
+palæographers.
+
+Yet, when all has been done, there is a sadly large percentage of MSS.
+which preserve an obstinate silence. They have been rebound (that is
+common), and have lost their fly-leaves in the process, or, worse than
+that, they have lain tossing about without a binding and their first and
+last quires have dropped away. In such cases we can only tell, from our
+previous experience in ancient handwritings, the date and country of
+their origin.
+
+
+ENGLISH LIBRARIES
+
+And now to turn to some individual libraries. Some of the most venerable
+have practically disappeared--that of Glastonbury, for instance, the
+premier abbey of England, the only one which lived through from British
+to Saxon times.[C] To it we might reasonably look to trace many an
+ancient book belonging to the days of the old British Church. Leland,
+who visited the library not long before the Dissolution, represents
+himself as overawed by its antiquity. But almost the only record he
+quotes is one by "Melkinus," which most modern writers think was a late
+forgery. However, there is in the Bodleian one British book from
+Glastonbury, written, at least in part, in Cornwall, and preserving
+remnants of the learning of the British clergy. It has portions of Ovid
+and of Latin grammar, and passages of the Bible in Greek and Latin. The
+catalogue, too, shows that there were in fact a good number of old MSS.,
+and also that the monks of the fourteenth century did not care much
+about them, for they are marked as "Old and useless," "Old and in bad
+condition" (_debilis_), and so on. The actual extant books which we can
+trace to this foundation are few and for the most part late.
+
+St. Albans, founded by King Offa in the eighth century, has left us, as
+I said, no catalogue, but there are many of its books in our libraries.
+Two groups of them stand out. First are those procured by Abbot Simon
+(1166-1188) and Prior Mathias. These are very finely written. A typical
+and very interesting specimen is a Bible at Eton (26) which has three
+columns to a page--a rare distinction in the twelfth century, pointing,
+perhaps, to its having been copied from a very early and venerable
+model. It has a sister book at Corpus Christi, Cambridge, and another--a
+New Testament--at Trinity College, Dublin. Then we have a large and
+important group of histories. The historiographers of St. Albans form a
+series reaching from Roger of Wendover (d. 1236) to Thomas Walsingham
+(d. 1422). The greatest of them was Matthew Paris (d. 1259). We have
+authentic and even autograph copies of many of these works, and
+especially of Paris's (at Corpus Christi, Cambridge (26 and 16), and in
+the British Museum, Royal 14, C. vii., Cotton Nero D. 1, etc.). And we
+have not only Paris's writing, but many of his drawings, for he was an
+accomplished artist. All these books furnish us with material for
+judging of the handwriting used at St. Albans in the twelfth and
+thirteenth centuries, and we can speak with fair confidence of St.
+Albans books of that period.
+
+As in other cases, I believe that many books were written there for
+other monasteries, either as gifts or as a matter of business. Not every
+one of the little priories scattered all over the country had its own
+scriptorium; it was only natural that they should apply to the big
+establishments when they wanted a Bible or service-book or commentary of
+really good quality. This practice explains the fact that we quite often
+find books which we could make oath are products of St. Albans or of
+Canterbury, and which yet have inscriptions, written when they were new
+books, showing that they were owned by some small house. Let me here
+note two other ways in which books wandered from the great abbeys.
+_One_: all the abbey libraries were full of duplicates; read any
+catalogue, and you will realize that. When the Orders of Friars were
+collecting libraries of their own, and when the colleges in the two
+Universities were doing the same, they found that the monks were often
+willing to part with one of their eight or nine sets of Gregory's
+_Moralia_ or Augustine _On the Trinity_ for a consideration. _Two_: most
+of the large abbeys maintained hostels at the Universities, singly or
+jointly, in which some of their younger members studied for degrees.
+These hostels were equipped with libraries, and the libraries were
+furnished from the shelves of the mother-houses. We have at least two
+lists of books so used: one of those which Durham sent to what is now
+Trinity College, Oxford; the other of those which Christchurch,
+Canterbury, deported to Canterbury College, Oxford, which stood on the
+site of Canterbury Quad, in Christ Church.
+
+There was some compensation, by the way: the abbeys were not invariably
+the losers. A group of books (at Lambeth) was procured to be written by
+a Canon of Lanthony when he was studying at Oxford (about 1415), and
+given to the library of his priory.
+
+We have digressed from the particular to the general. Returning to
+individual libraries, let us glance at the Norwich Cathedral Priory. Of
+this, again, we have no catalogue; it is a case in which press-marks and
+names of owners are our guides. Norwich has a system of press-marks
+consisting of a letter of the alphabet plus a Roman numeral: "N.
+lxviii." The press-marks of several other houses consist of just the
+same elements, but we can pick out that of Norwich by its size (not
+large) and its position (top of the first leaf of text); also there is
+usually added to it the name of the monk who procured it for the house,
+Henry de Lakenham or W. Catton--someone whose surname is the name of a
+Norfolk village. Over a hundred MSS. from Norwich are known to me, but
+they are a very small fraction of the library, as is shown by the
+numerals attached to the several class letters. Very few of them are as
+old as the twelfth century; late twelfth and particularly early
+fourteenth make up the bulk. I attribute this to the great fire of 1286,
+and I take it that then the greater part of the priory books were
+spoiled, and that energetic steps to refill the library were taken in
+the years that followed. There are more Norwich books in the University
+Library at Cambridge than anywhere else; it has not been proved, but I
+do not much doubt, that most of them were given by the chapter to
+Cambridge about 1574, at the suggestion of Dr. Andrew Perne, Master of
+Peterhouse, who was a member of the cathedral body and an enthusiast for
+the University Library.
+
+Not very dissimilar was the action of Exeter Chapter, who in 1602 gave
+over eighty of their MSS. to Sir Thomas Bodley's new library in Oxford,
+Bodley's brother being then a Canon of Exeter; and not long after the
+Canons of Worcester picked out a score of their MSS., for Dean
+Williams's new library at Westminster Abbey. These, however, I believe
+were never actually sent off. It is just as well, for the Westminster
+MSS. were burnt in 1694. Of Bury St. Edmunds I have attempted to write
+the history elsewhere, but it is not likely that many readers of this
+book will be familiar with my former publication. The only catalogue we
+have for this abbey is an early one (eleventh to twelfth century)
+written on the fly-leaves of a copy of Genesis (glossed) at Pembroke
+College, Cambridge. Thus it contains no fourteenth or fifteenth century
+books, nor, indeed, has it many entries of extant books of earlier date
+which we are sure belonged to Bury; but it is not to be despised, though
+we depend more upon press-marks than upon it for guidance. Bury
+press-marks were an introduction of the late fourteenth or early
+fifteenth century. Soon after 1400 Abbot Curteys built a library, and it
+was under the care of the monk, John Boston, who, I think, is
+responsible for the press-marks, as he certainly is for the copious
+bibliographical notices which occurred in some of the books. The
+press-marks consist of a capital letter and an _arabic_ numeral (A.
+130). Here, again, one has to be familiar with the handwriting of the
+marks and their position (top of first leaf and fly-leaf) in order to
+distinguish them from those of Exeter (often on last fly-leaf and large)
+or of the Hereford Franciscans (large, on first fly-leaf). However, in
+most cases they are backed up by the older inscription _Liber S. Ædmundi
+regis et martiris_. Bury library has, on the whole, fared well; an
+Alderman of Ipswich, William Smart, procured over 100 of its MSS., which
+he gave to Pembroke College, Cambridge, in 1599, and about 150 others
+are scattered up and down the country. One Bury book of extreme
+interest--not a library book, but a register--was taken across the
+Channel in the sixteenth century by a Bury monk to the settlement of
+the Benedictine refugees at Douai. Since the Revolution it has been
+(_perhaps_ still is) in the town library there. Its importance is that
+it contains a list of the benefactors of the abbey, and among other
+things records the burial-places of the Abbots, including the famous
+Samson. In recent years it has guided excavators to the discovery of his
+bones. With it is a Psalter of extraordinary beauty, one of a group of
+marvellous books done in East Anglia--some say at Gorleston--soon after
+1300. I grieve to hear that it has been severely damaged by damp. It has
+in it the name of an Abbot, John, who, I wish to believe, was of Bury,
+but doubt is thrown on this.
+
+
+ENGLISH MSS. ON THE CONTINENT
+
+A digression is allowable here as to English books that have passed to
+the Continent. According to Bale and Dee, there was a great expatriation
+of them at the Dissolution. In Archbishop Parker's correspondence there
+is talk of the negotiations of a German scholar, Flacius Illyricus, who
+wanted to buy Bale's MSS. after his death. At an earlier time Poggio
+visited England in the hope of unearthing classical authors, but writes
+as if he had been unsuccessful. Then, again, Sigismund Gelenius in 1550
+edits at Basel treatises of Tertullian from a MS. belonging to the Abbey
+of "Masbury" (which I take to be Malmesbury), lent to him by Leland.
+More instances could no doubt be collected, but not, I think, very many
+more. When we come to enquire what English books are to be found now in
+Continental libraries, the results are not very impressive. I exclude
+the very early exportations, some of which have been mentioned, and
+confine myself to the books which were taken over at and after the
+Dissolution. There is a Bury Psalter with drawings at the Vatican, a St.
+Albans Psalter at Hildesheim, a fine Book of Hours at Nuremberg, a
+Winchester Pontifical at Rouen, a Sherborne Book at Paris, a Ramsey
+Psalter at an Austrian abbey, another English Psalter at the Escurial.
+The Canterbury _Codex Aureus_ is at Stockholm. The famous Utrecht
+Psalter, written, perhaps, in the Rheims district, strayed from the
+Cotton collection to its present home in Holland, we do not know how.
+All these, and some other remarkable illuminated books that could be
+named (I ought not to omit a Peterborough Psalter at Brussels), are not
+library books, but rather properties of great ecclesiastics or nobles.
+The largest collections have never yet been thoroughly searched. I
+myself have made many enquiries and some examinations with small result.
+One case there is, however, brought to light by the late Rev. H. M.
+Bannister, which gives hope of better things when a systematic search is
+carried out. He found that in the Vatican Library there are quite a
+large number of MSS. from the libraries of the Friars at Cambridge. They
+are late and not very important books, but no matter for that: the point
+is that they are there. Other instances known to me are--one at least of
+Sir Kenelm Digby's MSS. and one of Lord Burleigh's (a fourteenth-century
+volume of English historians) at Paris; the Greek Demosthenes already
+noticed at Leyden, and a MS. from Pembroke College (Seneca), also there.
+The Vossian collection at the same place has other books which I suspect
+were once in England; most notable is its Suidas, which is said by M.
+Bidez to be the parent of the English copies I mentioned, and which I
+think must be Grosseteste's own copy. This, however, is a Greek MS. A
+volume containing poems of Milo of St. Amand is most likely a Canterbury
+book. But the early books in Irish script, of which there are several,
+were probably written on the Continent.
+
+At Wolfenbüttel is a "Wycliffe" Bible, large and handsome, which
+belonged to Lord Lumley (d. 1609), and also a copy of Gervase of Tilbury
+(that from which the text was first printed by Leibnitz) from the
+library of St. Augustine of Canterbury. There, too, are many MSS.
+collected by Flacius Illyricus, who made purchases in England. He
+printed many of the rhyming Latin poems attributed to Walter Map; for a
+good many his edition is the only authority, his MSS. having
+disappeared. I had hoped to find some of them at Wolfenbüttel, but they
+do not seem to be there. What I did find was a small group of MSS. from
+St. Andrews in Scotland, containing rhyming poems set to music; they are
+books of the thirteenth century, well written and decorated. Scotch
+monastic MSS. are of rare occurrence. There are few enough in Scotland
+itself, not many in England, and, of course, still fewer anywhere else.
+At Upsala is a book written by Clement Maydestone of Sion for Wadstena,
+the Swedish mother-house of the Brigittine Order to which he belonged.
+
+There were probably some English books at Turin, which was a mixed
+collection, but the fire of 1904 has made away with them. The old
+catalogue by Pasini notices at least one service-book with English
+saints. But it is time to bring this excursus to an end. Let me only add
+that the most famous English book on the Continent--the Vercelli MS. of
+Anglo-Saxon poems and homilies--seems to have been where it is now since
+the thirteenth or fourteenth century.
+
+
+REMAINS OF MEDIEVAL LIBRARIES
+
+Once again we return to these shores, and now we will enquire what
+medieval libraries, besides those we have glanced at, have left really
+considerable remains. Some few have kept their books _in situ_--the
+monastic cathedrals of Durham and Worcester best of all; each has some
+hundreds of MSS. The secular cathedrals, Lincoln, Hereford, Salisbury,
+come next. Rochester has nothing on the spot, but a great many MSS. in
+the old Royal Library in the British Museum. The two great libraries of
+Canterbury (Christchurch and St. Augustine's) are well represented, but
+their books are much scattered. Winchester, York, Exeter, have few but
+precious books.
+
+There are important MSS. from Thorney at the Advocates Library,
+Edinburgh; from St. Mary's York, at Dublin; not a few from Cirencester
+at Jesus College, Oxford, and at Hereford; St. John's, Oxford, has many
+from Reading and from Southwick (Hants). There must, I am sure, be many
+Peterborough books to be found, but they are rarely marked as such, and
+the character of the catalogue makes identification very hard.
+
+Of all minor libraries, that of Lanthony, near Gloucester, has, I
+believe, been best preserved. A great block of it was retained by the
+last Prior of the house, John Hart, who retired to a country house near
+by, and whose sister married a man of good position, Theyer, in the
+neighbourhood. He kept the books together, and had descendants who
+valued them and added largely to their number. At the end of the
+sixteenth century Archbishop Bancroft conceived the idea of founding a
+library at Lambeth for his successors, and he seems to have bought
+about 150 Lanthony MSS. from Theyer,[D] which are now at Lambeth. Other
+Lanthony books are at Trinity and Corpus Christi, Oxford. A
+fourteenth-century catalogue of the books among the Harley MSS. shows
+that we possess at least a third of the whole collection.
+
+Examples of the press-marks used by the various houses have been
+collected by the New Palæographical Society, and may be seen in their
+publications. They are, of course, most useful in cases where the
+inscription of ownership has not been inserted or has disappeared. The
+second case may be that of any book; the first is common to the
+Canterbury libraries, to Dover, the London Dominicans, St. Mary's York,
+Fountains, Titchfield, Ely. To the press-marks figured by the Society
+more will doubtless be added. I can instance one, that of the
+Franciscans of Lincoln, which is of this form: [Illustration: Symbol].
+
+
+DISAPPEARANCE OF CLASSICAL AND OTHER MSS.
+
+Passing over the painful subject of the wholesale destruction of MSS.
+which must have followed the Dissolution, I will give a few lines to an
+interesting question little mooted as yet. Is there evidence that
+England possessed many ancient writings which have since disappeared, or
+which have survived only in a few copies in other parts of Europe? Take
+the classics first. Poggio, as I have said, writes in a disappointed
+tone of his researches here, but these were neither long nor exhaustive.
+We have better testimony from John of Salisbury, who in the twelfth
+century quotes parts of the _Saturnalia_ of Macrobius which have dropped
+out of all the MSS. we now have. He also read a tract attributed to
+Plutarch, called the _Instruction of Trajan_; it was probably not by
+Plutarch, but it was an ancient work, and is now lost. Petronius Arbiter
+was known to him, even that longest and most interesting piece of
+Petronius called the _Supper of Trimalchio_, for which our only
+authority is the late paper MS. at Paris that was found in Dalmatia in
+the seventeenth century. But no medieval English scholar can be shown to
+have read Tacitus, or the lost parts of Livy, or Catullus, Tibullus,
+Propertius, or others of the rarer Latin authors. Next for Christian
+antiquity. The Vercelli MS. gives a poetical version in Anglo-Saxon of
+the Acts of St. Andrew in the land of the Anthropophagi which have
+ceased to exist in Latin (so, too, Ælfric knew, and rejected, a poem on
+the adventures of St. Thomas in India). In one of its Homilies the same
+Vercelli MS. presents us with a translation of the Apocalypse of St.
+Thomas, a book of which until recently only the name was known. Two
+early MSS. contain short quotations in Latin from Cosmas Indicopleustes,
+a traveller of Justinian's time whose work remains only in a few
+copies, and is in Greek. Another has a fragment of the lost _Book of
+Jannes and Jambres_; another a chapter of the _Book of Enoch_, valuable
+as one of our few indications that a Latin version of it was current.
+John of Salisbury quotes a story about St. Paul which seems to come from
+the ancient apocryphal Acts of that Apostle. First on the list (twelfth
+century) of the library of Lincoln Minster (but lined through as if
+subsequently lost) is a title _Proverbia Grecorum_. What this book was
+is obscure; probably it was a translation from Greek by an Irish
+scholar. It is quoted extensively by Sedulius, the Irishman, and also in
+a collection of treatises by an unknown York writer (the Germans call
+him the _Yorker anonymus_) of the eleventh to twelfth centuries. The
+work of Irenæus _Against Heresies_ (we only have it complete in Latin)
+was always rare, but there were at least two copies of it in England,
+one in the Carmelites' Library at Oxford, the other given by Archbishop
+Mepham to Christchurch, Canterbury. The latter, I believe, we still have
+in the Arundel collection in the British Museum. The MS. of Tertullian
+which Gelenius got from England is gone, and our knowledge of the
+treatise _On Baptism_ which it contained depends wholly on his printed
+text.
+
+I cannot doubt that among the books imported in the seventh century from
+Italy by Benedict Biscop and Theodore and Hadrian, and in the great
+library of York, which Alcuin panegyrizes in his poem on the saints of
+York, there were texts now lost. But the Danes made a clean sweep of all
+those treasures, as they did of the whole vernacular literature of
+Northumbria, undoubtedly a rich one. The scattered indications I have
+collected in the preceding paragraphs point to the fact that some
+strange and rare books did lurk here and there in English libraries. It
+is almost a relief that catalogues do not tell us of supremely desirable
+things, such as Papias on the Oracles of the Lord, or the complete
+Histories or Annals of Tacitus.
+
+Another word on a topic akin to the last. I have said more than once
+that the men of the later Middle Ages did not value early books as such;
+they were difficult to read, and often in bad condition. At first they
+were apt to be made into palimpsests; but when good new parchment became
+abundant and comparatively cheap, this practice was dropped. I
+conjecture that there is no important palimpsest whose upper writing is
+later than the eleventh century. The fate of the early books is rather
+obscure to me, but I see that bits of them were not uncommonly used for
+lining covers and fly-leaves for MSS. of the thirteenth to fifteenth
+centuries, and perhaps still oftener as wrappers for documents. Binders
+of the sixteenth century, and especially those who lived after the
+Dissolution, used up service-books and scholastic theology and Canon law
+to a vast extent, but early books not so lavishly. There are cases in
+which one is left doubtful as to whether the binder or his employer did
+not insert the old leaves with the definite wish to preserve them. I
+think of the leaves of a Gospel book bound at the end of the Utrecht
+Psalter, of a fragment of another fine Gospels in an Arundel MS. at the
+College of Arms, of some splendid Canons of the Gospels in the Royal MS.
+7. C. xii; but in the cases that follow I think that accident and not
+design has been at work, viz.: the fragments of several venerable
+volumes at Worcester, admirably edited of late by Mr. C. H. Turner; the
+leaves of a great sixth-century Bible found by Mr. W. H. Stevenson
+wrapping up Lord Middleton's documents at Wollaton; uncial fragments of
+Eucherius in the Cambridge University Library; other uncial leaves at
+Winchester College; bits of Ælfric's Grammar at All Souls'; of a
+Gallican Missal at Gonville and Caius; of an early Orosius (from
+Stavelot) in the British Museum and elsewhere; of an Orosius and
+Fortunatus at Pembroke College, Cambridge; and so on. My examples are
+set down almost at random.
+
+
+COLLECTORS OF BOOKS
+
+We pass now from the monastic circle to that of the learned book
+collectors before and after the Dissolution. Many of the best medieval
+book-buyers were Abbots or Priors, and the history of their collections
+is merged in that of their abbeys. Leaving them aside, we find in
+fourteenth-century England one name which everyone has heard--that of
+Richard de Bury, Bishop of Durham, and author of the _Philobiblion_. I
+am inclined to think that he was a humbug; his book is of the kind that
+it is proper to translate, print on hand-made paper, and bind in a
+vellum wrapper, but it tells us just nothing of what books De Bury had
+or read, and I could not point to a single work of any importance which
+he was instrumental in bringing to light or preserving. Persons who take
+pains to advertise themselves as book-lovers or bibliomaniacs are rarely
+those who render great services to literature.
+
+Perhaps the libraries of the pre-Reformation colleges of Oxford and
+Cambridge are the best hunting-grounds for traces of the early
+collectors. At Peterhouse, Cambridge is a large bequest from John
+Warkworth, Master late in the fifteenth century; another from J.
+Dyngley, Fellow, whose books were written expressly for him; yet another
+from H. Deynman, Master, who was interested in medicine. Here, too, we
+come upon the tracks of Roger Marchall, who must rank, on the whole, as
+a student of natural science. Books with his name and his carefully
+written tables of contents are at Peterhouse, Gonville and Caius,
+Lambeth, the British Museum, King's College; one at Magdalene College
+(Pepys Library) came thither from Peterhouse via Dr. John Dee. Walter
+Crome was another fifteenth-century benefactor of the University Library
+and of Gonville Hall, who, like Dyngley, had books written to his
+order. These are Cambridge _data_. Just such another list could be made
+out for some Oxford colleges, particularly Merton, Balliol, and New
+College. In this Bishops William Rede of Chichester, and John Trillek of
+Hereford, and William Gray of Ely, would figure prominently. The mention
+of this last name will serve as a pretext for introducing the
+Renaissance scholars. Gray, we saw, was one of those who dealt with
+Vespasiano Bisticci of Florence, though not nearly all of the many MSS.
+of his giving which are at Balliol are Italian-written; a good number
+are by Flemish and German scribes. The other men to whom I alluded in
+the same connection were for the most part benefactors of Oxford. John
+Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester, beheaded in 1470 for treason, promised a
+large gift of books to the University, but they never reached it, nor do
+I know a single MS. to-day that was Tiptoft's property, though there can
+be no doubt that he was a considerable book-buyer. Humphrey, Duke of
+Gloucester (whom we are now forbidden to call "the Good"), did give the
+University what was then a large library; his name is inseparably
+associated with the great room of the Bodleian, but his books were swept
+away in Edward VI.'s days. Some few have come back to their old home,
+and others are in London and in Paris: twenty-nine is said to be the
+total. He intended further gifts, but he was cut off in 1444, and it is
+thought that one collection, perhaps his travelling library, was
+diverted to King's College, Cambridge. It is certain that soon after
+1450 that college possessed some 174 MSS., among which such titles as
+Plato's _Republic_ in Latin and a Greek-English dictionary betray a
+humanistic influence which is not likely to have been that of our
+founder, Henry VI. Moreover, the only one of those MSS. that remains is
+a Latin version of some orations of St. Athanasius, made by a secretary
+of the Duke, and dedicated _to_ the Duke; and in the British Museum is
+another volume of Athanasius translated by the same man, which actually
+has Duke Humphrey's inscription in it. This is respectable evidence in
+support of the King's College story.
+
+William Flemming, Dean of Lincoln, and founder of Lincoln College,
+Oxford, gave a number of books to that society which show him to have
+been interested in the revival of learning; Greek MSS. are among them.
+
+John Gunthorpe, Dean of Wells (d. 1498), is said by Leland to have
+bequeathed the large collection he brought from Italy to Jesus College,
+Cambridge. It is scattered and gone from there, but books of Gunthorpe's
+survive in a good many libraries. One deserves special mention--a Latin
+prose version of the Odyssey, which he picked up (not in Italy, though
+it is an Italian book, but at Westminster) in 1475. Probably it was the
+first copy of the Odyssey in any form that had come to this country
+since Roman times, unless, indeed, Archbishop Theodore brought one over
+in the seventh century. Archbishop Parker thought that he had, and the
+MS. which he fondly believed to be Theodore's was in his view the pearl
+of the collection he left to Corpus Christi. Certainly it has the name
+_Theodorus_ in it in letters of gold; but, as certainly, it is a
+fifteenth-century book, and the Theodore for whom it was written was I
+believe Theodore Gaza, a humanist who lived in Italy.
+
+An instance of a man interested in books and not unaffected by the
+Renaissance, though not himself a collector, may be introduced here.
+William Wyrcestre (or Botoner, or Worcester) is the man, and he deserves
+a special study. Some have called him the father of English antiquaries,
+in virtue of one of his notebooks which has been preserved, and which
+contains jottings about his travels in England; it is a sort of rude
+elementary Leland's _Itinerary_. It is by no means the only book of his
+compiling, nor the only one owned by him that we have. There are
+historical and literary collections of his, and not a few MSS. with his
+name in them. He knew John Free, the translator (reputed) of Diodorus
+Siculus, and he had read Cristoforo Buondelmonte's book on the islands
+of the Greek archipelago.
+
+A long list of the Elizabethan book-collectors could be made, but I
+shall not attempt one here. Two libraries of the time, Sir Robert
+Cotton's and Archbishop Parker's, stand out. The main object of both men
+was to preserve English antiquities, and it is no exaggeration to say
+that if these two collections, which together number less than 1,500
+volumes, had been wiped out, the best things in our vernacular
+literature and the pick of our chronicles would be unknown to us now. We
+should have no _Beowulf_ or _Judith_, only inferior copies of the
+Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and of Matthew Paris, no Layamon, no _Pearl_--not
+to speak of the mass of invaluable State-papers gathered by Cotton, and
+the Reformation documents and letters stored up by Parker. One touch of
+blame rests on Sir Robert Cotton. He had a vicious habit of breaking up
+MSS. and binding together sections from different volumes. This
+disguises the provenance of the books, and by consequence obscures the
+history of their contents.
+
+Enough information about the Cotton and Parker MSS. is easily accessible
+to absolve me from writing much about them here. Less is generally known
+of two dispersed collections, those of John Bale and John Dee.
+
+Bale must, I fear, have been an unamiable man--certainly a very queer
+Christian. But his controversial works, on which he doubtless prided
+himself most, are dead and very rotten, while those devoted to the more
+peaceful science of bibliography are of abiding value. In his larger
+one, _Scriptorum Britannicorum Centuriæ_, he inserts a list of the MSS.
+he had once owned; they were no longer in his hands, but, it is to be
+supposed, in Ireland, left there when he fled from his bishopric of
+Ossory on Mary's accession. It is not a very scientific list, not one
+that gives the contents of each volume, but merely names of treatises,
+groups of which no doubt went to make up volumes, and this makes it
+difficult to determine how much of his library is in existence now.
+After his death it was in England, and a syndicate of Germans,
+including, as was said above, Flacius Illyricus, were negotiating for
+the purchase of it. Archbishop Parker also had an eye upon it; he had
+received books as gifts or loans from Bale in former years. I have not
+been able to make sure whether any of the books did actually go to the
+Continent; I doubt it, in fact. Many distinguished by Bale's curious
+small, "flat" handwriting are traceable among Cotton's and Parker's
+books, at Lambeth, at Cambridge, and doubtless also at Oxford (where
+there is at least the MS. of his _Index Scriptorum_, admirably edited by
+Mr. R. L. Poole and Miss Bateson). Bale was a Carmelite in his youth and
+interested in the history of his Order, and there is an _a priori_
+probability that any book dealing with Carmelite affairs will contain
+marks of his ownership.
+
+Dr. John Dee's history has often been written, and the catalogue of the
+MSS. he owned has long been in print in a Camden society volume (_Diary
+of Dr. John Dee_) edited by Halliwell. The main facts of his life that
+concern us are that he lived at Mortlake, and in 1584 went on a wild
+journey to Poland. In his absence his house and collections were
+plundered by a mob, who, not without excuse, thought him a warlock. When
+he returned in 1589 he set himself to recover his scattered property,
+and to a great extent succeeded. He moved from Mortlake to Manchester,
+being made Warden of the college there in 1595; later on he returned,
+and died at Mortlake, much in debt, I think, in 1608. I find from
+Archbishop Ussher's printed correspondence that his books were still
+unsold in 1624; litigation may have prevented their being dealt with
+earlier. The lists we have of his MSS. date from before his foreign
+tour; that which is in print was made on the eve of his departure, and
+contains a little over 200 entries.
+
+After the vicissitudes which his collection suffered it is remarkable
+that one should still be able to identify as extant well over half of
+it. I have been helped in my searches by certain marks--a little ladder,
+or the astrological sign of Jupiter, or a [Greek: Delta]--which occur on
+the first page of many. His handwriting, too, in notes, and certain
+names of owners (particularly P. Saunders) are guides. Some of his MSS.
+were bought by Ussher, and are at Trinity College, Dublin, and a few
+were bought by Cotton. But the largest group of them is at Corpus
+Christi College, Oxford. These were acquired by the great Oxford
+antiquary, Brian Twyne, who hoped that his college would buy them from
+him, but this they would not do. Happily Twyne was not too much hurt by
+the refusal to leave them to the college at his death. I guess that one
+reason for his buying them was that some (perhaps many) of them had once
+belonged to his grandfather, John Twyne, a Canterbury man of some slight
+eminence, who in his turn had secured a considerable "lot" of MSS. from
+the library of St. Augustine's Abbey. In searching out the relics of
+that great library I found the combination, or pedigree, St.
+Augustine's--John Twyne--Dee--Brian Twyne--Corpus Christi, to be a
+frequent one, and this set me upon a general investigation of Dee's MSS.
+A little notebook of his at Corpus Christi showed that in early life he
+had borrowed a number of MSS. from Peterhouse and from Queen's College,
+Oxford. I did not find that these ever got back to their sources, but I
+do not think that Dee was dishonest in the matter; I believe he was
+allowed to keep them for some consideration received. Some of the
+Peterhouse books are traceable in the Ashmole collection, the Pepys
+Library, and the British Museum; of those of Queen's College I can say
+nothing. Dee was specially interested in mathematics, alchemy, and, as
+everyone knows, converse with spirits, but his library was not confined
+to books on these subjects; he had some excellent historical, literary,
+and theological MSS. One of them was the best copy of Alfred's
+translation of Orosius.
+
+Another library of the sixteenth century deserves to be singled out from
+the many which offer themselves for notice. It is that of Lord Lumley
+(d. 1609); he inherited the books from Henry Fitzalan, Earl of Arundel
+(d. 1580). This collection had again been largely recruited from that of
+Archbishop Cranmer: the combination T(homæ) C(ranmeri)
+C(antuar)--Arundel--Lumley, is often found written on the lower margin
+of the first leaf of the MSS. concerned. These Arundel MSS., by the way,
+must not be confounded with the Arundel collection in the British
+Museum, nor with that remnant of the same collection which is owned by
+the College of Arms. The Arundel MSS., so-called, were collected largely
+by Lord William Howard (Belted Will) of Naworth, passed on to Thomas,
+Earl of Arundel (d. 1644), and devised by Henry Howard to the Royal
+Society, 1681; they were eventually transferred by the Society to the
+British Museum in 1831. The Arundel-Lumley books had a different
+destiny. Most of them also came to the Museum, but by another path. They
+were bought after Lumley's death by or for Prince Henry, eldest son of
+James I., and added to the Royal Library, and that became national
+property by the gift of George II. in 1757. We have a catalogue, made
+about 1609, of the whole library, which is among the Gale MSS. at
+Trinity College, Cambridge. It bears no name of owner, but is easily
+seen to be Lumley's. Not all the MSS. that we find bearing Lumley's name
+are in it, and not all the MSS. in it are in the old Royal Library. To
+the second class belong the English Bible at Wolfenbüttel, the Bible of
+Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester (a fine but plain book which is at
+Cheltenham in the Phillipps collection), and the Bosworth Psalter bought
+not long ago from a private owner by the British Museum. The first class
+is more numerous; about twenty MSS. at Lambeth alone have Lumley's name,
+but are not in his catalogue. I conjecture that they were presented by
+Lumley (who was a generous giver of printed books to the Universities)
+to Archbishop Bancroft when he was forming his collection.
+
+So one might go on through Ussher, Laud, Selden, Rawlinson, Harley,
+Askew, Drury, Heber, etc., to Sir Thomas Phillipps, whose 30,000 MSS.,
+good and bad, must be the largest mass of such things ever owned by a
+single collector. But I think I have said enough of the public and
+private accumulations of this country to give an adequate idea of the
+kind of results that attend research, and of the ways in which large
+blocks of MSS. have been handed on to us. The epoch of the sale-room I
+have not really touched; it demands special tools and a special
+historian, and it concerns individual books. Nor, I will confess, do I
+feel quite at ease in touching upon the private collections of the
+present day. There is less objection to surveying such things when they
+have passed as wholes into public institutions.
+
+For example, the MSS. collected by the Earl of Crawford and Balcarres
+were acquired in 1892 for the John Rylands Library at Manchester. The
+Latin section of these I have had occasion to examine. It consists of
+nearly 120 items. The earliest and most remarkable of these almost all
+own the pedigree of Libri-Bateman-Crawford. Of Libri enough has been
+said to make it necessary to note here that none of the Crawford MSS.
+owned by him were pilfered from French libraries. The library of Bateman
+of Youlgrave was dispersed in 1893; the Libri purchases in it are mostly
+traceable in the Libri sale catalogue of 1859. Three tenth-century
+Spanish MSS., two from the Abbey of S. Pedro de Cardeña, one from Silos,
+happen, by an odd and lucky accident, to be elaborately described in
+Berganza's _España Sagrada_; how it was that exactly these books came
+into Libri's hands it is not likely that we shall discover. For the
+rest, Lord Crawford's purchases at the Howell Wills sale of 1894 were
+considerable in quantity, and he acquired three fine books at that of
+Ambroise Firmin Didot in 1878. Three others came from the Bollandist
+Fathers' Library at Brussels. One of these had for some years formed
+part of the very choice collection of the Fountaines at Narford, in
+Norfolk, scattered in 1894.
+
+Of less choice quality, but of extreme usefulness to the student, are
+the 200 MSS. bequeathed by Frank McClean in 1904 to the Fitzwilliam
+Museum at Cambridge, and collected by him in the ten or fifteen years
+before that. Here we have few coherent groups of books, unless we reckon
+as such a certain number of volumes from the Cistercian Abbey of
+Morimund in North Italy, acquired singly, perhaps, by Mr. McClean from
+Hoepli of Milan. The Phillipps sales account for a good many, the
+Barrois and Ashburnham Appendix (1901 and 1897) for a few more, but most
+of the books were picked up one by one in auction-rooms or from dealers'
+catalogues.
+
+In both these cases examples of illumination and calligraphy have been
+primary objects in the collectors' eyes, and that is the ruling passion
+with most of those who buy MSS. nowadays. At the beginning of the
+nineteenth century what was more coveted was the accumulation of copies
+of the classics. It had hardly been realized that few of the Renaissance
+classical MSS. made in Italy have independent textual value, and
+collectors like Askew, Drury, Canonici, Burney, thought that the more of
+them they had the better. Lord Fitzwilliam (d. 1816), who devoted
+himself to buying French Books of Hours for the sake of the pictures,
+was something of a pioneer (at least in England) in this respect.
+Francis Douce (d. 1834) was another; his treasures are in the Bodleian.
+As for Sir Thomas Phillipps, he must have bought by the cart-load:
+_Nihil manu scriptum a se alienum putabat_. In spite of the large amount
+of rubbish among his 30,000 odd volumes, I can never hear without a
+bitter pang the tale that the University of Oxford many years ago shied
+at his offer of them, accompanied as it was by some tiresome conditions;
+their fate has been gradual dispersion to every part of Europe and to
+America.
+
+I have said that I cannot embark here upon the history of sales of MSS.
+in the last hundred years. But my abstention, due to considerations of
+space, must not be imitated by my readers. Those who deal with modern
+collections or make collections of their own--a thing still possible for
+quite modest purses, in spite of the inflated prices which the great
+books command--are not absolved from the study of sale catalogues; that
+they will pay attention to book-plates, bindings, and names of owners, I
+need not repeat. The list of such catalogues issued by the British
+Museum they will find invaluable; the catalogues themselves, alike those
+of dealers and of sales, will often enable them to trace a particular
+MS. back through a whole century to some Italian palace or Flemish
+abbey, sold up or secularized under the stress of revolution. This
+period of MS. history has been less well worked than the earlier ones;
+it is but just ripening, in fact; but to anyone who is bitten with the
+passion for the books it will prove just as fascinating as the others.
+
+
+CURIOSITIES OF RESEARCH
+
+By way of conclusion let me come back from generalities to particulars,
+and attempt to kindle interest and stir the imagination by a few words
+on waifs and strays--the curiosities of MS. research. Some few leading
+instances have been mentioned, but in thinking over the collections I
+have examined and the documents I have had to copy or edit, others, less
+immediately showy, occur to my memory.
+
+What has become of the Red Book of Eye in Suffolk? It was a copy of the
+Gospels which St. Felix of Burgundy, the apostle of the East Angles,
+brought with him in the seventh century. It was after his death in a
+monastery at Dunwich. Then it passed to a little priory at Eye, where
+Leland saw it. After the Dissolution it remained with the Corporation of
+Eye--now extinct--and people took oaths upon it. It is traceable in the
+records down to a comparatively late date--within the nineteenth
+century. Can there be truth in the tale I have heard that it was sent
+for safe keeping to a mansion not far off, and there cut up for game
+labels? I cannot believe it.
+
+No doubt MSS. were cut up for game labels. I have seen--years ago--in a
+London shop one that had turned up in a billiard-room, and its blank
+margins had been many of them removed for that purpose. But there was a
+fashion equally reprehensible a hundred years ago of cutting out
+illuminations from MSS. and making scrap-books of them. It was
+especially common in the case of the great antiphoners and other huge
+service-books which stood on the lecterns in Italian churches. The
+remainder of the books went to the gold-beaters, perhaps (they used
+parchment, and in England bought MSS. sometimes to cut up), or to a like
+destination. Occasionally books so mutilated have been reconstituted. A
+leading example is that of a Josephus, illuminated in part by the great
+Tours artist Jean Foucquet. This the late King Edward VII. and Mr. H. Y.
+Thompson were able to combine in restoring. The King had a number of the
+pictures, cut out, in his library at Windsor; Mr. Thompson had the
+mutilated text and a pictured leaf or so. The fragments were brought
+together and presented to the Paris Library, which already possessed the
+first volume of the set.
+
+A miniature, cut, no one knows how long ago, from a fine twelfth-century
+Bible, was shaken out of a pile of printed copies of a funeral sermon at
+a country house. The book to which it belonged I believe to be one at
+Lambeth.
+
+In 1890 Mr. Samuel Sandars bought at a London sale a scrap-book
+containing two leaves of a beautiful and very early Book of Hours. He
+gave them to the Fitzwilliam Museum. In 1894 came the Fountaine sale,
+and then Mr. William Morris bought the MS. from which these leaves had
+come. An arrangement was made between him and the museum that he should
+possess the leaves, replaced in the book, for his life, and then the
+museum should acquire the whole at an agreed price. Alas! he did not
+live to enjoy the ownership of them long.
+
+To find, as the late Mr. Greenwell of Durham found, a leaf of a
+sixth-century Latin Bible from Wearmouth or Jarrow (or perhaps even from
+Cassiodorus's library) in a curiosity shop, is a chance that comes to
+few. But I have always lamented that I did not pass through the streets
+of Orléans at the time (not many years back) when an illustrated Greek
+MS. of the Gospels on purple vellum and in gold and silver uncials was
+exposed for sale in a shop window. A French officer had picked it up at
+Sinope, and used it to keep dried plants in. However, it went to its
+rightful and proper home, the Bibliothèque Nationale.
+
+It is getting on for thirty years now since a small parish library in
+Suffolk, founded in 1700, gave to the world the book of the Gospels
+owned by St. Margaret of Scotland (at Oxford), and the unique life of
+St. William, the boy martyr of Norwich, and Nicholas Roscarrock's
+Register of British Saints (both at Cambridge). Not as long since, in a
+private library in Italy, some leaves were found of the early MS. (from
+Hersfeld Abbey in Germany) of the minor writings of Tacitus from which
+all our extant fifteenth-century copies descend. Still more recently,
+among a collection of scraps of MSS., a half leaf of an eleventh or
+twelfth century MS. in Welsh was detected (a very great rarity); its
+generous finder (the late Mr. A. G. W. Murray, librarian of Trinity
+College) gave it to the Cambridge University Library, and thus added one
+more to the already remarkable collection of bits of early Welsh which
+Cambridge owns. It deals with the dry topic of finding Easter, but
+linguistically it is above price.
+
+And now for an example which shows the odd wanderings of _texts_. There
+is a volume at Vienna, from Bobbio, made up of palimpsest leaves from
+many MSS., Biblical and classical. Two of these, apparently from one
+book, stand next to each other. They have only recently been deciphered;
+they are in Latin uncials of the fifth century. One of them is from the
+Apocalypse of Thomas, a book named in an old list of Apocryphal
+writings, but thought until a few years ago to be hopelessly lost. We
+now know complete MSS. of it at Munich and a fragment at Verona, as well
+as an Anglo-Saxon version in the Vercelli MS. The other Vienna leaf is
+from an equally apocryphal "epistle of the Apostles," never mentioned by
+old writers, but seemingly of the second century. It gives a dialogue
+between our Lord and the Apostles after the Resurrection. About 1897 Dr.
+Carl Schmidt, a leading Coptic scholar, published an account of a Coptic
+MS. of the greater part of the book (the MS. is at Berlin, and some time
+will be edited); and about 1913 a French scholar, Abbé Guerrier,
+published a complete version of it from Ethiopic MSS. which had been in
+Europe for half a century. It is about the last book I should have
+expected to find in a Latin version, and current in Italy in the fifth
+century. The combination of Egypt and Abyssinia is common enough; but
+that Bobbio should be added to that, and Asia Minor and Greece omitted,
+is indeed a strange thing. Perhaps Africa was the parent of the Latin
+version.
+
+
+THE MORAL
+
+So texts and books wander, and so do discoveries sometimes lie near our
+hands. The moral is: Be inquisitive. See books for yourself; do not
+trust that the cataloguer has told you everything. I am a cataloguer
+myself, and I know that, try as he may, a worker of that class cannot
+hope to know or to see every detail that is of importance. The creature
+is human, and on some days his mind is less alert than on others. Nor is
+he interested in everything alike: an apocryphal fragment or an obscure
+saint will excite me, while a letter of St. Bernard which may be
+unpublished leaves me calm. But in spite of the imperfections of
+cataloguers, catalogues must be used, and they must be read and not only
+referred to. The mere juxtaposition of treatises in a volume will often
+reveal its provenance or its pedigree; besides, there is always the
+chance I have suggested, that the describer of any MS. may have failed
+through ignorance or want of attention to see that some article in it
+is of extreme interest and rarity. So it was that in reading Lambecius's
+(eighteenth-century) catalogue of the Greek MSS. at Vienna I noted down
+an entry that seemed unusual; and some years after, when I had an
+opportunity of getting a friend at Vienna to look at the tract in
+question, it was found to be the unique copy of the very most heretical
+(and therefore interesting) episode of the apocryphal Acts of St. John,
+written in the second century, and copied, to our lasting astonishment
+and perplexity, by some honest orthodox cleric in the fourteenth.
+
+May discoveries infinitely more pleasing fall to the lot of many of my
+patient readers!
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
+
+The student may consult the following works:
+
+        J. W. CLARK: The Care of Books. Cambridge, 1901.
+
+        E. A. SAVAGE: Old English Libraries. London, 1911.
+          Containing a useful bibliography.
+
+        M. R. JAMES: The Ancient Libraries of Canterbury
+          and Dover (Cambridge, 1903); the Abbey of St.
+          Edmund at Bury, (1895) and the Catalogues of the
+          MSS. of the Libraries at Eton and at Cambridge, by
+          the same author.
+
+        M. BATESON: Catalogue of the Library of Syon
+          Monastery, Isleworth. 1898.
+
+        List of Catalogues of English Book Sales,
+          1676-1906, now in the British Museum. London,
+          1915.
+
+        E. A. LOEW: The Beneventan Script. Oxford, 1914.
+
+        TH. GOTTLIEB: Ueber Mittelalterliche Bibliotheken.
+          Leipzig, 1890.
+
+        T. DUFFUS HARDY: Descriptive Catalogue of
+          Materials relating to the History of Great
+          Britain. Rolls Series, 1862-71.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+          BILLING AND SONS, LTD., PRINTERS, GUILDFORD, ENGLAND
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[A] Let not the 400 MSS. given by Coislin to the Abbey of St. Germain
+des Prés at Paris be quoted against me. They were the collection of a
+great noble, the Chancellor Séguier, and the library to which they were
+presented was practically a public one, whose permanence was seemingly
+assured.
+
+[B] _See_ Eubel, _Hierarchia Catholica Medii Ævi_, ii. 248.
+
+[C] We have its catalogue admirably reproduced by Thomas Hearne, at a
+time (early in the eighteenth century) when it was rare to find anyone
+who would take the trouble to make a faithful copy of such a record,
+with all its erasures and alterations.
+
+[D] Subsequently Theyer, as I said, went on collecting MSS., and finally
+Charles II. bought the whole lot for the Royal Library.
+
+
+
+
+
+HELPS FOR STUDENTS OF HISTORY.
+
+
+        =No. 1. EPISCOPAL REGISTERS OF ENGLAND AND WALES.=
+          By R. C. FOWLER, B.A., F.S.A. 6d. net.
+
+        =No. 2. MUNICIPAL RECORDS.= By F. J. C. HEARNSHAW,
+          M.A. 6d. net.
+
+        =No. 3. MEDIEVAL RECKONINGS OF TIME.= By REGINALD L.
+          POOLE, LL.D., Litt.D. 6d. net.
+
+        =No. 4. THE PUBLIC RECORD OFFICE.= By CHARLES
+          JOHNSON. 6d. net.
+
+        =No. 5. THE CARE OF DOCUMENTS.= By CHARLES JOHNSON.
+          6d. net.
+
+        =No. 6. THE LOGIC OF HISTORY.= By C. G. CRUMP. 8d.
+          net.
+
+        =No. 7. DOCUMENTS IN THE PUBLIC RECORD OFFICE,
+          DUBLIN.= By R. H. MURRAY, Litt.D. 8d. net.
+
+        =No. 8. THE FRENCH WARS OF RELIGION.= By ARTHUR A.
+          TILLEY, M.A. 6d. net.
+
+
+          _BY SIR A. W. WARD, Litt.D., F.B.A.:--_
+
+        =No. 9. THE PERIOD OF CONGRESSES, I. Introductory.=
+          8d. net.
+
+        =No. 10. THE PERIOD OF CONGRESSES, II.= Vienna and
+          the Second Peace of Paris, 1s. net.
+
+        =No. 11. THE PERIOD OF CONGRESSES, III.=
+          Aix-la-Chapelle to Verona. 1s. net. (Nos. 9, 10,
+          and 11 in one volume, cloth 3s. 6d. net.)
+
+        =No. 12. SECURITIES OF PEACE.= A Retrospect
+          (1848-1914). Paper 2s.; cloth 3s. net.
+
+        =No. 13. THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE.= By ARTHUR A.
+          TILLEY, M.A. 8d. net.
+
+        =No. 14. HINTS ON THE STUDY OF ENGLISH ECONOMIC
+          HISTORY.= By W. CUNNINGHAM, D.D., F.B.A., F.S.A.
+          8d. net.
+
+        =No. 15. PARISH HISTORY AND RECORDS.= By A.
+          HAMILTON THOMPSON, M.A., F.S.A. 8d. net.
+
+        =No. 16. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF COLONIAL
+          HISTORY.= By A. P. NEWTON, M.A., D.Litt., B.Sc.
+          6d. net.
+
+        =No. 17. THE WANDERINGS AND HOMES OF MANUSCRIPTS.=
+          By M. R. JAMES, Litt.D., F.B.A. Paper cover, 2s.;
+          cloth boards, 3s. net.
+
+        =No. 18. ECCLESIASTICAL RECORDS.= By the REV.
+          CLAUDE JENKINS, M.A., Librarian of Lambeth Palace.
+
+        =No. 19. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF
+          AMERICAN DIPLOMACY.= By CARL RUSSELL FISH, Ph.D.,
+          Professor of American History in the University of
+          Wisconsin. 1s. net.
+
+        =No. 20. HINTS ON TRANSLATION FROM LATIN INTO
+          ENGLISH.= By ALEXANDER SOUTER, D.Litt. 6d. net.
+
+        =No. 21. HINTS ON THE STUDY OF LATIN.= (A.D.
+          125-750.) By ALEXANDER SOUTER, D.Litt. 8d. net.
+
+        =No 22. REPORT OF THE HISTORICAL MSS. COMMISSION.=
+          By R. A. ROBERTS., F.R.H.S., Sometime Secretary of
+          the Commission.
+
+          (_=Others to follow.=_)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Obvious punctuation errors repaired.
+
+The original text had one page containing the list of Helps on the second
+page and it was concluded on the last page. The first page was moved to
+join the last.
+
+Page 96, M. Bateson was all-capped to match the rest of the format of
+the Bibliography.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Wanderings and Homes of Manuscripts, by 
+M. R. James
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+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's The Wanderings and Homes of Manuscripts, by M. R. James
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Wanderings and Homes of Manuscripts
+       Helps for Students of History, No. 17.
+
+Author: M. R. James
+
+Release Date: February 25, 2009 [EBook #28187]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WANDERINGS, HOMES OF MANUSCRIPTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Michael Ciesielski and the Booksmiths at
+http://www.eBookForge.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class = "tnote">Transcriber's Note:
+Greek words that may not display correctly in all browsers are
+transliterated in the text using popups like this:
+<ins class="greek" title="biblos">&#946;&#953;&#946;&#955;&#959;&#962;</ins>.
+Position your mouse over the line to see the transliteration.</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a><a href="images/1.png">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 387px;">
+<img src="images/title.png" width="387" height="600" alt="HELPS FOR STUDENTS OF HISTORY" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a><a href="images/2.png">[2]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><span class="u">HELPS FOR STUDENTS OF HISTORY. No. 17</span></h3>
+
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Edited by C. Johnson, M.A., and J. P. Whitney, D.D., D.C.L.</span></div>
+
+<h1>THE WANDERINGS AND<br />
+HOMES OF MANUSCRIPTS</h1>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>M. R. JAMES, <span class="smcap">Litt.D.</span>, F.B.A.</h2>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<small>PROVOST OF ETON</small><br />
+<small>SOMETIME PROVOST OF KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE</small><br />
+<br />
+<br /><br /><br />
+<small>LONDON</small><br />
+SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING<br />
+CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE<br />
+<small>NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</small><br />
+<small>1919</small><br /></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a><a href="images/3.png">[3]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>THE WANDERINGS AND<br />
+HOMES OF MANUSCRIPTS</h2>
+
+
+<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">The</span> Wanderings and Homes of Manuscripts is
+the title of this book. To have called it the survival
+and transmission of ancient literature would
+have been pretentious, but not wholly untruthful.
+Manuscripts, we all know, are the chief means by
+which the records and imaginings of twenty centuries
+have been preserved. It is my purpose to
+tell where manuscripts were made, and how and
+in what centres they have been collected, and,
+incidentally, to suggest some helps for tracing out
+their history. Naturally the few pages into which
+the story has to be packed will not give room
+for any one episode to be treated exhaustively.
+Enough if I succeed in rousing curiosity and
+setting some student to work in a field in which
+an immense amount still remains to be discovered.</div>
+
+<p>In treating of so large a subject as this&mdash;for it
+is a large one&mdash;it is not a bad plan to begin with
+the particular and get gradually to the general.</p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>Some Specimen Pedigrees of MSS.</span></h3>
+
+<p>I take my stand before the moderate-sized
+bookcase which contains the collection of MSS.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a><a href="images/4.png">[4]</a></span>
+belonging to the College of Eton, and with due care
+draw from the shelves a few of the books which
+have reposed there since the room was built in 1729.</p>
+
+<p>The first shelf I lay hands upon contains some ten
+large folios. Four of them are a single great compilation,
+beginning with a survey of the history of
+the world and of the Roman Empire, and merging
+into the heraldry of the German <i>noblesse</i>. It was
+made, we find, in 1541, and is dedicated to Henry
+VIII. Large folding pictures on vellum and
+portraits of all the Roman Emperors adorn the
+first volume. It is a sumptuous book, supposed
+to be a present from the Emperor Ferdinand to
+the King. How did it come here? A printed
+label tells us that it was given to the college by
+Henry Temple, Viscount Palmerston, in 1750
+(he had previously given it to Sir Richard Ellys
+on whose death Lady Ellys returned it: so much in
+parenthesis). Then, more by luck than anything
+else, I find mention of it in the diary of Thomas
+Hearne, the Oxford antiquary; his friend Thomas
+Jett, F.R.S., owned it and told him about it in
+1722: he had been offered &pound;100 a volume for it;
+it was his by purchase from one Mr. Stebbing.
+It was sold, perhaps to Palmerston, at Jett's auction
+in 1731. The gap between Henry VIII. and
+Stebbing remains for the present unfilled. So
+much for the first draw.</p>
+
+<p>Next, a yet larger and more ponderous volume,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a><a href="images/5.png">[5]</a></span>
+<i>Decreta Romanorum Pontificum</i>&mdash;the Papal decretals
+and the Acts of the Councils. It is spotlessly
+clean and magnificently written in a hand of the
+early part of the twelfth century, a hand which
+very much resembles that in use at Christchurch,
+Canterbury. I am indeed, tempted to call it a
+Canterbury book; only it bears none of the marks
+which it ought to have if it was ever in the library
+of the Cathedral Priory. Was it perhaps written
+there and sold or given to a daughter-house, or to
+some abbey which had a less skilful school of
+writers? Not to Rochester, at any rate, though
+Rochester did get many books written at Christchurch.
+If it had belonged to Rochester there
+would have been some trace, I think, of an inscription
+on the lower margin of the first leaf. No;
+the only clue to the history is a title written on the
+fly-leaf in the fifteenth century, which says: "The
+book of the decrees of the Pope of Rome," and it
+begins on the second leaf "<i>tes viii</i>." That does not
+tell us much; I do not recognize the handwriting
+of the title, though I guess it to have been written
+when the book came to Eton College. All I can
+say is that here is an example of a large class,
+duplicates of indispensable and common works,
+which the abbey libraries possessed in great numbers,
+and often parted with, in the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries, to colleges and private purchasers.</p>
+
+<p>Next we take out a thin folio written on paper.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a><a href="images/6.png">[6]</a></span>
+This time it is a Greek book which we open; it has
+the works of the Christian apologists Athenagoras
+and Tatian, and a spurious epistle of Justin Martyr,
+copied in 1534 by Valeriano of Forl&iacute;. A single
+MS. now at Paris, written in 914, is the ancestor
+of all our copies of these texts; but it has been shown
+that this Eton book is not an immediate copy of
+that, but of one now at Bologna. Obviously it
+was written in Italy. How does it come to be here?
+Sir Henry Wotton, Provost of the college, spent
+the best part of twenty years in Italy, mainly as
+Ambassador to the Court of Venice for James I.,
+and left all his MSS. to the college at his death in
+1639. There are numbers of MSS. from Italy in
+this bookcase, and, though hardly any of them have
+Wotton's name in them, it is not to be doubted
+that they came from him. A good proportion of
+them, too, can be traced back a step farther, for
+they have in them the name or the arms or the
+handwriting of Bernardo Bembo of Venice, the
+father of the more famous Cardinal Pietro Bembo.
+This Justin volume is not of that number, but
+we have a clue to its history which may be deemed
+sufficient.</p>
+
+<p>I turn to another shelf and open a large book
+written somewhere about the year 1150, which was
+given to the college in 1713 by one of the Fellows;
+in 1594 it belonged to John Rogers (if I read the
+name right). It contains St. Jerome's Commentary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a><a href="images/7.png">[7]</a></span>
+on Daniel and the Minor Prophets, followed by a
+tract of St. Ambrose, and another ascribed to
+Jerome (subject, the hardening of Pharaoh's
+heart), which was in reality, we are now told, written
+by a Pelagian. It is a very uncommon text. After
+that we have Jerome's (so-called) prophecy of the
+fifteen signs which are to precede the last judgment&mdash;of
+which signs, let it be said in passing, there is a
+fine representation in an ancient window in the
+Church of All Saints, North Street, at York. Can
+we trace this volume any farther back than 1594?
+I think so; the Ambrose and the two spurious
+tracts of Jerome (one, as I said, being of very rare
+occurrence) are entered, in that order, in the
+catalogue of the library of Peterborough Abbey.
+The library has long been dispersed, but the catalogue
+remains, and was printed by Gunton in his
+History of the Abbey. But the said catalogue
+makes no mention of the Commentary of Jerome,
+which fills 323 out of the 358 leaves of our book.
+A serious obstacle, it will be said, to an identification;
+yet a long series of observations, too long
+to be set out here, has led me to the conclusion
+that our Peterborough catalogue makes a practice
+of not entering the main contents of the volumes,
+but only the short subsidiary tracts, which might
+else escape notice. And without much hesitation
+I put down the book before me as a relic of the
+Peterborough Library.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a><a href="images/8.png">[8]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Somewhat higher up stands a very stout book
+bound in old patterned paper. The material of
+it is paper too, the language is Greek, and the
+contents, for the most part, Canons of Councils.
+There are two hands in it; one is perhaps of the
+fourteenth century, the other is of the early part
+of the fifteenth. This latter is the writing of one
+Michael Doukas, who tells us that he was employed
+as a scribe by Brother John of Ragusa, who held
+some position at a Church Council, unnamed.
+There were two Johns of Ragusa, it seems, both
+Dominicans, one of whom figured at the Council
+of Constance in 1413, the other at that of Basle
+in 1433. The latter must be the right one, for
+there are still Greek MSS. at Basle which belonged
+to the Dominicans of that city, and were bequeathed
+by the second John at his death in 1442.</p>
+
+<p>The book is important, because the first thing
+in it is the only copy of a treatise ascribed to St.
+Athanasius, called a Synopsis of Holy Scripture.
+This treatise was printed first in 1600 by an editor
+named Felckmann, and no MS. of it has been used
+or known since. Where did Felckmann find it?
+In a MS. which belonged to Pierre Nevelet, procured
+for him (the editor) by Bongars, a distinguished
+scholar of Orleans. Now, the Eton book
+has in it a whole series of names of owners, some
+erased, but decipherable. The earliest seems to be
+Joannes Gastius, who in 1550 gave it to Johannes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a><a href="images/9.png">[9]</a></span>
+Hernogius (as I doubtfully read it). Then come
+Petrus Neveletus and his son, I(saac) N(icolas)
+Neveletus. Evidently, then, we have here the
+MS. which Felckmann used, and we arrive at
+some date after 1600. In 1665 or 1685 Daniel
+Mauclerc, Doctor of Law, living at Vitry le
+Fran&ccedil;ois, is the owner. He leaves France (the
+family were Huguenots), and brings the book to
+Holland. His son Jacques, Doctor of Medicine,
+has it in 1700, in England; his nephew, John Henry
+Mauclerc, also M.D., succeeds to it and enters his
+name in 1748, and gives it to Mr. Roger Huggett,
+Conduct and Librarian of the College, who died in
+1769.</p>
+
+<p>This is an unusually full and clear pedigree.
+One more, and I have done.</p>
+
+<p>This time it is a copy of the Polychronicon of
+Ranulph Higden, monk of Chester; it was the
+popular history of the world and of England for
+anyone who could read Latin in the fifteenth century.
+No abbey library could be without it, just
+as no gentleman's library could be without a copy
+of the English Chronicle called the Brut. Here is a
+case in which we know the beginning and end of
+the book's wanderings, but not the middle of the
+story. The arms of Eton adorn the beginning of
+each of the seven "books" of the Chronicle, so
+we may take it that it was owned from the first by
+a member of the foundation. An inscription tells us<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a><a href="images/10.png">[10]</a></span>
+that within the fifteenth century it belonged to the
+Carthusians of Witham in Somerset, and was given
+to them by Master John Blacman. Here is light.
+John Blacman was Fellow and Chanter of Eton,
+then Head of a House (King's Hall) in Cambridge,
+and lastly a Carthusian monk. He was also confessor
+to Henry VI., and wrote a book about him.
+In a MS. at Oxford there is a list of the books he
+gave to Witham, and among them is this Polychronicon.
+More: he has prefixed to the text a
+pedigree of the Kings of England from Egbert,
+illustrated with drawings, the last of which is the
+earliest known representation of Windsor Castle.
+We have not, then, to complain of lack of information
+about the early stages of the history; but
+then comes a gap, and between the Dissolution and
+the early part of the nineteenth century, when
+Rodd of London had it and sold it to the fourth
+Earl of Ashburnham, I can (at present) hear nothing
+of the book. In quite recent years it passed from
+the Ashburnham family to Mr. H. Y. Thompson,
+from him to Mr. George Dunn, and at his death
+was bought back for its first home.</p>
+
+<p>There, then, are half a dozen histories of MSS.,
+fairly typical and fairly diverse. Naturally I have
+picked out books which have some traceable story.
+Very many have none. We can only say of them
+that they were written in such a century and such
+a country, and acquired at such a date: and there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a><a href="images/11.png">[11]</a></span>
+an end. Rebinding and loss of leaves, especially
+of fly-leaves, have carried off names of owners and
+library-marks, and apart from that there are but
+very few cases in which we are warranted in proclaiming
+from the aspect and character of the script
+that a book was written at one particular place
+and nowhere else.</p>
+
+<p>I think it will be seen, from what has been said,
+that my subject is one which depends for its actuality
+upon the accumulation of a great number of small
+facts. There is, of course, a broad historical background:
+no less than the whole history of Western
+Europe since the period of the Barbarian invasions.
+That cannot be looked for here, of course; but there
+are certain <i>data</i> of capital importance which cannot
+be spared, and some plotting out of the whole field
+is indispensable.</p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>The Limits of the Subject</span></h3>
+
+<p>Greek and Latin MSS. are the main subject.
+Oriental books we do not even touch upon, and
+vernacular books in English or French have to
+take a secondary place; and we may treat first
+of the Greek, for it is by far the most compact
+division. In the case of both Greek and Latin
+books we shall ask where and when they were chiefly
+made, when and how they left their early homes,
+and where they are to be found now.</p>
+
+<p>We shall rule out the whole of what may be called<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a><a href="images/12.png">[12]</a></span>
+the classical period&mdash;the libraries of Alexandria
+and Pergamon, the bookshops of Martial's time&mdash;yes,
+and even the fourth-century library of C&aelig;sarea&mdash;for
+of these we have no relics. Our concern
+is with what exists to-day, or what did exist until
+the nation, which has contributed so largely to
+learning and history in the past, turned apostate,
+and to its lasting shame destroyed and dispersed
+what more ignorant men had spared. The mischief
+Germany has done&mdash;and it will be long before we
+learn the full extent of it&mdash;she has done with open
+eyes.</p>
+
+<p>We think primarily of Belgium and North-Eastern
+France as the scenes of her worst devastations,
+but she has not confined her work of spoliation
+to them. The Balkan provinces and Russia
+held great masses of Greek and Slavonic MSS. as yet
+very incompletely known. The actual invasions
+of German troops, and the wars and revolutions
+which Germany has fostered in those regions, can
+hardly have been less mischievous than her operations
+in the West.</p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>Greek MSS.: Production and Dispersion</span></h3>
+
+<p>The area in which Greek MSS. were produced
+in the medieval period was (with negligible exceptions)
+confined to Greece proper, "Turkey in
+Europe," the Levant, and South Italy. In the
+monastic centres, particularly Mount Athos, there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a><a href="images/13.png">[13]</a></span>
+were and are large stores of Greek books, the vast
+majority of which are theological or liturgical;
+and the theological authors most in vogue are those
+of the fourth and later centuries. Copies of primitive
+Christian authors or classical ones are comparative
+rarities. True, one or two of surpassing
+interest have been found in such libraries; a famous
+Plato was brought by Dr. E. D. Clarke from Patmos,
+and is at Oxford now; the treatise of Hippolytus
+against heresies came in the forties from a monastery
+to the Paris library. But these are exceptions.
+We have to look at Constantinople as by far the most
+important centre of learning and of book-production.
+The city was full of libraries, public and private,
+and of readers. The culture of the place was, no
+doubt, self-contained; it did not aim at enriching
+the outer world, which it despised; its literary productions
+were imitative, the work of <i>dilettanti</i>
+and decadents. Nevertheless, it preserved for us
+wellnigh all that we now have of the best literature
+of Greece, and, but for a few catastrophes, it would
+have handed on much more. Of thirty-two historical
+writings read and excerpted by Photius in
+his <i>Bibliotheca</i>, late in the ninth century, nineteen
+are lost; of several of the Attic orators, Lysias,
+Lycurgus, Hyperides, Dinarchus, he possessed
+many more speeches than we have seen. Michael
+Psellus, who died about 1084, is credited (I must
+allow that the evidence is not of the best) with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a><a href="images/14.png">[14]</a></span>
+writing notes on twenty-four comedies of Menander,
+of which, as is well known, we have not one complete.
+In the twelfth century John Tzetzes and
+Eustathius apparently had access still to very
+many lost authors. In short, before the Latin
+occupation of Constantinople in 1204, the remains
+of ancient Greek literature very notably exceeded
+their present bulk. Much of it, no doubt, was
+preserved in single copies, and only a narrow
+selection of authors was in constant use for educational
+purposes. Only three plays out of seven
+of &AElig;schylus, for example, were read in the schools.
+The rest, with Sophocles and Apollonius Rhodius,
+practically depended for their survival on the famous
+copy now at Florence. Instances might be multiplied.
+The threads of transmission to which we
+owe most of the Euripidean plays, the Anthology,
+the History of Polybius, the works of Clement of
+Alexandria, the Christian Apologists, the commentary
+of Origen upon St. John, are equally slender.
+We cannot doubt that the sack of Constantinople
+by the Crusaders was, in its obliteration of works
+of art and of literature, far more disastrous than the
+capture of the city by the Turks in 1453. For the
+best part of a century before the latter date, the
+export of precious MSS. to Italy had been going
+on, and many of our greatest treasures were already
+safe in the hands of scholars when the crash came.
+Nor is it possible, I believe, to show that between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a><a href="images/15.png">[15]</a></span>
+1204 and 1453 many authors whose works no longer
+exist were read in Byzantine circles. That there
+was destruction of books in 1453 is no doubt true;
+but within a very few years the Turks had learned
+that money was to be made of them, and the sale
+and export went on at a great rate.</p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>European Centres for Greek MSS.: Continental</span></h3>
+
+<p>Thus the drafting of Greek MSS. into the libraries
+of Western Europe has been a long and gradual
+process. Many of the best, that were secured by
+individual scholars such as Giannozzo Manetti,
+Aurispa, and Niccolo Niccoli, found their way into
+the Laurentian Library at Florence; others, collected
+by Nicholas V. (d. 1455), are the nucleus
+of the Vatican collection; a third set was the gift
+of the Greek Cardinal Bessarion (d. 1468) to Venice.
+But probably in quality, and certainly in quantity,
+the Biblioth&egrave;que Nationale in Paris excels even
+the Italian storehouses of Greek MSS. The premier
+Greek MS. of France is a copy of the works attributed
+to Dionysius the Areopagite, which the
+Greek Emperor Michael the Stammerer sent to
+Louis the Pious in the year 827. It was long at
+the Royal Abbey of St. Denis, but strayed away
+somehow; then, bought by Henri de Mesmes in
+the sixteenth century, it came into the Royal
+Library in 1706, and has been there ever since.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a><a href="images/16.png">[16]</a></span>
+Its present number is Bib. Nat. Grec 437. Another
+treasure of ancient times which was once at St.
+Denis is the sixth-century uncial Greek MS. of the
+Prophets known as Codex Marchalianus, now in
+the Vatican; but when it came to France is not
+clearly made out. Coming to later times, the not
+inconsiderable collection made by Francis I.
+received a notable increase in that of Catherine
+de' Medici, once the property of Cardinal Ridolfi,
+and the reigns of Louis XIV. and XV. were for it
+an epoch of rapid growth. Between 1645 and
+1740 the number of volumes swelled from 1,255
+to 3,197. The Revolution period added the collection
+of Coislin, or rather of S&eacute;guier&mdash;400 more.
+At the present day Paris must possess 5,000 Greek
+MSS.</p>
+
+<p>In Central Europe Vienna may be reckoned the
+chief repository. It contains the remarkable collection
+of the traveller Augier de Busbecq, made
+in the East about 1570, which was once at Augsburg.
+Spain&mdash;I think principally of the Escurial Library&mdash;has
+suffered from depredation and from fire, and
+is poorer than the prominence of its early contributions
+to the cause of learning deserves.</p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>Greek MSS. in England</span></h3>
+
+<p>It is a temptation, when one turns to England,
+to enlarge upon the early history of Greek scholarship
+in the country, but it is a temptation which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a><a href="images/17.png">[17]</a></span>
+must be resisted. We had a share in preparing for
+the revival of learning. Roger Bacon and Grosseteste
+(I say nothing of the earlier age, of Theodore
+of Tarsus and Bede) were men whose work in this
+direction has hardly met with full appreciation
+as yet; and later on we gave Erasmus a welcome
+and a home. But we did not rival Italy or France
+in the early scramble for Greek books. Such
+classical MSS. of first-class value as we possess
+have been importations of the seventeenth and
+later centuries. Let me, however, speak somewhat
+more in detail.</p>
+
+<p>There was a turbulent person called George
+Neville, who died Archbishop of York in 1476.
+It is evident, though not, I think, from anything
+that he wrote, that he was interested in Greek
+learning, and not only theological learning. A
+MS. of some orations of Demosthenes now at Leyden
+contains a statement by the scribe that he wrote
+it for Archbishop Neville in 1472. This is our
+starting-point. Now, the scribe in question&mdash;Emmanuel
+of Constantinople&mdash;generally writes
+a hand (ugly enough) which no one who has once
+seen it can fail to recognize. This hand appears
+in a not inconsiderable group of books: in a Plato
+and an Aristotle now at Durham, in a Suidas
+given by the Chapter of Durham to Lord Oxford
+(Brit. Mus., MS., Harl. 3,100), in a rather famous
+New Testament at Leicester, in three Psalters at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a><a href="images/18.png">[18]</a></span>
+Oxford and Cambridge, and in half of another
+copy of Suidas at Oxford. In this second Suidas
+Emmanuel's hand is associated with another,
+equally easy to recognize&mdash;that of Joannes Serbopoulos.
+Serbopoulos lived, I know not how long,
+in the abbey at Reading, and transcribed several
+Greek MSS. now in Oxford and Cambridge libraries;
+he was still at work in the first years of the sixteenth
+century. This little episode is one that demonstrates,
+in a rather pleasing way, the value of the
+study of handwritings and of the inscriptions
+written by scribes; the light it throws on the history
+of scholarship is unexpected, and is worth having.</p>
+
+<p>Two Biblical MSS. of high importance came to
+England as gifts to our Sovereigns. One was the
+well-known Codex Alexandrinus (A), given to
+Charles I. in 1628 by Cyril Lucar, the reforming
+Patriarch of Constantinople. Of the other I shall
+take leave to say more. It was that known as the
+Cottonian Genesis, which was brought over by
+two Greek Bishops "from Philippi" and presented
+to Henry VIII. It was a sixth-century copy of the
+Book of Genesis, written in uncial letters and illustrated,
+we are told, with 250 pictures. Queen
+Elizabeth passed it on to her tutor, Sir John
+Fortescue, and he to Sir Robert Cotton, the
+collector of a library of which we shall hear
+more in the sequel, and in that library it remained
+(when not out on loan) till Saturday,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a><a href="images/19.png">[19]</a></span>
+October 23, 1731. On that day a fire broke
+out in Ashburnham House in Westminster (where
+the Cotton and Royal Libraries were then kept),
+and the bookcase in which the Genesis was
+suffered horribly. The Cotton MSS.&mdash;for I may
+as well explain this matter now as later&mdash;were
+kept in presses, each of which had a bust of a Roman
+Emperor on the top. They ran from Julius to
+Domitian, and were supplemented by Cleopatra
+and Faustina. Augustus and Domitian had but
+one shelf each (Augustus contained charters,
+drawings, and the like; Domitian was originally,
+perhaps, a small case over a doorway); the others
+had usually six shelves, lettered from A to F,
+and the books in each shelf were numbered from
+i. onwards in Roman figures. The Genesis was
+Otho, B vi., and the three presses of Galba, Otho,
+and Vitellius were those in which the fire did most
+mischief. No complete leaf is left of Genesis;
+there are bits of blackened text and pictures, a
+few of which strayed to the library of the Baptist
+College at Bristol. The text had been examined
+by competent scholars for editions of the Greek
+Old Testament, and we are able to judge of its
+value; but of the pictures, alas! no list or description
+had been made. Still, something is known.
+An eminent French polymath, the Sieur de Peiresc
+(whose life by P. Gassendi is well worth reading),
+borrowed the book from Cotton, and had careful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a><a href="images/20.png">[20]</a></span>
+copies of one or two of the illustrations made for
+him, and these exist. And a further interesting
+fact has come out: by the help of our scanty relics
+a student of art, Professor Tikkanen, of Helsingfors,
+in Finland, was able to show that the designers of
+a long series of mosaic pictures from Genesis in
+St. Mark's at Venice must have had before them
+either the Cotton Genesis or its twin sister, so closely
+do the mosaics follow the compositions in the MS.</p>
+
+<p>In somewhat similar fashion, by gift from the
+reformer Theodore de B&eacute;ze, the University of
+Cambridge acquired its greatest Greek treasure,
+the Codex Bez&aelig; (D) of the Gospels and Acts in
+Elizabeth's reign. The riddles which its text
+presents have exercised many brains, and I do not
+know who would allow that they are finally solved.
+Another famous MS., the unique Lexicon of Photius,
+was acquired by Thomas Gale, Dean of York,
+early in the eighteenth century&mdash;one would like
+to know where. To my eye it bears signs of having
+been long in Western Europe, if not in England.
+Roger Gale gave it, with his own and his father's
+other MSS., to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1738.
+On the whole, however, Cambridge has not been
+nearly so fortunate as Oxford in accumulating
+Greek books. Oxford had a magnificent present
+in 1629 from its Chancellor, the Earl of Pembroke,
+of 240 MSS. purchased in block from the Venetian
+Barocci, and in 1817 made a great and wise purchase<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a><a href="images/21.png">[21]</a></span>
+of 128 more, contained in the collection of
+another Venetian, the Abate Canonici. In the
+interval such diverse benefactors as Laud and
+Cromwell had enriched it with some very notable
+gifts. The pedigree of one of Laud's MSS. may be
+familiar, but is too illuminating to be omitted. It
+is a seventh-century copy of the Acts of the Apostles
+in Greek and Latin. The earliest home to which
+we can trace it is Sardinia; a document connected
+with that island is written on a fly-leaf. Then
+we find indisputable evidence that Bede, writing
+early in the eighth century, had access to it;
+he quotes in his <i>Retractations</i> on the Acts readings
+which are characteristic of it; and as he never left
+his monastery in the North, we may be sure that
+the book was at Jarrow or Wearmouth in his
+time. After that it disappears until Laud buys
+it. Like many of his books, it came to him from
+Germany, a spoil of the Thirty Years' War. These
+various <i>data</i> are best linked up if we suppose (1)
+that the MS. was brought from Italy to England
+by Theodore of Tarsus or his companion Abbot
+Hadrian in 668; (2) that it was taken from England
+to Germany after Bede's death by one of the companions
+of St. Boniface, the apostle of that country,
+and remained there, in or near Fulda, perhaps,
+until the convulsion which threw it back upon
+our shores.</p>
+
+<p>Take another illustration. When John Leland,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a><a href="images/22.png">[22]</a></span>
+in Henry VIII.'s reign, visited the library of Canterbury
+Cathedral, he saw there part of the Old Testament
+in Greek&mdash;chiefly the poetical books and
+the Psalter. He does not mention the Pentateuch.
+Nevertheless, it can be shown that that was also
+there, for among the Canonici MSS. in the Bodleian
+is one of the thirteenth century containing Genesis
+to Ruth in Greek, which has on a margin the inscription,
+legible though erased: "liber ecclesie
+Christi Cantuarie." How it left England at the
+Dissolution one may guess easily enough, but what
+its fortunes were before it came to light again at
+Venice I believe there is nothing to show.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Speaking broadly, then, of the destinies of Greek
+MSS., I may repeat that they were produced in a
+comparatively small area, that a great many of
+the most precious ones were concentrated in one
+place, and that from the fourteenth century onwards
+they became objects of desire to the great ones of
+the earth, who vied with each other in sending
+special emissaries to collect them. As a result,
+the greatest treasures were soon locked up in the
+libraries of princes and prelates, and became less
+commonly exposed to dispersion and sale than
+Latin books. We must remember, too, that as a
+rule the monasteries of Western Europe did not
+collect Greek MSS.; they possessed a chance one
+here and there, as we have seen, but rather as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a><a href="images/23.png">[23]</a></span>
+curiosities than as books to be used.<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> To the noble
+and the scholar there was a flavour of distinction
+about a Greek MS. which was wanting to all but
+the most venerable and beautiful of the Latin ones.</p>
+
+<p>There is still much to be done in the investigation
+of the history and relationships of Greek MSS.
+In spite of the numberless editions of the great
+authors, and the labour that has been lavished
+upon them, I believe that scholars would agree
+that in very few cases, if any, is the transmission
+of the text at all perfectly known. For some
+writings we have too little MS. evidence, for some
+so much as to be embarrassing. In no case can
+we afford to neglect and to leave unrecorded anything
+that a MS. can tell us as to its place of origin,
+its scribe, or its owners. Names and scribblings
+on fly-leaves, which to one student suggest nothing,
+may combine in the memory of another into a
+coherent piece of history, and show him the home
+of the book at a particular date, and by consequence
+unveil a whole section of the story of its wanderings.
+With one little instance of this kind I will bring
+to an end my remarks on this first and shorter
+portion of my subject. In the library of Corpus
+Christi College at Cambridge is a Greek Psalter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a><a href="images/24.png">[24]</a></span>
+written in the middle of the twelfth century. On
+one of its last pages is scribbled in Greek letters
+by a later hand the name of John Farley ("<ins title="Transcriber's Note: Hi&ocirc;hann&ecirc;s pharlehi">&#7993;&#969;&#7937;&#957;&#957;&#951;&#962; &#966;&#945;&#961;&#955;&#949;&#7985;</ins>"). Only about five-and-twenty volumes
+away from this stands a MS. containing letters
+written by the University of Oxford on public
+occasions. One of these is signed by J. Farley.
+A little enquiry elicits the fact that John Farley
+was official scribe of that University near the
+end of the fifteenth century. The Greek Psalter,
+then, was pretty certainly at Oxford in Farley's
+time. What do we know of Greek MSS. then at
+Oxford? We know that Bishop Robert Grosseteste
+of Lincoln owned such things, and that he
+bequeathed his books to the Franciscans of Oxford
+at his death in 1254; and when we examine the
+Psalter again, we find that it is full of notes in a
+hand which occurs in other Greek MSS. known to
+have belonged to Grosseteste, and which I take
+to be Grosseteste's autograph. So the mere
+occurrence of John Farley's name helps us to write
+the history of the book from within a hundred
+years of its making until the present day. Procured
+by Grosseteste some time before 1254, it
+passes to Oxford, and remains there till the Grey
+Friar's Convent is dissolved by Henry VIII. Then
+there is a gap of a generation at most. Matthew
+Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, acquires it
+(believing it, absurdly enough, to have belonged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a><a href="images/25.png">[25]</a></span>
+to Archbishop Theodore in the seventh century),
+and bequeaths it to his college of Corpus Christi
+in 1574.</p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>Latin MSS.</span></h3>
+
+<p>We turn to the Latin division, and here the difficulty
+of selecting lines of procedure is very great.
+A paragraph of historical preface, at any rate, must
+be attempted.</p>
+
+<p>At the period of the Barbarian invasions&mdash;the
+fifth century&mdash;the learned countries were Italy,
+France (especially Southern France) and Spain.
+Of these three, Italy may be described as stationary
+or even decadent, but she possessed greater accumulations
+of books than either of the other two. The
+result of the invasions was, no doubt, that libraries
+were destroyed and education dislocated; but
+there was another result, as we have lately begun
+to realize&mdash;namely, that in the case of France
+there was a transplanting of culture to another
+soil. A number of teachers fled the country, and
+some at least came to Ireland. This, as far as we
+can now see, was the beginning of that Irish learning
+which has been so widely, yet so vaguely, extolled.
+Ireland, then, in the late fifth century and the sixth,
+holds the lamp. Its light passes to England in
+the middle of the seventh century, and from thence,
+near the end of the eighth, to the Court of Charlemagne,
+where it initiates the Carolingian Renaissance.
+In the ninth century, when England is a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a><a href="images/26.png">[26]</a></span>
+prey to the Danes, the Carolingian Court and the
+great abbeys of Germany are enjoying a vigorous
+intellectual life, stimulated and enriched by scholars
+from Italy and from Ireland. In a general view
+the tenth and eleventh centuries must figure as a
+period of degeneration; the twelfth as one of immense
+intellectual and artistic vigour, culminating
+in the thirteenth. In the fourteenth the foundations
+of what we call the Renaissance are already
+being laid, and we have hardly passed the middle
+of the fifteenth before the MS. has received its death-blow
+in the publication of the first printed Bible.</p>
+
+<p>This absurdly condensed review of ten centuries
+has, I believe, some truth in it, in spite of the fact
+that every clause needs qualification. We shall
+have to go over the same ground again a little
+more slowly. At present we will devote a little
+time to the beginnings of our period.</p>
+
+<p>A few relics of the days before the Barbarian
+invasion have reached us. I am not thinking
+of the library of rolls found at Herculaneum in the
+eighteenth century, the unrolling and decipherment
+of which still goes on slowly at Naples, nor
+of the many precious fragments of rolls and books
+which have come in our own generation from
+Egypt, but rather of those which have been preserved
+above ground in libraries. Such are the
+Virgils of the Vatican, of St. Gall, and of Florence.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps a word about these ancient Virgils will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a><a href="images/27.png">[27]</a></span>
+not be unwelcome. They are cited in all the textbooks,
+it is true, but I think they are apt to be
+confused; at any rate it is easy to confuse them.</p>
+
+<p>They are five in number: three very fragmentary,
+two more or less complete. The surnames they
+go by are <i>Sangallensis</i>, <i>Augusteus</i>, <i>Vaticanus</i>,
+<i>Romanus</i>, <i>Mediceus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sangallensis</i> and <i>Augusteus</i> are practically the
+only pieces of books we have which are written
+in the old square capitals, like those of the Roman
+inscriptions. <i>Sangallensis</i> consists of a few leaves
+which were found by Von Arx, a librarian of St.
+Gall, in the bindings of books in that abbey's
+library. Of <i>Augusteus</i> there are four leaves at
+Rome (<i>Vaticanus latinus</i> 3,256) and three at
+Berlin; and somewhere, perhaps in a private library
+in France, is or was another bit which was known
+to scholars in the seventeenth century. This
+copy was once at the Royal Abbey of St. Denis.
+Both of these are fourth-century books at latest.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vaticanus</i> (<i>lat.</i> 3,225) is a more complete copy,
+illustrated with fifty paintings in good classical
+style, and is also assigned to the fourth century.</p>
+
+<p><i>Romanus</i> (<i>Vat. lat.</i> 3,867), once at St. Denis, is a
+pictured copy too, but not nearly so good in style.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mediceus</i>, written before <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 494, is at Florence
+(a single leaf of it is bound up with <i>Vaticanus</i>).
+It was formerly in the abbey library of Bobbio.</p>
+
+<p>These three books are written in "rustic capitals."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a><a href="images/28.png">[28]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A larger, but still small, group of books of "classical"
+date are the palimpsests, the most famous
+of which are at Milan and Rome. There was a
+time, early in the nineteenth century, when Angelo
+Mai, afterwards Cardinal, and Prefect of the Vatican
+Library, was constantly launching fresh surprises
+upon scholars, the results of his work in what was
+then an almost untouched field. Large fragments
+of Cicero's <i>Republic</i>, of lost orations of Cicero,
+of the works of the rhetorician Fronto, were issued
+at short intervals: and all the most important
+of these were recovered from palimpsests in the
+Ambrosian or the Vatican Library. They had all
+come, too, from one place, the same Bobbio which
+has been already named. Bobbio was founded by
+the Irishman St. Columban (d. 615). The list of
+the early and valuable MSS. which can be traced
+to it would take up a large share of my available
+space; but among the precious things it owned
+was a number of quite ancient volumes, the Cicero
+and Fronto and others&mdash;books sumptuously written
+in uncial letters in the fourth century, which, sad
+to say, the Bobbio monks themselves broke up,
+washed out the earlier writing, and covered the
+pages with texts more immediately useful to them.
+Whence did they come? An answer to that
+question has been offered recently which finds
+favour among experts. They are the relics, it
+is said, of the library formed by Cassiodorus at his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a><a href="images/29.png">[29]</a></span>
+monastery of Vivarium or Squillace, in South Italy.
+Cassiodorus is a great figure in the history of his
+own time, and in his influence upon the general
+course of learning. He was private secretary to
+Theodoric King of the Goths; in his old age he
+retired from public to monastic life, and his last
+years were devoted to equipping the monks he had
+gathered about him for study&mdash;first and foremost
+the study of the Scriptures, but also, as leading up
+to that, the study of languages, of history and
+geography, and, as conducing to the general welfare,
+of medicine, botany, and other useful arts.
+It had been a cherished project of his to found an
+academy at Rome where all such learning might
+be fostered, but that plan failed, and Cassiodorus
+took into his retreat at Vivarium all the store of
+books he had accumulated, and wrote a little manual
+to guide his monks to the right use of them. His
+<i>Institutes</i> (as the book is called) do not give a set
+catalogue of his library, but there are many and
+striking coincidences between the manual and the
+literary works which can be traced to Bobbio.
+A specimen may be given: he recommends a writer
+on gardening called Gargilius Martialis. Hardly
+anyone else mentions this person, and his work
+had disappeared until Mai found pieces of it in a
+palimpsest at Naples which had come from Bobbio.
+We owe much to Cassiodorus in any case, for it
+was he who commended secular learning to monks,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a><a href="images/30.png">[30]</a></span>
+and the fact that monks were the great preservers
+of ancient literature cannot be dissociated from his
+influence. I shall be glad if the theory I have
+stated (it is that of the late Dr. Rudolf Beer) proves
+sound; to have some of the very volumes which
+Cassiodorus handled would be worth much.</p>
+
+<p>There is a link between the library of Cassiodorus
+and our own country. A famous Latin Bible now
+at Florence, the <i>Codex Amiatinus</i>, is known to have
+been once in England, at Wearmouth or Jarrow,
+and to have been taken abroad by Ceolfrid, Abbot
+of those monasteries, in 716 as a present to the
+Pope, whom it never reached, for Ceolfrid died at
+Langres on his way to Rome. The story has often
+been told, and needs not to be dwelt upon here;
+but a view has been broached, and is stoutly maintained
+by Sir Henry Howorth, which does deserve
+mention and is not yet familiar. It is that the
+first quire in the Amiatine Bible, which contains
+pictures and lists of Biblical books, is actually a
+portion of a Bible written for Cassiodorus. There
+is much to be said for this, and at the least we may
+be sure that it is a direct copy from such a Bible.
+Sir Henry would go farther, and claim the whole
+book as Cassiodorian. I do not know that expert
+opinion is prepared to endorse this.</p>
+
+<p>The mention of Cassiodorus has led us below the
+date of the "classical" period, for he died in 583.
+For one moment I revert to the earlier time to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a><a href="images/31.png">[31]</a></span>
+record an interesting example of wandering. Illustrated
+books of the early centuries are the greatest
+of rarities. The two Virgils, the Vienna and the
+Cotton Genesis, the Homer at Milan, the Gospels
+of Rossano in Calabria and those of Sinope now at
+Paris, the Dioscorides at Vienna, the Pentateuch
+of Tours, the Joshua-roll at the Vatican&mdash;these
+are the most famous, and there are very few beside
+them. Among those few are some pieces of a Latin
+Bible written in the fourth century, and containing
+parts of Samuel and Kings, with paintings which,
+when fresh, must have been of high excellence.
+They have unhappily suffered grievous damage,
+for they were used in the seventeenth century to
+make covers for municipal documents at the royal
+and ancient abbatial town of Quedlinburg (the
+scene of Canning's <i>Rovers</i>). The painted leaves
+are now at Berlin; a leaf of plain text remains at
+Quedlinburg. No one doubts that the book to
+which they belonged was made in Italy, and the
+likeliest history that can be imagined for it is that
+it was brought as a gift to the abbey by a German
+prince, say in the tenth century. It is hard to
+explain the neglect and mutilation of so noble a
+book, in whose contents there was nothing to offend
+Protestant or other religious susceptibilities. Only
+we find, by numerous examples, that the MSS.
+we should most prize now, those written in capitals
+or uncials with the words undivided, or in Irish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a><a href="images/32.png">[32]</a></span>
+or English scripts which became unfamiliar, were
+uniformly despised and neglected by the readers
+of later centuries. We meet with notes of this
+kind in monastic catalogues: "It cannot be read,"
+"Old and useless," and the like. Still, one would
+have thought that the pictures of the Quedlinburg
+book would have saved it, even in a German nunnery.</p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>Chronological Survey</span></h3>
+
+<p>Since this little book is not a treatise on pal&aelig;ography,
+a manual of art, or a history of learning,
+and yet has to touch upon all three provinces,
+it is important to keep it from straying too far into
+any of them, and this is one of the most difficult
+tasks that I have ever enterprised. The temptation
+to dilate upon the beauty and intrinsic interest
+of the MSS. and upon the characteristic scripts
+of different ages and countries is hard to resist.
+And, indeed, without some slight elucidation of
+such matters my readers may be very much at fault.</p>
+
+<p>I had begun a geographical survey of the field,
+taking countries as the units, and had written upon
+Italy and Spain, and attempted France. But
+I found that when the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries were reached my tract was becoming a
+disquisition upon pal&aelig;ography, art, and learning,
+and, of course, was failing to do justice either to
+any one of them or to what it had promised in
+its title. I now think that a chronological survey<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a><a href="images/33.png">[33]</a></span>
+will be more practicable, and that it will be best
+to take first the subject of book-production, looking
+at each country in turn in a single period, instead
+of following the course taken by each, from the
+sixth century to the fifteenth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sixth and Seventh Centuries.</i>&mdash;Italy, France,
+and Spain are the main centres. Ireland is active
+in learning, and in the second half of the seventh
+century England, under Archbishop Theodore and
+Abbot Hadrian, produces schools which rival the
+Irish, and, in the person of Bede, has the greatest
+scholar of the time. Some of the great Irish
+monasteries, such as Bobbio, Luxeuil, St. Gall,
+are founded on the Continent.</p>
+
+<p>Books are produced in considerable numbers in
+Italy, France, Spain; and from Italy they are
+exported, especially by English pilgrims, such as
+Benedict Biscop. The Gospel harmony written
+in 546 by or for Bishop Victor of Capua comes
+to England, and goes abroad again, with St. Boniface,
+perhaps, and now rests at Fulda, where also
+his body lies. A copy of St. Jerome on Ecclesiastes,
+written in Italy in the sixth or seventh century,
+has in it the Anglo-Saxon inscription, "The book
+of Cuthsuuitha the Abbess." The only Abbess
+Cuthsuuitha we know of presided over a nunnery
+in or near Worcester about 690-700. Her book
+travelled to Germany with some British or English
+missionary, and is at W&uuml;rzburg. W&uuml;rzburg is an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a><a href="images/34.png">[34]</a></span>
+Irish foundation; its apostle and patron, St. Kilian,
+is said to have been assassinated in 689. From
+Italy, too, came (most likely) the illustrated Gospels
+now at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge (286),
+which belonged once to Christchurch, Canterbury;
+and the beautiful little copy of St. John's Gospel
+at Stonyhurst College, which was found in the
+coffin of St. Cuthbert (d. 687) when it was opened in
+1104. And St. Gall must have acquired its ancient
+Virgil from Italy also&mdash;when, we do not know.</p>
+
+<p>Spain kept her books very much to herself, one
+would guess, judging from the very few Spanish
+MSS. of this age which are to be met with in the
+rest of Europe. The guess, however, would not
+be quite correct. There was one great Spanish
+scholar in the seventh century, Isidore of Seville
+(636), and his encyclop&aelig;dia (The <i>Etymologies</i> or
+<i>Origins</i>), which fed many later centuries with learning,
+made its way all over educated Europe very
+quickly. Not only so, but we find English scholars
+(Aldhelm and Bede) quoting Spanish writers on
+grammar and Spanish poets who were almost
+their own contemporaries.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eighth Century.</i>&mdash;This sees the last part of Bede's
+career (d. 734)&mdash;the zenith of English scholarship,
+the mission of St. Boniface (d. 758) to Germany,
+the meeting of Alcuin with Charlemagne (781),
+and the beginning of the Carolingian Renaissance.
+But, on the other hand, Spain is overrun by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a><a href="images/35.png">[35]</a></span>
+Moors, Italy is inert, England begins to be harried
+by the Northmen. On the whole, if there really
+was a Dark Age, the middle of the eighth century
+seems to answer the description best. But, of
+course, there were points of light. The great
+centres of Northern France, such as Corbie and
+Laon, particularly Corbie, were beginning their
+activities of collecting and copying books. Ireland
+was capable of producing such a work as the Book
+of Kells&mdash;whether it actually falls within the century
+or not I will not be positive, but work of the
+same amazing beauty was carried out before 800.
+Nor was the export of treasures from Italy to England
+quite stopped, in spite of difficulties. At the
+Plantin Museum at Antwerp is a copy of the writings
+of the Christian poet Sedulius, which has pictures
+of the old Italian sort, such as we find in the frescoes
+of the Roman catacombs. In it is a note connecting
+it with a Bishop of the name of Cuthwin, who
+held the East Anglian see and died about 754.
+Another MS., at Paris, has a note describing an
+elaborately illustrated life of St. Paul, which, it
+says, the same Bishop Cuthwin brought with him
+from Rome.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ninth Century.</i>&mdash;There is immense activity,
+literary and artistic, afoot at the Court of Charlemagne
+(d. 814) and of his successors. The German
+abbeys&mdash;<i>e.g.</i>, Lorsch, Fulda&mdash;and cathedral schools
+(Mainz, Bamberg, etc.) are full of scribes and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a><a href="images/36.png">[36]</a></span>
+teachers. Irishmen who know Greek flock to the
+Continent, driven from home by Danish invasion:
+such are Johannes Scottus Eriugena and Sedulius
+Scottus. They haunt Li&eacute;ge, Laon, Aix-la-Chapelle,
+and penetrate to Italy. Not less prolific are the
+French houses: at Tours the handwriting called
+the Carolingian minuscule, the parent of our modern
+"Roman" printing, is developed, though not at
+Tours alone. At Corbie, Fleury on the Loire,
+(now called St. B&eacute;noit sur Loire), St. Riquier by
+Abbeville, Rheims, and many another centre in
+Northern and Eastern France, libraries are accumulated
+and ancient books copied. Of St. Gall and
+Reichenau the same may be said. In Italy, Verona
+is conspicuous. The archdeacon Pacificus (d. 846)
+gave over 200 books to the cathedral, where many
+of them still are; and at Monte Cassino, the head
+house of the Benedictine Order, books were written
+in the difficult "Beneventane" hand (which used
+to be called Lombardic, and was never popular
+outside Italy). Spain has its own special script
+at this time, the Visigothic, as troublesome to read
+as the Beneventane; its <i>a</i>'s are like <i>u</i>'s and its <i>t</i>'s
+like <i>a</i>'s. England is still overrun by the Danes,
+and does nothing before the very end of the century,
+when King Alfred exerts himself to revive education,
+and starts a vernacular literature.</p>
+
+<p>An enormous proportion of the earliest copies
+we have of classical Latin authors come from this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a><a href="images/37.png">[37]</a></span>
+century, when old copies of them were actively
+sought out and transcribed. Often great liberties
+in the way of revision and even abridgment of the
+text were taken by the scholars of the time, and,
+once transcribed, the old archetypes were neglected
+or even destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>Books of very great beauty&mdash;Bibles, Gospels,
+Psalters&mdash;were produced for the Emperors and the
+great nobles and prelates. In these there is a
+marked effort to imitate and continue the traditions
+of classical art.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tenth Century.</i>&mdash;The tradition of study and
+scholarship lives on, but the impulse from Britain
+and Ireland has worked itself out, and few geniuses
+are born on the Continent. There is a period of
+splendour and vigour in England under the Kings
+Athelstan and Edgar and the Archbishops Odo
+and Dunstan. The calligraphic school of Winchester
+achieves magnificent results. At the end
+of the century the great teacher and scholar
+Gerbert (Pope Sylvester II.) is a prominent figure
+at the Imperial Court. The Ottos emulate Charlemagne
+in their zeal for literature and for fine works
+of art, but their attainment is slighter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eleventh Century.</i>&mdash;Men still live on the traditions
+of the Carolingian Revival in the early part: there
+is later an awakening, principally, perhaps, in France
+and Italy. Great names like those of Anselm,
+Abelard, Bernard, come forward. Monastic reform<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a><a href="images/38.png">[38]</a></span>
+is active; great schools, as at Chartres, take
+their rise; there is a preparation for the wonderful
+vigour of the next century. The First Crusade
+brings East and West together in a new fashion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Twelfth Century.</i>&mdash;The strength and energy of
+Europe is now tremendous in every department,
+and not least in that with which we are concerned.
+Our libraries are crammed to-day with twelfth-century
+MSS. The Gregories, Augustines, Jeromes,
+Anselms, are numbered by the hundred. It is the
+age of great Bibles and of "glosses"&mdash;single books
+or groups of books of the Bible equipped with a
+marginal and interlinear comment (very many of
+which, by the way, seem to have been produced in
+North Italy). Immense, too, is the output of the
+writers of the time; Bernard, Hugh and Richard
+of St. Victor, Peter Comestor, Peter Lombard.
+The two last are the authors of two of the most
+popular of medieval textbooks&mdash;Peter Lombard
+of the <i>Sentences</i> (a body of doctrine), Peter Comestor
+of the <i>Historia Scholastica</i> (a manual of Scripture
+history). The Cistercian Order, now founding
+houses everywhere, is, I think, specially active
+in filling its libraries with fine but austerely plain
+copies of standard works, eschewing figured decoration
+in its books, as in its buildings, and caring
+little for secular learning. The University of
+Paris is the centre of intellectual vigour.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thirteenth Century.</i>&mdash;This is commonly regarded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a><a href="images/39.png">[39]</a></span>
+as the greatest of all in medieval history; and truly,
+when we think of achievements such as Westminster,
+Amiens, and Chartres, and of men such as St.
+Louis, St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Francis, Dante,
+Edward I., Roger Bacon, we must agree that the
+popular estimate is sound. Certainly we see in
+France and in England the fine flower of art in
+buildings and in books.</p>
+
+<p>Paris is still the centre. The "Gothic" spirit
+is concentrated there. The book trade is enormous.
+It is passing&mdash;under the influence of the University,
+most likely&mdash;out of the hands of the monastic
+scribes into those of the professional "stationers";
+while great individual artists, such as Honor&eacute;,
+arise to provide for Royal and noble persons examples
+of art which stand as high to-day as when they
+were first produced.</p>
+
+<p>It is now that we find a large multiplication of
+textbooks. If the twelfth century was the age
+of great Bibles, the thirteenth is the age of small
+ones. Thousands of these exist, written with
+amazing minuteness and uniformity. Only less
+common are the Aristotles, the <i>Sentences</i>, the
+<i>Summ&aelig;</i>, and the other works of the golden age
+of scholasticism. The Orders of Friars, Franciscan
+and Dominican, form libraries&mdash;partly of duplicates
+procured from older foundations, partly of new
+copies to which they were helped by charitable
+friends.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a><a href="images/40.png">[40]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of the century Italy comes forward
+as the great purveyor of books of a special
+sort. The University of Bologna becomes the great
+law school of Europe, and exports in numbers
+copies of the immense texts and commentaries of
+and upon the Church (Canon) and Roman (Civil)
+law which were indispensable to the unfortunate
+student. These books become common at the
+end of the thirteenth century, and run over well
+into the fourteenth. They are prettily (but often
+very carelessly) written in a round Gothic hand,
+sometimes christened "Bolognese." Some were
+not only written but decorated (with poorish
+ornament) on the spot, but very many were exported
+in sheets and provided, in France or England, with
+such decoration as the purchaser could afford.
+A leading example is a copy of the Decretals in
+the British Museum (Royal 10, E. iv.) which
+belonged to St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield. It
+is in Italian script, but on each of the spacious
+lower margins of its many pages is a picture by an
+English artist; these pictures run in sets, illustrating
+Bible stories, legends, and romances.</p>
+
+<p>As the centuries go on, the material they have
+left increases in bulk, and the complication of the
+threads is proportionately greater. I cannot hope
+in a survey like this to give prominence to every
+factor; but we shall not be wrong in fixing upon
+Northern France and England as the areas of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a><a href="images/41.png">[41]</a></span>
+greatest productiveness and the sources of the best
+art in the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Before we pass to the next century a word must
+be devoted to a not unimportant class of books
+which seem to have been manufactured chiefly
+in Picardy and Artois, the illustrated Romances&mdash;<i>e.g.</i>
+the Grail and Lancelot&mdash;of great bulk, usually
+in prose, which served to pass the winter evenings
+of persons of quality. A few of these, and a book
+of devotions to take to church (oftenest a Psalter
+at this time; later on a book of Hours), were the
+staple books owned by the upper classes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourteenth Century.</i>&mdash;If the thirteenth century
+gives us on the whole the noblest books, the early
+part of the fourteenth affords the loveliest. They
+come from England, France, and the Netherlands.
+A noticeable element in their art is that of the
+grotesque and burlesque, never, of course, quite
+absent even from early books, but now most prominent
+and most delightful. The defect of the art
+of this time is lack of strength and austerity; its
+delicacy is above praise.</p>
+
+<p>The middle of the century sees Petrarch, and with
+him the Renaissance begins. Italy has been producing
+great men in every field, but the work of
+Petrarch reached farther and was more enduring
+than that of any other.</p>
+
+<p>France, tortured by wars, put forth little in the
+middle years, but then came Charles V., a King<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a><a href="images/42.png">[42]</a></span>
+who was really interested in books, and the library
+he formed at the Louvre gave a stimulus to book-production
+which spread wide and lasted long.
+Under Richard II. and through his Queen, Anne of
+Bohemia, a foreign influence makes itself felt in
+England, and some lovely results are achieved;
+but on the whole English art is waning.</p>
+
+<p>The Universities, and to some extent the monasteries,
+were throughout this century great customers
+for the bulky books of scholastic divinity (Duns
+Scotus, Albertus, and the like) and the later generation
+of commentators on the Bible, such as Nicolas
+de Lyra and Hugo de S. Caro. Many shelves are
+filled with these.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fifteenth Century.</i>&mdash;The fifteenth century is our
+last; it ends the MS. period. Under the influence
+of the Renaissance, now enormously potent, every
+Italian noble forms a library. The scholars are
+seeking out the ninth-century copies of the classics,
+and they discard the Gothic (black-letter) hands
+of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in favour
+of the Carolingian minuscule (or, some say that of
+the twelfth century). As early as 1426 we find
+books written in a script adapted and refined from
+this; we call it a Roman hand, though the great
+centre of its propagation seems to have been
+Florence. In all essentials it is the parent of the
+type in which this page will be printed.</p>
+
+<p>Italy, then, is the hub of the universe for books;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a><a href="images/43.png">[43]</a></span>
+and in Italy, Florence, Naples, and Rome are the
+most active <i>nuclei</i>. We have a record written by
+a Florentine bookseller, Vespasiano Bisticci, in
+the form of short biographies of great persons,
+many of whom had dealt with him. For some he
+provided whole libraries, as for Frederick, Duke of
+Urbino, whose books are now mostly in the Vatican.
+Such a man as this would not look at a printed
+book&mdash;which in Vespasiano's mind is, of course,
+very greatly to his credit; for the press was bound
+to put an end to his particular industry. We
+still find, by the way, this prejudice against print
+in the very last years of the century. Some rich
+persons had MS. copies actually made from printed
+editions and elaborately illustrated. Such a one
+was Raphael de Marcatellis, natural son of Philip
+the Good of Burgundy and titular Bishop of
+Rhossus, near Antioch.<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a> Part of his library may
+be found at Ghent, part at Holkham, and stray
+volumes at Cambridge (Peterhouse) and in the
+Arundel collection at the British Museum. They
+are very handsome books, and many have full-page
+paintings by capable artists, but the resulting
+impression is on the whole that of decadence.</p>
+
+<p>Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary (d. 1490),
+is a name famous among old bibliophiles. He
+got together a library of fine books, mostly recent
+copies made for him, and it was dispersed and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a><a href="images/44.png">[44]</a></span>
+sacked by the Turks in 1526. It is spoken of with
+bated breath by the old writers, as if it had contained
+priceless treasures. I am sceptical.</p>
+
+<p>Ferdinand of Aragon and Calabria was a collector
+of the same kind, whose beautiful books, adorned
+with his arms in the lower margin of the first page,
+are many of them at Valencia, having passed to
+the University there by way of the Abbey of St.
+Miguel de Los Reyes. These are of Italian and not
+of Spanish manufacture, and very fine they are.</p>
+
+<p>These last-mentioned libraries have been scattered,
+but there are still some of the Renaissance
+period which survive in their original homes. The
+Laurentian at Florence and the Vatican at Rome
+stand at the head of all. With regard to the latter
+it may be said that though earlier Popes, of course,
+had libraries (that of Avignon was quite considerable),
+yet Nicholas V. (d. 1455) must be regarded
+as the founder of the Vatican library in its present
+state. So, too, the Marciana at Venice and the
+Malatestiana at Cesena must rank as genuine
+Renaissance collections.</p>
+
+<p>It was not only the great men who loved to have
+books. The tribe of scholars, foreign as well as
+native, who coveted them was numerous. Every
+library now has its quota of humbler copies of the
+classics, often on paper, in the Roman or the more
+cursive Italic hand, not written by a professional
+scribe. Often these are of infinitesimal value,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a><a href="images/45.png">[45]</a></span>
+transcripts of extant copies of no greater age;
+but there is always the possibility that they may
+be a competent scholar's own careful apograph
+of some ancient MS. which a Poggio had unearthed
+at St. Gall, and which has since vanished. A glance
+at the <i>apparatus criticus</i> of a few editions of classics
+will show that often a fifteenth-century MS. ranks
+high among the authorities for the text. Pedigree
+is what matters, not beauty of hand, nor, necessarily,
+date.</p>
+
+<p>It has been the fate of these scholars' books,
+as it is the fate of all MSS., to be absorbed into great
+libraries, and many of them lurk there still unexamined
+and their origin undetermined. Discoveries,
+no doubt, yet remain to be made among
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Whether or not a breath of influence from Italy
+was the cause, it is plain that library-making was
+popular in countries and circles which were not
+obviously affected by the Renaissance. The monasteries
+of England were certainly not so affected,
+yet we find many of them setting their books in
+order and building special rooms to contain them.
+Christchurch at Canterbury and Bury St. Edmunds
+are leading instances. Now, too, Universities and
+colleges made fresh catalogues, and received large
+accessions of books.</p>
+
+<p>If the Renaissance did not touch the English
+public as a whole in this century, it made some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a><a href="images/46.png">[46]</a></span>
+proselytes. Among Englishmen who dealt with
+our Florentine Vespasiano were John Tiptoft,
+Earl of Worcester, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester,
+William Gray, Bishop of Ely, Andrew Holes, of
+Wells. Others who resorted to Italy were John Free,
+Thomas Linacre, John Gunthorpe, Dean of Wells,
+William Flemming, Dean of Lincoln, William
+Tilley of Sellinge, Prior of Christchurch, Canterbury.
+We shall see later on what traces some of these
+have left on our libraries.</p>
+
+<p>In places to which the Italian influence did not
+penetrate the humdrum trade of copying went on.
+Anselm, Bernard, and Augustine; sermon-books
+by the score; Burley on Aristotle, etc. Then,
+in another class, the production of books for use in
+church was very large. There were few Bibles,
+but Missals, Breviaries, large choir-books to be laid
+on the lectern, Graduals and Processionals, are
+legion. Then, again, every well-to-do person must
+have his or her Book of Hours, illuminated if
+possible. Such things were common wedding-presents,
+it seems. Upon the best of them really
+great artists were employed, like Foucquet of Tours
+and Gerard David; we even find Perugino painting
+a page in one, but the average are shop work made
+for the Italian market at Naples or Florence, for
+the French at Paris, Tours, or Rouen, for the English
+very often at Bruges, where also many sumptuous
+chronicle books and French versions of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a><a href="images/47.png">[47]</a></span>
+secular history and romances were turned out.
+Edward IV. had a considerable number of such
+in his library.</p>
+
+<p>These private Prayer Books are, of course, incomparably
+the commonest of all illuminated manuscripts.
+They vary from loveliness to contemptibility.
+Perversely, they figure in catalogues, and
+are lettered on their backs, as Missals; our ancestors
+of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries forgot
+that a Missal must contain the service of the Mass,
+and that none of these books do.</p>
+
+<p>There, then, is a second survey of our ground,
+somewhat more detailed than the first, but woefully
+sketchy. Everyone who has studied MSS. of any
+class or period would detect omissions in it which
+for him would vitiate the whole story. The best
+I can hope is that the assertions in it are not incorrect,
+and that it gives a true notion of the general
+course of book-production in medieval times.</p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>Wanderings of Latin MSS.: the Continent</span></h3>
+
+<p>We are now to concern ourselves with the later
+destinies of the books which we have seen in the
+making. Here generalities will be less in place;
+nevertheless, I must begin with some.</p>
+
+<p>There are two main classes of persons interested
+in MSS.: those who care for their literary contents,
+and those who prize them for their artistic beauty.
+Roughly speaking&mdash;very roughly&mdash;the precious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a><a href="images/48.png">[48]</a></span>
+literary things of ancient times were preserved in
+monastic and cathedral libraries, and the beautiful
+things in palaces and castles and church treasuries.
+I do not forget that poetry and romance in
+the vernacular were chiefly in the hands of
+the laity, nor do I depreciate their value as
+literature.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient books, pagan and Christian, are
+perhaps to be regarded as the backbone of the
+subject, and therefore the first part of my enquiry
+shall be devoted to the ecclesiastical libraries, and
+considerations of space shall rule me on the other
+head.</p>
+
+<p>The monastic and cathedral libraries can be best
+treated by countries. France, Germany, and
+England will serve as specimens. Of Italy perhaps
+enough has been said incidentally to attract attention
+to the most important centres, such as Bobbio,
+Monte Cassino, and Verona, and upon the whole
+I do not think that in Italy this class of library
+played so great a part in the later Middle Ages as
+it did in the rest of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>France is full of Latin MSS. Every considerable
+town, besides many that are inconsiderable, has
+its public library, into which at the Revolution were
+collected the remains of the libraries of the religious
+houses of the district. France's Dissolution came
+at a time when many eyes were open to the possible
+value of ancient books, and strings could be pulled<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a><a href="images/49.png">[49]</a></span>
+and influence exercised to stem the unreasoning
+fury that said:</p>
+
+<div class='poem'>
+We'll pull all arts and learning down,<br />
+And hey, then, up go we!<br />
+</div>
+
+<div class='unindent'>It is easier, also, to rescue books than buildings.
+The Revolutionists tore down a cathedral, and it
+is gone; but books are portable and, moreover,
+do not burn or tear or drown easily, especially
+vellum MSS.; and when the first hurricane of idiocy
+had blown over they were very likely found, rather
+dustier than before, still on their shelves.</div>
+
+<p>Nowadays our methods are more effective, of
+course; but I have said as much about that as I
+can bear.</p>
+
+<p>If, then, one took a map of France and marked
+down the principal abbeys, one would have a fair
+<i>prima-facie</i> indication where to look for their MSS.
+From Corbie, you would say, they went to Amiens,
+from C&icirc;teaux to Dijon, from Bec and Mont St.
+Michel to Avranches, and so on. This would be
+right, but there are exceptions. Corbie, a specially
+important library, is one.</p>
+
+<p>When in 1636 the French under Louis XIII.
+regained that territory from the Spaniards, the
+precarious situation of its treasures was recognized,
+and 400 select MSS. were taken to Paris. The
+Reformed Benedictines of the Congregation of St.
+Maur had done much at Corbie for the preservation
+of the books, and they now petitioned that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a><a href="images/50.png">[50]</a></span>
+Corbie MSS. might not be alienated from the Order,
+"n' ayant personne qui soit si jaloux de conserver
+l'h&eacute;ritage de leurs p&egrave;res que les propres enfants."
+The petition was successful, and the MSS. were
+placed in the Abbey of St. Germain des Pr&egrave;s at
+Paris. This was in 1638. In 1791, during the Revolutionary
+troubles, there was a fire at the abbey,
+and in the confusion a batch of early books was
+stolen. These came into the hands of a Russian
+envoy, Dubrowsky, and most of them, if not all,
+are (or were until a more recent Revolution) in
+the Imperial Library at Petrograd. The rest,
+still a great collection, were drafted out of St.
+Germain into the National Library in 1795-96.
+Meanwhile a large number (including some very
+important books) had remained at Corbie, and
+these did go to Amiens in or about 1791.</p>
+
+<p>But before 1636 Corbie MSS. had begun to stray
+from home. One fairly clear case seems to be that
+of the Harley MS. 3,063, which was once in the
+library founded late in the fifteenth century at
+Cues, on the Moselle, by Cardinal Nicholas of
+Cues (<i>Cusanus</i>). It is one of two copies of the
+Latin version of Theodore of Mopsuestia's Commentary
+on the Pauline Epistles. The other is
+a Corbie book at Amiens. Both show the same
+gaps and blanks in the text, but the one is not
+believed to be a direct copy of the other. Both
+go back to a common original.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a><a href="images/51.png">[51]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Other Corbie books are at Montpellier. They
+had a long roundabout journey to get there. Part
+of a magnificent collection formed by successive
+Bouhiers (seven of whom were Presidents of the
+Parlement de Bourgogne, and lived at Dijon),
+they were bought in 1781 from the heir of the last
+Bouhier by the last Abbot but one of Clairvaux.
+Then, when Clairvaux was suppressed at the Revolution,
+its library went to Troyes. Government
+commissioners were sent round to look through
+the departmental libraries and note the most
+valuable MSS. and printed books. One of those
+who visited Troyes was a Montpellier professor,
+Dr. Prunelle. The 300 and odd MSS. which he
+put aside would, if precedent had been followed,
+have gone to Paris, but they did in fact go to the
+famous old school of medicine at Montpellier, and
+there they are at this day.</p>
+
+<p>One at least of the remarkable collection given
+by Archbishop Parker to Corpus Christi College at
+Cambridge (193), is a Corbie book&mdash;a product
+evidently of the Corbie <i>scriptorium</i>, though it
+bears on its first leaf the traces of an inscription
+of ownership which, illegible as it is, does seem to be
+that of another monastery. Parker's is, on the
+whole, so English a collection that the presence
+of this early French book arrests attention. It
+does not, however, stand quite alone; there is a
+rather similar one (334) which Professor Lindsay<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a><a href="images/52.png">[52]</a></span>
+tells me is a Laon book of about the same (eighth-century)
+date.</p>
+
+<p>Corbie has occupied a considerable space, but it
+is entitled to do so on several accounts. The
+number of early MSS. traceable to it is very large,
+their intrinsic interest is high, and for a third
+reason I may again quote Professor Lindsay as
+having decided, from a minute study of the abbreviations
+used by Corbie scribes, that Anglo-Saxon
+influences were at work in the formation of its
+peculiar hand.</p>
+
+<p>Corbie was, as I have hinted before, but one of
+many venerable centres of learning in the northern
+half of France. I shall not attempt a list of them,
+but go on to note one salient fact, that the southern
+half of the country is noticeably the poorer in MSS.</p>
+
+<p>At Autun and Lyons, both of them magnificent
+cities in Roman times, some very ancient books
+did linger, and here is room for a digression. Lyons
+had a Pentateuch in Latin which was a great rarity,
+for not only was it in uncials of the fifth century,
+but it was of the Old Latin version, that made from
+the Greek before St. Jerome made his version
+from the Hebrew, which we call the Vulgate.</p>
+
+<p>Rather before the middle of the nineteenth century
+an Italian adventurer of some learning and
+little virtue, the Chevalier Guglielmo (etc.) Libri,
+obtained employment under the French Government
+in the Department of Public Instruction,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a><a href="images/53.png">[53]</a></span>
+and was sent on a tour of inspection among provincial
+libraries. He made this the occasion for
+increasing a collection of MSS. which he had already
+begun for his private uses. Where he found that
+the town librarian was a good easy man, he removed
+(silently) from his keeping a selection of the most
+precious volumes, or, if it seemed unsafe to take
+the whole of a MS., he detached some few quires.
+Now and then he left a less valuable book in the
+place of the other. His best hunting-grounds were
+Tours, Orl&eacute;ans, and Lyons. At Lyons he conveyed
+away the Book of Leviticus and part of
+Numbers out of the Pentateuch. He had skilled
+workmen in his pay at Paris, who wrote names of
+other (generally Italian) monasteries and former
+owners on the first page of the stolen books, and
+otherwise disguised them; when he had made up
+a selection of a suitable bulk and attractiveness,
+he looked about for a wealthy purchaser, and
+found one in the Earl of Ashburnham, who bought
+<i>en bloc</i>, and whose manuscripts were not readily
+made accessible to the public. So the Lyons
+Leviticus and an illustrated sixth-century Pentateuch
+from Tours and many other precious things
+from Fleury (near Orl&eacute;ans) and elsewhere reposed in
+England until the early eighties, when M. Leopold
+Delisle made public the result of a most patient and
+most subtle investigation of the whole fraud, and
+a selection of the best of the plunder was got back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a><a href="images/54.png">[54]</a></span>
+for France. Sad to say, the municipalities which
+had been most negligent in keeping their MSS.
+refused to contribute to the recovery of them.
+They are still at Paris, to the advantage of students,
+but to the discredit of the provinces.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Libri's reputation had been thoroughly
+blown upon, and he retired from France, and was
+dead in Italy or elsewhere before his crimes had been
+atoned for. A great mass of his accumulations was
+bought from the Ashburnhams by the Italians
+and is now at Florence. Madame Libri survived,
+like Madame Fosco, to defend his memory.</p>
+
+<p>To return. In spite of the long history and
+great wealth of Bordeaux, Marseilles, Arles, Narbonne,
+Toulouse, you will not trace many famous
+books to those places. The city which, on the whole,
+has preserved its early manuscripts best is Albi,
+but it was never a great centre of learning, and its
+library, though extremely interesting, is not large.</p>
+
+<p>However, we need not be surprised at the poverty
+of a region which has had to undergo Albigensian
+crusades, English occupation, wars of religion,
+and a revolution.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the great early libraries of Germany were
+mentioned in our historical survey. Fulda and
+Lorsch were as remarkable as any. At the present
+day Fulda retains only the few Bonifacian MSS.
+which rank as relics of the saint&mdash;the blood-stained
+volume of Ambrose which was on Boniface when the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a><a href="images/55.png">[55]</a></span>
+pagans killed him, his pocket copy of the Gospels,
+the MS. written for Victor of Capua. The bulk of
+its abbey library, which remained together until
+the close of the sixteenth century, is dispersed and
+gone, no one knows where. Some books are at
+Cassel in the ducal library. Lorsch has nothing
+<i>in situ</i>, but a good deal in the Vatican. Both houses
+were instrumental in preserving the classics; we
+owe to them Suetonius, Tacitus, Ammianus Marcellinus,
+and part of Livy.</p>
+
+<p>The Thirty Years' War was responsible for a
+good deal of dispersion. Cargoes of books made
+their way to England, and Archbishop Laud
+bought and gave to the Bodleian many from
+W&uuml;rzburg and Erf&uuml;rt; in the Arundel collection
+at the British Museum the German contingent is
+large. Sweden also profited at this time, and got
+its lovely <i>Codex Aureus</i> (once at Canterbury), its
+<i>Codex Argenteus</i> (the Gothic Gospels at Upsala), and
+its <i>Gigas</i>, or Devil's Bible, which came from Prague.</p>
+
+<p>In the Revolutionary period there was extensive
+secularization of abbeys, and whole libraries passed
+into central depots, as at Munich, which has the
+MSS. of St. Emmeram of Ratisbon and of Tegernsee,
+Benedictbeuern, Sch&auml;ftlarn, and many other
+houses. Those of the old and rich foundation of
+Reichenau passed to Carlsruhe. Precious books,
+like the gold-covered Gospels of Lindau, were exported.
+This particular gem was bought by Lord<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a><a href="images/56.png">[56]</a></span>
+Ashburnham, and in recent years has gone to
+America. Fine Gospels and other service-books
+from Weingarten are at Holkham; they appeal to
+the Englishman, for they contain pictures of our
+sainted King Oswald, of whom Weingarten owned
+a relic.</p>
+
+<p>North Germany's contribution is far inferior
+to that of Bavaria and the Rhine provinces. The
+inhabitants of large regions were pagans till a late
+date (some might say they were so still), and have
+never, we conceive, been really civilized. Few
+books were made there before the fourteenth
+century, and I know of no good libraries that existed
+there in the medieval period. A good part of
+the contents of one at Elbing, near Dantzic, came
+somehow to Cambridge (Corpus Christi) in the
+seventeenth century; it is a dreary collection,
+mostly on paper, of scholastic theology, sermons,
+meditations, and a little medicine.</p>
+
+<p>In Austria the abbeys were let alone till 1918.
+Such houses as Melk on the Danube, St. Florian,
+St. Paul in Carinthia, Admont in Styria, still owned
+their estates, their revenues, and their libraries.
+That of Melk is noticeable, and at St. Paul is, oddly
+enough, one of the very earliest Irish vernacular
+MSS. I believe it came thither in fairly recent
+times from St. Blasien in the Black Forest. But,
+on the whole, these places were too remote from
+the main stream to accumulate many treasures of
+the very first quality.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a><a href="images/57.png">[57]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>Latin MSS. in England</span></h3>
+
+<p>Let me now turn to England, and treat in greater
+detail of the monastic and cathedral libraries
+there, and what happened to them. The Dissolution,
+as we know, occurred here near on 400
+years ago, which makes the task of tracing the
+books at once harder and more fascinating than
+in the case of France or Germany, where a whole
+library may be found practically intact in a town
+near its old home. Of course, what was done
+there ought to have been done here. Leland,
+the King's antiquary, the abusive Protestant,
+John Bale, and the foolish but learned Dr. John
+Dee, begged that it might be done. Yet, whatever
+Henry VIII's or Mary's or Elizabeth's intentions
+may have been at times as to the foundation of a
+"solempne library" where the ancient books of
+the realm might be stored, they got but a very
+little way. Leland did secure some MSS. for the
+Royal Library, perhaps most from Rochester, but
+upon the whole the work was left in Elizabeth's
+days to individual enthusiasts&mdash;Sir Robert Cotton,
+Archbishop Parker, and Dee and Bale themselves.
+Others who did good work were Henry Fitzalan,
+Earl of Arundel; Lord William Howard; Long
+Harry Savile of Bank; Laurence Nowell, who
+rescued Anglo-Saxon books; Nicholas Brigam,
+who was interested in English literature and built<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a><a href="images/58.png">[58]</a></span>
+Chaucer's tomb in the Abbey; the Theyers of Brockworth,
+near Gloucester. These are names to some
+of which we shall return; it would be well at this
+moment to take a few libraries one by one and see
+what can be said of them.</p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>Catalogues of MSS.</span></h3>
+
+<p>But, first, what are our means for pursuing such
+an investigation? We are best off if we have a
+catalogue of our abbey library, and preferably a
+late one; for in that case not only will the library
+be at its fullest, but probably the cataloguer will
+have set down, after the title of each book, the
+first words of its second leaf. Does this need explanation?
+Perhaps. In MSS., unlike printed
+books, the first words of the second leaf will be
+different in any two copies, say, of the Bible; the
+scribes did not make a page for page or line for line
+copy of their archetype&mdash;in fact, they may probably
+have avoided doing so purposely. By the
+help of such a catalogue we can search through
+collections of MSS., noting the second leaves in
+each case, and, it may be, identifying a considerable
+number of books. It is a laborious but an interesting
+process.</p>
+
+<p>But, alas! such catalogues are very few; we have
+them for Durham, St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury
+(and partly also for Christchurch), St. Paul's
+Cathedral, Exeter Cathedral, Dover Priory, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a><a href="images/59.png">[59]</a></span>
+Austin Friars of York (all now in print), and for
+not many more.</p>
+
+<p>Next best it is to have a catalogue enumerating
+the contents of each volume; and next, and commonest,
+one which gives usually but a single title
+to each. Among the most useful I reckon those
+of Christchurch, Canterbury, Peterborough (an
+anomalous one), Glastonbury, Bury St. Edmunds,
+Rochester, Dover, Lincoln, Leicester Abbey (not yet
+printed in full), Ramsey, Rievaulx, Lanthony-by-Gloucester,
+Titchfield. There are a good many
+short catalogues for smaller houses, written on the
+fly-leaves of books, which do not, as a rule, help
+us much. The list of monastic catalogues, however,
+is dreadfully defective. We have none for St.
+Albans or Norwich or Crowland or Westminster,
+for Gloucester or Worcester, St. Mary's, York, or
+Fountains. What do we do in such cases?</p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>The Evidence of MSS. Themselves</span></h3>
+
+<p>We have to depend, of course, on the evidence
+of the MSS. themselves. It was happily a common
+practice to write on the fly-leaf or first leaf <i>Liber
+(Sancte Marie) de (tali loco)</i>. This is decisive. Then,
+again, some libraries devised a system of press-marks,
+such as "N. lxviii.," let us say. You find
+this in conjunction with the inscription of ownership;
+it is a Norwich book, you discover, that you
+have in hand, and all books showing press-marks<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a><a href="images/60.png">[60]</a></span>
+of that form are consequently Norwich books too.
+Or you will find the name of a donor. "This
+book was the gift of John Danyell, Prior." Search
+in Dugdale's <i>Monasticon</i> will reveal, perhaps,
+that John Danyell was Prior of St. Augustine's,
+Bristol, in 1459. A clue to locality will often be
+given in such a case by the monk's surname, for
+it was their custom to call themselves by the name
+of their native village. Thus, a monk named
+John Melford or William Livermere will be a Suffolk
+man, and the abbey in which he was professed is
+likely to be Bury. Coming to later times, it is
+apparent that at the Dissolution groups of books
+from a single abbey came into the hands of a single
+man. If I find Dakcombe on the fly-leaf of a MS.,
+I am almost entitled to assume that it is a Winchester
+book: John Stonor got his books from Reading
+Abbey, John Young drew from Fountains,
+and so forth. Lastly, and most rarely, you are
+justified in saying that the handwriting and decoration
+of this or that book shows it to have been
+written at St. Albans or at Canterbury. Hitherto
+the instances where this is possible are few, but I
+do not doubt that multiplication of observations
+will add to their number.</p>
+
+<p>In questioning a MS. for any of these indications
+(except the last) you must be on the look-out for
+signs of erasures, especially on the margins of the
+first leaf and on the fly-leaves at either end. Here<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a><a href="images/61.png">[61]</a></span>
+the owner's name was usually written. Often it
+was accompanied by a curse on the wrongful possessor,
+and at the Dissolution there were many wrongful
+possessors, who, whether disliking the curse
+or anticipating trouble from possible buyers,
+thought it well to erase name, and curse, and all.
+They seldom did it so thoroughly that the surface
+of the vellum does not betray where it was, and it
+can be revived by the dabbing (<i>not</i> painting) upon
+it of ammonium bisulphide, which, unlike the old-fashioned
+galls, does not stain the page. Dabbed
+on the surface with a soft paint-brush, and dried
+off at once with clean blotting paper, it makes the
+old record leap to light, sometimes with astonishing
+clearness, sometimes slowly, so that the letters
+cannot be read till next day. It is not always
+successful; it is of no use to apply it to writing in
+red, and its smell is overpowering, but it is the
+elixir of pal&aelig;ographers.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, when all has been done, there is a sadly
+large percentage of MSS. which preserve an obstinate
+silence. They have been rebound (that is
+common), and have lost their fly-leaves in the
+process, or, worse than that, they have lain tossing
+about without a binding and their first and last
+quires have dropped away. In such cases we can
+only tell, from our previous experience in ancient
+handwritings, the date and country of their
+origin.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a><a href="images/62.png">[62]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>English Libraries</span></h3>
+
+<p>And now to turn to some individual libraries.
+Some of the most venerable have practically disappeared&mdash;that
+of Glastonbury, for instance, the
+premier abbey of England, the only one which lived
+through from British to Saxon times.<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> To it we
+might reasonably look to trace many an ancient
+book belonging to the days of the old British
+Church. Leland, who visited the library not
+long before the Dissolution, represents himself
+as overawed by its antiquity. But almost the only
+record he quotes is one by "Melkinus," which most
+modern writers think was a late forgery. However,
+there is in the Bodleian one British book from
+Glastonbury, written, at least in part, in Cornwall,
+and preserving remnants of the learning of the
+British clergy. It has portions of Ovid and of Latin
+grammar, and passages of the Bible in Greek and
+Latin. The catalogue, too, shows that there were
+in fact a good number of old MSS., and also that
+the monks of the fourteenth century did not care
+much about them, for they are marked as "Old and
+useless," "Old and in bad condition" (<i>debilis</i>), and
+so on. The actual extant books which we can trace
+to this foundation are few and for the most part late.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a><a href="images/63.png">[63]</a></span></p>
+<p>St. Albans, founded by King Offa in the eighth
+century, has left us, as I said, no catalogue, but
+there are many of its books in our libraries. Two
+groups of them stand out. First are those procured
+by Abbot Simon (1166-1188) and Prior Mathias.
+These are very finely written. A typical and very
+interesting specimen is a Bible at Eton (26) which
+has three columns to a page&mdash;a rare distinction in
+the twelfth century, pointing, perhaps, to its having
+been copied from a very early and venerable model.
+It has a sister book at Corpus Christi, Cambridge,
+and another&mdash;a New Testament&mdash;at Trinity College,
+Dublin. Then we have a large and important
+group of histories. The historiographers of St.
+Albans form a series reaching from Roger of
+Wendover (d. 1236) to Thomas Walsingham
+(d. 1422). The greatest of them was Matthew
+Paris (d. 1259). We have authentic and even
+autograph copies of many of these works, and
+especially of Paris's (at Corpus Christi, Cambridge
+(26 and 16), and in the British Museum, Royal 14,
+C. vii., Cotton Nero D. 1, etc.). And we have not
+only Paris's writing, but many of his drawings,
+for he was an accomplished artist. All these books
+furnish us with material for judging of the handwriting
+used at St. Albans in the twelfth and
+thirteenth centuries, and we can speak with fair
+confidence of St. Albans books of that period.</p>
+
+<p>As in other cases, I believe that many books were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a><a href="images/64.png">[64]</a></span>
+written there for other monasteries, either as gifts
+or as a matter of business. Not every one of the
+little priories scattered all over the country had its
+own scriptorium; it was only natural that they
+should apply to the big establishments when they
+wanted a Bible or service-book or commentary
+of really good quality. This practice explains
+the fact that we quite often find books which we
+could make oath are products of St. Albans or of
+Canterbury, and which yet have inscriptions,
+written when they were new books, showing that
+they were owned by some small house. Let me
+here note two other ways in which books wandered
+from the great abbeys. <i>One</i>: all the abbey libraries
+were full of duplicates; read any catalogue, and you
+will realize that. When the Orders of Friars were
+collecting libraries of their own, and when the
+colleges in the two Universities were doing the same,
+they found that the monks were often willing to
+part with one of their eight or nine sets of Gregory's
+<i>Moralia</i> or Augustine <i>On the Trinity</i> for a consideration.
+<i>Two</i>: most of the large abbeys maintained
+hostels at the Universities, singly or jointly,
+in which some of their younger members studied
+for degrees. These hostels were equipped with
+libraries, and the libraries were furnished from
+the shelves of the mother-houses. We have at
+least two lists of books so used: one of those which
+Durham sent to what is now Trinity College,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a><a href="images/65.png">[65]</a></span>
+Oxford; the other of those which Christchurch,
+Canterbury, deported to Canterbury College, Oxford,
+which stood on the site of Canterbury Quad,
+in Christ Church.</p>
+
+<p>There was some compensation, by the way:
+the abbeys were not invariably the losers. A
+group of books (at Lambeth) was procured to be
+written by a Canon of Lanthony when he was
+studying at Oxford (about 1415), and given to the
+library of his priory.</p>
+
+<p>We have digressed from the particular to the
+general. Returning to individual libraries, let us
+glance at the Norwich Cathedral Priory. Of this,
+again, we have no catalogue; it is a case in which
+press-marks and names of owners are our guides.
+Norwich has a system of press-marks consisting
+of a letter of the alphabet plus a Roman numeral:
+"N. lxviii." The press-marks of several other
+houses consist of just the same elements, but we
+can pick out that of Norwich by its size (not large)
+and its position (top of the first leaf of text); also
+there is usually added to it the name of the monk
+who procured it for the house, Henry de Lakenham
+or W. Catton&mdash;someone whose surname is the
+name of a Norfolk village. Over a hundred MSS.
+from Norwich are known to me, but they are a
+very small fraction of the library, as is shown by
+the numerals attached to the several class letters.
+Very few of them are as old as the twelfth century;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a><a href="images/66.png">[66]</a></span>
+late twelfth and particularly early fourteenth make
+up the bulk. I attribute this to the great fire of
+1286, and I take it that then the greater part of
+the priory books were spoiled, and that energetic
+steps to refill the library were taken in the years
+that followed. There are more Norwich books
+in the University Library at Cambridge than
+anywhere else; it has not been proved, but I do not
+much doubt, that most of them were given by the
+chapter to Cambridge about 1574, at the suggestion
+of Dr. Andrew Perne, Master of Peterhouse, who was
+a member of the cathedral body and an enthusiast
+for the University Library.</p>
+
+<p>Not very dissimilar was the action of Exeter
+Chapter, who in 1602 gave over eighty of their MSS.
+to Sir Thomas Bodley's new library in Oxford,
+Bodley's brother being then a Canon of Exeter;
+and not long after the Canons of Worcester picked
+out a score of their MSS., for Dean Williams's
+new library at Westminster Abbey. These, however,
+I believe were never actually sent off. It is
+just as well, for the Westminster MSS. were burnt
+in 1694. Of Bury St. Edmunds I have attempted
+to write the history elsewhere, but it is not likely
+that many readers of this book will be familiar with
+my former publication. The only catalogue we
+have for this abbey is an early one (eleventh to
+twelfth century) written on the fly-leaves of a copy
+of Genesis (glossed) at Pembroke College, Cambridge.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a><a href="images/67.png">[67]</a></span>
+Thus it contains no fourteenth or fifteenth
+century books, nor, indeed, has it many entries of
+extant books of earlier date which we are sure
+belonged to Bury; but it is not to be despised,
+though we depend more upon press-marks than upon
+it for guidance. Bury press-marks were an introduction
+of the late fourteenth or early fifteenth
+century. Soon after 1400 Abbot Curteys built
+a library, and it was under the care of the monk,
+John Boston, who, I think, is responsible for the
+press-marks, as he certainly is for the copious
+bibliographical notices which occurred in some of
+the books. The press-marks consist of a capital
+letter and an <i>arabic</i> numeral (A. 130). Here,
+again, one has to be familiar with the handwriting
+of the marks and their position (top of first leaf
+and fly-leaf) in order to distinguish them from those
+of Exeter (often on last fly-leaf and large) or of the
+Hereford Franciscans (large, on first fly-leaf).
+However, in most cases they are backed up by the
+older inscription <i>Liber S. &AElig;dmundi regis et martiris</i>.
+Bury library has, on the whole, fared well; an
+Alderman of Ipswich, William Smart, procured
+over 100 of its MSS., which he gave to Pembroke
+College, Cambridge, in 1599, and about 150 others
+are scattered up and down the country. One
+Bury book of extreme interest&mdash;not a library
+book, but a register&mdash;was taken across the Channel
+in the sixteenth century by a Bury monk to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a><a href="images/68.png">[68]</a></span>
+settlement of the Benedictine refugees at Douai.
+Since the Revolution it has been (<i>perhaps</i> still is)
+in the town library there. Its importance is that
+it contains a list of the benefactors of the abbey,
+and among other things records the burial-places
+of the Abbots, including the famous Samson. In
+recent years it has guided excavators to the discovery
+of his bones. With it is a Psalter of extraordinary
+beauty, one of a group of marvellous
+books done in East Anglia&mdash;some say at Gorleston&mdash;soon
+after 1300. I grieve to hear that it has been
+severely damaged by damp. It has in it the name
+of an Abbot, John, who, I wish to believe, was of
+Bury, but doubt is thrown on this.</p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>English MSS. on the Continent</span></h3>
+
+<p>A digression is allowable here as to English
+books that have passed to the Continent. According
+to Bale and Dee, there was a great expatriation
+of them at the Dissolution. In Archbishop Parker's
+correspondence there is talk of the negotiations
+of a German scholar, Flacius Illyricus, who wanted
+to buy Bale's MSS. after his death. At an earlier
+time Poggio visited England in the hope of unearthing
+classical authors, but writes as if he had been
+unsuccessful. Then, again, Sigismund Gelenius
+in 1550 edits at Basel treatises of Tertullian from
+a MS. belonging to the Abbey of "Masbury"
+(which I take to be Malmesbury), lent to him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a><a href="images/69.png">[69]</a></span>
+by Leland. More instances could no doubt be
+collected, but not, I think, very many more.
+When we come to enquire what English books
+are to be found now in Continental libraries,
+the results are not very impressive. I exclude
+the very early exportations, some of which
+have been mentioned, and confine myself to the
+books which were taken over at and after the
+Dissolution. There is a Bury Psalter with drawings
+at the Vatican, a St. Albans Psalter at Hildesheim,
+a fine Book of Hours at Nuremberg, a Winchester
+Pontifical at Rouen, a Sherborne Book at Paris,
+a Ramsey Psalter at an Austrian abbey, another
+English Psalter at the Escurial. The Canterbury
+<i>Codex Aureus</i> is at Stockholm. The famous
+Utrecht Psalter, written, perhaps, in the Rheims
+district, strayed from the Cotton collection to its
+present home in Holland, we do not know how.
+All these, and some other remarkable illuminated
+books that could be named (I ought not to omit
+a Peterborough Psalter at Brussels), are not library
+books, but rather properties of great ecclesiastics
+or nobles. The largest collections have never yet
+been thoroughly searched. I myself have made
+many enquiries and some examinations with small
+result. One case there is, however, brought to
+light by the late Rev. H. M. Bannister, which gives
+hope of better things when a systematic search
+is carried out. He found that in the Vatican<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a><a href="images/70.png">[70]</a></span>
+Library there are quite a large number of MSS.
+from the libraries of the Friars at Cambridge.
+They are late and not very important books, but
+no matter for that: the point is that they are there.
+Other instances known to me are&mdash;one at least
+of Sir Kenelm Digby's MSS. and one of Lord Burleigh's
+(a fourteenth-century volume of English
+historians) at Paris; the Greek Demosthenes already
+noticed at Leyden, and a MS. from Pembroke
+College (Seneca), also there. The Vossian collection
+at the same place has other books which I
+suspect were once in England; most notable is its
+Suidas, which is said by M. Bidez to be the parent
+of the English copies I mentioned, and which I
+think must be Grosseteste's own copy. This,
+however, is a Greek MS. A volume containing
+poems of Milo of St. Amand is most likely a Canterbury
+book. But the early books in Irish script,
+of which there are several, were probably written
+on the Continent.</p>
+
+<p>At Wolfenb&uuml;ttel is a "Wycliffe" Bible, large and
+handsome, which belonged to Lord Lumley (d. 1609),
+and also a copy of Gervase of Tilbury (that from
+which the text was first printed by Leibnitz) from
+the library of St. Augustine of Canterbury. There,
+too, are many MSS. collected by Flacius Illyricus,
+who made purchases in England. He printed
+many of the rhyming Latin poems attributed to
+Walter Map; for a good many his edition is the only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a><a href="images/71.png">[71]</a></span>
+authority, his MSS. having disappeared. I had
+hoped to find some of them at Wolfenb&uuml;ttel, but
+they do not seem to be there. What I did find
+was a small group of MSS. from St. Andrews in
+Scotland, containing rhyming poems set to music;
+they are books of the thirteenth century, well
+written and decorated. Scotch monastic MSS.
+are of rare occurrence. There are few enough in
+Scotland itself, not many in England, and, of course,
+still fewer anywhere else. At Upsala is a book
+written by Clement Maydestone of Sion for Wadstena,
+the Swedish mother-house of the Brigittine
+Order to which he belonged.</p>
+
+<p>There were probably some English books at
+Turin, which was a mixed collection, but the fire
+of 1904 has made away with them. The old
+catalogue by Pasini notices at least one service-book
+with English saints. But it is time to bring this
+excursus to an end. Let me only add that the most
+famous English book on the Continent&mdash;the
+Vercelli MS. of Anglo-Saxon poems and homilies&mdash;seems
+to have been where it is now since the
+thirteenth or fourteenth century.</p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>Remains of Medieval Libraries</span></h3>
+
+<p>Once again we return to these shores, and now
+we will enquire what medieval libraries, besides
+those we have glanced at, have left really considerable
+remains. Some few have kept their books<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a><a href="images/72.png">[72]</a></span>
+<i>in situ</i>&mdash;the monastic cathedrals of Durham and
+Worcester best of all; each has some hundreds of
+MSS. The secular cathedrals, Lincoln, Hereford,
+Salisbury, come next. Rochester has nothing on
+the spot, but a great many MSS. in the old Royal
+Library in the British Museum. The two great
+libraries of Canterbury (Christchurch and St.
+Augustine's) are well represented, but their books
+are much scattered. Winchester, York, Exeter,
+have few but precious books.</p>
+
+<p>There are important MSS. from Thorney at the
+Advocates Library, Edinburgh; from St. Mary's
+York, at Dublin; not a few from Cirencester at
+Jesus College, Oxford, and at Hereford; St. John's,
+Oxford, has many from Reading and from Southwick
+(Hants). There must, I am sure, be many
+Peterborough books to be found, but they are
+rarely marked as such, and the character of the
+catalogue makes identification very hard.</p>
+
+<p>Of all minor libraries, that of Lanthony, near
+Gloucester, has, I believe, been best preserved.
+A great block of it was retained by the last Prior
+of the house, John Hart, who retired to a country
+house near by, and whose sister married a man of
+good position, Theyer, in the neighbourhood. He
+kept the books together, and had descendants who
+valued them and added largely to their number.
+At the end of the sixteenth century Archbishop
+Bancroft conceived the idea of founding a library<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a><a href="images/73.png">[73]</a></span>
+at Lambeth for his successors, and he seems to
+have bought about 150 Lanthony MSS. from
+Theyer,<a name="FNanchor_D_4" id="FNanchor_D_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_D_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a> which are now at Lambeth. Other
+Lanthony books are at Trinity and Corpus Christi,
+Oxford. A fourteenth-century catalogue of the
+books among the Harley MSS. shows that we
+possess at least a third of the whole collection.</p>
+
+<p>Examples of the press-marks used by the various
+houses have been collected by the New Pal&aelig;ographical
+Society, and may be seen in their publications.
+They are, of course, most useful in cases
+where the inscription of ownership has not been
+inserted or has disappeared. The second case may
+be that of any book; the first is common to the
+Canterbury libraries, to Dover, the London Dominicans,
+St. Mary's York, Fountains, Titchfield, Ely.
+To the press-marks figured by the Society more will
+doubtless be added. I can instance one, that of the
+Franciscans of Lincoln, which is of this form: <img src="images/symbol.png" width="19" height="20" alt="Symbol" title="" />.</p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>Disappearance of Classical and other MSS.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Passing over the painful subject of the wholesale
+destruction of MSS. which must have followed the
+Dissolution, I will give a few lines to an interesting
+question little mooted as yet. Is there evidence
+that England possessed many ancient writings
+which have since disappeared, or which have
+survived only in a few copies in other parts of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a><a href="images/74.png">[74]</a></span>
+Europe? Take the classics first. Poggio, as I
+have said, writes in a disappointed tone of his
+researches here, but these were neither long nor
+exhaustive. We have better testimony from
+John of Salisbury, who in the twelfth century
+quotes parts of the <i>Saturnalia</i> of Macrobius which
+have dropped out of all the MSS. we now have.
+He also read a tract attributed to Plutarch, called
+the <i>Instruction of Trajan</i>; it was probably not by
+Plutarch, but it was an ancient work, and is now
+lost. Petronius Arbiter was known to him, even
+that longest and most interesting piece of Petronius
+called the <i>Supper of Trimalchio</i>, for which our only
+authority is the late paper MS. at Paris that was
+found in Dalmatia in the seventeenth century. But
+no medieval English scholar can be shown to have
+read Tacitus, or the lost parts of Livy, or Catullus,
+Tibullus, Propertius, or others of the rarer Latin
+authors. Next for Christian antiquity. The Vercelli
+MS. gives a poetical version in Anglo-Saxon
+of the Acts of St. Andrew in the land of the Anthropophagi
+which have ceased to exist in Latin (so,
+too, &AElig;lfric knew, and rejected, a poem on the
+adventures of St. Thomas in India). In one of its
+Homilies the same Vercelli MS. presents us with a
+translation of the Apocalypse of St. Thomas, a
+book of which until recently only the name was
+known. Two early MSS. contain short quotations
+in Latin from Cosmas Indicopleustes, a traveller
+of Justinian's time whose work remains only in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a><a href="images/75.png">[75]</a></span>
+few copies, and is in Greek. Another has a
+fragment of the lost <i>Book of Jannes and Jambres</i>;
+another a chapter of the <i>Book of Enoch</i>, valuable
+as one of our few indications that a Latin version
+of it was current. John of Salisbury quotes a
+story about St. Paul which seems to come from the
+ancient apocryphal Acts of that Apostle. First
+on the list (twelfth century) of the library of
+Lincoln Minster (but lined through as if subsequently
+lost) is a title <i>Proverbia Grecorum</i>. What
+this book was is obscure; probably it was a translation
+from Greek by an Irish scholar. It is quoted
+extensively by Sedulius, the Irishman, and also
+in a collection of treatises by an unknown York
+writer (the Germans call him the <i>Yorker anonymus</i>)
+of the eleventh to twelfth centuries. The work of
+Iren&aelig;us <i>Against Heresies</i> (we only have it complete
+in Latin) was always rare, but there were at least
+two copies of it in England, one in the Carmelites'
+Library at Oxford, the other given by Archbishop
+Mepham to Christchurch, Canterbury. The latter,
+I believe, we still have in the Arundel collection in
+the British Museum. The MS. of Tertullian which
+Gelenius got from England is gone, and our knowledge
+of the treatise <i>On Baptism</i> which it contained
+depends wholly on his printed text.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot doubt that among the books imported
+in the seventh century from Italy by Benedict
+Biscop and Theodore and Hadrian, and in the
+great library of York, which Alcuin panegyrizes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a><a href="images/76.png">[76]</a></span>
+in his poem on the saints of York, there were texts
+now lost. But the Danes made a clean sweep of
+all those treasures, as they did of the whole vernacular
+literature of Northumbria, undoubtedly a
+rich one. The scattered indications I have collected
+in the preceding paragraphs point to the fact that
+some strange and rare books did lurk here and
+there in English libraries. It is almost a relief
+that catalogues do not tell us of supremely desirable
+things, such as Papias on the Oracles of the Lord,
+or the complete Histories or Annals of Tacitus.</p>
+
+<p>Another word on a topic akin to the last. I have
+said more than once that the men of the later
+Middle Ages did not value early books as such;
+they were difficult to read, and often in bad
+condition. At first they were apt to be made into
+palimpsests; but when good new parchment became
+abundant and comparatively cheap, this practice
+was dropped. I conjecture that there is no
+important palimpsest whose upper writing is later
+than the eleventh century. The fate of the early
+books is rather obscure to me, but I see that bits
+of them were not uncommonly used for lining
+covers and fly-leaves for MSS. of the thirteenth to
+fifteenth centuries, and perhaps still oftener as
+wrappers for documents. Binders of the sixteenth
+century, and especially those who lived after the
+Dissolution, used up service-books and scholastic
+theology and Canon law to a vast extent, but early
+books not so lavishly. There are cases in which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a><a href="images/77.png">[77]</a></span>
+one is left doubtful as to whether the binder or his
+employer did not insert the old leaves with the
+definite wish to preserve them. I think of the
+leaves of a Gospel book bound at the end of the
+Utrecht Psalter, of a fragment of another fine
+Gospels in an Arundel MS. at the College of Arms,
+of some splendid Canons of the Gospels in the
+Royal MS. 7. C. xii; but in the cases that follow I
+think that accident and not design has been at work,
+viz.: the fragments of several venerable volumes
+at Worcester, admirably edited of late by Mr. C. H.
+Turner; the leaves of a great sixth-century Bible
+found by Mr. W. H. Stevenson wrapping up
+Lord Middleton's documents at Wollaton; uncial
+fragments of Eucherius in the Cambridge University
+Library; other uncial leaves at Winchester
+College; bits of &AElig;lfric's Grammar at All Souls';
+of a Gallican Missal at Gonville and Caius; of an
+early Orosius (from Stavelot) in the British Museum
+and elsewhere; of an Orosius and Fortunatus at
+Pembroke College, Cambridge; and so on. My
+examples are set down almost at random.</p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>Collectors of Books</span></h3>
+
+<p>We pass now from the monastic circle to that of
+the learned book collectors before and after the
+Dissolution. Many of the best medieval book-buyers
+were Abbots or Priors, and the history of
+their collections is merged in that of their abbeys.
+Leaving them aside, we find in fourteenth-century<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a><a href="images/78.png">[78]</a></span>
+England one name which everyone has heard&mdash;that
+of Richard de Bury, Bishop of Durham, and
+author of the <i>Philobiblion</i>. I am inclined to think
+that he was a humbug; his book is of the kind that
+it is proper to translate, print on hand-made paper,
+and bind in a vellum wrapper, but it tells us just
+nothing of what books De Bury had or read, and I
+could not point to a single work of any importance
+which he was instrumental in bringing to light or
+preserving. Persons who take pains to advertise
+themselves as book-lovers or bibliomaniacs are
+rarely those who render great services to literature.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the libraries of the pre-Reformation
+colleges of Oxford and Cambridge are the best
+hunting-grounds for traces of the early collectors.
+At Peterhouse, Cambridge is a large bequest from
+John Warkworth, Master late in the fifteenth
+century; another from J. Dyngley, Fellow, whose
+books were written expressly for him; yet another
+from H. Deynman, Master, who was interested in
+medicine. Here, too, we come upon the tracks of
+Roger Marchall, who must rank, on the whole, as
+a student of natural science. Books with his name
+and his carefully written tables of contents are at
+Peterhouse, Gonville and Caius, Lambeth, the
+British Museum, King's College; one at Magdalene
+College (Pepys Library) came thither from Peterhouse
+via Dr. John Dee. Walter Crome was
+another fifteenth-century benefactor of the University
+Library and of Gonville Hall, who, like<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a><a href="images/79.png">[79]</a></span>
+Dyngley, had books written to his order. These
+are Cambridge <i>data</i>. Just such another list could
+be made out for some Oxford colleges, particularly
+Merton, Balliol, and New College. In this Bishops
+William Rede of Chichester, and John Trillek of
+Hereford, and William Gray of Ely, would figure
+prominently. The mention of this last name will
+serve as a pretext for introducing the Renaissance
+scholars. Gray, we saw, was one of those who
+dealt with Vespasiano Bisticci of Florence, though
+not nearly all of the many MSS. of his giving which
+are at Balliol are Italian-written; a good number
+are by Flemish and German scribes. The other
+men to whom I alluded in the same connection
+were for the most part benefactors of Oxford.
+John Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester, beheaded in 1470
+for treason, promised a large gift of books to the
+University, but they never reached it, nor do I
+know a single MS. to-day that was Tiptoft's
+property, though there can be no doubt that he
+was a considerable book-buyer. Humphrey, Duke
+of Gloucester (whom we are now forbidden to call
+"the Good"), did give the University what was
+then a large library; his name is inseparably associated
+with the great room of the Bodleian, but
+his books were swept away in Edward VI.'s days.
+Some few have come back to their old home, and
+others are in London and in Paris: twenty-nine is
+said to be the total. He intended further gifts,
+but he was cut off in 1444, and it is thought that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a><a href="images/80.png">[80]</a></span>
+one collection, perhaps his travelling library, was
+diverted to King's College, Cambridge. It is
+certain that soon after 1450 that college possessed
+some 174 MSS., among which such titles as Plato's
+<i>Republic</i> in Latin and a Greek-English dictionary
+betray a humanistic influence which is not likely
+to have been that of our founder, Henry VI.
+Moreover, the only one of those MSS. that remains
+is a Latin version of some orations of St. Athanasius,
+made by a secretary of the Duke, and dedicated <i>to</i>
+the Duke; and in the British Museum is another
+volume of Athanasius translated by the same man,
+which actually has Duke Humphrey's inscription
+in it. This is respectable evidence in support of
+the King's College story.</p>
+
+<p>William Flemming, Dean of Lincoln, and founder
+of Lincoln College, Oxford, gave a number of books
+to that society which show him to have been
+interested in the revival of learning; Greek MSS.
+are among them.</p>
+
+<p>John Gunthorpe, Dean of Wells (d. 1498), is said
+by Leland to have bequeathed the large collection
+he brought from Italy to Jesus College, Cambridge.
+It is scattered and gone from there, but books of
+Gunthorpe's survive in a good many libraries.
+One deserves special mention&mdash;a Latin prose
+version of the Odyssey, which he picked up (not
+in Italy, though it is an Italian book, but at
+Westminster) in 1475. Probably it was the first
+copy of the Odyssey in any form that had come<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a><a href="images/81.png">[81]</a></span>
+to this country since Roman times, unless, indeed,
+Archbishop Theodore brought one over in the
+seventh century. Archbishop Parker thought that
+he had, and the MS. which he fondly believed to
+be Theodore's was in his view the pearl of the
+collection he left to Corpus Christi. Certainly
+it has the name <i>Theodorus</i> in it in letters of gold;
+but, as certainly, it is a fifteenth-century book, and
+the Theodore for whom it was written was I believe
+Theodore Gaza, a humanist who lived in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>An instance of a man interested in books and not
+unaffected by the Renaissance, though not himself
+a collector, may be introduced here. William
+Wyrcestre (or Botoner, or Worcester) is the man,
+and he deserves a special study. Some have
+called him the father of English antiquaries, in
+virtue of one of his notebooks which has been
+preserved, and which contains jottings about his
+travels in England; it is a sort of rude elementary
+Leland's <i>Itinerary</i>. It is by no means the only
+book of his compiling, nor the only one owned by
+him that we have. There are historical and literary
+collections of his, and not a few MSS. with his
+name in them. He knew John Free, the translator
+(reputed) of Diodorus Siculus, and he had read
+Cristoforo Buondelmonte's book on the islands
+of the Greek archipelago.</p>
+
+<p>A long list of the Elizabethan book-collectors
+could be made, but I shall not attempt one here.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a><a href="images/82.png">[82]</a></span>
+Two libraries of the time, Sir Robert Cotton's and
+Archbishop Parker's, stand out. The main object
+of both men was to preserve English antiquities,
+and it is no exaggeration to say that if these two
+collections, which together number less than 1,500
+volumes, had been wiped out, the best things in
+our vernacular literature and the pick of our
+chronicles would be unknown to us now. We
+should have no <i>Beowulf</i> or <i>Judith</i>, only inferior
+copies of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and of Matthew
+Paris, no Layamon, no <i>Pearl</i>&mdash;not to speak of the
+mass of invaluable State-papers gathered by
+Cotton, and the Reformation documents and
+letters stored up by Parker. One touch of blame
+rests on Sir Robert Cotton. He had a vicious
+habit of breaking up MSS. and binding together
+sections from different volumes. This disguises
+the provenance of the books, and by consequence
+obscures the history of their contents.</p>
+
+<p>Enough information about the Cotton and Parker
+MSS. is easily accessible to absolve me from writing
+much about them here. Less is generally known
+of two dispersed collections, those of John Bale
+and John Dee.</p>
+
+<p>Bale must, I fear, have been an unamiable man&mdash;certainly
+a very queer Christian. But his controversial
+works, on which he doubtless prided himself
+most, are dead and very rotten, while those devoted
+to the more peaceful science of bibliography are
+of abiding value. In his larger one, <i>Scriptorum</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a><a href="images/83.png">[83]</a></span>
+<i>Britannicorum Centuri&aelig;</i>, he inserts a list of the
+MSS. he had once owned; they were no longer in
+his hands, but, it is to be supposed, in Ireland, left
+there when he fled from his bishopric of Ossory
+on Mary's accession. It is not a very scientific
+list, not one that gives the contents of each volume,
+but merely names of treatises, groups of which
+no doubt went to make up volumes, and this makes
+it difficult to determine how much of his library
+is in existence now. After his death it was in
+England, and a syndicate of Germans, including,
+as was said above, Flacius Illyricus, were negotiating
+for the purchase of it. Archbishop Parker
+also had an eye upon it; he had received books as
+gifts or loans from Bale in former years. I have
+not been able to make sure whether any of the books
+did actually go to the Continent; I doubt it, in
+fact. Many distinguished by Bale's curious small,
+"flat" handwriting are traceable among Cotton's
+and Parker's books, at Lambeth, at Cambridge,
+and doubtless also at Oxford (where there is at
+least the MS. of his <i>Index Scriptorum</i>, admirably
+edited by Mr. R. L. Poole and Miss Bateson).
+Bale was a Carmelite in his youth and interested
+in the history of his Order, and there is an <i>a priori</i>
+probability that any book dealing with Carmelite
+affairs will contain marks of his ownership.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. John Dee's history has often been written,
+and the catalogue of the MSS. he owned has long
+been in print in a Camden society volume (<i>Diary</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a><a href="images/84.png">[84]</a></span>
+<i>of Dr. John Dee</i>) edited by Halliwell. The main
+facts of his life that concern us are that he lived at
+Mortlake, and in 1584 went on a wild journey to
+Poland. In his absence his house and collections
+were plundered by a mob, who, not without excuse,
+thought him a warlock. When he returned in
+1589 he set himself to recover his scattered property,
+and to a great extent succeeded. He moved from
+Mortlake to Manchester, being made Warden of
+the college there in 1595; later on he returned, and
+died at Mortlake, much in debt, I think, in 1608.
+I find from Archbishop Ussher's printed correspondence
+that his books were still unsold in 1624;
+litigation may have prevented their being dealt
+with earlier. The lists we have of his MSS. date
+from before his foreign tour; that which is in print
+was made on the eve of his departure, and contains
+a little over 200 entries.</p>
+
+<p>After the vicissitudes which his collection suffered
+it is remarkable that one should still be able to
+identify as extant well over half of it. I have
+been helped in my searches by certain marks&mdash;a
+little ladder, or the astrological sign of Jupiter,
+or a <ins title="Transcriber's Note: Delta">&#916;</ins>&mdash;which occur on the first page of many.
+His handwriting, too, in notes, and certain names
+of owners (particularly P. Saunders) are guides.
+Some of his MSS. were bought by Ussher, and are
+at Trinity College, Dublin, and a few were bought
+by Cotton. But the largest group of them is at
+Corpus Christi College, Oxford. These were acquired<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a><a href="images/85.png">[85]</a></span>
+by the great Oxford antiquary, Brian Twyne,
+who hoped that his college would buy them from
+him, but this they would not do. Happily Twyne
+was not too much hurt by the refusal to leave them
+to the college at his death. I guess that one reason
+for his buying them was that some (perhaps many)
+of them had once belonged to his grandfather,
+John Twyne, a Canterbury man of some slight
+eminence, who in his turn had secured a considerable
+"lot" of MSS. from the library of St. Augustine's
+Abbey. In searching out the relics of that
+great library I found the combination, or pedigree,
+St. Augustine's&mdash;John Twyne&mdash;Dee&mdash;Brian Twyne&mdash;Corpus
+Christi, to be a frequent one, and this
+set me upon a general investigation of Dee's
+MSS. A little notebook of his at Corpus Christi
+showed that in early life he had borrowed a number
+of MSS. from Peterhouse and from Queen's College,
+Oxford. I did not find that these ever got back
+to their sources, but I do not think that Dee was
+dishonest in the matter; I believe he was allowed
+to keep them for some consideration received.
+Some of the Peterhouse books are traceable in the
+Ashmole collection, the Pepys Library, and the
+British Museum; of those of Queen's College I can
+say nothing. Dee was specially interested in
+mathematics, alchemy, and, as everyone knows,
+converse with spirits, but his library was not confined
+to books on these subjects; he had some excellent
+historical, literary, and theological MSS.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a><a href="images/86.png">[86]</a></span>
+One of them was the best copy of Alfred's translation
+of Orosius.</p>
+
+<p>Another library of the sixteenth century deserves
+to be singled out from the many which offer themselves
+for notice. It is that of Lord Lumley
+(d. 1609); he inherited the books from Henry
+Fitzalan, Earl of Arundel (d. 1580). This collection
+had again been largely recruited from that of
+Archbishop Cranmer: the combination T(hom&aelig;)
+C(ranmeri) C(antuar)&mdash;Arundel&mdash;Lumley, is often
+found written on the lower margin of the first leaf
+of the MSS. concerned. These Arundel MSS., by
+the way, must not be confounded with the Arundel
+collection in the British Museum, nor with that
+remnant of the same collection which is owned by
+the College of Arms. The Arundel MSS., so-called,
+were collected largely by Lord William Howard
+(Belted Will) of Naworth, passed on to Thomas,
+Earl of Arundel (d. 1644), and devised by Henry
+Howard to the Royal Society, 1681; they were
+eventually transferred by the Society to the British
+Museum in 1831. The Arundel-Lumley books had
+a different destiny. Most of them also came to the
+Museum, but by another path. They were bought
+after Lumley's death by or for Prince Henry,
+eldest son of James I., and added to the Royal
+Library, and that became national property by the
+gift of George II. in 1757. We have a catalogue,
+made about 1609, of the whole library, which is
+among the Gale MSS. at Trinity College, Cambridge.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a><a href="images/87.png">[87]</a></span>
+It bears no name of owner, but is easily seen to be
+Lumley's. Not all the MSS. that we find bearing
+Lumley's name are in it, and not all the MSS. in it
+are in the old Royal Library. To the second class
+belong the English Bible at Wolfenb&uuml;ttel, the Bible
+of Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester (a fine but plain
+book which is at Cheltenham in the Phillipps collection),
+and the Bosworth Psalter bought not long
+ago from a private owner by the British Museum.
+The first class is more numerous; about twenty MSS.
+at Lambeth alone have Lumley's name, but are
+not in his catalogue. I conjecture that they were
+presented by Lumley (who was a generous giver
+of printed books to the Universities) to Archbishop
+Bancroft when he was forming his collection.</p>
+
+<p>So one might go on through Ussher, Laud, Selden,
+Rawlinson, Harley, Askew, Drury, Heber, etc., to
+Sir Thomas Phillipps, whose 30,000 MSS., good and
+bad, must be the largest mass of such things ever
+owned by a single collector. But I think I have
+said enough of the public and private accumulations
+of this country to give an adequate idea of the kind
+of results that attend research, and of the ways in
+which large blocks of MSS. have been handed on
+to us. The epoch of the sale-room I have not
+really touched; it demands special tools and a
+special historian, and it concerns individual books.
+Nor, I will confess, do I feel quite at ease in touching
+upon the private collections of the present day.
+There is less objection to surveying such things<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a><a href="images/88.png">[88]</a></span>
+when they have passed as wholes into public
+institutions.</p>
+
+<p>For example, the MSS. collected by the Earl of
+Crawford and Balcarres were acquired in 1892 for
+the John Rylands Library at Manchester. The
+Latin section of these I have had occasion to
+examine. It consists of nearly 120 items. The
+earliest and most remarkable of these almost all
+own the pedigree of Libri-Bateman-Crawford.
+Of Libri enough has been said to make it necessary
+to note here that none of the Crawford MSS. owned
+by him were pilfered from French libraries. The
+library of Bateman of Youlgrave was dispersed
+in 1893; the Libri purchases in it are mostly
+traceable in the Libri sale catalogue of 1859. Three
+tenth-century Spanish MSS., two from the Abbey of
+S. Pedro de Carde&ntilde;a, one from Silos, happen, by
+an odd and lucky accident, to be elaborately
+described in Berganza's <i>Espa&ntilde;a Sagrada</i>; how it
+was that exactly these books came into Libri's
+hands it is not likely that we shall discover. For
+the rest, Lord Crawford's purchases at the Howell
+Wills sale of 1894 were considerable in quantity,
+and he acquired three fine books at that of Ambroise
+Firmin Didot in 1878. Three others came
+from the Bollandist Fathers' Library at Brussels.
+One of these had for some years formed part of
+the very choice collection of the Fountaines at
+Narford, in Norfolk, scattered in 1894.</p>
+
+<p>Of less choice quality, but of extreme usefulness<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a><a href="images/89.png">[89]</a></span>
+to the student, are the 200 MSS. bequeathed by
+Frank McClean in 1904 to the Fitzwilliam Museum
+at Cambridge, and collected by him in the ten or
+fifteen years before that. Here we have few coherent
+groups of books, unless we reckon as such a certain
+number of volumes from the Cistercian Abbey of
+Morimund in North Italy, acquired singly, perhaps,
+by Mr. McClean from Hoepli of Milan. The
+Phillipps sales account for a good many, the
+Barrois and Ashburnham Appendix (1901 and 1897)
+for a few more, but most of the books were picked
+up one by one in auction-rooms or from dealers'
+catalogues.</p>
+
+<p>In both these cases examples of illumination and
+calligraphy have been primary objects in the
+collectors' eyes, and that is the ruling passion with
+most of those who buy MSS. nowadays. At the
+beginning of the nineteenth century what was more
+coveted was the accumulation of copies of the
+classics. It had hardly been realized that few of
+the Renaissance classical MSS. made in Italy have
+independent textual value, and collectors like
+Askew, Drury, Canonici, Burney, thought that the
+more of them they had the better. Lord Fitzwilliam
+(d. 1816), who devoted himself to buying
+French Books of Hours for the sake of the pictures,
+was something of a pioneer (at least in England) in
+this respect. Francis Douce (d. 1834) was another;
+his treasures are in the Bodleian. As for Sir
+Thomas Phillipps, he must have bought by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a><a href="images/90.png">[90]</a></span>
+cart-load: <i>Nihil manu scriptum a se alienum
+putabat</i>. In spite of the large amount of rubbish
+among his 30,000 odd volumes, I can never hear
+without a bitter pang the tale that the University
+of Oxford many years ago shied at his offer of them,
+accompanied as it was by some tiresome conditions;
+their fate has been gradual dispersion to every
+part of Europe and to America.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that I cannot embark here upon the
+history of sales of MSS. in the last hundred years.
+But my abstention, due to considerations of space,
+must not be imitated by my readers. Those who
+deal with modern collections or make collections
+of their own&mdash;a thing still possible for quite modest
+purses, in spite of the inflated prices which the great
+books command&mdash;are not absolved from the study
+of sale catalogues; that they will pay attention to
+book-plates, bindings, and names of owners, I
+need not repeat. The list of such catalogues issued
+by the British Museum they will find invaluable;
+the catalogues themselves, alike those of dealers
+and of sales, will often enable them to trace a
+particular MS. back through a whole century to
+some Italian palace or Flemish abbey, sold up or
+secularized under the stress of revolution. This
+period of MS. history has been less well worked
+than the earlier ones; it is but just ripening, in
+fact; but to anyone who is bitten with the passion
+for the books it will prove just as fascinating as
+the others.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a><a href="images/91.png">[91]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>Curiosities of Research</span></h3>
+
+<p>By way of conclusion let me come back from
+generalities to particulars, and attempt to kindle
+interest and stir the imagination by a few words
+on waifs and strays&mdash;the curiosities of MS. research.
+Some few leading instances have been mentioned,
+but in thinking over the collections I have examined
+and the documents I have had to copy or edit, others,
+less immediately showy, occur to my memory.</p>
+
+<p>What has become of the Red Book of Eye in
+Suffolk? It was a copy of the Gospels which St.
+Felix of Burgundy, the apostle of the East Angles,
+brought with him in the seventh century. It
+was after his death in a monastery at Dunwich.
+Then it passed to a little priory at Eye, where Leland
+saw it. After the Dissolution it remained with
+the Corporation of Eye&mdash;now extinct&mdash;and people
+took oaths upon it. It is traceable in the records
+down to a comparatively late date&mdash;within the
+nineteenth century. Can there be truth in the
+tale I have heard that it was sent for safe keeping
+to a mansion not far off, and there cut up for game
+labels? I cannot believe it.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt MSS. were cut up for game labels. I have
+seen&mdash;years ago&mdash;in a London shop one that had
+turned up in a billiard-room, and its blank margins
+had been many of them removed for that purpose.
+But there was a fashion equally reprehensible a
+hundred years ago of cutting out illuminations from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a><a href="images/92.png">[92]</a></span>
+MSS. and making scrap-books of them. It was
+especially common in the case of the great antiphoners
+and other huge service-books which stood
+on the lecterns in Italian churches. The remainder
+of the books went to the gold-beaters, perhaps
+(they used parchment, and in England bought
+MSS. sometimes to cut up), or to a like destination.
+Occasionally books so mutilated have been reconstituted.
+A leading example is that of a Josephus,
+illuminated in part by the great Tours artist Jean
+Foucquet. This the late King Edward VII. and
+Mr. H. Y. Thompson were able to combine in
+restoring. The King had a number of the pictures,
+cut out, in his library at Windsor; Mr. Thompson
+had the mutilated text and a pictured leaf or so.
+The fragments were brought together and presented
+to the Paris Library, which already possessed
+the first volume of the set.</p>
+
+<p>A miniature, cut, no one knows how long ago,
+from a fine twelfth-century Bible, was shaken out
+of a pile of printed copies of a funeral sermon at
+a country house. The book to which it belonged
+I believe to be one at Lambeth.</p>
+
+<p>In 1890 Mr. Samuel Sandars bought at a London
+sale a scrap-book containing two leaves of a beautiful
+and very early Book of Hours. He gave them
+to the Fitzwilliam Museum. In 1894 came the
+Fountaine sale, and then Mr. William Morris
+bought the MS. from which these leaves had come.
+An arrangement was made between him and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a><a href="images/93.png">[93]</a></span>
+museum that he should possess the leaves, replaced
+in the book, for his life, and then the museum
+should acquire the whole at an agreed price. Alas!
+he did not live to enjoy the ownership of them long.</p>
+
+<p>To find, as the late Mr. Greenwell of Durham
+found, a leaf of a sixth-century Latin Bible from
+Wearmouth or Jarrow (or perhaps even from
+Cassiodorus's library) in a curiosity shop, is a chance
+that comes to few. But I have always lamented
+that I did not pass through the streets of Orl&eacute;ans
+at the time (not many years back) when an illustrated
+Greek MS. of the Gospels on purple vellum
+and in gold and silver uncials was exposed for
+sale in a shop window. A French officer had picked
+it up at Sinope, and used it to keep dried plants in.
+However, it went to its rightful and proper home,
+the Biblioth&egrave;que Nationale.</p>
+
+<p>It is getting on for thirty years now since a small
+parish library in Suffolk, founded in 1700, gave
+to the world the book of the Gospels owned by St.
+Margaret of Scotland (at Oxford), and the unique
+life of St. William, the boy martyr of Norwich,
+and Nicholas Roscarrock's Register of British
+Saints (both at Cambridge). Not as long since,
+in a private library in Italy, some leaves were found
+of the early MS. (from Hersfeld Abbey in Germany)
+of the minor writings of Tacitus from which all our
+extant fifteenth-century copies descend. Still more
+recently, among a collection of scraps of MSS.,
+a half leaf of an eleventh or twelfth century MS.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a><a href="images/94.png">[94]</a></span>
+in Welsh was detected (a very great rarity); its
+generous finder (the late Mr. A. G. W. Murray,
+librarian of Trinity College) gave it to the Cambridge
+University Library, and thus added one more to the
+already remarkable collection of bits of early Welsh
+which Cambridge owns. It deals with the dry topic
+of finding Easter, but linguistically it is above price.</p>
+
+<p>And now for an example which shows the odd
+wanderings of <i>texts</i>. There is a volume at Vienna,
+from Bobbio, made up of palimpsest leaves from
+many MSS., Biblical and classical. Two of these,
+apparently from one book, stand next to each
+other. They have only recently been deciphered;
+they are in Latin uncials of the fifth century.
+One of them is from the Apocalypse of Thomas,
+a book named in an old list of Apocryphal writings,
+but thought until a few years ago to be hopelessly
+lost. We now know complete MSS. of it at Munich
+and a fragment at Verona, as well as an Anglo-Saxon
+version in the Vercelli MS. The other Vienna
+leaf is from an equally apocryphal "epistle of the
+Apostles," never mentioned by old writers, but
+seemingly of the second century. It gives a
+dialogue between our Lord and the Apostles after
+the Resurrection. About 1897 Dr. Carl Schmidt,
+a leading Coptic scholar, published an account of a
+Coptic MS. of the greater part of the book (the MS.
+is at Berlin, and some time will be edited); and about
+1913 a French scholar, Abb&eacute; Guerrier, published
+a complete version of it from Ethiopic MSS. which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a><a href="images/95.png">[95]</a></span>
+had been in Europe for half a century. It is about
+the last book I should have expected to find in a
+Latin version, and current in Italy in the fifth
+century. The combination of Egypt and Abyssinia
+is common enough; but that Bobbio should be
+added to that, and Asia Minor and Greece omitted,
+is indeed a strange thing. Perhaps Africa was the
+parent of the Latin version.</p>
+
+
+<h3><br /><span class='smallcap'>The Moral</span></h3>
+
+<p>So texts and books wander, and so do discoveries
+sometimes lie near our hands. The moral is:
+Be inquisitive. See books for yourself; do not
+trust that the cataloguer has told you everything.
+I am a cataloguer myself, and I know that, try as
+he may, a worker of that class cannot hope to know
+or to see every detail that is of importance. The
+creature is human, and on some days his mind
+is less alert than on others. Nor is he interested
+in everything alike: an apocryphal fragment or an
+obscure saint will excite me, while a letter of
+St. Bernard which may be unpublished leaves me
+calm. But in spite of the imperfections of cataloguers,
+catalogues must be used, and they must
+be read and not only referred to. The mere
+juxtaposition of treatises in a volume will often
+reveal its provenance or its pedigree; besides,
+there is always the chance I have suggested, that
+the describer of any MS. may have failed through
+ignorance or want of attention to see that some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a><a href="images/96.png">[96]</a></span>
+article in it is of extreme interest and rarity. So
+it was that in reading Lambecius's (eighteenth-century)
+catalogue of the Greek MSS. at Vienna
+I noted down an entry that seemed unusual;
+and some years after, when I had an opportunity
+of getting a friend at Vienna to look at the tract
+in question, it was found to be the unique copy of
+the very most heretical (and therefore interesting)
+episode of the apocryphal Acts of St. John, written
+in the second century, and copied, to our lasting
+astonishment and perplexity, by some honest
+orthodox cleric in the fourteenth.</p>
+
+<p>May discoveries infinitely more pleasing fall
+to the lot of many of my patient readers!</p>
+
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE</h4>
+
+<div class="unindent'">The student may consult the following works:</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><span class="smcap">J. W. Clark</span>: The Care of Books. Cambridge, 1901.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><span class="smcap">E. A. Savage</span>: Old English Libraries. London, 1911. Containing
+a useful bibliography.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><span class="smcap">M. R. James</span>: The Ancient Libraries of Canterbury and Dover
+(Cambridge, 1903); the Abbey of St. Edmund at Bury, (1895)
+and the Catalogues of the MSS. of the Libraries at Eton
+and at Cambridge, by the same author.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><span class="smcap">M. Bateson</span>: Catalogue of the Library of Syon Monastery,
+Isleworth. 1898.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'>List of Catalogues of English Book Sales, 1676-1906, now in
+the British Museum. London, 1915.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><span class="smcap">E. A. Loew</span>: The Beneventan Script. Oxford, 1914.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><span class="smcap">Th. Gottlieb</span>: Ueber Mittelalterliche Bibliotheken. Leipzig,
+1890.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><span class="smcap">T. Duffus Hardy</span>: Descriptive Catalogue of Materials relating
+to the History of Great Britain. Rolls Series, 1862-71.</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<div class='center'>
+<small>BILLING AND SONS, LTD., PRINTERS, GUILDFORD, ENGLAND</small></div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i"></a><a href="images/i.png">[i]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>HELPS FOR STUDENTS OF HISTORY.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="hang1"><b>No. 1. EPISCOPAL REGISTERS OF ENGLAND
+AND WALES.</b> By R. C. <span class="smcap">Fowler</span>, B.A.,
+F.S.A. 6d. net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 2. MUNICIPAL RECORDS.</b> By F. J. C.
+<span class="smcap">Hearnshaw</span>, M.A. 6d. net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 3. MEDIEVAL RECKONINGS OF TIME.</b>
+By <span class="smcap">Reginald L. Poole</span>, LL.D., Litt.D. 6d. net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 4. THE PUBLIC RECORD OFFICE.</b> By
+<span class="smcap">Charles Johnson</span>. 6d. net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 5. THE CARE OF DOCUMENTS.</b> By
+<span class="smcap">Charles Johnson</span>. 6d. net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 6. THE LOGIC OF HISTORY.</b> By C. G.
+<span class="smcap">Crump</span>. 8d. net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 7. DOCUMENTS IN THE PUBLIC RECORD
+OFFICE, DUBLIN.</b> By R. H. <span class="smcap">Murray</span>,
+Litt.D. 8d. net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 8. THE FRENCH WARS OF RELIGION.</b>
+By <span class="smcap">Arthur A. Tilley</span>, M.A. 6d. net.</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>BY SIR A. W. WARD, Litt.D., F.B.A.:&mdash;</i></div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 9. THE PERIOD OF CONGRESSES, I.</b>
+Introductory. 8d. net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 10. THE PERIOD OF CONGRESSES, II.</b>
+Vienna and the Second Peace of Paris, 1s. net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 11. THE PERIOD OF CONGRESSES, III.</b>
+Aix-la-Chapelle to Verona. 1s. net. (Nos. 9,
+10, and 11 in one volume, cloth 3s. 6d. net.)</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 12. SECURITIES OF PEACE.</b> A Retrospect
+(1848-1914). Paper 2s.; cloth 3s. net.</div>
+<div class='hang1'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a><a href="images/97.png">[97]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 13. THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE.</b> By
+<span class="smcap">Arthur A. Tilley</span>, M.A. 8d. net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 14. HINTS ON THE STUDY OF ENGLISH
+ECONOMIC HISTORY.</b> By <span class="smcap">W. Cunningham</span>,
+D.D., F.B.A., F.S.A. 8d. net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 15. PARISH HISTORY AND RECORDS.</b>
+By <span class="smcap">A. Hamilton Thompson</span>, M.A., F.S.A.
+8d. net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 16. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
+OF COLONIAL HISTORY.</b> By <span class="smcap">A. P.
+Newton</span>, M.A., D.Litt., B.Sc. 6d. net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 17. THE WANDERINGS AND HOMES OF
+MANUSCRIPTS.</b> By <span class="smcap">M. R. James</span>,
+Litt.D., F.B.A. Paper cover, 2s.; cloth
+boards, 3s. net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 18. ECCLESIASTICAL RECORDS.</b> By the
+<span class="smcap">Rev. Claude Jenkins</span>, M.A., Librarian of
+Lambeth Palace.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 19. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY
+OF AMERICAN DIPLOMACY.</b> By
+<span class="smcap">Carl Russell Fish</span>, Ph.D., Professor of
+American History in the University of Wisconsin.
+1s. net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 20. HINTS ON TRANSLATION FROM
+LATIN INTO ENGLISH.</b> By <span class="smcap">Alexander
+Souter</span>, D.Litt. 6d. net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No. 21. HINTS ON THE STUDY OF LATIN.</b>
+(A.D. 125-750.) By <span class="smcap">Alexander Souter</span>,
+D.Litt. 8d. net.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><b>No 22. REPORT OF THE HISTORICAL MSS.
+COMMISSION.</b> By <span class="smcap">R. A. Roberts</span>.,
+F.R.H.S., Sometime Secretary of the Commission.</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+(<i><b>Others to follow.</b></i>)<br />
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Let not the 400 MSS. given by Coislin to the Abbey of
+St. Germain des Pr&eacute;s at Paris be quoted against me. They were
+the collection of a great noble, the Chancellor S&eacute;guier, and the
+library to which they were presented was practically a public
+one, whose permanence was seemingly assured.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> <i>See</i> Eubel, <i>Hierarchia Catholica Medii &AElig;vi</i>, ii. 248.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> We have its catalogue admirably reproduced by Thomas
+Hearne, at a time (early in the eighteenth century) when it was
+rare to find anyone who would take the trouble to make a faithful
+copy of such a record, with all its erasures and alterations.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_D_4" id="Footnote_D_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_D_4"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> Subsequently Theyer, as I said, went on collecting MSS., and
+finally Charles II. bought the whole lot for the Royal Library.</p></div>
+</div>
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<div class='tnote'>
+<h3>Transcriber's Notes:</h3>
+
+<p>Obvious punctuation errors repaired.</p>
+
+<p>The original text had one page containing the list of Helps on the second page and it was concluded
+on the last page. The first page was moved to join the last.</p>
+
+<p>Page 96, M. Bateson was small-capped to match the rest of the format of the Bibliography.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Wanderings and Homes of Manuscripts, by 
+M. R. James
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+</body>
+</html>
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+Project Gutenberg's The Wanderings and Homes of Manuscripts, by M. R. James
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Wanderings and Homes of Manuscripts
+       Helps for Students of History, No. 17.
+
+Author: M. R. James
+
+Release Date: February 25, 2009 [EBook #28187]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WANDERINGS, HOMES OF MANUSCRIPTS ***
+
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+
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+Produced by Michael Ciesielski and the Booksmiths at
+http://www.eBookForge.net
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+
+[Illustration: HELPS FOR STUDENTS OF HISTORY
+
+THE WANDERINGS AND HOMES OF MANUSCRIPTS
+
+M. R. JAMES]
+
+
+
+
+HELPS FOR STUDENTS OF HISTORY. No. 17
+
+
+EDITED BY C. JOHNSON, M.A., AND J. P. WHITNEY, D.D., D.C.L.
+
+THE WANDERINGS AND HOMES OF MANUSCRIPTS
+
+BY
+
+M. R. JAMES, LITT.D., F.B.A.
+
+          PROVOST OF ETON
+          SOMETIME PROVOST OF KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE
+
+
+          LONDON
+
+          SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING
+          CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE
+
+          NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+
+          1919
+
+
+
+
+THE WANDERINGS AND HOMES OF MANUSCRIPTS
+
+
+THE Wanderings and Homes of Manuscripts is the title of this book. To
+have called it the survival and transmission of ancient literature would
+have been pretentious, but not wholly untruthful. Manuscripts, we all
+know, are the chief means by which the records and imaginings of twenty
+centuries have been preserved. It is my purpose to tell where
+manuscripts were made, and how and in what centres they have been
+collected, and, incidentally, to suggest some helps for tracing out
+their history. Naturally the few pages into which the story has to be
+packed will not give room for any one episode to be treated
+exhaustively. Enough if I succeed in rousing curiosity and setting some
+student to work in a field in which an immense amount still remains to
+be discovered.
+
+In treating of so large a subject as this--for it is a large one--it is
+not a bad plan to begin with the particular and get gradually to the
+general.
+
+
+SOME SPECIMEN PEDIGREES OF MSS.
+
+I take my stand before the moderate-sized bookcase which contains the
+collection of MSS. belonging to the College of Eton, and with due care
+draw from the shelves a few of the books which have reposed there since
+the room was built in 1729.
+
+The first shelf I lay hands upon contains some ten large folios. Four of
+them are a single great compilation, beginning with a survey of the
+history of the world and of the Roman Empire, and merging into the
+heraldry of the German _noblesse_. It was made, we find, in 1541, and is
+dedicated to Henry VIII. Large folding pictures on vellum and portraits
+of all the Roman Emperors adorn the first volume. It is a sumptuous
+book, supposed to be a present from the Emperor Ferdinand to the King.
+How did it come here? A printed label tells us that it was given to the
+college by Henry Temple, Viscount Palmerston, in 1750 (he had previously
+given it to Sir Richard Ellys on whose death Lady Ellys returned it: so
+much in parenthesis). Then, more by luck than anything else, I find
+mention of it in the diary of Thomas Hearne, the Oxford antiquary; his
+friend Thomas Jett, F.R.S., owned it and told him about it in 1722: he
+had been offered L100 a volume for it; it was his by purchase from one
+Mr. Stebbing. It was sold, perhaps to Palmerston, at Jett's auction in
+1731. The gap between Henry VIII. and Stebbing remains for the present
+unfilled. So much for the first draw.
+
+Next, a yet larger and more ponderous volume, _Decreta Romanorum
+Pontificum_--the Papal decretals and the Acts of the Councils. It is
+spotlessly clean and magnificently written in a hand of the early part
+of the twelfth century, a hand which very much resembles that in use at
+Christchurch, Canterbury. I am indeed, tempted to call it a Canterbury
+book; only it bears none of the marks which it ought to have if it was
+ever in the library of the Cathedral Priory. Was it perhaps written
+there and sold or given to a daughter-house, or to some abbey which had
+a less skilful school of writers? Not to Rochester, at any rate, though
+Rochester did get many books written at Christchurch. If it had belonged
+to Rochester there would have been some trace, I think, of an
+inscription on the lower margin of the first leaf. No; the only clue to
+the history is a title written on the fly-leaf in the fifteenth century,
+which says: "The book of the decrees of the Pope of Rome," and it begins
+on the second leaf "_tes viii_." That does not tell us much; I do not
+recognize the handwriting of the title, though I guess it to have been
+written when the book came to Eton College. All I can say is that here
+is an example of a large class, duplicates of indispensable and common
+works, which the abbey libraries possessed in great numbers, and often
+parted with, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, to colleges and
+private purchasers.
+
+Next we take out a thin folio written on paper. This time it is a Greek
+book which we open; it has the works of the Christian apologists
+Athenagoras and Tatian, and a spurious epistle of Justin Martyr, copied
+in 1534 by Valeriano of Forli. A single MS. now at Paris, written in
+914, is the ancestor of all our copies of these texts; but it has been
+shown that this Eton book is not an immediate copy of that, but of one
+now at Bologna. Obviously it was written in Italy. How does it come to
+be here? Sir Henry Wotton, Provost of the college, spent the best part
+of twenty years in Italy, mainly as Ambassador to the Court of Venice
+for James I., and left all his MSS. to the college at his death in 1639.
+There are numbers of MSS. from Italy in this bookcase, and, though
+hardly any of them have Wotton's name in them, it is not to be doubted
+that they came from him. A good proportion of them, too, can be traced
+back a step farther, for they have in them the name or the arms or the
+handwriting of Bernardo Bembo of Venice, the father of the more famous
+Cardinal Pietro Bembo. This Justin volume is not of that number, but we
+have a clue to its history which may be deemed sufficient.
+
+I turn to another shelf and open a large book written somewhere about
+the year 1150, which was given to the college in 1713 by one of the
+Fellows; in 1594 it belonged to John Rogers (if I read the name right).
+It contains St. Jerome's Commentary on Daniel and the Minor Prophets,
+followed by a tract of St. Ambrose, and another ascribed to Jerome
+(subject, the hardening of Pharaoh's heart), which was in reality, we
+are now told, written by a Pelagian. It is a very uncommon text. After
+that we have Jerome's (so-called) prophecy of the fifteen signs which
+are to precede the last judgment--of which signs, let it be said in
+passing, there is a fine representation in an ancient window in the
+Church of All Saints, North Street, at York. Can we trace this volume
+any farther back than 1594? I think so; the Ambrose and the two spurious
+tracts of Jerome (one, as I said, being of very rare occurrence) are
+entered, in that order, in the catalogue of the library of Peterborough
+Abbey. The library has long been dispersed, but the catalogue remains,
+and was printed by Gunton in his History of the Abbey. But the said
+catalogue makes no mention of the Commentary of Jerome, which fills 323
+out of the 358 leaves of our book. A serious obstacle, it will be said,
+to an identification; yet a long series of observations, too long to be
+set out here, has led me to the conclusion that our Peterborough
+catalogue makes a practice of not entering the main contents of the
+volumes, but only the short subsidiary tracts, which might else escape
+notice. And without much hesitation I put down the book before me as a
+relic of the Peterborough Library.
+
+Somewhat higher up stands a very stout book bound in old patterned
+paper. The material of it is paper too, the language is Greek, and the
+contents, for the most part, Canons of Councils. There are two hands in
+it; one is perhaps of the fourteenth century, the other is of the early
+part of the fifteenth. This latter is the writing of one Michael Doukas,
+who tells us that he was employed as a scribe by Brother John of Ragusa,
+who held some position at a Church Council, unnamed. There were two
+Johns of Ragusa, it seems, both Dominicans, one of whom figured at the
+Council of Constance in 1413, the other at that of Basle in 1433. The
+latter must be the right one, for there are still Greek MSS. at Basle
+which belonged to the Dominicans of that city, and were bequeathed by
+the second John at his death in 1442.
+
+The book is important, because the first thing in it is the only copy of
+a treatise ascribed to St. Athanasius, called a Synopsis of Holy
+Scripture. This treatise was printed first in 1600 by an editor named
+Felckmann, and no MS. of it has been used or known since. Where did
+Felckmann find it? In a MS. which belonged to Pierre Nevelet, procured
+for him (the editor) by Bongars, a distinguished scholar of Orleans.
+Now, the Eton book has in it a whole series of names of owners, some
+erased, but decipherable. The earliest seems to be Joannes Gastius, who
+in 1550 gave it to Johannes Hernogius (as I doubtfully read it). Then
+come Petrus Neveletus and his son, I(saac) N(icolas) Neveletus.
+Evidently, then, we have here the MS. which Felckmann used, and we
+arrive at some date after 1600. In 1665 or 1685 Daniel Mauclerc, Doctor
+of Law, living at Vitry le Francois, is the owner. He leaves France (the
+family were Huguenots), and brings the book to Holland. His son Jacques,
+Doctor of Medicine, has it in 1700, in England; his nephew, John Henry
+Mauclerc, also M.D., succeeds to it and enters his name in 1748, and
+gives it to Mr. Roger Huggett, Conduct and Librarian of the College, who
+died in 1769.
+
+This is an unusually full and clear pedigree. One more, and I have done.
+
+This time it is a copy of the Polychronicon of Ranulph Higden, monk of
+Chester; it was the popular history of the world and of England for
+anyone who could read Latin in the fifteenth century. No abbey library
+could be without it, just as no gentleman's library could be without a
+copy of the English Chronicle called the Brut. Here is a case in which
+we know the beginning and end of the book's wanderings, but not the
+middle of the story. The arms of Eton adorn the beginning of each of the
+seven "books" of the Chronicle, so we may take it that it was owned from
+the first by a member of the foundation. An inscription tells us that
+within the fifteenth century it belonged to the Carthusians of Witham in
+Somerset, and was given to them by Master John Blacman. Here is light.
+John Blacman was Fellow and Chanter of Eton, then Head of a House
+(King's Hall) in Cambridge, and lastly a Carthusian monk. He was also
+confessor to Henry VI., and wrote a book about him. In a MS. at Oxford
+there is a list of the books he gave to Witham, and among them is this
+Polychronicon. More: he has prefixed to the text a pedigree of the Kings
+of England from Egbert, illustrated with drawings, the last of which is
+the earliest known representation of Windsor Castle. We have not, then,
+to complain of lack of information about the early stages of the
+history; but then comes a gap, and between the Dissolution and the early
+part of the nineteenth century, when Rodd of London had it and sold it
+to the fourth Earl of Ashburnham, I can (at present) hear nothing of the
+book. In quite recent years it passed from the Ashburnham family to Mr.
+H. Y. Thompson, from him to Mr. George Dunn, and at his death was bought
+back for its first home.
+
+There, then, are half a dozen histories of MSS., fairly typical and
+fairly diverse. Naturally I have picked out books which have some
+traceable story. Very many have none. We can only say of them that they
+were written in such a century and such a country, and acquired at such
+a date: and there an end. Rebinding and loss of leaves, especially of
+fly-leaves, have carried off names of owners and library-marks, and
+apart from that there are but very few cases in which we are warranted
+in proclaiming from the aspect and character of the script that a book
+was written at one particular place and nowhere else.
+
+I think it will be seen, from what has been said, that my subject is one
+which depends for its actuality upon the accumulation of a great number
+of small facts. There is, of course, a broad historical background: no
+less than the whole history of Western Europe since the period of the
+Barbarian invasions. That cannot be looked for here, of course; but
+there are certain _data_ of capital importance which cannot be spared,
+and some plotting out of the whole field is indispensable.
+
+
+THE LIMITS OF THE SUBJECT
+
+Greek and Latin MSS. are the main subject. Oriental books we do not even
+touch upon, and vernacular books in English or French have to take a
+secondary place; and we may treat first of the Greek, for it is by far
+the most compact division. In the case of both Greek and Latin books we
+shall ask where and when they were chiefly made, when and how they left
+their early homes, and where they are to be found now.
+
+We shall rule out the whole of what may be called the classical
+period--the libraries of Alexandria and Pergamon, the bookshops of
+Martial's time--yes, and even the fourth-century library of Caesarea--for
+of these we have no relics. Our concern is with what exists to-day, or
+what did exist until the nation, which has contributed so largely to
+learning and history in the past, turned apostate, and to its lasting
+shame destroyed and dispersed what more ignorant men had spared. The
+mischief Germany has done--and it will be long before we learn the full
+extent of it--she has done with open eyes.
+
+We think primarily of Belgium and North-Eastern France as the scenes of
+her worst devastations, but she has not confined her work of spoliation
+to them. The Balkan provinces and Russia held great masses of Greek and
+Slavonic MSS. as yet very incompletely known. The actual invasions of
+German troops, and the wars and revolutions which Germany has fostered
+in those regions, can hardly have been less mischievous than her
+operations in the West.
+
+
+GREEK MSS.: PRODUCTION AND DISPERSION
+
+The area in which Greek MSS. were produced in the medieval period was
+(with negligible exceptions) confined to Greece proper, "Turkey in
+Europe," the Levant, and South Italy. In the monastic centres,
+particularly Mount Athos, there were and are large stores of Greek
+books, the vast majority of which are theological or liturgical; and the
+theological authors most in vogue are those of the fourth and later
+centuries. Copies of primitive Christian authors or classical ones are
+comparative rarities. True, one or two of surpassing interest have been
+found in such libraries; a famous Plato was brought by Dr. E. D. Clarke
+from Patmos, and is at Oxford now; the treatise of Hippolytus against
+heresies came in the forties from a monastery to the Paris library. But
+these are exceptions. We have to look at Constantinople as by far the
+most important centre of learning and of book-production. The city was
+full of libraries, public and private, and of readers. The culture of
+the place was, no doubt, self-contained; it did not aim at enriching the
+outer world, which it despised; its literary productions were imitative,
+the work of _dilettanti_ and decadents. Nevertheless, it preserved for
+us wellnigh all that we now have of the best literature of Greece, and,
+but for a few catastrophes, it would have handed on much more. Of
+thirty-two historical writings read and excerpted by Photius in his
+_Bibliotheca_, late in the ninth century, nineteen are lost; of several
+of the Attic orators, Lysias, Lycurgus, Hyperides, Dinarchus, he
+possessed many more speeches than we have seen. Michael Psellus, who
+died about 1084, is credited (I must allow that the evidence is not of
+the best) with writing notes on twenty-four comedies of Menander, of
+which, as is well known, we have not one complete. In the twelfth
+century John Tzetzes and Eustathius apparently had access still to very
+many lost authors. In short, before the Latin occupation of
+Constantinople in 1204, the remains of ancient Greek literature very
+notably exceeded their present bulk. Much of it, no doubt, was preserved
+in single copies, and only a narrow selection of authors was in constant
+use for educational purposes. Only three plays out of seven of AEschylus,
+for example, were read in the schools. The rest, with Sophocles and
+Apollonius Rhodius, practically depended for their survival on the
+famous copy now at Florence. Instances might be multiplied. The threads
+of transmission to which we owe most of the Euripidean plays, the
+Anthology, the History of Polybius, the works of Clement of Alexandria,
+the Christian Apologists, the commentary of Origen upon St. John, are
+equally slender. We cannot doubt that the sack of Constantinople by the
+Crusaders was, in its obliteration of works of art and of literature,
+far more disastrous than the capture of the city by the Turks in 1453.
+For the best part of a century before the latter date, the export of
+precious MSS. to Italy had been going on, and many of our greatest
+treasures were already safe in the hands of scholars when the crash
+came. Nor is it possible, I believe, to show that between 1204 and 1453
+many authors whose works no longer exist were read in Byzantine circles.
+That there was destruction of books in 1453 is no doubt true; but within
+a very few years the Turks had learned that money was to be made of
+them, and the sale and export went on at a great rate.
+
+
+EUROPEAN CENTRES FOR GREEK MSS.: CONTINENTAL
+
+Thus the drafting of Greek MSS. into the libraries of Western Europe has
+been a long and gradual process. Many of the best, that were secured by
+individual scholars such as Giannozzo Manetti, Aurispa, and Niccolo
+Niccoli, found their way into the Laurentian Library at Florence;
+others, collected by Nicholas V. (d. 1455), are the nucleus of the
+Vatican collection; a third set was the gift of the Greek Cardinal
+Bessarion (d. 1468) to Venice. But probably in quality, and certainly in
+quantity, the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris excels even the Italian
+storehouses of Greek MSS. The premier Greek MS. of France is a copy of
+the works attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite, which the Greek
+Emperor Michael the Stammerer sent to Louis the Pious in the year 827.
+It was long at the Royal Abbey of St. Denis, but strayed away somehow;
+then, bought by Henri de Mesmes in the sixteenth century, it came into
+the Royal Library in 1706, and has been there ever since. Its present
+number is Bib. Nat. Grec 437. Another treasure of ancient times which
+was once at St. Denis is the sixth-century uncial Greek MS. of the
+Prophets known as Codex Marchalianus, now in the Vatican; but when it
+came to France is not clearly made out. Coming to later times, the not
+inconsiderable collection made by Francis I. received a notable increase
+in that of Catherine de' Medici, once the property of Cardinal Ridolfi,
+and the reigns of Louis XIV. and XV. were for it an epoch of rapid
+growth. Between 1645 and 1740 the number of volumes swelled from 1,255
+to 3,197. The Revolution period added the collection of Coislin, or
+rather of Seguier--400 more. At the present day Paris must possess 5,000
+Greek MSS.
+
+In Central Europe Vienna may be reckoned the chief repository. It
+contains the remarkable collection of the traveller Augier de Busbecq,
+made in the East about 1570, which was once at Augsburg. Spain--I think
+principally of the Escurial Library--has suffered from depredation and
+from fire, and is poorer than the prominence of its early contributions
+to the cause of learning deserves.
+
+
+GREEK MSS. IN ENGLAND
+
+It is a temptation, when one turns to England, to enlarge upon the early
+history of Greek scholarship in the country, but it is a temptation
+which must be resisted. We had a share in preparing for the revival of
+learning. Roger Bacon and Grosseteste (I say nothing of the earlier age,
+of Theodore of Tarsus and Bede) were men whose work in this direction
+has hardly met with full appreciation as yet; and later on we gave
+Erasmus a welcome and a home. But we did not rival Italy or France in
+the early scramble for Greek books. Such classical MSS. of first-class
+value as we possess have been importations of the seventeenth and later
+centuries. Let me, however, speak somewhat more in detail.
+
+There was a turbulent person called George Neville, who died Archbishop
+of York in 1476. It is evident, though not, I think, from anything that
+he wrote, that he was interested in Greek learning, and not only
+theological learning. A MS. of some orations of Demosthenes now at
+Leyden contains a statement by the scribe that he wrote it for
+Archbishop Neville in 1472. This is our starting-point. Now, the scribe
+in question--Emmanuel of Constantinople--generally writes a hand (ugly
+enough) which no one who has once seen it can fail to recognize. This
+hand appears in a not inconsiderable group of books: in a Plato and an
+Aristotle now at Durham, in a Suidas given by the Chapter of Durham to
+Lord Oxford (Brit. Mus., MS., Harl. 3,100), in a rather famous New
+Testament at Leicester, in three Psalters at Oxford and Cambridge, and
+in half of another copy of Suidas at Oxford. In this second Suidas
+Emmanuel's hand is associated with another, equally easy to
+recognize--that of Joannes Serbopoulos. Serbopoulos lived, I know not
+how long, in the abbey at Reading, and transcribed several Greek MSS.
+now in Oxford and Cambridge libraries; he was still at work in the first
+years of the sixteenth century. This little episode is one that
+demonstrates, in a rather pleasing way, the value of the study of
+handwritings and of the inscriptions written by scribes; the light it
+throws on the history of scholarship is unexpected, and is worth having.
+
+Two Biblical MSS. of high importance came to England as gifts to our
+Sovereigns. One was the well-known Codex Alexandrinus (A), given to
+Charles I. in 1628 by Cyril Lucar, the reforming Patriarch of
+Constantinople. Of the other I shall take leave to say more. It was that
+known as the Cottonian Genesis, which was brought over by two Greek
+Bishops "from Philippi" and presented to Henry VIII. It was a
+sixth-century copy of the Book of Genesis, written in uncial letters and
+illustrated, we are told, with 250 pictures. Queen Elizabeth passed it
+on to her tutor, Sir John Fortescue, and he to Sir Robert Cotton, the
+collector of a library of which we shall hear more in the sequel, and in
+that library it remained (when not out on loan) till Saturday, October
+23, 1731. On that day a fire broke out in Ashburnham House in
+Westminster (where the Cotton and Royal Libraries were then kept), and
+the bookcase in which the Genesis was suffered horribly. The Cotton
+MSS.--for I may as well explain this matter now as later--were kept in
+presses, each of which had a bust of a Roman Emperor on the top. They
+ran from Julius to Domitian, and were supplemented by Cleopatra and
+Faustina. Augustus and Domitian had but one shelf each (Augustus
+contained charters, drawings, and the like; Domitian was originally,
+perhaps, a small case over a doorway); the others had usually six
+shelves, lettered from A to F, and the books in each shelf were numbered
+from i. onwards in Roman figures. The Genesis was Otho, B vi., and the
+three presses of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius were those in which the fire
+did most mischief. No complete leaf is left of Genesis; there are bits
+of blackened text and pictures, a few of which strayed to the library of
+the Baptist College at Bristol. The text had been examined by competent
+scholars for editions of the Greek Old Testament, and we are able to
+judge of its value; but of the pictures, alas! no list or description
+had been made. Still, something is known. An eminent French polymath,
+the Sieur de Peiresc (whose life by P. Gassendi is well worth reading),
+borrowed the book from Cotton, and had careful copies of one or two of
+the illustrations made for him, and these exist. And a further
+interesting fact has come out: by the help of our scanty relics a
+student of art, Professor Tikkanen, of Helsingfors, in Finland, was able
+to show that the designers of a long series of mosaic pictures from
+Genesis in St. Mark's at Venice must have had before them either the
+Cotton Genesis or its twin sister, so closely do the mosaics follow the
+compositions in the MS.
+
+In somewhat similar fashion, by gift from the reformer Theodore de Beze,
+the University of Cambridge acquired its greatest Greek treasure, the
+Codex Bezae (D) of the Gospels and Acts in Elizabeth's reign. The riddles
+which its text presents have exercised many brains, and I do not know
+who would allow that they are finally solved. Another famous MS., the
+unique Lexicon of Photius, was acquired by Thomas Gale, Dean of York,
+early in the eighteenth century--one would like to know where. To my eye
+it bears signs of having been long in Western Europe, if not in England.
+Roger Gale gave it, with his own and his father's other MSS., to Trinity
+College, Cambridge, in 1738. On the whole, however, Cambridge has not
+been nearly so fortunate as Oxford in accumulating Greek books. Oxford
+had a magnificent present in 1629 from its Chancellor, the Earl of
+Pembroke, of 240 MSS. purchased in block from the Venetian Barocci, and
+in 1817 made a great and wise purchase of 128 more, contained in the
+collection of another Venetian, the Abate Canonici. In the interval such
+diverse benefactors as Laud and Cromwell had enriched it with some very
+notable gifts. The pedigree of one of Laud's MSS. may be familiar, but
+is too illuminating to be omitted. It is a seventh-century copy of the
+Acts of the Apostles in Greek and Latin. The earliest home to which we
+can trace it is Sardinia; a document connected with that island is
+written on a fly-leaf. Then we find indisputable evidence that Bede,
+writing early in the eighth century, had access to it; he quotes in his
+_Retractations_ on the Acts readings which are characteristic of it; and
+as he never left his monastery in the North, we may be sure that the
+book was at Jarrow or Wearmouth in his time. After that it disappears
+until Laud buys it. Like many of his books, it came to him from Germany,
+a spoil of the Thirty Years' War. These various _data_ are best linked
+up if we suppose (1) that the MS. was brought from Italy to England by
+Theodore of Tarsus or his companion Abbot Hadrian in 668; (2) that it
+was taken from England to Germany after Bede's death by one of the
+companions of St. Boniface, the apostle of that country, and remained
+there, in or near Fulda, perhaps, until the convulsion which threw it
+back upon our shores.
+
+Take another illustration. When John Leland, in Henry VIII.'s reign,
+visited the library of Canterbury Cathedral, he saw there part of the
+Old Testament in Greek--chiefly the poetical books and the Psalter. He
+does not mention the Pentateuch. Nevertheless, it can be shown that that
+was also there, for among the Canonici MSS. in the Bodleian is one of
+the thirteenth century containing Genesis to Ruth in Greek, which has on
+a margin the inscription, legible though erased: "liber ecclesie Christi
+Cantuarie." How it left England at the Dissolution one may guess easily
+enough, but what its fortunes were before it came to light again at
+Venice I believe there is nothing to show.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Speaking broadly, then, of the destinies of Greek MSS., I may repeat
+that they were produced in a comparatively small area, that a great many
+of the most precious ones were concentrated in one place, and that from
+the fourteenth century onwards they became objects of desire to the
+great ones of the earth, who vied with each other in sending special
+emissaries to collect them. As a result, the greatest treasures were
+soon locked up in the libraries of princes and prelates, and became less
+commonly exposed to dispersion and sale than Latin books. We must
+remember, too, that as a rule the monasteries of Western Europe did not
+collect Greek MSS.; they possessed a chance one here and there, as we
+have seen, but rather as curiosities than as books to be used.[A] To
+the noble and the scholar there was a flavour of distinction about a
+Greek MS. which was wanting to all but the most venerable and beautiful
+of the Latin ones.
+
+There is still much to be done in the investigation of the history and
+relationships of Greek MSS. In spite of the numberless editions of the
+great authors, and the labour that has been lavished upon them, I
+believe that scholars would agree that in very few cases, if any, is the
+transmission of the text at all perfectly known. For some writings we
+have too little MS. evidence, for some so much as to be embarrassing. In
+no case can we afford to neglect and to leave unrecorded anything that a
+MS. can tell us as to its place of origin, its scribe, or its owners.
+Names and scribblings on fly-leaves, which to one student suggest
+nothing, may combine in the memory of another into a coherent piece of
+history, and show him the home of the book at a particular date, and by
+consequence unveil a whole section of the story of its wanderings. With
+one little instance of this kind I will bring to an end my remarks on
+this first and shorter portion of my subject. In the library of Corpus
+Christi College at Cambridge is a Greek Psalter written in the middle
+of the twelfth century. On one of its last pages is scribbled in Greek
+letters by a later hand the name of John Farley ("[Greek: Hiohannes
+pharlehi]"). Only about five-and-twenty volumes away from this stands a
+MS. containing letters written by the University of Oxford on public
+occasions. One of these is signed by J. Farley. A little enquiry elicits
+the fact that John Farley was official scribe of that University near
+the end of the fifteenth century. The Greek Psalter, then, was pretty
+certainly at Oxford in Farley's time. What do we know of Greek MSS. then
+at Oxford? We know that Bishop Robert Grosseteste of Lincoln owned such
+things, and that he bequeathed his books to the Franciscans of Oxford at
+his death in 1254; and when we examine the Psalter again, we find that
+it is full of notes in a hand which occurs in other Greek MSS. known to
+have belonged to Grosseteste, and which I take to be Grosseteste's
+autograph. So the mere occurrence of John Farley's name helps us to
+write the history of the book from within a hundred years of its making
+until the present day. Procured by Grosseteste some time before 1254, it
+passes to Oxford, and remains there till the Grey Friar's Convent is
+dissolved by Henry VIII. Then there is a gap of a generation at most.
+Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, acquires it (believing it,
+absurdly enough, to have belonged to Archbishop Theodore in the seventh
+century), and bequeaths it to his college of Corpus Christi in 1574.
+
+
+LATIN MSS.
+
+We turn to the Latin division, and here the difficulty of selecting
+lines of procedure is very great. A paragraph of historical preface, at
+any rate, must be attempted.
+
+At the period of the Barbarian invasions--the fifth century--the learned
+countries were Italy, France (especially Southern France) and Spain. Of
+these three, Italy may be described as stationary or even decadent, but
+she possessed greater accumulations of books than either of the other
+two. The result of the invasions was, no doubt, that libraries were
+destroyed and education dislocated; but there was another result, as we
+have lately begun to realize--namely, that in the case of France there
+was a transplanting of culture to another soil. A number of teachers
+fled the country, and some at least came to Ireland. This, as far as we
+can now see, was the beginning of that Irish learning which has been so
+widely, yet so vaguely, extolled. Ireland, then, in the late fifth
+century and the sixth, holds the lamp. Its light passes to England in
+the middle of the seventh century, and from thence, near the end of the
+eighth, to the Court of Charlemagne, where it initiates the Carolingian
+Renaissance. In the ninth century, when England is a prey to the Danes,
+the Carolingian Court and the great abbeys of Germany are enjoying a
+vigorous intellectual life, stimulated and enriched by scholars from
+Italy and from Ireland. In a general view the tenth and eleventh
+centuries must figure as a period of degeneration; the twelfth as one of
+immense intellectual and artistic vigour, culminating in the thirteenth.
+In the fourteenth the foundations of what we call the Renaissance are
+already being laid, and we have hardly passed the middle of the
+fifteenth before the MS. has received its death-blow in the publication
+of the first printed Bible.
+
+This absurdly condensed review of ten centuries has, I believe, some
+truth in it, in spite of the fact that every clause needs qualification.
+We shall have to go over the same ground again a little more slowly. At
+present we will devote a little time to the beginnings of our period.
+
+A few relics of the days before the Barbarian invasion have reached us.
+I am not thinking of the library of rolls found at Herculaneum in the
+eighteenth century, the unrolling and decipherment of which still goes
+on slowly at Naples, nor of the many precious fragments of rolls and
+books which have come in our own generation from Egypt, but rather of
+those which have been preserved above ground in libraries. Such are the
+Virgils of the Vatican, of St. Gall, and of Florence.
+
+Perhaps a word about these ancient Virgils will not be unwelcome. They
+are cited in all the textbooks, it is true, but I think they are apt to
+be confused; at any rate it is easy to confuse them.
+
+They are five in number: three very fragmentary, two more or less
+complete. The surnames they go by are _Sangallensis_, _Augusteus_,
+_Vaticanus_, _Romanus_, _Mediceus_.
+
+_Sangallensis_ and _Augusteus_ are practically the only pieces of books
+we have which are written in the old square capitals, like those of the
+Roman inscriptions. _Sangallensis_ consists of a few leaves which were
+found by Von Arx, a librarian of St. Gall, in the bindings of books in
+that abbey's library. Of _Augusteus_ there are four leaves at Rome
+(_Vaticanus latinus_ 3,256) and three at Berlin; and somewhere, perhaps
+in a private library in France, is or was another bit which was known to
+scholars in the seventeenth century. This copy was once at the Royal
+Abbey of St. Denis. Both of these are fourth-century books at latest.
+
+_Vaticanus_ (_lat._ 3,225) is a more complete copy, illustrated with
+fifty paintings in good classical style, and is also assigned to the
+fourth century.
+
+_Romanus_ (_Vat. lat._ 3,867), once at St. Denis, is a pictured copy
+too, but not nearly so good in style.
+
+_Mediceus_, written before A.D. 494, is at Florence (a single leaf of it
+is bound up with _Vaticanus_). It was formerly in the abbey library of
+Bobbio.
+
+These three books are written in "rustic capitals."
+
+A larger, but still small, group of books of "classical" date are the
+palimpsests, the most famous of which are at Milan and Rome. There was a
+time, early in the nineteenth century, when Angelo Mai, afterwards
+Cardinal, and Prefect of the Vatican Library, was constantly launching
+fresh surprises upon scholars, the results of his work in what was then
+an almost untouched field. Large fragments of Cicero's _Republic_, of
+lost orations of Cicero, of the works of the rhetorician Fronto, were
+issued at short intervals: and all the most important of these were
+recovered from palimpsests in the Ambrosian or the Vatican Library. They
+had all come, too, from one place, the same Bobbio which has been
+already named. Bobbio was founded by the Irishman St. Columban (d. 615).
+The list of the early and valuable MSS. which can be traced to it would
+take up a large share of my available space; but among the precious
+things it owned was a number of quite ancient volumes, the Cicero and
+Fronto and others--books sumptuously written in uncial letters in the
+fourth century, which, sad to say, the Bobbio monks themselves broke up,
+washed out the earlier writing, and covered the pages with texts more
+immediately useful to them. Whence did they come? An answer to that
+question has been offered recently which finds favour among experts.
+They are the relics, it is said, of the library formed by Cassiodorus at
+his monastery of Vivarium or Squillace, in South Italy. Cassiodorus is
+a great figure in the history of his own time, and in his influence upon
+the general course of learning. He was private secretary to Theodoric
+King of the Goths; in his old age he retired from public to monastic
+life, and his last years were devoted to equipping the monks he had
+gathered about him for study--first and foremost the study of the
+Scriptures, but also, as leading up to that, the study of languages, of
+history and geography, and, as conducing to the general welfare, of
+medicine, botany, and other useful arts. It had been a cherished project
+of his to found an academy at Rome where all such learning might be
+fostered, but that plan failed, and Cassiodorus took into his retreat at
+Vivarium all the store of books he had accumulated, and wrote a little
+manual to guide his monks to the right use of them. His _Institutes_ (as
+the book is called) do not give a set catalogue of his library, but
+there are many and striking coincidences between the manual and the
+literary works which can be traced to Bobbio. A specimen may be given:
+he recommends a writer on gardening called Gargilius Martialis. Hardly
+anyone else mentions this person, and his work had disappeared until Mai
+found pieces of it in a palimpsest at Naples which had come from Bobbio.
+We owe much to Cassiodorus in any case, for it was he who commended
+secular learning to monks, and the fact that monks were the great
+preservers of ancient literature cannot be dissociated from his
+influence. I shall be glad if the theory I have stated (it is that of
+the late Dr. Rudolf Beer) proves sound; to have some of the very volumes
+which Cassiodorus handled would be worth much.
+
+There is a link between the library of Cassiodorus and our own country.
+A famous Latin Bible now at Florence, the _Codex Amiatinus_, is known to
+have been once in England, at Wearmouth or Jarrow, and to have been
+taken abroad by Ceolfrid, Abbot of those monasteries, in 716 as a
+present to the Pope, whom it never reached, for Ceolfrid died at Langres
+on his way to Rome. The story has often been told, and needs not to be
+dwelt upon here; but a view has been broached, and is stoutly maintained
+by Sir Henry Howorth, which does deserve mention and is not yet
+familiar. It is that the first quire in the Amiatine Bible, which
+contains pictures and lists of Biblical books, is actually a portion of
+a Bible written for Cassiodorus. There is much to be said for this, and
+at the least we may be sure that it is a direct copy from such a Bible.
+Sir Henry would go farther, and claim the whole book as Cassiodorian. I
+do not know that expert opinion is prepared to endorse this.
+
+The mention of Cassiodorus has led us below the date of the "classical"
+period, for he died in 583. For one moment I revert to the earlier time
+to record an interesting example of wandering. Illustrated books of the
+early centuries are the greatest of rarities. The two Virgils, the
+Vienna and the Cotton Genesis, the Homer at Milan, the Gospels of
+Rossano in Calabria and those of Sinope now at Paris, the Dioscorides at
+Vienna, the Pentateuch of Tours, the Joshua-roll at the Vatican--these
+are the most famous, and there are very few beside them. Among those few
+are some pieces of a Latin Bible written in the fourth century, and
+containing parts of Samuel and Kings, with paintings which, when fresh,
+must have been of high excellence. They have unhappily suffered grievous
+damage, for they were used in the seventeenth century to make covers for
+municipal documents at the royal and ancient abbatial town of
+Quedlinburg (the scene of Canning's _Rovers_). The painted leaves are
+now at Berlin; a leaf of plain text remains at Quedlinburg. No one
+doubts that the book to which they belonged was made in Italy, and the
+likeliest history that can be imagined for it is that it was brought as
+a gift to the abbey by a German prince, say in the tenth century. It is
+hard to explain the neglect and mutilation of so noble a book, in whose
+contents there was nothing to offend Protestant or other religious
+susceptibilities. Only we find, by numerous examples, that the MSS. we
+should most prize now, those written in capitals or uncials with the
+words undivided, or in Irish or English scripts which became
+unfamiliar, were uniformly despised and neglected by the readers of
+later centuries. We meet with notes of this kind in monastic catalogues:
+"It cannot be read," "Old and useless," and the like. Still, one would
+have thought that the pictures of the Quedlinburg book would have saved
+it, even in a German nunnery.
+
+
+CHRONOLOGICAL SURVEY
+
+Since this little book is not a treatise on palaeography, a manual of
+art, or a history of learning, and yet has to touch upon all three
+provinces, it is important to keep it from straying too far into any of
+them, and this is one of the most difficult tasks that I have ever
+enterprised. The temptation to dilate upon the beauty and intrinsic
+interest of the MSS. and upon the characteristic scripts of different
+ages and countries is hard to resist. And, indeed, without some slight
+elucidation of such matters my readers may be very much at fault.
+
+I had begun a geographical survey of the field, taking countries as the
+units, and had written upon Italy and Spain, and attempted France. But I
+found that when the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were reached my
+tract was becoming a disquisition upon palaeography, art, and learning,
+and, of course, was failing to do justice either to any one of them or
+to what it had promised in its title. I now think that a chronological
+survey will be more practicable, and that it will be best to take first
+the subject of book-production, looking at each country in turn in a
+single period, instead of following the course taken by each, from the
+sixth century to the fifteenth.
+
+_Sixth and Seventh Centuries._--Italy, France, and Spain are the main
+centres. Ireland is active in learning, and in the second half of the
+seventh century England, under Archbishop Theodore and Abbot Hadrian,
+produces schools which rival the Irish, and, in the person of Bede, has
+the greatest scholar of the time. Some of the great Irish monasteries,
+such as Bobbio, Luxeuil, St. Gall, are founded on the Continent.
+
+Books are produced in considerable numbers in Italy, France, Spain; and
+from Italy they are exported, especially by English pilgrims, such as
+Benedict Biscop. The Gospel harmony written in 546 by or for Bishop
+Victor of Capua comes to England, and goes abroad again, with St.
+Boniface, perhaps, and now rests at Fulda, where also his body lies. A
+copy of St. Jerome on Ecclesiastes, written in Italy in the sixth or
+seventh century, has in it the Anglo-Saxon inscription, "The book of
+Cuthsuuitha the Abbess." The only Abbess Cuthsuuitha we know of presided
+over a nunnery in or near Worcester about 690-700. Her book travelled to
+Germany with some British or English missionary, and is at Wuerzburg.
+Wuerzburg is an Irish foundation; its apostle and patron, St. Kilian, is
+said to have been assassinated in 689. From Italy, too, came (most
+likely) the illustrated Gospels now at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
+(286), which belonged once to Christchurch, Canterbury; and the
+beautiful little copy of St. John's Gospel at Stonyhurst College, which
+was found in the coffin of St. Cuthbert (d. 687) when it was opened in
+1104. And St. Gall must have acquired its ancient Virgil from Italy
+also--when, we do not know.
+
+Spain kept her books very much to herself, one would guess, judging from
+the very few Spanish MSS. of this age which are to be met with in the
+rest of Europe. The guess, however, would not be quite correct. There
+was one great Spanish scholar in the seventh century, Isidore of Seville
+(636), and his encyclopaedia (The _Etymologies_ or _Origins_), which fed
+many later centuries with learning, made its way all over educated
+Europe very quickly. Not only so, but we find English scholars (Aldhelm
+and Bede) quoting Spanish writers on grammar and Spanish poets who were
+almost their own contemporaries.
+
+_Eighth Century._--This sees the last part of Bede's career (d.
+734)--the zenith of English scholarship, the mission of St. Boniface (d.
+758) to Germany, the meeting of Alcuin with Charlemagne (781), and the
+beginning of the Carolingian Renaissance. But, on the other hand, Spain
+is overrun by the Moors, Italy is inert, England begins to be harried
+by the Northmen. On the whole, if there really was a Dark Age, the
+middle of the eighth century seems to answer the description best. But,
+of course, there were points of light. The great centres of Northern
+France, such as Corbie and Laon, particularly Corbie, were beginning
+their activities of collecting and copying books. Ireland was capable of
+producing such a work as the Book of Kells--whether it actually falls
+within the century or not I will not be positive, but work of the same
+amazing beauty was carried out before 800. Nor was the export of
+treasures from Italy to England quite stopped, in spite of difficulties.
+At the Plantin Museum at Antwerp is a copy of the writings of the
+Christian poet Sedulius, which has pictures of the old Italian sort,
+such as we find in the frescoes of the Roman catacombs. In it is a note
+connecting it with a Bishop of the name of Cuthwin, who held the East
+Anglian see and died about 754. Another MS., at Paris, has a note
+describing an elaborately illustrated life of St. Paul, which, it says,
+the same Bishop Cuthwin brought with him from Rome.
+
+_Ninth Century._--There is immense activity, literary and artistic,
+afoot at the Court of Charlemagne (d. 814) and of his successors. The
+German abbeys--_e.g._, Lorsch, Fulda--and cathedral schools (Mainz,
+Bamberg, etc.) are full of scribes and teachers. Irishmen who know
+Greek flock to the Continent, driven from home by Danish invasion: such
+are Johannes Scottus Eriugena and Sedulius Scottus. They haunt Liege,
+Laon, Aix-la-Chapelle, and penetrate to Italy. Not less prolific are the
+French houses: at Tours the handwriting called the Carolingian
+minuscule, the parent of our modern "Roman" printing, is developed,
+though not at Tours alone. At Corbie, Fleury on the Loire, (now called
+St. Benoit sur Loire), St. Riquier by Abbeville, Rheims, and many
+another centre in Northern and Eastern France, libraries are accumulated
+and ancient books copied. Of St. Gall and Reichenau the same may be
+said. In Italy, Verona is conspicuous. The archdeacon Pacificus (d. 846)
+gave over 200 books to the cathedral, where many of them still are; and
+at Monte Cassino, the head house of the Benedictine Order, books were
+written in the difficult "Beneventane" hand (which used to be called
+Lombardic, and was never popular outside Italy). Spain has its own
+special script at this time, the Visigothic, as troublesome to read as
+the Beneventane; its _a_'s are like _u_'s and its _t_'s like _a_'s.
+England is still overrun by the Danes, and does nothing before the very
+end of the century, when King Alfred exerts himself to revive education,
+and starts a vernacular literature.
+
+An enormous proportion of the earliest copies we have of classical Latin
+authors come from this century, when old copies of them were actively
+sought out and transcribed. Often great liberties in the way of revision
+and even abridgment of the text were taken by the scholars of the time,
+and, once transcribed, the old archetypes were neglected or even
+destroyed.
+
+Books of very great beauty--Bibles, Gospels, Psalters--were produced for
+the Emperors and the great nobles and prelates. In these there is a
+marked effort to imitate and continue the traditions of classical art.
+
+_Tenth Century._--The tradition of study and scholarship lives on, but
+the impulse from Britain and Ireland has worked itself out, and few
+geniuses are born on the Continent. There is a period of splendour and
+vigour in England under the Kings Athelstan and Edgar and the
+Archbishops Odo and Dunstan. The calligraphic school of Winchester
+achieves magnificent results. At the end of the century the great
+teacher and scholar Gerbert (Pope Sylvester II.) is a prominent figure
+at the Imperial Court. The Ottos emulate Charlemagne in their zeal for
+literature and for fine works of art, but their attainment is slighter.
+
+_Eleventh Century._--Men still live on the traditions of the Carolingian
+Revival in the early part: there is later an awakening, principally,
+perhaps, in France and Italy. Great names like those of Anselm, Abelard,
+Bernard, come forward. Monastic reform is active; great schools, as at
+Chartres, take their rise; there is a preparation for the wonderful
+vigour of the next century. The First Crusade brings East and West
+together in a new fashion.
+
+_Twelfth Century._--The strength and energy of Europe is now tremendous
+in every department, and not least in that with which we are concerned.
+Our libraries are crammed to-day with twelfth-century MSS. The
+Gregories, Augustines, Jeromes, Anselms, are numbered by the hundred. It
+is the age of great Bibles and of "glosses"--single books or groups of
+books of the Bible equipped with a marginal and interlinear comment
+(very many of which, by the way, seem to have been produced in North
+Italy). Immense, too, is the output of the writers of the time; Bernard,
+Hugh and Richard of St. Victor, Peter Comestor, Peter Lombard. The two
+last are the authors of two of the most popular of medieval
+textbooks--Peter Lombard of the _Sentences_ (a body of doctrine), Peter
+Comestor of the _Historia Scholastica_ (a manual of Scripture history).
+The Cistercian Order, now founding houses everywhere, is, I think,
+specially active in filling its libraries with fine but austerely plain
+copies of standard works, eschewing figured decoration in its books, as
+in its buildings, and caring little for secular learning. The University
+of Paris is the centre of intellectual vigour.
+
+_Thirteenth Century._--This is commonly regarded as the greatest of all
+in medieval history; and truly, when we think of achievements such as
+Westminster, Amiens, and Chartres, and of men such as St. Louis, St.
+Thomas Aquinas, St. Francis, Dante, Edward I., Roger Bacon, we must
+agree that the popular estimate is sound. Certainly we see in France and
+in England the fine flower of art in buildings and in books.
+
+Paris is still the centre. The "Gothic" spirit is concentrated there.
+The book trade is enormous. It is passing--under the influence of the
+University, most likely--out of the hands of the monastic scribes into
+those of the professional "stationers"; while great individual artists,
+such as Honore, arise to provide for Royal and noble persons examples of
+art which stand as high to-day as when they were first produced.
+
+It is now that we find a large multiplication of textbooks. If the
+twelfth century was the age of great Bibles, the thirteenth is the age
+of small ones. Thousands of these exist, written with amazing minuteness
+and uniformity. Only less common are the Aristotles, the _Sentences_,
+the _Summae_, and the other works of the golden age of scholasticism. The
+Orders of Friars, Franciscan and Dominican, form libraries--partly of
+duplicates procured from older foundations, partly of new copies to
+which they were helped by charitable friends.
+
+Towards the end of the century Italy comes forward as the great purveyor
+of books of a special sort. The University of Bologna becomes the great
+law school of Europe, and exports in numbers copies of the immense texts
+and commentaries of and upon the Church (Canon) and Roman (Civil) law
+which were indispensable to the unfortunate student. These books become
+common at the end of the thirteenth century, and run over well into the
+fourteenth. They are prettily (but often very carelessly) written in a
+round Gothic hand, sometimes christened "Bolognese." Some were not only
+written but decorated (with poorish ornament) on the spot, but very many
+were exported in sheets and provided, in France or England, with such
+decoration as the purchaser could afford. A leading example is a copy of
+the Decretals in the British Museum (Royal 10, E. iv.) which belonged to
+St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield. It is in Italian script, but on each of
+the spacious lower margins of its many pages is a picture by an English
+artist; these pictures run in sets, illustrating Bible stories, legends,
+and romances.
+
+As the centuries go on, the material they have left increases in bulk,
+and the complication of the threads is proportionately greater. I cannot
+hope in a survey like this to give prominence to every factor; but we
+shall not be wrong in fixing upon Northern France and England as the
+areas of greatest productiveness and the sources of the best art in the
+thirteenth century.
+
+Before we pass to the next century a word must be devoted to a not
+unimportant class of books which seem to have been manufactured chiefly
+in Picardy and Artois, the illustrated Romances--_e.g._ the Grail and
+Lancelot--of great bulk, usually in prose, which served to pass the
+winter evenings of persons of quality. A few of these, and a book of
+devotions to take to church (oftenest a Psalter at this time; later on a
+book of Hours), were the staple books owned by the upper classes.
+
+_Fourteenth Century._--If the thirteenth century gives us on the whole
+the noblest books, the early part of the fourteenth affords the
+loveliest. They come from England, France, and the Netherlands. A
+noticeable element in their art is that of the grotesque and burlesque,
+never, of course, quite absent even from early books, but now most
+prominent and most delightful. The defect of the art of this time is
+lack of strength and austerity; its delicacy is above praise.
+
+The middle of the century sees Petrarch, and with him the Renaissance
+begins. Italy has been producing great men in every field, but the work
+of Petrarch reached farther and was more enduring than that of any
+other.
+
+France, tortured by wars, put forth little in the middle years, but then
+came Charles V., a King who was really interested in books, and the
+library he formed at the Louvre gave a stimulus to book-production which
+spread wide and lasted long. Under Richard II. and through his Queen,
+Anne of Bohemia, a foreign influence makes itself felt in England, and
+some lovely results are achieved; but on the whole English art is
+waning.
+
+The Universities, and to some extent the monasteries, were throughout
+this century great customers for the bulky books of scholastic divinity
+(Duns Scotus, Albertus, and the like) and the later generation of
+commentators on the Bible, such as Nicolas de Lyra and Hugo de S. Caro.
+Many shelves are filled with these.
+
+_Fifteenth Century._--The fifteenth century is our last; it ends the MS.
+period. Under the influence of the Renaissance, now enormously potent,
+every Italian noble forms a library. The scholars are seeking out the
+ninth-century copies of the classics, and they discard the Gothic
+(black-letter) hands of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in
+favour of the Carolingian minuscule (or, some say that of the twelfth
+century). As early as 1426 we find books written in a script adapted and
+refined from this; we call it a Roman hand, though the great centre of
+its propagation seems to have been Florence. In all essentials it is the
+parent of the type in which this page will be printed.
+
+Italy, then, is the hub of the universe for books; and in Italy,
+Florence, Naples, and Rome are the most active _nuclei_. We have a
+record written by a Florentine bookseller, Vespasiano Bisticci, in the
+form of short biographies of great persons, many of whom had dealt with
+him. For some he provided whole libraries, as for Frederick, Duke of
+Urbino, whose books are now mostly in the Vatican. Such a man as this
+would not look at a printed book--which in Vespasiano's mind is, of
+course, very greatly to his credit; for the press was bound to put an
+end to his particular industry. We still find, by the way, this
+prejudice against print in the very last years of the century. Some rich
+persons had MS. copies actually made from printed editions and
+elaborately illustrated. Such a one was Raphael de Marcatellis, natural
+son of Philip the Good of Burgundy and titular Bishop of Rhossus, near
+Antioch.[B] Part of his library may be found at Ghent, part at Holkham,
+and stray volumes at Cambridge (Peterhouse) and in the Arundel
+collection at the British Museum. They are very handsome books, and many
+have full-page paintings by capable artists, but the resulting
+impression is on the whole that of decadence.
+
+Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary (d. 1490), is a name famous among old
+bibliophiles. He got together a library of fine books, mostly recent
+copies made for him, and it was dispersed and sacked by the Turks in
+1526. It is spoken of with bated breath by the old writers, as if it had
+contained priceless treasures. I am sceptical.
+
+Ferdinand of Aragon and Calabria was a collector of the same kind, whose
+beautiful books, adorned with his arms in the lower margin of the first
+page, are many of them at Valencia, having passed to the University
+there by way of the Abbey of St. Miguel de Los Reyes. These are of
+Italian and not of Spanish manufacture, and very fine they are.
+
+These last-mentioned libraries have been scattered, but there are still
+some of the Renaissance period which survive in their original homes.
+The Laurentian at Florence and the Vatican at Rome stand at the head of
+all. With regard to the latter it may be said that though earlier Popes,
+of course, had libraries (that of Avignon was quite considerable), yet
+Nicholas V. (d. 1455) must be regarded as the founder of the Vatican
+library in its present state. So, too, the Marciana at Venice and the
+Malatestiana at Cesena must rank as genuine Renaissance collections.
+
+It was not only the great men who loved to have books. The tribe of
+scholars, foreign as well as native, who coveted them was numerous.
+Every library now has its quota of humbler copies of the classics, often
+on paper, in the Roman or the more cursive Italic hand, not written by a
+professional scribe. Often these are of infinitesimal value,
+transcripts of extant copies of no greater age; but there is always the
+possibility that they may be a competent scholar's own careful apograph
+of some ancient MS. which a Poggio had unearthed at St. Gall, and which
+has since vanished. A glance at the _apparatus criticus_ of a few
+editions of classics will show that often a fifteenth-century MS. ranks
+high among the authorities for the text. Pedigree is what matters, not
+beauty of hand, nor, necessarily, date.
+
+It has been the fate of these scholars' books, as it is the fate of all
+MSS., to be absorbed into great libraries, and many of them lurk there
+still unexamined and their origin undetermined. Discoveries, no doubt,
+yet remain to be made among them.
+
+Whether or not a breath of influence from Italy was the cause, it is
+plain that library-making was popular in countries and circles which
+were not obviously affected by the Renaissance. The monasteries of
+England were certainly not so affected, yet we find many of them setting
+their books in order and building special rooms to contain them.
+Christchurch at Canterbury and Bury St. Edmunds are leading instances.
+Now, too, Universities and colleges made fresh catalogues, and received
+large accessions of books.
+
+If the Renaissance did not touch the English public as a whole in this
+century, it made some proselytes. Among Englishmen who dealt with our
+Florentine Vespasiano were John Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester, Humphrey,
+Duke of Gloucester, William Gray, Bishop of Ely, Andrew Holes, of Wells.
+Others who resorted to Italy were John Free, Thomas Linacre, John
+Gunthorpe, Dean of Wells, William Flemming, Dean of Lincoln, William
+Tilley of Sellinge, Prior of Christchurch, Canterbury. We shall see
+later on what traces some of these have left on our libraries.
+
+In places to which the Italian influence did not penetrate the humdrum
+trade of copying went on. Anselm, Bernard, and Augustine; sermon-books
+by the score; Burley on Aristotle, etc. Then, in another class, the
+production of books for use in church was very large. There were few
+Bibles, but Missals, Breviaries, large choir-books to be laid on the
+lectern, Graduals and Processionals, are legion. Then, again, every
+well-to-do person must have his or her Book of Hours, illuminated if
+possible. Such things were common wedding-presents, it seems. Upon the
+best of them really great artists were employed, like Foucquet of Tours
+and Gerard David; we even find Perugino painting a page in one, but the
+average are shop work made for the Italian market at Naples or Florence,
+for the French at Paris, Tours, or Rouen, for the English very often at
+Bruges, where also many sumptuous chronicle books and French versions
+of secular history and romances were turned out. Edward IV. had a
+considerable number of such in his library.
+
+These private Prayer Books are, of course, incomparably the commonest of
+all illuminated manuscripts. They vary from loveliness to
+contemptibility. Perversely, they figure in catalogues, and are lettered
+on their backs, as Missals; our ancestors of the eighteenth and
+nineteenth centuries forgot that a Missal must contain the service of
+the Mass, and that none of these books do.
+
+There, then, is a second survey of our ground, somewhat more detailed
+than the first, but woefully sketchy. Everyone who has studied MSS. of
+any class or period would detect omissions in it which for him would
+vitiate the whole story. The best I can hope is that the assertions in
+it are not incorrect, and that it gives a true notion of the general
+course of book-production in medieval times.
+
+
+WANDERINGS OF LATIN MSS.: THE CONTINENT
+
+We are now to concern ourselves with the later destinies of the books
+which we have seen in the making. Here generalities will be less in
+place; nevertheless, I must begin with some.
+
+There are two main classes of persons interested in MSS.: those who care
+for their literary contents, and those who prize them for their artistic
+beauty. Roughly speaking--very roughly--the precious literary things of
+ancient times were preserved in monastic and cathedral libraries, and
+the beautiful things in palaces and castles and church treasuries. I do
+not forget that poetry and romance in the vernacular were chiefly in the
+hands of the laity, nor do I depreciate their value as literature.
+
+The ancient books, pagan and Christian, are perhaps to be regarded as
+the backbone of the subject, and therefore the first part of my enquiry
+shall be devoted to the ecclesiastical libraries, and considerations of
+space shall rule me on the other head.
+
+The monastic and cathedral libraries can be best treated by countries.
+France, Germany, and England will serve as specimens. Of Italy perhaps
+enough has been said incidentally to attract attention to the most
+important centres, such as Bobbio, Monte Cassino, and Verona, and upon
+the whole I do not think that in Italy this class of library played so
+great a part in the later Middle Ages as it did in the rest of Europe.
+
+France is full of Latin MSS. Every considerable town, besides many that
+are inconsiderable, has its public library, into which at the Revolution
+were collected the remains of the libraries of the religious houses of
+the district. France's Dissolution came at a time when many eyes were
+open to the possible value of ancient books, and strings could be
+pulled and influence exercised to stem the unreasoning fury that said:
+
+          We'll pull all arts and learning down,
+          And hey, then, up go we!
+
+It is easier, also, to rescue books than buildings. The Revolutionists
+tore down a cathedral, and it is gone; but books are portable and,
+moreover, do not burn or tear or drown easily, especially vellum MSS.;
+and when the first hurricane of idiocy had blown over they were very
+likely found, rather dustier than before, still on their shelves.
+
+Nowadays our methods are more effective, of course; but I have said as
+much about that as I can bear.
+
+If, then, one took a map of France and marked down the principal abbeys,
+one would have a fair _prima-facie_ indication where to look for their
+MSS. From Corbie, you would say, they went to Amiens, from Citeaux to
+Dijon, from Bec and Mont St. Michel to Avranches, and so on. This would
+be right, but there are exceptions. Corbie, a specially important
+library, is one.
+
+When in 1636 the French under Louis XIII. regained that territory from
+the Spaniards, the precarious situation of its treasures was recognized,
+and 400 select MSS. were taken to Paris. The Reformed Benedictines of
+the Congregation of St. Maur had done much at Corbie for the
+preservation of the books, and they now petitioned that the Corbie MSS.
+might not be alienated from the Order, "n' ayant personne qui soit si
+jaloux de conserver l'heritage de leurs peres que les propres enfants."
+The petition was successful, and the MSS. were placed in the Abbey of
+St. Germain des Pres at Paris. This was in 1638. In 1791, during the
+Revolutionary troubles, there was a fire at the abbey, and in the
+confusion a batch of early books was stolen. These came into the hands
+of a Russian envoy, Dubrowsky, and most of them, if not all, are (or
+were until a more recent Revolution) in the Imperial Library at
+Petrograd. The rest, still a great collection, were drafted out of St.
+Germain into the National Library in 1795-96. Meanwhile a large number
+(including some very important books) had remained at Corbie, and these
+did go to Amiens in or about 1791.
+
+But before 1636 Corbie MSS. had begun to stray from home. One fairly
+clear case seems to be that of the Harley MS. 3,063, which was once in
+the library founded late in the fifteenth century at Cues, on the
+Moselle, by Cardinal Nicholas of Cues (_Cusanus_). It is one of two
+copies of the Latin version of Theodore of Mopsuestia's Commentary on
+the Pauline Epistles. The other is a Corbie book at Amiens. Both show
+the same gaps and blanks in the text, but the one is not believed to be
+a direct copy of the other. Both go back to a common original.
+
+Other Corbie books are at Montpellier. They had a long roundabout
+journey to get there. Part of a magnificent collection formed by
+successive Bouhiers (seven of whom were Presidents of the Parlement de
+Bourgogne, and lived at Dijon), they were bought in 1781 from the heir
+of the last Bouhier by the last Abbot but one of Clairvaux. Then, when
+Clairvaux was suppressed at the Revolution, its library went to Troyes.
+Government commissioners were sent round to look through the
+departmental libraries and note the most valuable MSS. and printed
+books. One of those who visited Troyes was a Montpellier professor, Dr.
+Prunelle. The 300 and odd MSS. which he put aside would, if precedent
+had been followed, have gone to Paris, but they did in fact go to the
+famous old school of medicine at Montpellier, and there they are at this
+day.
+
+One at least of the remarkable collection given by Archbishop Parker to
+Corpus Christi College at Cambridge (193), is a Corbie book--a product
+evidently of the Corbie _scriptorium_, though it bears on its first leaf
+the traces of an inscription of ownership which, illegible as it is,
+does seem to be that of another monastery. Parker's is, on the whole, so
+English a collection that the presence of this early French book arrests
+attention. It does not, however, stand quite alone; there is a rather
+similar one (334) which Professor Lindsay tells me is a Laon book of
+about the same (eighth-century) date.
+
+Corbie has occupied a considerable space, but it is entitled to do so on
+several accounts. The number of early MSS. traceable to it is very
+large, their intrinsic interest is high, and for a third reason I may
+again quote Professor Lindsay as having decided, from a minute study of
+the abbreviations used by Corbie scribes, that Anglo-Saxon influences
+were at work in the formation of its peculiar hand.
+
+Corbie was, as I have hinted before, but one of many venerable centres
+of learning in the northern half of France. I shall not attempt a list
+of them, but go on to note one salient fact, that the southern half of
+the country is noticeably the poorer in MSS.
+
+At Autun and Lyons, both of them magnificent cities in Roman times, some
+very ancient books did linger, and here is room for a digression. Lyons
+had a Pentateuch in Latin which was a great rarity, for not only was it
+in uncials of the fifth century, but it was of the Old Latin version,
+that made from the Greek before St. Jerome made his version from the
+Hebrew, which we call the Vulgate.
+
+Rather before the middle of the nineteenth century an Italian adventurer
+of some learning and little virtue, the Chevalier Guglielmo (etc.)
+Libri, obtained employment under the French Government in the Department
+of Public Instruction, and was sent on a tour of inspection among
+provincial libraries. He made this the occasion for increasing a
+collection of MSS. which he had already begun for his private uses.
+Where he found that the town librarian was a good easy man, he removed
+(silently) from his keeping a selection of the most precious volumes,
+or, if it seemed unsafe to take the whole of a MS., he detached some few
+quires. Now and then he left a less valuable book in the place of the
+other. His best hunting-grounds were Tours, Orleans, and Lyons. At Lyons
+he conveyed away the Book of Leviticus and part of Numbers out of the
+Pentateuch. He had skilled workmen in his pay at Paris, who wrote names
+of other (generally Italian) monasteries and former owners on the first
+page of the stolen books, and otherwise disguised them; when he had made
+up a selection of a suitable bulk and attractiveness, he looked about
+for a wealthy purchaser, and found one in the Earl of Ashburnham, who
+bought _en bloc_, and whose manuscripts were not readily made accessible
+to the public. So the Lyons Leviticus and an illustrated sixth-century
+Pentateuch from Tours and many other precious things from Fleury (near
+Orleans) and elsewhere reposed in England until the early eighties, when
+M. Leopold Delisle made public the result of a most patient and most
+subtle investigation of the whole fraud, and a selection of the best of
+the plunder was got back for France. Sad to say, the municipalities
+which had been most negligent in keeping their MSS. refused to
+contribute to the recovery of them. They are still at Paris, to the
+advantage of students, but to the discredit of the provinces.
+
+Meanwhile Libri's reputation had been thoroughly blown upon, and he
+retired from France, and was dead in Italy or elsewhere before his
+crimes had been atoned for. A great mass of his accumulations was bought
+from the Ashburnhams by the Italians and is now at Florence. Madame
+Libri survived, like Madame Fosco, to defend his memory.
+
+To return. In spite of the long history and great wealth of Bordeaux,
+Marseilles, Arles, Narbonne, Toulouse, you will not trace many famous
+books to those places. The city which, on the whole, has preserved its
+early manuscripts best is Albi, but it was never a great centre of
+learning, and its library, though extremely interesting, is not large.
+
+However, we need not be surprised at the poverty of a region which has
+had to undergo Albigensian crusades, English occupation, wars of
+religion, and a revolution.
+
+Some of the great early libraries of Germany were mentioned in our
+historical survey. Fulda and Lorsch were as remarkable as any. At the
+present day Fulda retains only the few Bonifacian MSS. which rank as
+relics of the saint--the blood-stained volume of Ambrose which was on
+Boniface when the pagans killed him, his pocket copy of the Gospels,
+the MS. written for Victor of Capua. The bulk of its abbey library,
+which remained together until the close of the sixteenth century, is
+dispersed and gone, no one knows where. Some books are at Cassel in the
+ducal library. Lorsch has nothing _in situ_, but a good deal in the
+Vatican. Both houses were instrumental in preserving the classics; we
+owe to them Suetonius, Tacitus, Ammianus Marcellinus, and part of Livy.
+
+The Thirty Years' War was responsible for a good deal of dispersion.
+Cargoes of books made their way to England, and Archbishop Laud bought
+and gave to the Bodleian many from Wuerzburg and Erfuert; in the Arundel
+collection at the British Museum the German contingent is large. Sweden
+also profited at this time, and got its lovely _Codex Aureus_ (once at
+Canterbury), its _Codex Argenteus_ (the Gothic Gospels at Upsala), and
+its _Gigas_, or Devil's Bible, which came from Prague.
+
+In the Revolutionary period there was extensive secularization of
+abbeys, and whole libraries passed into central depots, as at Munich,
+which has the MSS. of St. Emmeram of Ratisbon and of Tegernsee,
+Benedictbeuern, Schaeftlarn, and many other houses. Those of the old and
+rich foundation of Reichenau passed to Carlsruhe. Precious books, like
+the gold-covered Gospels of Lindau, were exported. This particular gem
+was bought by Lord Ashburnham, and in recent years has gone to America.
+Fine Gospels and other service-books from Weingarten are at Holkham;
+they appeal to the Englishman, for they contain pictures of our sainted
+King Oswald, of whom Weingarten owned a relic.
+
+North Germany's contribution is far inferior to that of Bavaria and the
+Rhine provinces. The inhabitants of large regions were pagans till a
+late date (some might say they were so still), and have never, we
+conceive, been really civilized. Few books were made there before the
+fourteenth century, and I know of no good libraries that existed there
+in the medieval period. A good part of the contents of one at Elbing,
+near Dantzic, came somehow to Cambridge (Corpus Christi) in the
+seventeenth century; it is a dreary collection, mostly on paper, of
+scholastic theology, sermons, meditations, and a little medicine.
+
+In Austria the abbeys were let alone till 1918. Such houses as Melk on
+the Danube, St. Florian, St. Paul in Carinthia, Admont in Styria, still
+owned their estates, their revenues, and their libraries. That of Melk
+is noticeable, and at St. Paul is, oddly enough, one of the very
+earliest Irish vernacular MSS. I believe it came thither in fairly
+recent times from St. Blasien in the Black Forest. But, on the whole,
+these places were too remote from the main stream to accumulate many
+treasures of the very first quality.
+
+
+LATIN MSS. IN ENGLAND
+
+Let me now turn to England, and treat in greater detail of the monastic
+and cathedral libraries there, and what happened to them. The
+Dissolution, as we know, occurred here near on 400 years ago, which
+makes the task of tracing the books at once harder and more fascinating
+than in the case of France or Germany, where a whole library may be
+found practically intact in a town near its old home. Of course, what
+was done there ought to have been done here. Leland, the King's
+antiquary, the abusive Protestant, John Bale, and the foolish but
+learned Dr. John Dee, begged that it might be done. Yet, whatever Henry
+VIII's or Mary's or Elizabeth's intentions may have been at times as to
+the foundation of a "solempne library" where the ancient books of the
+realm might be stored, they got but a very little way. Leland did secure
+some MSS. for the Royal Library, perhaps most from Rochester, but upon
+the whole the work was left in Elizabeth's days to individual
+enthusiasts--Sir Robert Cotton, Archbishop Parker, and Dee and Bale
+themselves. Others who did good work were Henry Fitzalan, Earl of
+Arundel; Lord William Howard; Long Harry Savile of Bank; Laurence
+Nowell, who rescued Anglo-Saxon books; Nicholas Brigam, who was
+interested in English literature and built Chaucer's tomb in the Abbey;
+the Theyers of Brockworth, near Gloucester. These are names to some of
+which we shall return; it would be well at this moment to take a few
+libraries one by one and see what can be said of them.
+
+
+CATALOGUES OF MSS.
+
+But, first, what are our means for pursuing such an investigation? We
+are best off if we have a catalogue of our abbey library, and preferably
+a late one; for in that case not only will the library be at its
+fullest, but probably the cataloguer will have set down, after the title
+of each book, the first words of its second leaf. Does this need
+explanation? Perhaps. In MSS., unlike printed books, the first words of
+the second leaf will be different in any two copies, say, of the Bible;
+the scribes did not make a page for page or line for line copy of their
+archetype--in fact, they may probably have avoided doing so purposely.
+By the help of such a catalogue we can search through collections of
+MSS., noting the second leaves in each case, and, it may be, identifying
+a considerable number of books. It is a laborious but an interesting
+process.
+
+But, alas! such catalogues are very few; we have them for Durham, St.
+Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury (and partly also for Christchurch), St.
+Paul's Cathedral, Exeter Cathedral, Dover Priory, the Austin Friars of
+York (all now in print), and for not many more.
+
+Next best it is to have a catalogue enumerating the contents of each
+volume; and next, and commonest, one which gives usually but a single
+title to each. Among the most useful I reckon those of Christchurch,
+Canterbury, Peterborough (an anomalous one), Glastonbury, Bury St.
+Edmunds, Rochester, Dover, Lincoln, Leicester Abbey (not yet printed in
+full), Ramsey, Rievaulx, Lanthony-by-Gloucester, Titchfield. There are a
+good many short catalogues for smaller houses, written on the fly-leaves
+of books, which do not, as a rule, help us much. The list of monastic
+catalogues, however, is dreadfully defective. We have none for St.
+Albans or Norwich or Crowland or Westminster, for Gloucester or
+Worcester, St. Mary's, York, or Fountains. What do we do in such cases?
+
+
+THE EVIDENCE OF MSS. THEMSELVES
+
+We have to depend, of course, on the evidence of the MSS. themselves. It
+was happily a common practice to write on the fly-leaf or first leaf
+_Liber (Sancte Marie) de (tali loco)_. This is decisive. Then, again,
+some libraries devised a system of press-marks, such as "N. lxviii.,"
+let us say. You find this in conjunction with the inscription of
+ownership; it is a Norwich book, you discover, that you have in hand,
+and all books showing press-marks of that form are consequently Norwich
+books too. Or you will find the name of a donor. "This book was the gift
+of John Danyell, Prior." Search in Dugdale's _Monasticon_ will reveal,
+perhaps, that John Danyell was Prior of St. Augustine's, Bristol, in
+1459. A clue to locality will often be given in such a case by the
+monk's surname, for it was their custom to call themselves by the name
+of their native village. Thus, a monk named John Melford or William
+Livermere will be a Suffolk man, and the abbey in which he was professed
+is likely to be Bury. Coming to later times, it is apparent that at the
+Dissolution groups of books from a single abbey came into the hands of a
+single man. If I find Dakcombe on the fly-leaf of a MS., I am almost
+entitled to assume that it is a Winchester book: John Stonor got his
+books from Reading Abbey, John Young drew from Fountains, and so forth.
+Lastly, and most rarely, you are justified in saying that the
+handwriting and decoration of this or that book shows it to have been
+written at St. Albans or at Canterbury. Hitherto the instances where
+this is possible are few, but I do not doubt that multiplication of
+observations will add to their number.
+
+In questioning a MS. for any of these indications (except the last) you
+must be on the look-out for signs of erasures, especially on the margins
+of the first leaf and on the fly-leaves at either end. Here the owner's
+name was usually written. Often it was accompanied by a curse on the
+wrongful possessor, and at the Dissolution there were many wrongful
+possessors, who, whether disliking the curse or anticipating trouble
+from possible buyers, thought it well to erase name, and curse, and all.
+They seldom did it so thoroughly that the surface of the vellum does not
+betray where it was, and it can be revived by the dabbing (_not_
+painting) upon it of ammonium bisulphide, which, unlike the
+old-fashioned galls, does not stain the page. Dabbed on the surface with
+a soft paint-brush, and dried off at once with clean blotting paper, it
+makes the old record leap to light, sometimes with astonishing
+clearness, sometimes slowly, so that the letters cannot be read till
+next day. It is not always successful; it is of no use to apply it to
+writing in red, and its smell is overpowering, but it is the elixir of
+palaeographers.
+
+Yet, when all has been done, there is a sadly large percentage of MSS.
+which preserve an obstinate silence. They have been rebound (that is
+common), and have lost their fly-leaves in the process, or, worse than
+that, they have lain tossing about without a binding and their first and
+last quires have dropped away. In such cases we can only tell, from our
+previous experience in ancient handwritings, the date and country of
+their origin.
+
+
+ENGLISH LIBRARIES
+
+And now to turn to some individual libraries. Some of the most venerable
+have practically disappeared--that of Glastonbury, for instance, the
+premier abbey of England, the only one which lived through from British
+to Saxon times.[C] To it we might reasonably look to trace many an
+ancient book belonging to the days of the old British Church. Leland,
+who visited the library not long before the Dissolution, represents
+himself as overawed by its antiquity. But almost the only record he
+quotes is one by "Melkinus," which most modern writers think was a late
+forgery. However, there is in the Bodleian one British book from
+Glastonbury, written, at least in part, in Cornwall, and preserving
+remnants of the learning of the British clergy. It has portions of Ovid
+and of Latin grammar, and passages of the Bible in Greek and Latin. The
+catalogue, too, shows that there were in fact a good number of old MSS.,
+and also that the monks of the fourteenth century did not care much
+about them, for they are marked as "Old and useless," "Old and in bad
+condition" (_debilis_), and so on. The actual extant books which we can
+trace to this foundation are few and for the most part late.
+
+St. Albans, founded by King Offa in the eighth century, has left us, as
+I said, no catalogue, but there are many of its books in our libraries.
+Two groups of them stand out. First are those procured by Abbot Simon
+(1166-1188) and Prior Mathias. These are very finely written. A typical
+and very interesting specimen is a Bible at Eton (26) which has three
+columns to a page--a rare distinction in the twelfth century, pointing,
+perhaps, to its having been copied from a very early and venerable
+model. It has a sister book at Corpus Christi, Cambridge, and another--a
+New Testament--at Trinity College, Dublin. Then we have a large and
+important group of histories. The historiographers of St. Albans form a
+series reaching from Roger of Wendover (d. 1236) to Thomas Walsingham
+(d. 1422). The greatest of them was Matthew Paris (d. 1259). We have
+authentic and even autograph copies of many of these works, and
+especially of Paris's (at Corpus Christi, Cambridge (26 and 16), and in
+the British Museum, Royal 14, C. vii., Cotton Nero D. 1, etc.). And we
+have not only Paris's writing, but many of his drawings, for he was an
+accomplished artist. All these books furnish us with material for
+judging of the handwriting used at St. Albans in the twelfth and
+thirteenth centuries, and we can speak with fair confidence of St.
+Albans books of that period.
+
+As in other cases, I believe that many books were written there for
+other monasteries, either as gifts or as a matter of business. Not every
+one of the little priories scattered all over the country had its own
+scriptorium; it was only natural that they should apply to the big
+establishments when they wanted a Bible or service-book or commentary of
+really good quality. This practice explains the fact that we quite often
+find books which we could make oath are products of St. Albans or of
+Canterbury, and which yet have inscriptions, written when they were new
+books, showing that they were owned by some small house. Let me here
+note two other ways in which books wandered from the great abbeys.
+_One_: all the abbey libraries were full of duplicates; read any
+catalogue, and you will realize that. When the Orders of Friars were
+collecting libraries of their own, and when the colleges in the two
+Universities were doing the same, they found that the monks were often
+willing to part with one of their eight or nine sets of Gregory's
+_Moralia_ or Augustine _On the Trinity_ for a consideration. _Two_: most
+of the large abbeys maintained hostels at the Universities, singly or
+jointly, in which some of their younger members studied for degrees.
+These hostels were equipped with libraries, and the libraries were
+furnished from the shelves of the mother-houses. We have at least two
+lists of books so used: one of those which Durham sent to what is now
+Trinity College, Oxford; the other of those which Christchurch,
+Canterbury, deported to Canterbury College, Oxford, which stood on the
+site of Canterbury Quad, in Christ Church.
+
+There was some compensation, by the way: the abbeys were not invariably
+the losers. A group of books (at Lambeth) was procured to be written by
+a Canon of Lanthony when he was studying at Oxford (about 1415), and
+given to the library of his priory.
+
+We have digressed from the particular to the general. Returning to
+individual libraries, let us glance at the Norwich Cathedral Priory. Of
+this, again, we have no catalogue; it is a case in which press-marks and
+names of owners are our guides. Norwich has a system of press-marks
+consisting of a letter of the alphabet plus a Roman numeral: "N.
+lxviii." The press-marks of several other houses consist of just the
+same elements, but we can pick out that of Norwich by its size (not
+large) and its position (top of the first leaf of text); also there is
+usually added to it the name of the monk who procured it for the house,
+Henry de Lakenham or W. Catton--someone whose surname is the name of a
+Norfolk village. Over a hundred MSS. from Norwich are known to me, but
+they are a very small fraction of the library, as is shown by the
+numerals attached to the several class letters. Very few of them are as
+old as the twelfth century; late twelfth and particularly early
+fourteenth make up the bulk. I attribute this to the great fire of 1286,
+and I take it that then the greater part of the priory books were
+spoiled, and that energetic steps to refill the library were taken in
+the years that followed. There are more Norwich books in the University
+Library at Cambridge than anywhere else; it has not been proved, but I
+do not much doubt, that most of them were given by the chapter to
+Cambridge about 1574, at the suggestion of Dr. Andrew Perne, Master of
+Peterhouse, who was a member of the cathedral body and an enthusiast for
+the University Library.
+
+Not very dissimilar was the action of Exeter Chapter, who in 1602 gave
+over eighty of their MSS. to Sir Thomas Bodley's new library in Oxford,
+Bodley's brother being then a Canon of Exeter; and not long after the
+Canons of Worcester picked out a score of their MSS., for Dean
+Williams's new library at Westminster Abbey. These, however, I believe
+were never actually sent off. It is just as well, for the Westminster
+MSS. were burnt in 1694. Of Bury St. Edmunds I have attempted to write
+the history elsewhere, but it is not likely that many readers of this
+book will be familiar with my former publication. The only catalogue we
+have for this abbey is an early one (eleventh to twelfth century)
+written on the fly-leaves of a copy of Genesis (glossed) at Pembroke
+College, Cambridge. Thus it contains no fourteenth or fifteenth century
+books, nor, indeed, has it many entries of extant books of earlier date
+which we are sure belonged to Bury; but it is not to be despised, though
+we depend more upon press-marks than upon it for guidance. Bury
+press-marks were an introduction of the late fourteenth or early
+fifteenth century. Soon after 1400 Abbot Curteys built a library, and it
+was under the care of the monk, John Boston, who, I think, is
+responsible for the press-marks, as he certainly is for the copious
+bibliographical notices which occurred in some of the books. The
+press-marks consist of a capital letter and an _arabic_ numeral (A.
+130). Here, again, one has to be familiar with the handwriting of the
+marks and their position (top of first leaf and fly-leaf) in order to
+distinguish them from those of Exeter (often on last fly-leaf and large)
+or of the Hereford Franciscans (large, on first fly-leaf). However, in
+most cases they are backed up by the older inscription _Liber S. AEdmundi
+regis et martiris_. Bury library has, on the whole, fared well; an
+Alderman of Ipswich, William Smart, procured over 100 of its MSS., which
+he gave to Pembroke College, Cambridge, in 1599, and about 150 others
+are scattered up and down the country. One Bury book of extreme
+interest--not a library book, but a register--was taken across the
+Channel in the sixteenth century by a Bury monk to the settlement of
+the Benedictine refugees at Douai. Since the Revolution it has been
+(_perhaps_ still is) in the town library there. Its importance is that
+it contains a list of the benefactors of the abbey, and among other
+things records the burial-places of the Abbots, including the famous
+Samson. In recent years it has guided excavators to the discovery of his
+bones. With it is a Psalter of extraordinary beauty, one of a group of
+marvellous books done in East Anglia--some say at Gorleston--soon after
+1300. I grieve to hear that it has been severely damaged by damp. It has
+in it the name of an Abbot, John, who, I wish to believe, was of Bury,
+but doubt is thrown on this.
+
+
+ENGLISH MSS. ON THE CONTINENT
+
+A digression is allowable here as to English books that have passed to
+the Continent. According to Bale and Dee, there was a great expatriation
+of them at the Dissolution. In Archbishop Parker's correspondence there
+is talk of the negotiations of a German scholar, Flacius Illyricus, who
+wanted to buy Bale's MSS. after his death. At an earlier time Poggio
+visited England in the hope of unearthing classical authors, but writes
+as if he had been unsuccessful. Then, again, Sigismund Gelenius in 1550
+edits at Basel treatises of Tertullian from a MS. belonging to the Abbey
+of "Masbury" (which I take to be Malmesbury), lent to him by Leland.
+More instances could no doubt be collected, but not, I think, very many
+more. When we come to enquire what English books are to be found now in
+Continental libraries, the results are not very impressive. I exclude
+the very early exportations, some of which have been mentioned, and
+confine myself to the books which were taken over at and after the
+Dissolution. There is a Bury Psalter with drawings at the Vatican, a St.
+Albans Psalter at Hildesheim, a fine Book of Hours at Nuremberg, a
+Winchester Pontifical at Rouen, a Sherborne Book at Paris, a Ramsey
+Psalter at an Austrian abbey, another English Psalter at the Escurial.
+The Canterbury _Codex Aureus_ is at Stockholm. The famous Utrecht
+Psalter, written, perhaps, in the Rheims district, strayed from the
+Cotton collection to its present home in Holland, we do not know how.
+All these, and some other remarkable illuminated books that could be
+named (I ought not to omit a Peterborough Psalter at Brussels), are not
+library books, but rather properties of great ecclesiastics or nobles.
+The largest collections have never yet been thoroughly searched. I
+myself have made many enquiries and some examinations with small result.
+One case there is, however, brought to light by the late Rev. H. M.
+Bannister, which gives hope of better things when a systematic search is
+carried out. He found that in the Vatican Library there are quite a
+large number of MSS. from the libraries of the Friars at Cambridge. They
+are late and not very important books, but no matter for that: the point
+is that they are there. Other instances known to me are--one at least of
+Sir Kenelm Digby's MSS. and one of Lord Burleigh's (a fourteenth-century
+volume of English historians) at Paris; the Greek Demosthenes already
+noticed at Leyden, and a MS. from Pembroke College (Seneca), also there.
+The Vossian collection at the same place has other books which I suspect
+were once in England; most notable is its Suidas, which is said by M.
+Bidez to be the parent of the English copies I mentioned, and which I
+think must be Grosseteste's own copy. This, however, is a Greek MS. A
+volume containing poems of Milo of St. Amand is most likely a Canterbury
+book. But the early books in Irish script, of which there are several,
+were probably written on the Continent.
+
+At Wolfenbuettel is a "Wycliffe" Bible, large and handsome, which
+belonged to Lord Lumley (d. 1609), and also a copy of Gervase of Tilbury
+(that from which the text was first printed by Leibnitz) from the
+library of St. Augustine of Canterbury. There, too, are many MSS.
+collected by Flacius Illyricus, who made purchases in England. He
+printed many of the rhyming Latin poems attributed to Walter Map; for a
+good many his edition is the only authority, his MSS. having
+disappeared. I had hoped to find some of them at Wolfenbuettel, but they
+do not seem to be there. What I did find was a small group of MSS. from
+St. Andrews in Scotland, containing rhyming poems set to music; they are
+books of the thirteenth century, well written and decorated. Scotch
+monastic MSS. are of rare occurrence. There are few enough in Scotland
+itself, not many in England, and, of course, still fewer anywhere else.
+At Upsala is a book written by Clement Maydestone of Sion for Wadstena,
+the Swedish mother-house of the Brigittine Order to which he belonged.
+
+There were probably some English books at Turin, which was a mixed
+collection, but the fire of 1904 has made away with them. The old
+catalogue by Pasini notices at least one service-book with English
+saints. But it is time to bring this excursus to an end. Let me only add
+that the most famous English book on the Continent--the Vercelli MS. of
+Anglo-Saxon poems and homilies--seems to have been where it is now since
+the thirteenth or fourteenth century.
+
+
+REMAINS OF MEDIEVAL LIBRARIES
+
+Once again we return to these shores, and now we will enquire what
+medieval libraries, besides those we have glanced at, have left really
+considerable remains. Some few have kept their books _in situ_--the
+monastic cathedrals of Durham and Worcester best of all; each has some
+hundreds of MSS. The secular cathedrals, Lincoln, Hereford, Salisbury,
+come next. Rochester has nothing on the spot, but a great many MSS. in
+the old Royal Library in the British Museum. The two great libraries of
+Canterbury (Christchurch and St. Augustine's) are well represented, but
+their books are much scattered. Winchester, York, Exeter, have few but
+precious books.
+
+There are important MSS. from Thorney at the Advocates Library,
+Edinburgh; from St. Mary's York, at Dublin; not a few from Cirencester
+at Jesus College, Oxford, and at Hereford; St. John's, Oxford, has many
+from Reading and from Southwick (Hants). There must, I am sure, be many
+Peterborough books to be found, but they are rarely marked as such, and
+the character of the catalogue makes identification very hard.
+
+Of all minor libraries, that of Lanthony, near Gloucester, has, I
+believe, been best preserved. A great block of it was retained by the
+last Prior of the house, John Hart, who retired to a country house near
+by, and whose sister married a man of good position, Theyer, in the
+neighbourhood. He kept the books together, and had descendants who
+valued them and added largely to their number. At the end of the
+sixteenth century Archbishop Bancroft conceived the idea of founding a
+library at Lambeth for his successors, and he seems to have bought
+about 150 Lanthony MSS. from Theyer,[D] which are now at Lambeth. Other
+Lanthony books are at Trinity and Corpus Christi, Oxford. A
+fourteenth-century catalogue of the books among the Harley MSS. shows
+that we possess at least a third of the whole collection.
+
+Examples of the press-marks used by the various houses have been
+collected by the New Palaeographical Society, and may be seen in their
+publications. They are, of course, most useful in cases where the
+inscription of ownership has not been inserted or has disappeared. The
+second case may be that of any book; the first is common to the
+Canterbury libraries, to Dover, the London Dominicans, St. Mary's York,
+Fountains, Titchfield, Ely. To the press-marks figured by the Society
+more will doubtless be added. I can instance one, that of the
+Franciscans of Lincoln, which is of this form: [Illustration: Symbol].
+
+
+DISAPPEARANCE OF CLASSICAL AND OTHER MSS.
+
+Passing over the painful subject of the wholesale destruction of MSS.
+which must have followed the Dissolution, I will give a few lines to an
+interesting question little mooted as yet. Is there evidence that
+England possessed many ancient writings which have since disappeared, or
+which have survived only in a few copies in other parts of Europe? Take
+the classics first. Poggio, as I have said, writes in a disappointed
+tone of his researches here, but these were neither long nor exhaustive.
+We have better testimony from John of Salisbury, who in the twelfth
+century quotes parts of the _Saturnalia_ of Macrobius which have dropped
+out of all the MSS. we now have. He also read a tract attributed to
+Plutarch, called the _Instruction of Trajan_; it was probably not by
+Plutarch, but it was an ancient work, and is now lost. Petronius Arbiter
+was known to him, even that longest and most interesting piece of
+Petronius called the _Supper of Trimalchio_, for which our only
+authority is the late paper MS. at Paris that was found in Dalmatia in
+the seventeenth century. But no medieval English scholar can be shown to
+have read Tacitus, or the lost parts of Livy, or Catullus, Tibullus,
+Propertius, or others of the rarer Latin authors. Next for Christian
+antiquity. The Vercelli MS. gives a poetical version in Anglo-Saxon of
+the Acts of St. Andrew in the land of the Anthropophagi which have
+ceased to exist in Latin (so, too, AElfric knew, and rejected, a poem on
+the adventures of St. Thomas in India). In one of its Homilies the same
+Vercelli MS. presents us with a translation of the Apocalypse of St.
+Thomas, a book of which until recently only the name was known. Two
+early MSS. contain short quotations in Latin from Cosmas Indicopleustes,
+a traveller of Justinian's time whose work remains only in a few
+copies, and is in Greek. Another has a fragment of the lost _Book of
+Jannes and Jambres_; another a chapter of the _Book of Enoch_, valuable
+as one of our few indications that a Latin version of it was current.
+John of Salisbury quotes a story about St. Paul which seems to come from
+the ancient apocryphal Acts of that Apostle. First on the list (twelfth
+century) of the library of Lincoln Minster (but lined through as if
+subsequently lost) is a title _Proverbia Grecorum_. What this book was
+is obscure; probably it was a translation from Greek by an Irish
+scholar. It is quoted extensively by Sedulius, the Irishman, and also in
+a collection of treatises by an unknown York writer (the Germans call
+him the _Yorker anonymus_) of the eleventh to twelfth centuries. The
+work of Irenaeus _Against Heresies_ (we only have it complete in Latin)
+was always rare, but there were at least two copies of it in England,
+one in the Carmelites' Library at Oxford, the other given by Archbishop
+Mepham to Christchurch, Canterbury. The latter, I believe, we still have
+in the Arundel collection in the British Museum. The MS. of Tertullian
+which Gelenius got from England is gone, and our knowledge of the
+treatise _On Baptism_ which it contained depends wholly on his printed
+text.
+
+I cannot doubt that among the books imported in the seventh century from
+Italy by Benedict Biscop and Theodore and Hadrian, and in the great
+library of York, which Alcuin panegyrizes in his poem on the saints of
+York, there were texts now lost. But the Danes made a clean sweep of all
+those treasures, as they did of the whole vernacular literature of
+Northumbria, undoubtedly a rich one. The scattered indications I have
+collected in the preceding paragraphs point to the fact that some
+strange and rare books did lurk here and there in English libraries. It
+is almost a relief that catalogues do not tell us of supremely desirable
+things, such as Papias on the Oracles of the Lord, or the complete
+Histories or Annals of Tacitus.
+
+Another word on a topic akin to the last. I have said more than once
+that the men of the later Middle Ages did not value early books as such;
+they were difficult to read, and often in bad condition. At first they
+were apt to be made into palimpsests; but when good new parchment became
+abundant and comparatively cheap, this practice was dropped. I
+conjecture that there is no important palimpsest whose upper writing is
+later than the eleventh century. The fate of the early books is rather
+obscure to me, but I see that bits of them were not uncommonly used for
+lining covers and fly-leaves for MSS. of the thirteenth to fifteenth
+centuries, and perhaps still oftener as wrappers for documents. Binders
+of the sixteenth century, and especially those who lived after the
+Dissolution, used up service-books and scholastic theology and Canon law
+to a vast extent, but early books not so lavishly. There are cases in
+which one is left doubtful as to whether the binder or his employer did
+not insert the old leaves with the definite wish to preserve them. I
+think of the leaves of a Gospel book bound at the end of the Utrecht
+Psalter, of a fragment of another fine Gospels in an Arundel MS. at the
+College of Arms, of some splendid Canons of the Gospels in the Royal MS.
+7. C. xii; but in the cases that follow I think that accident and not
+design has been at work, viz.: the fragments of several venerable
+volumes at Worcester, admirably edited of late by Mr. C. H. Turner; the
+leaves of a great sixth-century Bible found by Mr. W. H. Stevenson
+wrapping up Lord Middleton's documents at Wollaton; uncial fragments of
+Eucherius in the Cambridge University Library; other uncial leaves at
+Winchester College; bits of AElfric's Grammar at All Souls'; of a
+Gallican Missal at Gonville and Caius; of an early Orosius (from
+Stavelot) in the British Museum and elsewhere; of an Orosius and
+Fortunatus at Pembroke College, Cambridge; and so on. My examples are
+set down almost at random.
+
+
+COLLECTORS OF BOOKS
+
+We pass now from the monastic circle to that of the learned book
+collectors before and after the Dissolution. Many of the best medieval
+book-buyers were Abbots or Priors, and the history of their collections
+is merged in that of their abbeys. Leaving them aside, we find in
+fourteenth-century England one name which everyone has heard--that of
+Richard de Bury, Bishop of Durham, and author of the _Philobiblion_. I
+am inclined to think that he was a humbug; his book is of the kind that
+it is proper to translate, print on hand-made paper, and bind in a
+vellum wrapper, but it tells us just nothing of what books De Bury had
+or read, and I could not point to a single work of any importance which
+he was instrumental in bringing to light or preserving. Persons who take
+pains to advertise themselves as book-lovers or bibliomaniacs are rarely
+those who render great services to literature.
+
+Perhaps the libraries of the pre-Reformation colleges of Oxford and
+Cambridge are the best hunting-grounds for traces of the early
+collectors. At Peterhouse, Cambridge is a large bequest from John
+Warkworth, Master late in the fifteenth century; another from J.
+Dyngley, Fellow, whose books were written expressly for him; yet another
+from H. Deynman, Master, who was interested in medicine. Here, too, we
+come upon the tracks of Roger Marchall, who must rank, on the whole, as
+a student of natural science. Books with his name and his carefully
+written tables of contents are at Peterhouse, Gonville and Caius,
+Lambeth, the British Museum, King's College; one at Magdalene College
+(Pepys Library) came thither from Peterhouse via Dr. John Dee. Walter
+Crome was another fifteenth-century benefactor of the University Library
+and of Gonville Hall, who, like Dyngley, had books written to his
+order. These are Cambridge _data_. Just such another list could be made
+out for some Oxford colleges, particularly Merton, Balliol, and New
+College. In this Bishops William Rede of Chichester, and John Trillek of
+Hereford, and William Gray of Ely, would figure prominently. The mention
+of this last name will serve as a pretext for introducing the
+Renaissance scholars. Gray, we saw, was one of those who dealt with
+Vespasiano Bisticci of Florence, though not nearly all of the many MSS.
+of his giving which are at Balliol are Italian-written; a good number
+are by Flemish and German scribes. The other men to whom I alluded in
+the same connection were for the most part benefactors of Oxford. John
+Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester, beheaded in 1470 for treason, promised a
+large gift of books to the University, but they never reached it, nor do
+I know a single MS. to-day that was Tiptoft's property, though there can
+be no doubt that he was a considerable book-buyer. Humphrey, Duke of
+Gloucester (whom we are now forbidden to call "the Good"), did give the
+University what was then a large library; his name is inseparably
+associated with the great room of the Bodleian, but his books were swept
+away in Edward VI.'s days. Some few have come back to their old home,
+and others are in London and in Paris: twenty-nine is said to be the
+total. He intended further gifts, but he was cut off in 1444, and it is
+thought that one collection, perhaps his travelling library, was
+diverted to King's College, Cambridge. It is certain that soon after
+1450 that college possessed some 174 MSS., among which such titles as
+Plato's _Republic_ in Latin and a Greek-English dictionary betray a
+humanistic influence which is not likely to have been that of our
+founder, Henry VI. Moreover, the only one of those MSS. that remains is
+a Latin version of some orations of St. Athanasius, made by a secretary
+of the Duke, and dedicated _to_ the Duke; and in the British Museum is
+another volume of Athanasius translated by the same man, which actually
+has Duke Humphrey's inscription in it. This is respectable evidence in
+support of the King's College story.
+
+William Flemming, Dean of Lincoln, and founder of Lincoln College,
+Oxford, gave a number of books to that society which show him to have
+been interested in the revival of learning; Greek MSS. are among them.
+
+John Gunthorpe, Dean of Wells (d. 1498), is said by Leland to have
+bequeathed the large collection he brought from Italy to Jesus College,
+Cambridge. It is scattered and gone from there, but books of Gunthorpe's
+survive in a good many libraries. One deserves special mention--a Latin
+prose version of the Odyssey, which he picked up (not in Italy, though
+it is an Italian book, but at Westminster) in 1475. Probably it was the
+first copy of the Odyssey in any form that had come to this country
+since Roman times, unless, indeed, Archbishop Theodore brought one over
+in the seventh century. Archbishop Parker thought that he had, and the
+MS. which he fondly believed to be Theodore's was in his view the pearl
+of the collection he left to Corpus Christi. Certainly it has the name
+_Theodorus_ in it in letters of gold; but, as certainly, it is a
+fifteenth-century book, and the Theodore for whom it was written was I
+believe Theodore Gaza, a humanist who lived in Italy.
+
+An instance of a man interested in books and not unaffected by the
+Renaissance, though not himself a collector, may be introduced here.
+William Wyrcestre (or Botoner, or Worcester) is the man, and he deserves
+a special study. Some have called him the father of English antiquaries,
+in virtue of one of his notebooks which has been preserved, and which
+contains jottings about his travels in England; it is a sort of rude
+elementary Leland's _Itinerary_. It is by no means the only book of his
+compiling, nor the only one owned by him that we have. There are
+historical and literary collections of his, and not a few MSS. with his
+name in them. He knew John Free, the translator (reputed) of Diodorus
+Siculus, and he had read Cristoforo Buondelmonte's book on the islands
+of the Greek archipelago.
+
+A long list of the Elizabethan book-collectors could be made, but I
+shall not attempt one here. Two libraries of the time, Sir Robert
+Cotton's and Archbishop Parker's, stand out. The main object of both men
+was to preserve English antiquities, and it is no exaggeration to say
+that if these two collections, which together number less than 1,500
+volumes, had been wiped out, the best things in our vernacular
+literature and the pick of our chronicles would be unknown to us now. We
+should have no _Beowulf_ or _Judith_, only inferior copies of the
+Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and of Matthew Paris, no Layamon, no _Pearl_--not
+to speak of the mass of invaluable State-papers gathered by Cotton, and
+the Reformation documents and letters stored up by Parker. One touch of
+blame rests on Sir Robert Cotton. He had a vicious habit of breaking up
+MSS. and binding together sections from different volumes. This
+disguises the provenance of the books, and by consequence obscures the
+history of their contents.
+
+Enough information about the Cotton and Parker MSS. is easily accessible
+to absolve me from writing much about them here. Less is generally known
+of two dispersed collections, those of John Bale and John Dee.
+
+Bale must, I fear, have been an unamiable man--certainly a very queer
+Christian. But his controversial works, on which he doubtless prided
+himself most, are dead and very rotten, while those devoted to the more
+peaceful science of bibliography are of abiding value. In his larger
+one, _Scriptorum Britannicorum Centuriae_, he inserts a list of the MSS.
+he had once owned; they were no longer in his hands, but, it is to be
+supposed, in Ireland, left there when he fled from his bishopric of
+Ossory on Mary's accession. It is not a very scientific list, not one
+that gives the contents of each volume, but merely names of treatises,
+groups of which no doubt went to make up volumes, and this makes it
+difficult to determine how much of his library is in existence now.
+After his death it was in England, and a syndicate of Germans,
+including, as was said above, Flacius Illyricus, were negotiating for
+the purchase of it. Archbishop Parker also had an eye upon it; he had
+received books as gifts or loans from Bale in former years. I have not
+been able to make sure whether any of the books did actually go to the
+Continent; I doubt it, in fact. Many distinguished by Bale's curious
+small, "flat" handwriting are traceable among Cotton's and Parker's
+books, at Lambeth, at Cambridge, and doubtless also at Oxford (where
+there is at least the MS. of his _Index Scriptorum_, admirably edited by
+Mr. R. L. Poole and Miss Bateson). Bale was a Carmelite in his youth and
+interested in the history of his Order, and there is an _a priori_
+probability that any book dealing with Carmelite affairs will contain
+marks of his ownership.
+
+Dr. John Dee's history has often been written, and the catalogue of the
+MSS. he owned has long been in print in a Camden society volume (_Diary
+of Dr. John Dee_) edited by Halliwell. The main facts of his life that
+concern us are that he lived at Mortlake, and in 1584 went on a wild
+journey to Poland. In his absence his house and collections were
+plundered by a mob, who, not without excuse, thought him a warlock. When
+he returned in 1589 he set himself to recover his scattered property,
+and to a great extent succeeded. He moved from Mortlake to Manchester,
+being made Warden of the college there in 1595; later on he returned,
+and died at Mortlake, much in debt, I think, in 1608. I find from
+Archbishop Ussher's printed correspondence that his books were still
+unsold in 1624; litigation may have prevented their being dealt with
+earlier. The lists we have of his MSS. date from before his foreign
+tour; that which is in print was made on the eve of his departure, and
+contains a little over 200 entries.
+
+After the vicissitudes which his collection suffered it is remarkable
+that one should still be able to identify as extant well over half of
+it. I have been helped in my searches by certain marks--a little ladder,
+or the astrological sign of Jupiter, or a [Greek: Delta]--which occur on
+the first page of many. His handwriting, too, in notes, and certain
+names of owners (particularly P. Saunders) are guides. Some of his MSS.
+were bought by Ussher, and are at Trinity College, Dublin, and a few
+were bought by Cotton. But the largest group of them is at Corpus
+Christi College, Oxford. These were acquired by the great Oxford
+antiquary, Brian Twyne, who hoped that his college would buy them from
+him, but this they would not do. Happily Twyne was not too much hurt by
+the refusal to leave them to the college at his death. I guess that one
+reason for his buying them was that some (perhaps many) of them had once
+belonged to his grandfather, John Twyne, a Canterbury man of some slight
+eminence, who in his turn had secured a considerable "lot" of MSS. from
+the library of St. Augustine's Abbey. In searching out the relics of
+that great library I found the combination, or pedigree, St.
+Augustine's--John Twyne--Dee--Brian Twyne--Corpus Christi, to be a
+frequent one, and this set me upon a general investigation of Dee's MSS.
+A little notebook of his at Corpus Christi showed that in early life he
+had borrowed a number of MSS. from Peterhouse and from Queen's College,
+Oxford. I did not find that these ever got back to their sources, but I
+do not think that Dee was dishonest in the matter; I believe he was
+allowed to keep them for some consideration received. Some of the
+Peterhouse books are traceable in the Ashmole collection, the Pepys
+Library, and the British Museum; of those of Queen's College I can say
+nothing. Dee was specially interested in mathematics, alchemy, and, as
+everyone knows, converse with spirits, but his library was not confined
+to books on these subjects; he had some excellent historical, literary,
+and theological MSS. One of them was the best copy of Alfred's
+translation of Orosius.
+
+Another library of the sixteenth century deserves to be singled out from
+the many which offer themselves for notice. It is that of Lord Lumley
+(d. 1609); he inherited the books from Henry Fitzalan, Earl of Arundel
+(d. 1580). This collection had again been largely recruited from that of
+Archbishop Cranmer: the combination T(homae) C(ranmeri)
+C(antuar)--Arundel--Lumley, is often found written on the lower margin
+of the first leaf of the MSS. concerned. These Arundel MSS., by the way,
+must not be confounded with the Arundel collection in the British
+Museum, nor with that remnant of the same collection which is owned by
+the College of Arms. The Arundel MSS., so-called, were collected largely
+by Lord William Howard (Belted Will) of Naworth, passed on to Thomas,
+Earl of Arundel (d. 1644), and devised by Henry Howard to the Royal
+Society, 1681; they were eventually transferred by the Society to the
+British Museum in 1831. The Arundel-Lumley books had a different
+destiny. Most of them also came to the Museum, but by another path. They
+were bought after Lumley's death by or for Prince Henry, eldest son of
+James I., and added to the Royal Library, and that became national
+property by the gift of George II. in 1757. We have a catalogue, made
+about 1609, of the whole library, which is among the Gale MSS. at
+Trinity College, Cambridge. It bears no name of owner, but is easily
+seen to be Lumley's. Not all the MSS. that we find bearing Lumley's name
+are in it, and not all the MSS. in it are in the old Royal Library. To
+the second class belong the English Bible at Wolfenbuettel, the Bible of
+Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester (a fine but plain book which is at
+Cheltenham in the Phillipps collection), and the Bosworth Psalter bought
+not long ago from a private owner by the British Museum. The first class
+is more numerous; about twenty MSS. at Lambeth alone have Lumley's name,
+but are not in his catalogue. I conjecture that they were presented by
+Lumley (who was a generous giver of printed books to the Universities)
+to Archbishop Bancroft when he was forming his collection.
+
+So one might go on through Ussher, Laud, Selden, Rawlinson, Harley,
+Askew, Drury, Heber, etc., to Sir Thomas Phillipps, whose 30,000 MSS.,
+good and bad, must be the largest mass of such things ever owned by a
+single collector. But I think I have said enough of the public and
+private accumulations of this country to give an adequate idea of the
+kind of results that attend research, and of the ways in which large
+blocks of MSS. have been handed on to us. The epoch of the sale-room I
+have not really touched; it demands special tools and a special
+historian, and it concerns individual books. Nor, I will confess, do I
+feel quite at ease in touching upon the private collections of the
+present day. There is less objection to surveying such things when they
+have passed as wholes into public institutions.
+
+For example, the MSS. collected by the Earl of Crawford and Balcarres
+were acquired in 1892 for the John Rylands Library at Manchester. The
+Latin section of these I have had occasion to examine. It consists of
+nearly 120 items. The earliest and most remarkable of these almost all
+own the pedigree of Libri-Bateman-Crawford. Of Libri enough has been
+said to make it necessary to note here that none of the Crawford MSS.
+owned by him were pilfered from French libraries. The library of Bateman
+of Youlgrave was dispersed in 1893; the Libri purchases in it are mostly
+traceable in the Libri sale catalogue of 1859. Three tenth-century
+Spanish MSS., two from the Abbey of S. Pedro de Cardena, one from Silos,
+happen, by an odd and lucky accident, to be elaborately described in
+Berganza's _Espana Sagrada_; how it was that exactly these books came
+into Libri's hands it is not likely that we shall discover. For the
+rest, Lord Crawford's purchases at the Howell Wills sale of 1894 were
+considerable in quantity, and he acquired three fine books at that of
+Ambroise Firmin Didot in 1878. Three others came from the Bollandist
+Fathers' Library at Brussels. One of these had for some years formed
+part of the very choice collection of the Fountaines at Narford, in
+Norfolk, scattered in 1894.
+
+Of less choice quality, but of extreme usefulness to the student, are
+the 200 MSS. bequeathed by Frank McClean in 1904 to the Fitzwilliam
+Museum at Cambridge, and collected by him in the ten or fifteen years
+before that. Here we have few coherent groups of books, unless we reckon
+as such a certain number of volumes from the Cistercian Abbey of
+Morimund in North Italy, acquired singly, perhaps, by Mr. McClean from
+Hoepli of Milan. The Phillipps sales account for a good many, the
+Barrois and Ashburnham Appendix (1901 and 1897) for a few more, but most
+of the books were picked up one by one in auction-rooms or from dealers'
+catalogues.
+
+In both these cases examples of illumination and calligraphy have been
+primary objects in the collectors' eyes, and that is the ruling passion
+with most of those who buy MSS. nowadays. At the beginning of the
+nineteenth century what was more coveted was the accumulation of copies
+of the classics. It had hardly been realized that few of the Renaissance
+classical MSS. made in Italy have independent textual value, and
+collectors like Askew, Drury, Canonici, Burney, thought that the more of
+them they had the better. Lord Fitzwilliam (d. 1816), who devoted
+himself to buying French Books of Hours for the sake of the pictures,
+was something of a pioneer (at least in England) in this respect.
+Francis Douce (d. 1834) was another; his treasures are in the Bodleian.
+As for Sir Thomas Phillipps, he must have bought by the cart-load:
+_Nihil manu scriptum a se alienum putabat_. In spite of the large amount
+of rubbish among his 30,000 odd volumes, I can never hear without a
+bitter pang the tale that the University of Oxford many years ago shied
+at his offer of them, accompanied as it was by some tiresome conditions;
+their fate has been gradual dispersion to every part of Europe and to
+America.
+
+I have said that I cannot embark here upon the history of sales of MSS.
+in the last hundred years. But my abstention, due to considerations of
+space, must not be imitated by my readers. Those who deal with modern
+collections or make collections of their own--a thing still possible for
+quite modest purses, in spite of the inflated prices which the great
+books command--are not absolved from the study of sale catalogues; that
+they will pay attention to book-plates, bindings, and names of owners, I
+need not repeat. The list of such catalogues issued by the British
+Museum they will find invaluable; the catalogues themselves, alike those
+of dealers and of sales, will often enable them to trace a particular
+MS. back through a whole century to some Italian palace or Flemish
+abbey, sold up or secularized under the stress of revolution. This
+period of MS. history has been less well worked than the earlier ones;
+it is but just ripening, in fact; but to anyone who is bitten with the
+passion for the books it will prove just as fascinating as the others.
+
+
+CURIOSITIES OF RESEARCH
+
+By way of conclusion let me come back from generalities to particulars,
+and attempt to kindle interest and stir the imagination by a few words
+on waifs and strays--the curiosities of MS. research. Some few leading
+instances have been mentioned, but in thinking over the collections I
+have examined and the documents I have had to copy or edit, others, less
+immediately showy, occur to my memory.
+
+What has become of the Red Book of Eye in Suffolk? It was a copy of the
+Gospels which St. Felix of Burgundy, the apostle of the East Angles,
+brought with him in the seventh century. It was after his death in a
+monastery at Dunwich. Then it passed to a little priory at Eye, where
+Leland saw it. After the Dissolution it remained with the Corporation of
+Eye--now extinct--and people took oaths upon it. It is traceable in the
+records down to a comparatively late date--within the nineteenth
+century. Can there be truth in the tale I have heard that it was sent
+for safe keeping to a mansion not far off, and there cut up for game
+labels? I cannot believe it.
+
+No doubt MSS. were cut up for game labels. I have seen--years ago--in a
+London shop one that had turned up in a billiard-room, and its blank
+margins had been many of them removed for that purpose. But there was a
+fashion equally reprehensible a hundred years ago of cutting out
+illuminations from MSS. and making scrap-books of them. It was
+especially common in the case of the great antiphoners and other huge
+service-books which stood on the lecterns in Italian churches. The
+remainder of the books went to the gold-beaters, perhaps (they used
+parchment, and in England bought MSS. sometimes to cut up), or to a like
+destination. Occasionally books so mutilated have been reconstituted. A
+leading example is that of a Josephus, illuminated in part by the great
+Tours artist Jean Foucquet. This the late King Edward VII. and Mr. H. Y.
+Thompson were able to combine in restoring. The King had a number of the
+pictures, cut out, in his library at Windsor; Mr. Thompson had the
+mutilated text and a pictured leaf or so. The fragments were brought
+together and presented to the Paris Library, which already possessed the
+first volume of the set.
+
+A miniature, cut, no one knows how long ago, from a fine twelfth-century
+Bible, was shaken out of a pile of printed copies of a funeral sermon at
+a country house. The book to which it belonged I believe to be one at
+Lambeth.
+
+In 1890 Mr. Samuel Sandars bought at a London sale a scrap-book
+containing two leaves of a beautiful and very early Book of Hours. He
+gave them to the Fitzwilliam Museum. In 1894 came the Fountaine sale,
+and then Mr. William Morris bought the MS. from which these leaves had
+come. An arrangement was made between him and the museum that he should
+possess the leaves, replaced in the book, for his life, and then the
+museum should acquire the whole at an agreed price. Alas! he did not
+live to enjoy the ownership of them long.
+
+To find, as the late Mr. Greenwell of Durham found, a leaf of a
+sixth-century Latin Bible from Wearmouth or Jarrow (or perhaps even from
+Cassiodorus's library) in a curiosity shop, is a chance that comes to
+few. But I have always lamented that I did not pass through the streets
+of Orleans at the time (not many years back) when an illustrated Greek
+MS. of the Gospels on purple vellum and in gold and silver uncials was
+exposed for sale in a shop window. A French officer had picked it up at
+Sinope, and used it to keep dried plants in. However, it went to its
+rightful and proper home, the Bibliotheque Nationale.
+
+It is getting on for thirty years now since a small parish library in
+Suffolk, founded in 1700, gave to the world the book of the Gospels
+owned by St. Margaret of Scotland (at Oxford), and the unique life of
+St. William, the boy martyr of Norwich, and Nicholas Roscarrock's
+Register of British Saints (both at Cambridge). Not as long since, in a
+private library in Italy, some leaves were found of the early MS. (from
+Hersfeld Abbey in Germany) of the minor writings of Tacitus from which
+all our extant fifteenth-century copies descend. Still more recently,
+among a collection of scraps of MSS., a half leaf of an eleventh or
+twelfth century MS. in Welsh was detected (a very great rarity); its
+generous finder (the late Mr. A. G. W. Murray, librarian of Trinity
+College) gave it to the Cambridge University Library, and thus added one
+more to the already remarkable collection of bits of early Welsh which
+Cambridge owns. It deals with the dry topic of finding Easter, but
+linguistically it is above price.
+
+And now for an example which shows the odd wanderings of _texts_. There
+is a volume at Vienna, from Bobbio, made up of palimpsest leaves from
+many MSS., Biblical and classical. Two of these, apparently from one
+book, stand next to each other. They have only recently been deciphered;
+they are in Latin uncials of the fifth century. One of them is from the
+Apocalypse of Thomas, a book named in an old list of Apocryphal
+writings, but thought until a few years ago to be hopelessly lost. We
+now know complete MSS. of it at Munich and a fragment at Verona, as well
+as an Anglo-Saxon version in the Vercelli MS. The other Vienna leaf is
+from an equally apocryphal "epistle of the Apostles," never mentioned by
+old writers, but seemingly of the second century. It gives a dialogue
+between our Lord and the Apostles after the Resurrection. About 1897 Dr.
+Carl Schmidt, a leading Coptic scholar, published an account of a Coptic
+MS. of the greater part of the book (the MS. is at Berlin, and some time
+will be edited); and about 1913 a French scholar, Abbe Guerrier,
+published a complete version of it from Ethiopic MSS. which had been in
+Europe for half a century. It is about the last book I should have
+expected to find in a Latin version, and current in Italy in the fifth
+century. The combination of Egypt and Abyssinia is common enough; but
+that Bobbio should be added to that, and Asia Minor and Greece omitted,
+is indeed a strange thing. Perhaps Africa was the parent of the Latin
+version.
+
+
+THE MORAL
+
+So texts and books wander, and so do discoveries sometimes lie near our
+hands. The moral is: Be inquisitive. See books for yourself; do not
+trust that the cataloguer has told you everything. I am a cataloguer
+myself, and I know that, try as he may, a worker of that class cannot
+hope to know or to see every detail that is of importance. The creature
+is human, and on some days his mind is less alert than on others. Nor is
+he interested in everything alike: an apocryphal fragment or an obscure
+saint will excite me, while a letter of St. Bernard which may be
+unpublished leaves me calm. But in spite of the imperfections of
+cataloguers, catalogues must be used, and they must be read and not only
+referred to. The mere juxtaposition of treatises in a volume will often
+reveal its provenance or its pedigree; besides, there is always the
+chance I have suggested, that the describer of any MS. may have failed
+through ignorance or want of attention to see that some article in it
+is of extreme interest and rarity. So it was that in reading Lambecius's
+(eighteenth-century) catalogue of the Greek MSS. at Vienna I noted down
+an entry that seemed unusual; and some years after, when I had an
+opportunity of getting a friend at Vienna to look at the tract in
+question, it was found to be the unique copy of the very most heretical
+(and therefore interesting) episode of the apocryphal Acts of St. John,
+written in the second century, and copied, to our lasting astonishment
+and perplexity, by some honest orthodox cleric in the fourteenth.
+
+May discoveries infinitely more pleasing fall to the lot of many of my
+patient readers!
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
+
+The student may consult the following works:
+
+        J. W. CLARK: The Care of Books. Cambridge, 1901.
+
+        E. A. SAVAGE: Old English Libraries. London, 1911.
+          Containing a useful bibliography.
+
+        M. R. JAMES: The Ancient Libraries of Canterbury
+          and Dover (Cambridge, 1903); the Abbey of St.
+          Edmund at Bury, (1895) and the Catalogues of the
+          MSS. of the Libraries at Eton and at Cambridge, by
+          the same author.
+
+        M. BATESON: Catalogue of the Library of Syon
+          Monastery, Isleworth. 1898.
+
+        List of Catalogues of English Book Sales,
+          1676-1906, now in the British Museum. London,
+          1915.
+
+        E. A. LOEW: The Beneventan Script. Oxford, 1914.
+
+        TH. GOTTLIEB: Ueber Mittelalterliche Bibliotheken.
+          Leipzig, 1890.
+
+        T. DUFFUS HARDY: Descriptive Catalogue of
+          Materials relating to the History of Great
+          Britain. Rolls Series, 1862-71.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+          BILLING AND SONS, LTD., PRINTERS, GUILDFORD, ENGLAND
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[A] Let not the 400 MSS. given by Coislin to the Abbey of St. Germain
+des Pres at Paris be quoted against me. They were the collection of a
+great noble, the Chancellor Seguier, and the library to which they were
+presented was practically a public one, whose permanence was seemingly
+assured.
+
+[B] _See_ Eubel, _Hierarchia Catholica Medii AEvi_, ii. 248.
+
+[C] We have its catalogue admirably reproduced by Thomas Hearne, at a
+time (early in the eighteenth century) when it was rare to find anyone
+who would take the trouble to make a faithful copy of such a record,
+with all its erasures and alterations.
+
+[D] Subsequently Theyer, as I said, went on collecting MSS., and finally
+Charles II. bought the whole lot for the Royal Library.
+
+
+
+
+
+HELPS FOR STUDENTS OF HISTORY.
+
+
+        =No. 1. EPISCOPAL REGISTERS OF ENGLAND AND WALES.=
+          By R. C. FOWLER, B.A., F.S.A. 6d. net.
+
+        =No. 2. MUNICIPAL RECORDS.= By F. J. C. HEARNSHAW,
+          M.A. 6d. net.
+
+        =No. 3. MEDIEVAL RECKONINGS OF TIME.= By REGINALD L.
+          POOLE, LL.D., Litt.D. 6d. net.
+
+        =No. 4. THE PUBLIC RECORD OFFICE.= By CHARLES
+          JOHNSON. 6d. net.
+
+        =No. 5. THE CARE OF DOCUMENTS.= By CHARLES JOHNSON.
+          6d. net.
+
+        =No. 6. THE LOGIC OF HISTORY.= By C. G. CRUMP. 8d.
+          net.
+
+        =No. 7. DOCUMENTS IN THE PUBLIC RECORD OFFICE,
+          DUBLIN.= By R. H. MURRAY, Litt.D. 8d. net.
+
+        =No. 8. THE FRENCH WARS OF RELIGION.= By ARTHUR A.
+          TILLEY, M.A. 6d. net.
+
+
+          _BY SIR A. W. WARD, Litt.D., F.B.A.:--_
+
+        =No. 9. THE PERIOD OF CONGRESSES, I. Introductory.=
+          8d. net.
+
+        =No. 10. THE PERIOD OF CONGRESSES, II.= Vienna and
+          the Second Peace of Paris, 1s. net.
+
+        =No. 11. THE PERIOD OF CONGRESSES, III.=
+          Aix-la-Chapelle to Verona. 1s. net. (Nos. 9, 10,
+          and 11 in one volume, cloth 3s. 6d. net.)
+
+        =No. 12. SECURITIES OF PEACE.= A Retrospect
+          (1848-1914). Paper 2s.; cloth 3s. net.
+
+        =No. 13. THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE.= By ARTHUR A.
+          TILLEY, M.A. 8d. net.
+
+        =No. 14. HINTS ON THE STUDY OF ENGLISH ECONOMIC
+          HISTORY.= By W. CUNNINGHAM, D.D., F.B.A., F.S.A.
+          8d. net.
+
+        =No. 15. PARISH HISTORY AND RECORDS.= By A.
+          HAMILTON THOMPSON, M.A., F.S.A. 8d. net.
+
+        =No. 16. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF COLONIAL
+          HISTORY.= By A. P. NEWTON, M.A., D.Litt., B.Sc.
+          6d. net.
+
+        =No. 17. THE WANDERINGS AND HOMES OF MANUSCRIPTS.=
+          By M. R. JAMES, Litt.D., F.B.A. Paper cover, 2s.;
+          cloth boards, 3s. net.
+
+        =No. 18. ECCLESIASTICAL RECORDS.= By the REV.
+          CLAUDE JENKINS, M.A., Librarian of Lambeth Palace.
+
+        =No. 19. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF
+          AMERICAN DIPLOMACY.= By CARL RUSSELL FISH, Ph.D.,
+          Professor of American History in the University of
+          Wisconsin. 1s. net.
+
+        =No. 20. HINTS ON TRANSLATION FROM LATIN INTO
+          ENGLISH.= By ALEXANDER SOUTER, D.Litt. 6d. net.
+
+        =No. 21. HINTS ON THE STUDY OF LATIN.= (A.D.
+          125-750.) By ALEXANDER SOUTER, D.Litt. 8d. net.
+
+        =No 22. REPORT OF THE HISTORICAL MSS. COMMISSION.=
+          By R. A. ROBERTS., F.R.H.S., Sometime Secretary of
+          the Commission.
+
+          (_=Others to follow.=_)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Obvious punctuation errors repaired.
+
+The original text had one page containing the list of Helps on the second
+page and it was concluded on the last page. The first page was moved to
+join the last.
+
+Page 96, M. Bateson was all-capped to match the rest of the format of
+the Bibliography.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Wanderings and Homes of Manuscripts, by
+M. R. James
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